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Bio-inspired optimization techniques: a critical comparative study

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DOI: 10.1145/2492248.2492271

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ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes Page 1 July 2013 Volume 38 Number 4

Bio-Inspired Optimization Techniques – A Critical Comparative

Study
Deepak Rai Kirti Tyagi
M.Tech Computer Science and Engineering Department of Computer Science and Engg.
Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College
Ghaziabad, India Ghaziabad, India
ramdeepakniwash@gmail.com kirti.twins@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Despite insistent and breathtaking advances in computing, we continue
to be humbled by the variety and adaptability of the natural world
around us. Bio-inspired optimization is a term that covers a wide variety
of computational approaches that are based on the principles of
biological systems. This motivates the application of biology to
optimization problems. Biologically inspired computing and
optimization is a major subset of natural computation. This paper
presents a critical survey of bio-inspired optimization techniques. There
are many legacy optimization techniques available. This survey
explains almost all important bio-inspired optimization techniques
based on their development, intention, performance and application. It
provides insight into determining the direction of future optimization
techniques research.

Keywords
Application, Bio-Inspired Optimization, Development, Intent,
Optimization, Performance.

1. INTRODUCTION
Ant, Bee, Flies, Bat, Computer, Genes, Birds... Which is the odd one
out? Computer!!! Computer, Operating System, Algorithm,
Optimization, Water... Which is the odd one out? Water!!!
Not only an ordinary man but even an engineer would agree with the
above notions. Spilling water on a computer may damage it, and
immersing a system in water will be shocking. Excluding computer
scientists, no one can even think of comparing the two completely pole
apart structures, i.e. biology with the computer. But with the various
evolutions in the technical arena, computer science has applied various
biological concepts and molded these concepts so beautifully and
efficiently that neither seems to be an odd one out. In today’s scenario,
the highly technical computer science department has adopted biology
as a platform for testing the complexities of algorithms and optimizing
the results. Today optimization techniques are being used, that express
the versatility lying within the computer science approach [1].
This paper does not act as a torchbearer for any of the bio-inspired
optimization techniques, rather analyzes these techniques. Hence the
key concern is “Critical Survey of Bio-Inspired Optimization
Techniques”.
Keeping the key focus as pivot, this survey proceeds as shown in fig.1
Fig.1. Flow of paper
What are Optimization Techniques?
Techniques that tend to provide us the best results with the least
investment of resources irrespective of any field. This means finding an
action that optimizes (i.e. maximizes or minimizes) the value of an
objective function. In a typical optimization problem the goal is to find
the factor that determines the behavior of the system that maximizes the
productivity or minimizes the waste.
What is a Bio-Inspired Optimization Technique?
The present scenario has marked the shift from the traditional to a
completely new species of optimization techniques. Natural science has
within itself numerous biological phenomenons like the evolution of
species. The behavior of biological societies has emerged as a new-
fangled technique for resolving corresponding optimization [2]. These
techniques are known as bio-inspired techniques, which continue to
grow, overcome the limitations of traditional techniques and are being
widely accepted both in the academic and professional fields.
What is a Critical Survey?
A critical survey provides an in depth study of the technique and it
tends to dig out the very smallest of details.
Critical Survey of Bio-Inspired Techniques
This turns out to be self explanatory. This survey tries to peep into the
bio-inspired world of optimization techniques. By our work we try to
get these techniques fashioned and navigated on the same platform
through different parameters.

