By

Engr. Ali Murtaza

To
Sir Muhammad Waqas
Assistant Manager
Department of Maintenance Engineering (unit 02)
Pakistan Accumulators (Pvt) Ltd
Lathe machine:
Introduction:
The lathe was invented by Jacques de Vaucanson around 1871. At the very early stage this machine was
developed around 1300 BC at that time many of the parts were not developed except Headstock and
Tailstock. But during industrial revolution metalworking lathe evolved into heavier machines with more
rigid parts. Between 19th and 20th century line shafting mechanism was replaced by electric motor as a
power source. Then in 1950 servomechanism was applied to control it. It is the most versatile machine
tool. Now manually controlled machine tools exists like CNC machine and even with the help of feed
mechanism lathe is controlled manually.
Definition:
The function of lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it a desired shape and size. In a
lathe machine, the workpiece rotates against the tool. The tool is used to remove material from the
workpiece. The direction of motion of tool is called feed.

Main parts of lathe machine:

There are several parts of lathe like;

 Headstock
 Tailstock
 Carriage
 Saddle
 Cross-slide
 Compound rest/slide
 Tool post
 Apron
 Lead-screw
 Feed rod
 Chuck
  Main spindle
 Bed
 Leg

Headstock
It is present at the left-hand side of the lathe. It holds the gear train, main spindle, chuck, gear speed
control levers and feed controllers. It is aligned with the tailstock. The head stock is made up of cast iron.

Chuck
It is that part of lathe machine which is used to hold the work piece. It is attached to the main spindle of
the headstock. It rotates with the spindle and also rotates the work piece. In the lathe machine we
generally use three jaw or four jaw chuck. Three jaw chuck is self-centered while four jaw is independent.

Main Spindle
This part of the lathe machine is used to hold cylindrical work piece within it. It is a hollow shaft on
which the chuck is mounted.

Feed Selector
It is used to select the direction of the feed i.e. whether we want to move the tool from left to right or right
to left. Feed selector is present on the headstock.

Tailstock
It is present at right hand side of the lathe. It is used to provide supports to the work piece. It supports the
work piece from one end i.e. right end.

Bed
It is the main part of the lathe. All the parts of the lathe are bolted on the bed. It comprises of headstock,
tailstock, carriage guide ways and other parts. It is made of cast iron.
Guide ways
Guide ways are present on the bed. As its name indicates it is used to guide the tail stock and carriage.
The tailstock and carriage, slides over the guide ways. It is an inverted V.

Carriage
The carriage is present in between the headstock and tailstock. It carries apron, saddle, compound rest,
cross slide and tool post.
(i) Tool Post: It is used to hold the tool. It has T-slot for holding the tool. Tool post is bolted on the
carriage.
(ii) Compound Rest: It is used to set the tool at desired angle for taper turning and other operations.
(iii) Cross Slide: The cross slide is used to move the tool perpendicular to the axis of the lathe.
(iv) Saddle: The top portion of the carriage is called saddle. Cross slide is mounted on the saddle.
(v) Apron: The front portion of the carriage is called apron. It contains all the moving and control
mechanism of the carriage.

Lead Screw
Lead screw is used to move the carriage automatically during threading.

Feed Rod
It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.

Chip Pan
Chip pan is used to collect the chips that are produced during the lathe operation. It is present at the
bottom of the lathe.

Hand Wheel
It is the wheel which is operated by hand to move cross slide, carriage, tailstock and other parts which has
hand wheel.

Types of lathe machine:

The four main types of lathes are

Speed Lathes:
It is very simple is design. It only has headstock,
tailstock and a very simple tool post. It can operate
in 3-4 speeds. The spindle speed is very high. It is
used for light machine works like wood turning,
metal spinning and metal polishing.

Engine Lathes:
Engine lathes are the most common types of lathe
machine. It is designed for low power operations as
well as high power operations. Various lengths of
the machine are available. The length can be up to
60 feet. Engine lathe is commonly seen in every
machine shop. Various metals can be machines. The
machine can operate at a wide range of speed ratios.

Tool Room Lathes:

What if I want make precision tools and products?
Some products like metal die, precision tools,
jigs and fixture require more precision and
accuracy to work; in that case tool room lathe
machines are used. Unlike engine lathes, these
are much more precise and accurate.
These are also well-known as the standard
manufacturing lathes and are used for various
operations such as boring, drilling, turning,
reaming, producing screw threads, knurling,
taper turning, and sometimes adapted for the
special milling operations with the appropriate
fixture.
These have gearbox attached in the head-stock
which provide wide range of speeds ratios, can
vary from a very low speed to a very high
speed, and extended range of thread pitches.
Turret and capstan Lathes:
What if someone wants to go for a mass production?
Because mass production produce work piece in large
quantities with duplicate products, which by nature
known as interchangeability, reduces error, saves time.
All this can be done by using capstan and turret types
of lathe machine.
It is essentially a tool for production of work piece in
large quantities with duplicate products, which by
nature are usually interchangeable. It is used where
sequence of operations is required on the work piece.
Unlike engine lathe, these machines have hexagonal
turret mounted on saddle instead of tailstock on which
multiple tools may be fitted and feed into the work
with proper sequence which also reduces the time to
remove work piece from one machine and to hold it
on another for various operations such as turning, drilling, boring, reaming, knurling etc. by manually or
automatically alter the tool position which also reduces the chances of error in alignment and machining
process.

Special purpose lathe:

These lathes are constructed for special product making which cannot be performed on the standard
lathes. As the name suggest, these lathes are used for special purpose such as heavy-duty production of
identical parts. Some example of special lathes includes Automatic lathes, Crankshaft lathes, Vertical
lathes, Wheel lathes, Multi-spindle lathes, Production lathes, Bench type jewellers’ lathes etc.

Wheel Lathes:
These are very large in size and made for turning solid
wheels and tired wheel, worn out treads of locomotive
wheels, roadways wheels etc. into a proper required
profile by removing spots, shelling, unwanted shapes.

Bench Type Jewellers Lathes:

These are the miniature of standard lathes which are designed for the machining of the small parts with
greater precision. It contains collet type chuck, feed
screw, precise manual cross feed etc. Since the controls
and feeds are calibrated in smaller increment which result
in better precision of the work piece.

Automatic lathes:
With the advancement of technology there is a transition
from manually to semiautomatic to automatic lathes.
These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production lathes
in which all the job handling operations and all the processing
operations are done automatically. Ex – Single spindle automatic,
swiss type automatic lathe, etc.
Crankshaft Lathe:
It carries all the attachments like taper turning,
threading etc. It is mainly used for turning very
long parts like Turbine, Crank shafts and
Engine shafts etc.

