CHAPTER

3
Content and
Contextual
Analysis
 Learning Outcomes

⬗ At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:

⬗ 1. Analyze the context, content, and perspective of different kinds of
primary sources;
⬗ 2. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in
understanding Philippine history;
⬗ 3. Develop critical and analytical skills with exposure to primary
sources.

2
Content, Contextual, and Subtext Analyses
are methods of data analysis in historical
research.

3
Content/
Textual
Analysis
 Content/ Textual Analysis
◇ Content analysis is a research method for studying
documents and communication artifacts, which can be
texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video.
◇ Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and
analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such
certain words, themes, or concepts. Researchers can then
make inferences about the messages within the texts, the
writer, the audience, and even the culture and time

5
⬗ 1. Which data Goals of 4. What is the
are analyzed? relevant context?
⬗ 2. How are the
Content 5 What are the
data defined? Analysis boundaries of the
⬗ 3. From what According to Klaus analysis?
Krippendorff, six
population are questions must be 6. What is to be
data drawn? addressed in every content measured?
analysis:

6
 Content/ Textual Analysis
◇ A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-
based/quantitative approaches and qualitative approaches.

◇ Dictionary-based approaches set up a list of categories derived from the

frequency list of words and control the distribution of words and their
respective categories over the texts.

◇ While methods in quantitative content analysis in this way transform

observations of found categories into quantitative statistical data. the
qualitative content analysis focuses more on the intentionality and its
implications.
 Kinds of Texts
There are five types of texts in content analysis:
1. WRITTEN TEXT, such as books and papers
2. ORAL TEXT, such as speech and theatrical performance
3. ICONIC TEXT, such as drawings, paintings, and icons
4. AUDIO-VISUAL TEXT, such as TV programs, movies, and
videos
5. HYPERTEXTS, which are texts found on the Internet

8
 Types of Content Analysis

Conceptual Relational
Analysis Analysis

9
 Types of Content Analysis
⬗ Conceptual Analysis
◇ It determines the existence and frequency of concepts in a text.
◇ In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and
the analysis involves quantifying and counting its presence. The
main goal is to examine the occurrence of selected terms in the
data whether there is a stronger presence of positive or negative
words used with respect to specific argument or respective
arguments.
 Types of Content Analysis
⬗ Relational Analysis
◇ It develops the conceptual analysis further by examining the
relationships among concepts in a text.
◇ It maintains a high degree of statistical rigor without losing the
richness of detail apparent in even more qualitative methods.
 How to Use Content Analysis
1. The first step involves preparing a coding schedule.
2. A coding manual is then produced to accompany the coding schedule, listing the
codes for each of the categories that are valid for each dimension to ensure
reliability and consistency in the coding.
3. Coding- Elements of the content are described and organized using these
categories .
4. Categories are used to describe the information that is emerging from this data.
This is the level at which data is analyzed and findings reported.
5. The coded content is quantitatively analyzed for trends, patterns, relationships,
similarities, differences etc. This may suggest further avenues of inquiry using
qualitative approaches that seek insight into possible reasons for these
relationships and trends.
 Issues of Reliability and Validity
The issues of reliability and validity are concurrent with those addressed in other research methods.
Reliability: Because of the human nature of researchers, coding errors can never be
eliminated but only minimized. Generally, 80% is an acceptable margin for reliability. Three
criteria comprise the reliability of a content analysis:
⬗ STABILITY - the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same
way over a period of time
⬗ REPRODUCIBILITY - the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories
membership in the same way
⬗ ACCURACY - the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard
or norm statistically
 Issues of Reliability and Validity
Validity: Three criteria comprise the validity of a content analysis:
⬗ CLOSENESS OF CATEGORIES: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to
arrive at an agreed upon definition of each specific category
⬗ CONCLUSIONS: This becomes especially problematic when using computer software for
analysis and distinguishing between synonyms
⬗ GENERALIZABILITY OF THE RESULTS TO A THEORY: Dependent on the clear
definitions of concept categories, how they are determined and how reliable they are at
measuring the idea one is seeking to measure
 Advantages of Content Analysis
o Directly examines communication using text
o Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
o Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time
o Allows a closeness to data
o Can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert systems
Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed
o Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
o Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
o When done well, is considered a relatively “exact” research method
o Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research method
o A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as interviews,
observation, and use of archival records. It is very useful for analyzing historical material,
especially for documenting trends over time.
 Disadvantages of Content Analysis
o Can be extremely time consuming
o Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher
level of interpretation
o Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences
about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
o Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
o Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
o Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the
text is produced
o Can be difficult to automate or computerize
Contextu
al
Analysis
 Contextual Analysis
◇ A contextual analysis is simply an analysis of a text (in whatever
medium, including multi-media) that helps us to assess that text
within the context of its historical and cultural setting, but also in
terms of its textuality – or the qualities that characterize the text as a
text.
◇ It combines features of formal analysis with features of “cultural
archeology, ” or the systematic study of social, political, economic,
philosophical, religious, and aesthetic conditions that were in place at
the time and place when the text was created.

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 How to Use Contextual Analysis
A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon how complex one
wishes to make the analysis. But it generally includes several key questions:

1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?

2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)?
3. What seems to have been the author's intention?
4. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:
5. Is the text intended as some sort of call to - or for - action?
6. Is the text intended rather as some sort of call to -or for reflection or consideration
rather than direct action?
7. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the creation and
reception of the text?
 Importance of Context in
Analysis and Interpretation
Historical Context refers to the social,
religious economic, and political
conditions that existed during a certain
time and place. Historical Context is an
important part of life and literature and
without it, memories, stories and
characters have less meaning. Without
historical context, we are only seeing a
piece of the scene and not fully
understanding the influence of the time
and place in which a situation occurred.
(Fleming 2010)

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Subtext
Analysis
 Subtext Analysis
o The subtext of a document or object refers to its
secondary and implied meanings. The subtext
embraces the emotional or intellectual messages
embedded in, or implied by the document or
object.
 Subtext Analysis

Epic poems of the The state portraits of Andy Warhol's serial adaptation of soup cans
Ancient Greeks Napoleon Bonaparte and Coca-Cola bottles
 THANKS
FOR YOUR
INDULGENC
E
Argente, Denise Ysabelle
Aspecto, Joyce Anne
Atienza, Dexter