DOI: 10.1145/2492248.2492271 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/ 2492248.2492271

ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes Page 2 July 2013 Volume 38 Number 4

2. LITERATURE SURVEY
Today, the copious and express changes, which are sighted every other
day to appeal to the eyes of common men, come with hefty
complexities. One of the biggest tools trouncing these complexities is
“Optimization” and its techniques.
Since the days of Newton, Lagrange, Leibnitz, Weistrass, Bernoulli,
Cauchy the existence of optimization may be traced. The most
important method of optimization was only possible due to the
development of differential calculus by Newton and Leibnitz. Lagrange
invented a method of optimization for constrained problems.
Introduction of high speed computers stimulated further research and
made it possible to implement complex optimization algorithms.
Various new areas of optimization theory emerged since 1947 with the
development of a simple method for linear programming problem (LPP)
by Dantzig followed by clear and distinct explanation of the optimality
principle for dynamic programming problems in 1957 by Bellman.
Zovtendijk and Rosen had given the concept of non-linear programming
during early 1960s. Development of techniques for geometric, integer
and stochastic programming was done in late1960s by Duffin, Gomory Fig. 3. Classification of Evolutionary Algorithm
and Cooper respectively. Multi-objective programming came into
existence with the desire of optimizing more than one objective
satisfying the given constraints.
Biology with optimization is in itself a staggering approach of the
computer science. Bio-inspired optimization is an umbrella term that
covers a wide variety of optimization approaches that are based on the
principles of biological systems, such as ant colony optimization
(ACO), bee colony optimization (BCO), bat algorithm (BA) and krill
herd (KH) algorithm. Some new classes of optimization techniques are
simulated annealing (SA), neural network (NN) methods and
evolutionary algorithms (EA) including genetic algorithms (GA). Bio-
inspired optimization techniques are becoming important for education
and educational sectors. Emerging interest in the field lies in fact that
today, the world is being confronted by more and more complex, large
and ill structured problems. While, on the other hand people notice that
apparently simple structures and organizations in nature are capable of
dealing with the most ambiguous tasks.
This survey tries to summarize the recent works in the new arena of bio-
inspired optimization techniques. It acts as a torchbearer, which
provides motivation and impetus for further research in all areas of
optimization. This survey is meant to give researchers the state of the
art on theoretical results of bio-inspired optimization algorithms.
The classifications and sub-classifications of bio-inspired optimization
algorithms are shown in fig. 2, fig.3, fig.4 and fig.5 respectively.

Fig.4. Classification of Swarm Intelligence Algorithm

Fig.2. Classification of Bio-Inspired Optimization Algorithm

Fig.5. Classification of Bacterial Foraging Algorithm

DOI: 10.1145/2492248.2492271 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/ 2492248.2492271

ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes Page 3
3. CRITICAL COMPARATIVE STUDY
This section covers the comparative study of important bio-inspired
optimization algorithms based on parameters like development, intent,
performance and applications areas.
Development: It describes the growth of optimization algorithms and
techniques throughout their life spans. It includes the evolution of
techniques over years and the name of the researchers whose
contributions have made this evolution possible.
Intent: It covers the ultimate aim and purpose of the algorithms. It also
includes actions that the algorithms take in-order to achieve
optimization. It is very important as it strengthens the idea of resolution
and determination.
Performance: It covers overall performance of the algorithms and the
way in which performance can be achieved. It also covers the scope of
improvement of the techniques.
Application: It refers to use of the technology, system or product. In
this survey, application is the area in which the algorithms find their
utility.
3.1 Stud Genetic Algorithm (SGA):
Development: There are many advocates of techniques of evolutionary
computing. Fogel in 1995, shed light on the different merits and
demerits of each algorithm and their derivatives. The introduction of the
multidisciplinary optimization field motivated the need of an effective
algorithm to deal with the problem of multi disciplinary optimization
(MDO). So SGA came into existence.
Intent: The main intention of this was to use the best individual in the
population to mate with all others to produce new offspring. No
stochastic selection is used here. Crossover operation is the heart of this
algorithm. The mutation used here is the standard bit mutation with
a low probability. Two crossover types were tried, standard two point
crossover and a reduced surrogate uniform crossover.
Performance: In order to test the performance of the SGA, various test
functions were used. The functions were chosen from Keane (1996),
Fogel (1995, pp. 170), and De Falco et al. (1996). Each set of functions
presents different challenges. The SGA maintains the traditional
discrete bit representation and makes no use of stochastic selection.
The approach is simple, yet it appears to be a powerful tool for dealing
with difficult multimodal spaces.
Application: Various application areas are: power system optimization
problem [3], optimization problems in data mining rule extraction, path
planning of mobile robots in CAD, various scheduling problems,
portfolio optimization, pattern recognition, flight control system design,
multi-objective vehicle routing problem.
3.2 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO):
Development: Pierre-Paul Grasse invented the theory of stigmergy in
1959, which explained the behavior of building a nest. In 1991, M.
Dorigo proposed the ant system in his doctoral thesis. Later on in 1997,
he published the ant colony system (ACS).
Intent: Ants are blind and small in size and are still able to find shortest
route to their food. They make use of their antenna and pheromones to
be in touch with each other. ACO is inspired by this capability of
monitoring and synchronization with searching solutions for local
problems [4].
Performance: The performance of ACO can be improved by the
introduction of an alternative approach called ACS. Which focuses
mainly on the modification of the transition rule, the pheromone trail
update rule, the use of local updates of the pheromone trail to favor
exploration, and the use of candidate lists to restrict choices [5] [6]. The
performance of the ACO algorithm can also be improved using a
crossover mechanism based on the mean of pheromone tables.
DOI: 10.1145/2492248.2492271
July 2013 Volume 38 Number 4
Application: Mainly categorized under the headings: Scheduling
problems, which contains project scheduling [7] and open shop
scheduling [8]. Routing problems extending to vehicle routing [9] [10],
traveling salesman problem [11] [12] [13] and sequential routing [14].
Assignment problems like quadratic assignment [12] and graph coloring
[15]. Set problem [16] and some others which include data mining,
image processing and intelligent testing systems.
3.3 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO):
Development: In 1995, it was first published by J. Kennedy and R.
Eberhart in a research paper “Particle Swarm Intelligence”. It was
followed by “A modified particle swarm optimizer” by Y. Shi and R.
Eberhart in 1998 and “Swarm Intelligence” by J. Kennedy and R.
Eberhart in 2001. Since then a lot of work has been done in the form of
modifications and its applications in various fields of optimization.
Recently in 2012 “A novel PSO algorithm for Multi-Objective
Combinatorial Optimization Problem” has been published by R. Roy, S.
Dehuri and S.B. Cho.
Intent: It is a robust stochastic optimization technique based on the
movement and intelligence of swarms. It applies the concept of social
interaction to problem solving. Each particle is treated as a point in a
space, which adjusts its movement according to its own experience as
well as the experience of other particles. The particle knows the fit-
nesses of those in its neighborhood, and uses the position of the one
with the best fitness [17].
Performance: PSO is a new heuristic optimization method based on
swarm intelligence. Compared with the other algorithms, the method is
very simple, easily completed and it needs fewer parameters, which
made it effective [18].
Application: PSO is very attractive because there are very few
parameters to adjust. PSO has been used for problems that can be used
across a wide range of applications: system design, image classification
[19], pattern recognition, biological system modeling, scheduling,
signal processing, robotic application [20], decision making [21][22],
simulation and identification, gesture recognition and automatic target
detection.
3.4 Reactive Search Optimization (RSO):
Development: It came into existence through the book “Reactive
Search and Intelligent Optimization” published by Springer Verlag in
November 2000, authored by Roberto Battiti, Mauro Brunato and
Franco Mascia. Local search heuristics are the reason behind the
evolution of RSO.
Intent: The sole intent of RSO is to bring maximum ease to the final
user of the optimization. RSO tends to fulfill its very intention with the
help of following characteristics: learning on the job, rapid generation
and analysis of many alternatives, flexible decision support, diversity of
solutions and anytime solutions. It aims at providing some advantages
like automation of the complete optimization procedure, including the
fine tuning phase; dynamic adjustment of search parameters, possibly at
every search step, leading to faster overall optimization time; and
enhanced reproducibility of the results, due to a complete algorithmic
description of parameter tuning [23].
Performance: Intelligent optimization being the superset of the basic
search method provides enhanced solutions based on both offline and
online schemes using incremental models, intelligent tuning, adaptation
and memory. The overall time for optimization improves the adjustment
of dynamic search parameters.
Application: Being multi-disciplinary in nature, RSO is evolving itself
as the base of numerous practical solutions. Its upcoming applications
include quadratic assignment, training neural nets, control problems,
vehicle-routing, structural acoustic control, special-purpose VLSI
realizations, graph partitioning, electric power distribution, maximum
satisfiability, constraint satisfaction, optimization of continuous
functions, traffic grooming in optical networks, maximum clique, real-