Vertical Lathes:
These machines are employed for jobs like
heavy and dense flywheel, large gear blanks etc.
Vertical lathe machine is similar to the
horizontal lathe in which the machine stands up
on its ends. Some industries use this instead of
horizontal lathe because sometimes space
comes up as a constraint. While others prefer it
for doing turning and boring on large and heavy rotating
parts which cannot be otherwise supported on other lathes.
It has a heavy and dense base to the lowermost part which
carries a face plate to grasp the work piece.

CNC lathes:
One of the most prevailing technology through which and
shape and size can be machined into a desired product.
Computer numeric control (CNC) has been incorporated into
variety of new technology and machinery, in this case known
as CNC lathes. It has been quickly replacing some traditional
and old lathes since the advancement in this technology,
which results in top notch accuracy and precision. It can be
easily setup and no skill set are required to operate, though skill is required to programmed the tool path
which often done by CAD or CAM process, then coded files are updated to CNC machine which produce
desired path for which it was programmed to design the product. Operator can actually see a visual
simulation of how the machine will works during the production phase.

Lathe Machine Operations:

The various operations that we perform on the lathe are:
1. Facing
It is the first operation that is done on the work piece. It is a machining operation which is done to
produce flat surfaces at the ends of the work piece. This operation is performed by feeding the tool
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the chuck.

2. Turning
In turning operation, the excess material is removed from the
surface of the work piece to produce a cylindrical surface of
desired shape and size. During the turning operation, the feed
is moved along the axis of rotation of the chuck. It reduces the
diameter of the cylindrical work piece.
3. Boring
The process of removing material from hole of the work piece
is called boring. Holes are bored with the help of single point
cutting tool.

4. Drilling
It is the process of making holes in the work piece by the use of drills.
The drill is held in the tailstock and the drilling operation is done by
advancing the drill in the work piece by rotating the handle of the
tailstock.

5. Reaming
The process of enlarging the holes to accurate sizes is
called reaming. Reaming is always performed after
drilling operation. It is similar to the drilling process.
The reamer is held in the tailstock to carry out reaming
operation.

6. Counter Boring
The process of boring a hole to more than one diameter on
the same axis is called counter boring. This operation is
performed by boring tool.

7. Knurling
It is the process of making indentations (recess or sharp depression)
on the border of a work piece. The knurling operation is done to
provide a better grip to the job. It is performed by the knurling tool.
The knurling tool is pressed against the job to perform the knurling
operation.

8. Chamfering
Chamfering is the process of bevelling the extreme ends of a work piece.
It is done in order to remove the burrs, to protect the end of the work
piece from being damaged and to have a better look.

9. Parting Off
It is the process of cutting a work piece after it has been machined to the
required shape and size.

10. Grooving
The process of creating a narrow slot on the work piece is called
grooving. It is also known as recessing or necking
11. Forming
It is process in which a convex, concave or any irregular surface
is formed on the work piece with the help of a forming tool.
Forming tool having the required shape is used to perform
forming operation.

12. Taper Turning

It is the process in which a conical shape is produced on the work
piece. During taper turning the feed is set at an angle to the work
piece.

13. Threading
The process of making threads on a cylindrical job is called
threading

14. Undercutting
In the undercutting operation, we enlarge the diameter if done internally and decrease the diameter if done
externally. It is done at the end of the hole, near the stepped shoulder of a cylindrical surface and at the
end of a threaded portion in blot.

14. Eccentric Turning

It is a turning operation in which turning is performed at different axis on single setting of job. This
method of turning is generally used to produce crankshafts and camshafts.

Specification of lathe:
A lathe is specified by
 Swing-the largest workpiece diameter that can be swung for the lathe bed
 The distance between headstock and tailstock.
 Length of the bed in meter.
 The pitch of the lead screw.
 Horsepower of the machine.
 Speed range and number of speeds of HS spindle.
 The weight of the machine in tonne.
What is Milling Machine?
It is a machine which is used to remove metals from the workpiece with the help of a revolving cutter
called milling cutter. It is used to machined the flat, rough and irregular surfaces and this is done by
feeding the workpiece against a rotating milling cutter.
Main Parts of Milling Machine

The milling machine main parts are:

Column & Base

Column including base is the main casting that supports all other parts of milling machine.
The column contains an oil reservoir and a pump which lubricates the spindle.
The column rests on the base and base contains coolant reservoir and a pump which is used during
machining operation that requires coolant.

Knee
It is a casting that supports the saddle and table. All gearing mechanism is enclosed within the knee.
It is fastened to the column by dovetail ways.
The knee is supported and adjusted by a vertical positioning screw (elevating screw).
The elevating screw is used to adjust the knee up and down by raising or lowering the lever either with
the help of hand or power feed.

Saddle and Swivel Table

Saddle is present on the knee and supports the table. It slides on a horizontal dovetail on the knee and
dovetail is parallel to the axis of the spindle (in horizontal milling m/c).
The swivel table (in universal machines only) is attached to the saddle that can be swivelled (revolved)
horizontally in either direction.

Power Feed Mechanism

It is the knee which contains the power feed mechanism. It is used to control the longitudinal (left and
right), transverse (in and out) and vertical (up and down) feeds.
To get the desired rate of feed on the machine, the feed selection lever is positioned as indicated on the
feed selection plates.
On some universal knee and column milling machine, the feed is obtained by turning the speed selection
handle until the desired rate of feed is indicated on the feed dial.
Most of the milling machines have a rapid traverse lever that can be engaged when a temporary increase
in the speed of the longitudinal, transverse or vertical feeds is required. For example, this lever would be
engaged when the operator is positioning or aligning the work.

Table
It is a rectangular casting which is present on the top of the saddle.
It is used to hold the work or work holding devices.
It contains several T-slots for holding the work and work holding devices (i.e. jigs and fixtures).
The table can be operated by hand or by power. To move the table by hand, engage and turn the
longitudinal hand crank. To move it through power, engage the longitudinal direction feed control lever.

Spindle
It is the shaft which is used to hold and drives the cutting tools of the milling machine.
Spindle is mounted on the bearings and supported by the column.
Spindle is driven by the electric motor through gear trains. The gear trains are present within the column.
The face of the spindle which lies near to the table has an internal taper machined on it. The internal taper
at the front face of the spindle permits only tapered cutter holder or Arbor. It has two keys at the front
face which provides positive drive for the cutter holder or Arbor.
The draw bolt and jam nut are used to secure the holder and Arbor in the spindle.

Over Arm / Overhanging Arm

It is a horizontal beam present at the top face of the column. It may be a single casting which slides on the
dovetail ways present on the top face of the column.
The overarm is used to fastened Arbor support. It may consist of one or two cylindrical bars which slide
through the holes in the column.

Arbor Support
It is a casting with bearing that supports the outer end of the Arbor. It also helps in aligning the outer end
of the Arbor with the spindle.
It prevents the springing of outer end of the Arbor during cutting operations.
There are generally two types of Arbor supports used in the milling machine. The first one has small
diameter bearing hole, 1-inch in maximum diameter. And the other one has large diameter bearing hole,
usually up to 23/4 inches.
The Arbor support has an oil reservoir that lubricates the bearing surfaces. It can be clamped anywhere on
the overarm. The Arbor support is used only in the horizontal types of milling machine.

Ram
The overhanging arm in the vertical machine is called ram. One end of the ram is mounted on the top of
the column and on the other end milling head is attached.
The ram can be a moved transversally (in and out) on the column by a hand lever.

Types of milling machine:

There are various milling machines are used in mechanical industries. These are described below.

Column and knee type milling machine:

It is the very common milling machine type. In this machine a vertical column is attached to the bed
which consist all gear drives which rotate the knee and saddle. A knee is situated on the base which can
provide vertical motion to the work piece or which can move up and down. A saddle is attached to the
upper section of the knee which can move in transverse
direction. The table is placed over the which can hold the work
piece by use of climbing bolts.

Vertical milling machine:

In is one of the types of knee and column milling machine. The
spindle if this machine is in vertical position. No Arbor is
required in this machine. The cutter tool has cylindrical shape
and the cutting edges are situated at the circumference of the
cylindrical face.

Horizontal milling machine:

As the name implies the spindle is situated
horizontally. The spindle rotates horizontally. A
Arbor is attached to the machine which holds the
cylindrical disk shape cutter which cuts the metal
work piece.

Universal milling machine:

The universal milling machine is same as horizontal milling machine except there is an arrangement of
swing up the table to 45 degree in either direction.

Fixed bed milling machine:

In this milling machine the bed of the machine is fixed to the machine. There is no arrangement of knee
and saddle which can move vertically and transversally. The worktable is direct situated at the fixed bed.
The spindle of this machine is mountain on a movable spindle head. It can move in vertical and horizontal
direction and perform the cutting operation.

Simplex milling machine:

In the simplex machine spindle head or the spindle can travel only in one direction. Mostly it travels in
vertical direction.

Duplex milling machine:

In this machine the spindle can travel both in vertical and horizontal direction.

Triplex milling machine:

In triplex machine spindle can move in all three direction along X Y and Z axis.

Planner milling machine:

Planner milling machine is mostly used for facing
operation in mass production. These machines are
similar to the bed type milling machine except it can
mounted with various cutters and spindle heads to
the machine. These cutters can perform the facing
operations simultaneously.

Special milling machine:

These machines are the modern milling machines
which are developed to easy the milling operations according to
the jobs.
Tracer milling machine:
Tracer machine can perform all difficult die making
job by synchronizing the tracing unit. It can develop
any difficult shape. It is mostly used in automobile
and aerospace industries.

CNC milling machine:

CNC is most versatile milling machine which is
control by a computer. It is upgrade version of bed
type milling machine in which the spindle can move
in all three direction and the table can rotate 360
degree. These all movement is hydraulically
controlled which is command by a computer. Any
difficult geometry can make on it. A sketch of the
work piece is loaded to the computer which is cut on work piece by the cutters automatically.

Types of Milling Machin Operations:

Plain Milling
The plain milling is the most common types of milling machine operations.
Plain milling is performed to produce a plain, flat, horizontal surface
parallel to the axis of rotation of a plain milling cutter.
The operation is also known as slab milling.
To perform the operation, the work and the cutter are secured properly on
the machine.
The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table. And
the machine is started after selecting the right speed and feed.

Face Milling
The face milling is the simplest milling machine operations.
This operation is performed by a face milling cutter rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the work surface.
The operation is carried in plain milling, and the cutter is mounted on a
stub Arbor to design a flat surface.
The depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the cross-feed screw of the table.

Side Milling
The side milling is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on the
side of a workpiece by using a side milling cutter.
The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table.

Straddle Milling
The straddle milling is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on both
sides of a workpiece by using two side milling cutters mounted on the same Arbor.
Distance between the two cutters is adjusted by using suitable spacing collars.
The straddle milling is commonly used to design a square or hexagonal surface.

Angular Milling
The angular milling is the operation of producing an angular surface on a
workpiece other than at right angles of the axis of the milling machine spindle.
The angular groove may be single or double angle and may be of varying
included angle according to the type and contour of the angular cutter used.
One simple example of angular milling is the production of V-blocks.

Gang Milling
The gang milling is the operation of machining several surfaces of a
workpiece simultaneously by feeding the table against a number of cutters
having the same or different diameters mounted on the arbor of the
machine.
The method saves much of machining time and is widely used in
repetitive work.
Cutting speed of a gang of cutters is calculated from the cutter of the
largest diameter.

Form Milling
The form milling is the operation of producing the irregular
contour by using form cutters.
The irregular shape may be convex, concave, or of any other
shape. After machining, the formed surface is inspected by a
template gauge.
Cutting rate for form milling is 20% to 30% less than that of the
plain milling.

Profile Milling
The profile milling is the operation of reproduction an
outline of a template or complex shape of a master dies
on a workpiece.
Different cutters are used for profile milling. An end
mill is one of the widely used milling cutters in profile
milling work.

End Milling
The end milling is the operation of producing a flat surface which may be vertical, horizontal or at an
angle in reference to the table surface.
The cutter used is an end mill. The end milling cutters are
also used for the production of slots, grooves or keyways.
A vertical milling machine is more suitable for end
milling operation.

Saw Milling
Saw-milling is the operation of producing narrow slots or
grooves on a workpiece by using a saw-milling cutter.
The saw-milling also performed for complete parting-off
operation.
The cutter and the workpiece are set in a manner so that the
cutter is directly placed over one of the T-slots of the table.

Milling Keyways, Grooves and Slots

The operation of producing of keyways, grooves and slots of varying shapes and sizes can be performed
in a milling machine.
It is done by using a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting
saw, an end mill or by a side milling cutter.
The open slots can be cut by a plain milling cutter, a
metal slitting saw, or by a side milling cutter. The
closed slots are produced by using endmills.