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ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes Page 4
time dispatch of trams in storage yards, roof truss design, increasing
internet capacity, improving vehicle safety and aerial reconnaissance
simulations.
3.5 Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA):
Development: Various heuristic techniques and algorithms have been
used by researchers. Unfortunately, there is no algorithm to achieve the
best solution for all optimization problems. GSA is one of the latest
heuristic optimization algorithms, which was first introduced in 2009 by
Rashedi et al. based on the metaphor of gravitational interaction
between masses. It was inspired by the Newton’s theory.
Intent: GSA is a population based optimization algorithm based on the
law of gravity and mass interaction. This algorithm is based on the
Newton law of gravity and the law of motion. The agents are considered
as objects consisting of different masses. Every mass in the system can
see the situation of the other masses. The gravitational force acts as the
way of transferring information between different masses. The heavy
masses correspond to good solutions of the problem. So, with the
passage of time different masses are attracted by the heaviest mass
which would present an optimum solution in the search space [24] [25].
Performance: The GSA algorithm needs much less time to be solved.
It has been compared with GA algorithms. The value of time shows the
required time for running the algorithm. GSA outperforms GA in terms
of time required.
Application: Being multi-disciplinary, GSA has numerous applications,
such as for optimal reactive power dispatch problem [26] [27], for data
clustering, and in the field of bio-informatics especially for gene
clustering.
3.6 Krill Herd (KH) Algorithm:
Development: Krills are small crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea,
and are found in all the oceans of the world. The evolution of the KH
algorithm was motivated by the observation of the Antarctic krill
(euphausia superba), which are the central part of the southern ocean
ecosystem. They clearly exhibit aggregative and schooling behavior
(e.g., Miller and Hampton, 1989) and respond to large and mesoscale
circulations (Hofmann and Murphy, 2004). Finally, the KH algorithm
was proposed by Gandomi and Alavi in 2012.
Intent: It is based on the herding behavior of the krill individuals. The
minimum distance of each individual krill from food and from highest
density of the herd are considered as the objective function for the krill
movement. The time-dependent position of the krill individuals is
formulated by three main factors: (i) movement induced by the presence
of other individuals, (ii) foraging activity, and (iii) random diffusion.
There are two adaptive genetic operators namely, mutation and
crossover added to the algorithm for more precise modeling of the krill
behavior [28].
Performance: The performance of this algorithm was analyzed with
some benchmark problems. Four different KH algorithms were used
which are as follows: KH without any operator, KH with crossover, KH
with mutation, and KH with both crossover and mutation. Many trials
with independent population initialization were made to obtain a useful
conclusion. The performance was compared with GA, evolution
strategies (ES), biogeography based optimization (BBO), differential
evolution (DE), PSO, and adaptive PSO (APSO) algorithms. The results
show that the KH algorithms outperform these well-known algorithms.
Application: Being the subsidiary of the swarm intelligence algorithms
it finds its application in several areas like, crowd simulation and
controlling nanobots for cancer detection. Being a meta-heuristic
algorithm it is also used for combinatorial optimizations.
3.7 Stochastic Diffusion Search (SDS):
Development: It was first described in the year 1989 by J.M. Bishop as
a population-based pattern-matching algorithm. It belongs to the family
DOI: 10.1145/2492248.2492271
July 2013 Volume 38 Number 4
of swarm intelligence and naturally inspired search and optimization
algorithms.
Intent: The intention of SDS is to locate a predefined data pattern
within a given search space or, if it does not occur, its best instantiation.
It is an efficient generic search method, originally developed as a
population-based solution to the problem of best fit pattern matching. It
uses a population of agents where each agent poses a hypothesis about
the possible solution and evaluates it partially. Successful agents
repeatedly test their hypothesis while recruiting unsuccessful agents by
direct communication. This creates a positive feedback mechanism
ensuring rapid convergence of agents onto promising solutions in the
space of all solutions. It provides a new solution to the population
homogeneity problem by balancing the tradeoffs between a wide
exploration of all feasible solutions and a detailed exploitation of a
small number of them [29].
Performance: Unlike many nature inspired search techniques there is a
comprehensive mathematical framework describing the behavior of
SDS. Analysis of SDS has investigated many parameters under the
variety of search conditions which are as follows:
- Global optimality and convergence [Nasuto, 1998],
- Linear time complexity [Nasuto et al., 1999],
- Robustness [Myatt, 2004], and,
- Resource allocation [Nasuto, 1999].
Application: It has been applied to diverse problems such as text search
[Bishop, 1989], object recognition [Bishop, 1992], feature tracking
[Grech-Cini, 1993], mobile robot self-localisation [Beattie, 1998] and
site selection for wireless networks [Whitaker, 2002]. There are some
other application areas like, eye tracking, lip tracking, speech
recognition, 3D computer vision and sequence detection.
3.8 Bat Algorithm (BA):
Development: It was developed by Xin-She Yang in 2010 under the
category of metaheuristic optimization algorithm. It was again revisited
by A.H. Gandomi et al. recently in July 2012 for constrained
optimization tasks.
Intent: The intention of the BA algorithm is based on the echolocation
behavior of micro bats with varying pulse rates of emission and
loudness. The capability of echolocation of micro bats is fascinating, as
bats can find their prey even in darkness. Each bat flies randomly at a
position with a velocity, varying frequency or wavelength and loudness.
As they find the prey, they change frequency, loudness and pulse
emission rate. The selection of the best continues with the
intensification of the local random walk until certain stop criteria are
met [30].
Performance: BA combines the advantages of several metaheuristic
algorithms. Its performance was compared with other heuristic
algorithms based on several benchmarks, and it was found that the BA
algorithm is much superior to other algorithms in terms of accuracy and
efficiency. And thus it is potentially more powerful [31].
Application: It is used for many engineering designs and
classifications. Bat clustering is used for solving ergonomic workplace
problems [31].
3.9 Computing System of Microbial Interactions
and Communication (COSMIC):
Development: It was developed by Gregory, Paton and Saunders in
2004. A novel rule based computing system has been developed for
bacterial simulation referred to as COSMIC-Rules by R. Gregory, V.A.
Saunders and J.R. Saunders in 2006.
Intent: It basically models the evolution of cells by using discrete time
and pseudo continuous space. All cells contain genomes that interact
with the environment and with each other. It is the combination of both
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ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes Page 5 July 2013 Volume 38 Number 4