T-slot-operation
A dovetail slot or T-slot is manufactured by using special types of cutters designed to give the required
shape on the workpiece.
The second slot is cut at right angles to the first slot by
feeding the work past the cutter.
A woodruff key is designed by using a woodruff key
slot cutter.
Standard keyways are cut on the shaft by using side
milling cutters or end mills.
The cutter is set exactly at the centre line of the
workpiece and then the cut is taken.

Gear Cutting
The gear cutting operation is performed in a milling
machine by using a form-relieved cutter.
The cutter may be a cylindrical type or end
mill type.
The cutter profile fits exactly with the tooth
space of the gear.
Equally spaced gear teeth are cut on a gear
blank by holding the work on a universal
diving head and then indexing it.
Helical Milling
The helical milling is the operation of producing helical flutes or grooves around the periphery of a
cylindrical or conical workpiece.
The operation is performed by rotating the table to the required helix angle. And then by rotating and
feeding the workpiece against rotary cutting
edges of a milling cutter.
Production of the helical milling cutter, helical
gears, cutting helical grooves or flutes on a
drill blank or a reamer.

Cam Milling
The cam milling is the operation of producing cams in a milling machine by the use of universal dividing
head and a vertical milling attachment. The cam blank is mounted at the end of the dividing head spindle
and an end mill is held in the vertical milling attachment.
The axis of the cam blank and the end mill spindle should always remain parallel to each other when
setting for cam milling. The dividing head is geared to the table feed screw so that the cam is rotated
about its axis while it is fed against the end mill. The axis of the cam can be set from 0 to 90° in reference
to the surface of the table for obtaining a different rise of the cam.

Thread Milling
The thread milling machine operations are used to produce threads by using a single or multiple thread
milling cutter. Thread milling operation is performed in special thread milling machines to produce
accurate threads in small or large quantities.
The operation requires three driving motions in the machine. One for the cutter, one for the work and the
third for the longitudinal movement of the cutter.
When the operation is performed by a single thread milling cutter, the cutter head is swivelled to the exact
helix angle of the thread. The cutter is rotated on the spindle and the workpiece is revolved slowly about
its axis. The thread is completed in one cut by setting the cutter to the full depth of the thread and then
feeding it along the entire length of the workpiece.
When the thread is cut by multiple thread milling cutter, the cutter axis and the work spindle are set
parallel to each other after adjusting the depth of cut equal to the full depth of the thread. The thread is
completed by simply feeding the revolving cutter longitudinal through a distance equal to the pitch length
of the thread while the work is rotated through one complete revolution.
SHAPER MACHINE:
The shaper machine is a reciprocating type of machine basically used for producing the horizontal,
vertical or flat surfaces. The shaper holds the single point cutting tool in ram and workpiece is fixed in the
table.
During the forward stroke, the ram is holding the tool is reciprocating over the workpiece to cut into the
required shape. During the return stroke, no metal is cut. In the shaper machine, the rotary motion of the
drive is converted into reciprocating motion of ram holding the tool.

Shaper Machine Process

The shaper process can be defined as a process for removing metal from the surface in horizontal, vertical
and angular planes by the use of a single point cutting tool held in a ram that reciprocates the tool in a
linear direction across the workpiece held on the table of the machine. The work is fed at right angles to
the direction of the ram in small increments, at the end of the return stroke.
Parts of Shaper Machine
The following are the main parts of shaper machine:
 Base
 Column
 Cross-rail
 Table
 Ram

The arrangement of shaper machine is made as shown in the figure. It consists of the following parts.
Base
The base is the necessary bed or support required for all machines tools.
The base is hollow casting made of cast iron to resist vibration and on which all parts of the shaper are
mounted.
It is so designed that is can take up the entire load of the machine and the forces set up by cutting tool
over the work.

Column
This is made of cast iron, which is a box-like and is mounted on the base.
two accurately machined guideways are provided on the top of the column on which the ram reciprocates.
The column acts as a cover to the drive mechanism and also supports the reciprocating ram and the
worktable.

Cross-rail
Cross rail is mounted on the front vertical surface of the column on which saddle is mounted.
The vertical movement is given to the table by raising or lowering the cross rail using the elevating screw.
The horizontal movement is given to the table by moving the saddle using the cross-feed screw.

Table
The table is bolted to the saddle and receives crosswise and vertical movements from saddle cross rail.
T-bolts are used for clamping on top and sides.
The table can be swivelled at any required angle.
In a universal shaper, the table may be swivelled on a horizontal axis and the upper part of the table may
be fitted up or down.
In heavier type shaper the table clamped with table support to make it more rigid.

Ram
The ram reciprocates on the column guideways and carries the tool head with a single point cutting tool.
the tool head is in the clapper box, which causes cutting action only in a forward stroke of the ram and
sliding movement of the tool in the reverse stroke of the ram.
the depth of cut or feed of the tool is given by down feed screw.
The tool head has swivel base degree graduations, which helps to move the tool head to any desired
inclination for machining inclined surfaces on the workpieces.

Types of Shaper Machines

Following are the different types of shaper machines.
Based on the type of driving mechanism
 Crank type shaper
 Geared type shaper
 Hydraulic type shaper
 Based on ram travel
 Horizontal shaper
 Vertical shaper
Based on the table design
 Standard shaper
 Universal shaper
 Based on cutting stroke
 Push cut type
 Draw cut type
Based on The Type of Driving Mechanism
Following are the different types of shaper machines based on the type of driving mechanism
Crank Type Shaper Machine
These are very common types of shaper machines, which is using to hold the workpiece on the table. The
tool is reciprocating in motion equal to the length of the stroke desired while the work is clamped in
position on an adjustable table.
In construction, the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change the circular motion of a large
gear called “bull gear” incorporated in the machine to reciprocation motion
of the ram.
It uses a crank mechanism to convert the circular motion of the bull gear
into reciprocating motion of the ram. The ram carries a tool head at its end
& provides the cutting action.

Gear Type Shaper Machine

In these types of shaper machines, the ram is
reciprocating. The ram is affecting due to
reciprocating motion with the rack and
pinion. The rack teeth are cut directly below the
ram mesh with the spur gear.
The speed and the direction in which the machine
will traverse depend on the number of gears in the
gear train. This type of shaper machines is not
widely using in any industry.

Hydraulic Shaper Machine

In these type of shaper machines, the reciprocating motion of the ram is provided by the hydraulic
mechanism. The Hydraulic shaper uses the oil under
high pressure. The end of the piston rod is connected to
the ram.
The high-pressure oil first acts on one side of the piston
and then on the other causing the piston to reciprocating
and the motion is transmitted to the ram. The main
advantages of this type of shaper machine are that the
cutting speed and force of the ram drive are constant.
From start to end of the cut without making noise and
operates quietly.

Based on Ram Travel

Following are the different types of shaper machine
based on ram travel.

Horizontal Shaper Machine

In these types of shaper machines, the ram is
reciprocating. The ram holding the tool in a
horizontal axis and reciprocate. This type of
shaper is using for the production of flat
surfaces, external grooves, keyways etc.
Vertical Shaper Machine
In these types of shaper machines, the ram reciprocating in vertical plane. In this, the table holds the
workpiece. Vertical shapers maybe crank driven, rack-
driven, screw-driven or hydraulic power-driven.
The vertical shaper is very convenient for machining
internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves. The
workpiece can move in any given directions such as
the cross, longitudinal or rotary movements. This type
of shaper is suitable for machining internal surfaces,
slots & keyways.

Based on The Table Design

Following are the different types of shaper machine
based on the table design.
Standard Shaper Machine
In these types of shaper machines, the table has only
two movements, vertical and horizontal, to give the
feed. That’s why it known as standard shaper machine. Here the table is not supporting at the outer end.
Universal Shaper Machine
In these types of shaper machines, in addition to the two moments i.e. vertical and horizontal, the table
can be moving in an inclined axis and also it can swivel on its own axis.
Since the workpiece mounted on the can be adjusted in different planes, the shaper so suitable for a
different type of operations and is given the name “Universal”. This type of shaper is commonly using the
tool room works.

Based on Cutting Stroke

Following are the different types of shaper machine based on cutting stroke.
Push cut Shaper Machine
In these types of shaper machines, the metal is removed in the forward motion of the ram. This is
commonly used types of shaper machines.

Draw cut Shaper Machine

In these types of shaper machines, the metal is removed in the backward motion of the ram. In this shaper,
the tool is fixed in the tool head in the reverse direction so that it provides the cutting action in the reverse
stroke of the ram.

Specifications of shaper machine:

 Maximum length of stroke ram
 Types of the drive
 Power input required to run the machine
 Floor space required
 Feed
 Cutting to return stroke ratio
 Weight of machine in tonne
 Angular movement of the table

Applications:
 To generate flat and straight surfaces
 Smooth rough surfaces
 Internal splines
 Gear teeth
 Devotail slides
 Keyways in gears and pulleys
 Machining of dies, punches, straight and curved slots
DRILLING MACHINE
The drilling machine is defined as a machine which is used to make a circular hole, a tool used to drill the
holes of different size and other related operations using a drill bit. The drilling machine is one of the
most important machines in a workshop. As regards its importance it is second only to the lathe machines.
Holes were drilled by the Egyptians in 1200 B.C. about 3000 years ago by bow drills. The bow drill is the
mother of present-day metal cutting drilling machine.

In drilling, machine holes may be drilled quickly and at a low cost. The hole is generated by the rotating
edge of a cutting tool known as the drill which applies a large force on the work clamped on the table. As
the machine uses vertical pressure to originate a hole it is loosely called a “drill press”

Parts of Drilling Machine

Following are the main parts of drilling machines:
 Base
 Column
 Table
 Radial Arm
 Drill head
 Spindle speed and Feed mechanism
Base
The base is that part of the machine on which the vertical column is mounted. The base is made of
casting. A base supports the column and worktable with other attachments.
The top of the base is round column section type upright drilling machined and has T-slots on it so that
large workpieces and work holding devices may be set up and bolted to it. The base of the machine may
be mounted on a bench or on the floor.

Column
The Column is the vertical member of the machine which supports the table and the head containing all
the driving mechanism. It is a cylindrical casting mounted vertically at one end of the base and supports
the radial arm, which slides up and down.
An electric motor at the top of the column helps in the vertical adjustment of the arm by rotating a screw
passing through a nut attached to the arm.

Table
The table is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots for clamping the work directly on its
face. A table is round or rectangular in shape.
Radial Arm
It is mounted on the column and extends horizontally over the base. It has guideways on which drill head
slides. The radial arm moves around the column.

Drill head
It is mounted on the redial arm and drives the drill spindle. In some of the drill machines, the drill head
may be adjusted up or down for accommodating different heights of the work in addition to the table
adjustment.
It encloses all the mechanism for driving the drill at a different speed and feeds. In lighter machines, the
driving motor is mounted at the rear end of the head counterbalancing the weight of the drill spindle.
Spindle speed and feed mechanism:
The motor at the top of the drill head drives the horizontal spindle and the motion is transmitted to the
drill head through a group of bevel gears. With another group of gears, different spindle speed and feed
are obtained.
The main advantage of this type of drilling machine is that holes of variable sizes at any point and at any
angles can be drilled on the large-sized workpiece without moving the workpiece.
Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained as follows:
By step cone pulley drive
By step cone pulley drive with one or more back gears
gearing.

Types of Drilling Machine

Following are the 8 different types of drilling machine.
Portable Drilling Machine
This type of drilling machines is commonly used in all the workshop.
Used to drill small sized holes. It is operated by holding in a hand. The
workpiece where the hole is to be drilled is held in a vice.

Sensitive Drilling Machine

This type of drilling machine used to drill small holes at high
speeds in lighter jobs or workpieces. The machine may be mounted
on the bench or floor & the drilling work is started with the drill
fed into the workpiece by purely hand control.
Hand-feed permits the operator to sense the progress of the drill into the workpiece, so that if there is any
drill worn out or jams it may be released immediately to prevent the drill bit from breaking.
Since the operator senses the cutting action at any instant it is called as the sensitive drilling machine.
These machines are capable of drilling small holes of diameter as small as 0.35 mm to 15 mm. These
machines run at a higher speed as high as 2000 rpm.

Upright Drilling Machine

It is larger in size and stronger than sensitive drilling machine. It is used for
drilling medium and large-sized holes. Based on the type of column used it
is classified as a round column and box column upright drilling machines.

Radial Drilling Machine

The schematic diagram of the radial drilling machine is shown in the figure. It consists of the base,
column radial arm, drill head, spindle speed and feed mechanism.

Gang Drilling Machine

This machine consists of the number of drill heads placed side by side so that more than one hole of same
or different sizes can be drilled at a time on the same job or on different jobs.
The space between drill spindles is varied to suit the gap between the holes. This type of machine tool is
used to drill a large number of holes in the
same job at a faster rate.
The main advantage of this type of machine
tool is that the series of operation can be
performed with different spindle mounted
with different tool bits on the same
workpiece by moving it from one position to
another position.
Multi Spindle Drilling Machine
This machine tool is similar to a gang drilling machine in construction. It is used to drill the number of
holes in the same workpiece simultaneously and to reproduce the same work in a number of similar jobs.
All the spindle is driven by a single motor and fed
continuously. During the feeding table with the
workpiece is raised or lowered and the drill head
position is not varied.