COSMIC and Rule-based BActerial Modeling (RUBAM). It has three
unique levels: genome, cell, and the environment populated by cells.
Performance & Applications: COSMIC-Rules model the real world
by applying the series of rules obtained by the principles of bacterial
genetics with the aim to reproduce biologically realistic conditions. The
main intention is to study the evolution and adaptation of bacteria and
predict the behavior of pathogenic bacteria [32].
3.10 RUle-based BActerial Modeling (RUBAM):
Development: It was developed by Paton, Vlachos, Wu and Saunders
in 2006. It is neither genetic algorithm nor genetic programming. It is a
simplification of COSMIC with discrete time, simplified genome and
pseudo-continuous space. It is derived from the interaction of complex
environment organisms which occur in the natural bacterial ecology.
Intent: Bacteria act as information processing units which map
“messages” and “actions”. The messages from the environment are
mapped with the actions to be taken against them. This mapping is not
static, mutation makes it possible to evolve continuously which enables
organisms to adapt according to change in environment, increase their
life-span, and also causes improvement in the process of reproduction.
The main intention is not to be a model of real world ecology or
bacteria rather to grasp their features and behaviors in order to exhibit
adaptation and evolvable patterns [33].
Performance & Applications: Design of RUBAM requires a proper
balance between the complexity and computational demands. It consists
of a set of interaction mechanisms of environment organism, artificial
organism collection, set of evolutionary operators and an environment
which is artificial. All the knowledge is contained in the artificial
organism, which comes through evolution. In multi-model search
spaces, RUBAM generates multiple optimal solutions. Unlike others,
where there is the optimization of some external objective functions, in
this the individual organisms are allowed to interact with the
environment until their energy is exhausted in-order to measure their
fitness. The solutions generated are shared among different processors.