Automatic Drilling Machine

This type of machines can perform a series of
machining operations at successive units and transfer the work from one unit to the other automatically.
Once the work is loaded at the first machine, the work will move from one machine to the other where
different operations can be performed and the finished work comes out from the last unit without any
manual handling.
This type of machine is intended purely for
production purposes and may be used for milling,
honing and similar operations in addition to drilling
and tapping.

Deep Hole Drilling Machine

This may be the either horizontal or vertical type of
machine. In this drilling machine, the part to be
drilled is rotated and the drill bit that makes the hole
is kept stationary. Deep hole drilling is done in components like rifle barrels, crankshafts, long shafts etc.

Drilling Machine Tool

Drill: A drill is a fluted cutting tool used to originated or enlarge a hole in a solid material. Drills are
manufactured in a wide variety of types and sizes.
Following are the different types of drilling machine tools:
Flat or Spade Drill
A flat drill is sometimes used when the same sized twist drill is not available. It is usually made from a
piece of round tool steel which is forged to shape and ground to size, then hardened and tempered.
The cutting angle varies from 90 to 120 and the relief or clearance at the cutting edge is 3to 8. The
disadvantage of this type of drill is that each time the drill id ground the diameter is reduced. Further, it
cannot be relied upon to drill a true straight hole, since the point of the drill has a tendency to run out of a
centre.
Another difficulty of using this type of drill is that the chips do not come
out from the hole automatically, but tends to pack more or less tightly, if
deep holes are to be drilled.

Straight Fluted Drill:

A straight-fluted drill has grooves or flutes running parallel to the drill
axis. A straight-fluted drill may be considered as a cutting tool having zero rakes. This type of drill is
inconvenient in standard practice as the chips do not come out
from the hole automatically. It is mainly used in drilling brass,
copper or other softer materials.
In drilling brass, the twist drill tends to advance faster than the
rated feed and the drill digs into the metal. No such difficulty
occurs in the use of a straight fluted drill. When drilling sheet
metal, the straight fluted drill does not tend to lift the sheet as does
the twist drill.

Twist Drill
This is the most common type of drill used today is the
twist drill. It was originally manufactured by twisting a flat
piece of tool steel longitudinally for several revolutions,
then grinding the diameter and the point.
The present-day twist drills are made by machining two
spiral flutes or grooves that run lengthwise around the body of the drill.
The twist drill is an end cutting tool. Different types of twist drills
are classified by Indian standard Institution according to the type
of the shank, length of the flute and overall length of the drill.

Parallel Shank (short series or ‘’jobbers’’ twist drill)

The drill has two helical flutes with a parallel shank of
approximately the same diameter as the cutting end. The diameter of the drill ranges from 02 to 16 mm
increasing by 02 to 03 mm in lower series to 025 mm in higher series.
Parallel Shank (stub series) twist drill

The drill is a shortened form of the parallel shank twist

drill, the shortening being on the flute length. The diameter of the drill ranges from 05 to 40 mm
increasing by 03 mm in lower series to 025 to 05 mm in higher series. Fig. 5.37 illustrates the drill.

Parallel Shank (long series) Twist Drill

The drill has two helical flutes with a parallel shank of approximately
the shank diameter as the cutting end, which however does not exceed
the diameter at the drill point.
The overall length of the drill is the same as that of a taper shank twist drill of the corresponding
diameter. The diameter varies from 1-5 to 26mm increasing by 0-3mm in lower series to 0-25mm in
higher series.

Taper Shank Twist Drill

The drills have two helical flutes with a tapered shank for holding and driving the drill. The shank for
these drills conforms to Morse tapers.

Taper Shank Core Drill (three or four fluted)

These drills are intended for enlarging cored, punched or drilled holes. These drills cannot originate a hole
in a solid material because the cutting edges do not extend to the centre of the drill.
The metal is removed by a chamfered edge at the end of each flute. Cored drills produce better-finished
holes than those cut by ordinary two fluted drills.
The cutting action of a core drill is similar to that of a rose
reamer and it is often used as a roughing reamer. In some
cases, a two fluted twist drill is chosen to originate a hole half
the required size and the rest is finished by three or four
fluted drills.

Oil Tube Drill

The oil tube drills are used for drilling deep holes. Oil tubes run lengthwise spirally through the body to
carry oil directly to the cutting edges.
Cutting fluid or compressed air is forced through the hoes to the cutting point of the drill to remove the
chips, cool the cutting edge and lubricate the machined surface.

Centre Drill
The centre drills are a straight shank, two fluted twist drills used when centre holes are drilled on the ends
of a shaft. They are made in finer sizes.

Drilling Machine Operations

Following are the different types of drilling machine operations performed on the drilling machine:

Drilling
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal from the rotating edge of a
cutting tool called the drill.
The drilling is one of the simplest methods of producing a hole. Before drilling the centre of the hole is
located on the workpiece by drawing two lines at right angles
to each other and then a centre punch is used to produce an
indentation at the centre.
The drill point is pressed at this centre point to produce the required hole. Drilling does not produce an
accurate hole in a workpiece and the hole location is not perfect.
The internal surface of the hole so generated by drilling becomes rough and the hole is always slightly
oversize than the drill used due to the vibration of the spindle and the drill. A 12mm drill may produce a
hole as much as 0-125mm oversize and a 22mm drill may produce one as much as 0-5mm oversize.

Reaming
Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has been previously drilled. In order to
finish a hole and to bring it to the accurate size, the hole is drilled slightly undersize.
The speed of the spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic feed may be employed. The tool used
for reaming is known as reamer which has multiple cutting edges.
Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply follows the path which has
been previously drilled and removes a very small amount of metal.
For this reason, a reamer cannot correct a hole location. The material
removed by this process is around 0-375mm and for accurate work,
this should not exceed 0-125mm.

Boring
Boring is performed in a drilling machine for reasons stated below:
To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only
one cutting edge. This is necessary where the suitable sized drill is
not available or where the hole diameter is so large that it cannot be ordinarily drilled.
Used to finish a hole accurately and to bring it to the required size.
To machine the internal surface of a hole already produced in casting.
Used to correct out of roundness of the hole.
To correct the location of the hole as the boring tool follows an independent path with respect to the hole.
The cutter is held in a boring bar which has a tapered
shank to fit into the spindle socket. For perfect
finishing a hole, the job is drilled slightly undersize. In
precision machines, the accuracy is as high
as +0.00125mm. It is a slow process than reaming and
requires several passes of the toll.

Counterboring
Counterboring is the operation of enlarging the end of a
hole cylindrically. The enlarged hole forms a square
shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary in
some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
A tool used for counterboring is called a counterbore. The counterbores are made with a straight or
tapered shank to fit in the drill spindle. The cutting edges may have straight or spiral teeth.
The tool is guided by a pilot which extends beyond the end of the cutting edges. The pilot fits into the
small-diameter hole running clearance and maintains the alignment
of the tool.
These pilots may be interchanged for enlarging different sizes of
holes. Counterboring can give an accuracy of about +0.005mm.
The cutting speed for counterboring is 25% less than that of drilling
operations.
Countersinking
Countersinking is the operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a hole to provide a
recess for a flat head screw or countersunk rivet fitted into the
hole.
The tool used for countersinking is called a countersink.
Standard countersinks have 60, 82 or 90 inclined angle and the
cutting edges of the tool are formed at the conical surface. The
cutting speed in countersinking is 25% less than that of drilling.

Spot facing
Spot facing is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole for the seat for a nut or
the head of a screw. A counterbore or a special spot facing tool
may be employed for this purpose.

Tapping
It is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool
called a tap. Tapping in a drilling machine may be performed by hand or
by machine.
A tap may be considered as a bolt with accurate threads cut on it. The
threads act as cutting edges which are hardened and ground. When the
tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and cuts internal threads
which will fit into external threads of the same size.

Lapping
Lapping is the operation of sizing and finishing a small diameter hole already hardened by removing a
very small amount of material by using a lap. There are many kinds of lapping tools.
The copper head laps are commonly used. The lap fits in the hole and is moved up and down while it
revolves.

Grinding
Grinding operation may be performed in a drilling machine to finish a hardened hole. The grinding wheel
is made to revolve with the spindle and is fed up and down.
A suitable grinding wheel may be selected for surface grinding operation. Grinding can also be done
correctly out of roundness of the hole. The accuracy in grinding operation is quite high
about +0.0025mm.

Trepanning
Trepanning is the operation of producing a hole by removing metal along the circumference of a hollow
cutting tool.
This operation is performed for producing large holes. Fewer chips are removed and much of the material
is saved while the hole is produced.
The tool may be operated at higher speeds as the vibration in diameter of the tool is limited by the narrow
cutting edge. The tool resembles a hollow tube having cutting edges at one end and a solid shank at the
other to fit into the drill spindle. This is one of the efficient methods of producing a hole.
GRINDING MACHINE:
It is an industrial power tool which uses an abrasive material to cut or remove material. It is the process of
cutting the material by rotating an abrasive wheel against the workpiece. Grinding operation is also
performed for machining of too hard material.

Grinding machine types:

Rough grinders:
 floor or bench grinders
 portable grinders
 abrasive belt grinders
 swing frame grinders
precision grinders:
 surface grinders
 cylindrical grinders (plain, universal and centerless grinders)
 tool and cutter grinders
 internal grinders (planetary, chucking and centerless grinders)
 special grinding machine

Parts of surface grinding machine:

 Base/Bed
 Tables
 Headstock
 Tailstock
 Wheel head
 Cross feed
Grinding operations:

grinding
processes

surface cylinderical centerless form wet and dry

grinding grinding grinding grinding grinding

wet
internal
grinding

external dry grinding

PLANER MACHINE
The planer machine is similar to a shaper machine. It intended to produce plane and flat surfaces by a
single-point cutting tool.
A planer machine is very large and massive compared to a shaper machine. It is capable of a machining
heavy workpiece, which cannot be fit on a shaper table.

The fundamental difference between a shaper and a planer is that

In a planer, the work which is supported on the table reciprocates over the stationary cutting tool. And the
feed is supplied by the lateral movement of the tool.
In a shaper, the tool which is mounted upon the ram reciprocates. And the feed is given by the crosswise
movement of the table.

Types of Planer Machine

Following are the different types of planer machine:
 Standard or Double housing type planer machine
 open side type planer machine
 Pit planer machine
  Edge or plate planer
 Divided table planer

Parts of Planer Machine

Following are the important parts of the planer machine:
 Bed
 Table or Platen
 Housing or Column
 Cross rail
 Tool head
 Driving and Feed Mechanism
 Tool-head
 The tool head of a planer is similar to that of a shaper both in construction and operation.
The important parts of a tool head are:
 Saddle
 Swivel base
 Vertical Slide
 Apron
 Clapper box
 Clapper block
 Toolpost
 Down feed screw
 Apron clamping bolt,
 Apron swivelling pin
 Mechanism for cross and down-feed of the tool.

Different Types of Planer Machine

Standard or Double Housing Planer Machine
The standard or double housing planer is the most widely used types of planer machine in workshops. A
double housing planer has a long heavy base on which
a table reciprocates on accurate guideways.
The length of the bed is little over twice the length of
the table.
Two massive vertical housings or uprights are
mounted near the middle of the base, one on each side
of the bed. To ensure the rigidity of the structure, these
two housings are connected at the top by a cast-iron
member.
The vertical faces of the two housing are accurately
machined so that horizontal Crossrail carrying two tool
heads may slide upon it.
The tool heads which hold the tools are mounted upon
the Crossrail.
These tools may be feed either by the power in Cross
rail or vertical direction. In addition to these tool
heads, there are two other tool heads which are mounted upon the vertical face of the housing.
They can also be moved either in a vertical or horizontal direction to apply feed. The planer table may
be driven either by mechanical or hydraulic devices.
Openside Planer Machine
An openside planer has a housing only on one side of the base. And the Cross rail is suspended from the
housing as a cantilever. This feature of the machine allows the large and wide workpiece to be clamped
on the table and reciprocated over the
cutting tool.
One side of the planer being opened,
large and wide jobs may project out of
the table and reciprocate without being
interfered by the housing.
In a double housing planer, the
maximum width of the job which can be
machined is limited by the distance
between the two housing. As the single
housing has to take up the entire load, it
is made extra-massive to resist the
forces.
Only three tool heads are mounted on
this machine. The constructional and
driving features of the machine are the
same as that of a double housing planer.

Pit Planer Machine

A pit type planer is massive in construction. It differs from an ordinary planer. In this the table is
stationary and the column carrying the Cross rail
reciprocates on massive horizontal rails mounted on
both sides of the table.
This type of planer machine is suitable for
machining a very large work which cannot be
supported on a standard planer. This machine design
saves much of floor space.
The length of the bed required in a pit type planer is
little over the length of the table. Whereas in a
standard planer the length of the bed is near twice
the length of the table. The uprights and the Cross
rail are made sufficiently rigid to take up the forces
while cutting.