Table 1. Summarization of different algorithms in a table.

Year of
Algorithms Researcher Description
Development

Crossover is the heart of this algorithm. Mate with the best individual
SGA 1995 Fogel
for producing new offspring. Uses two types of crossover.

Ants are able to find the shortest route to their food. Uses their antenna
ACO 1991 M. Dorigo and pheromones for communication. This capability of monitoring and
synchronization helps in finding solutions for local problems.
Based on movement and intelligence of swarms. Each particle uses its
J. Kennedy and R.
PSO 1995 own as well as the experience of other particles. Used to work out the
Eberhart
most challenging problems.

Roberto Battiti, Brings maximum ease to the final user of the optimization. Has
RSO 2000 Mauro Brunato and characteristics like learning, rapid generation, flexible decision and
Franco Mascia diversity. Provides advantages like automation, dynamic adjustment etc.

Based on the laws of gravity and mass interaction. Gravitational forces

GSA 2009 Rashedi et al. act as the way of transferring information between masses. Masses are
attracted by heaviest mass which produces the optimum solution.

Based on herding behavior of krill. Minimum distance from the food

KH 2012 Gandomi and Alavi and from the highest density of herd is the objective function. Mutation
and crossover are used for precise modeling.

Locate predefined data pattern or its best instantiation within a given

SDS 1989 J.M. Bishop search space. Uses population where each agent poses a hypothesis
about the possible solution.

Based on echolocation behavior of micro bats. Each bat flies randomly

BA 2010 Xin-She Yang with a velocity, varying frequency and loudness. Selection of best
continues with the intensification of local random walk.

Rule based computing system. Have three levels: genome, cell and
Gregory, Paton and
COSMIC 2004 environment populated with cells. Study the evolution and adaptation of
Saunders
bacteria and predict the behavior of pathogenic bacteria.

Simplification of COSMIC. It grasps the features of ecology and

Paton, Vlachos, Wu
RUBAM 2006 exhibits adaptation and evolvable patterns. Generates multiple optimal
and Saunders
solutions which are shared among different processors.

DOI: 10.1145/2492248.2492271 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/ 2492248.2492271

ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes
 Statistic representation of the evolution of algorithms over the years.
SGA
Number of Algorithms
2
PSO
1
ACO
RSO
SDS
1991-1995
1996-2000
1985-1990
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we examined the available bio-inspired optimization
techniques. We considered their development, intention, performance
and the application areas as the criteria for the analysis. In the survey
we find that there are other important areas on which these techniques
may be applied as direct extensions or in some modified form. The
areas in which these can be applied are software engineering, regression
testing etc. It is also found that there can be other new improved
algorithms.
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