Edge or Plate Planer

The design of a plate or edge planer is totally unlike that of an ordinary planer. It is specially intended for
squaring and bevelling the edges of steel plates. Also used for different pressure vessels and ship-building
works.
One end of a long plate which remains
stationary is clamped with the machine frame
by a large number so air operated clamps.
The cutting tool is attached to a carriage
which is supported on two horizontal ways of
the planer on its front end.
The operator can stand on a platform
extending from the carriage. The carriage
holding the tool reciprocates over the edge of
the plate. The feed and depth of cut are adjusted by the tool holder which can be operated from the
platform.

Divided Table Planer

This type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately or together.
This type of design saves much of idle time while setting the work. The setting up of a large number of
identical workpieces on the
planning machine table takes quite
a long time. It may require as
much time for setting up as may
necessary for machining.
To have continuous production on
the table is used for setting up the
work. While the other reciprocates
over the cutting tool finishing the
work. When the work on the
second table is finished, it is
stopped and finished jobs are
removed.
Fresh jobs are now set up on this
table while the first table holding the jobs now reciprocates over the tool. When a heavy and large job has
to be machined, both the table are clamped together and are given reciprocating movement under the tool.
HOW TO CHECK V-BELT NUMBER?
If we have been given with a numberless v-belt, then we can sort it out by knowing following parameters.
Top width of the belt
Thickness of the belt
Outer or Inner circumference of the belt
Standard V-Belt sections:

Knowing the top width, we can find out the belt section type (i.e. A, B, C etc.).
How can we find the next number followed by a Letter?
Quantity to be subtracted from outer
Belt type
circumference (in)
A 2
B 3
C 4
D 5
E 6

Example:
If top width of belt is 21/32 inches and outer circumference of belt drive is 78 inches. Find out the belt
type.
Solution:
By comparing with given standards: belt is of B type having inner circumference = 78-3 = 75 in
So, belt is B75 type. Where 75 is inner circumference.

HOW TO CHECK BEARING NUMBERS?

A Bearing number contains many hidden information about the bearing in itself. The bearing no (pattern
number) provide us enough details about the bearing silently. In this post, we will discuss about How to
Identify Bearings by Bearing Number.
Let us take an example to understand the bearing nomenclature more easily. Suppose, we have a bearing
whose patern no is 6305ZZ. Let us divide it in sub components. Here ‘6‘indicate bearing type. There are
few companies which use their separate identifying nomenclature. However, most of them follow a
common standard for bearing nomenclature.
Types of Bearings and Their Code in Bearing Number

Types of Bearings and their Codes

Thus, we can easily identify now that in case of bearing 6305ZZ, the first digit ‘6‘ means the bearing type
is ‘Single row deep groove ball bearing’.
In case of Inch bearings, the bearing’s first digit will be ‘R’. After ‘R’, the size of the bearing will be
given in 1/16th of an inch. To understand it better, Lets take an example of Inch bearing. Suppose, we
have R4-3RS bearing. Here, R4 means, it is an inch bearing whose bore size is 4/16th or you can say
1/4th of an inch.
Bearing Series and Their Code in Bearing Number
The second digit of a bearing patter number indicates the bearing series. Series of a bearing denotes the
toughness of the bearing. They are:
Series (Toughness) of Bearing
Thus, we can identify now that in case of bearing 6305ZZ, the second digit ‘3‘means the bearing is of
medium toughness.
Bore size of Bearing
The third and fourth digit of bearing patter number indicates the bore size of bearing. It is the inner
diameter of the bearing and measured in millimetres. In general, the bore size is equal to five times the
third and forth digit of bearing’s patter number. However, from ‘0’ to ‘3’, this formula does not imply.
The bore size indicated by ‘0’ to ‘3’ are:

Bore size of bearing

Note: In case there is no fourth digit, then the 3rd digit indicates the bore size in mm. For example: in case
of bearing 636, the bore size of the bearing will be 6mm.
Thus, we can identify now that in case of bearing 6305ZZ, the third and fourth digit ‘05’ means the
bearing’s bore size is 25 mm.
Shielding/Sealing/Specialty of Bearing in Bearing Number
The last letters of the bearing indicate the availability/unavailability/type of shielding or sealing and other
specialty in the bearing. The various types of indications are:
Sealing/Shielding/Any other details of Bearing
Thus, we can identify now that in case of bearing 6305ZZ, the last letters ‘ZZ’ means the bearing is
shielded from both sides.
Coming to the conclusion, we can now easily decode bearing number of most of the bearings. Here,
bearing 6305ZZ means “it is a Single row deep groove ball bearing having medium toughness, with a
bore size of 25 mm and is shielded from both sides.

HOW TO CHECK SPHERICAL TANK VOLUME?

Volume of sphere;
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
Where “r” is the radius of the sphere.
Example:
If spherical tank is full of water, having radius of 3ft. Find the volume of the water present in that yank.
4
𝑉 = 𝜋(3)3 = 36𝜋 𝑓𝑡 3
3
VOLUME OF CYLINDRICAL TANK:
The volume of a cylinder is found by multiplying the area of its top or base by its height and is defined
as: V = π· r2· h
Example: A cylindrical water storage tank has an inside base radius of 7m and depth of 11 m. Find the
capacity of the tank in kiloliters (1kl = 1m3).
Solution:
Base radius: r = 7 m
Height: h = 11 m
The water storage tank is in the shape of the cylinder. So, using the volume of cylinder formula we can
find the volume of it.

V = π· r2· h
V = π· 72· 11
V = 1692.46 m3 = 1692.46 kl
VOLUME OF RECTANGULAR TANK:
V = L· w· h
Example:
If a rectangular tank of 2m width and 3m length has 4m water level high in it. Calculate the volume of
water.
Solution:
V = L· w· h
V = 3· 2· 4 = 24 cubic meters.
WELDING
Welding is a process of joining similar and dissimilar metals or other material by application of heat with
or without application of pressure and addition of filler material. It is used as permanent fasteners.
Welding is essential process of every manufacturing industries. In fact, the future of any new metal may
depend on how far it would lend itself to fabrication by welding.
The weldability has been defined as the capacity of being welded into inseparable joints having specified
properties such as definite weld strength proper structure. The weldability of any metal depends on five
major factors. These are melting point, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, surface condition, and
change in microstructure.

Types:

1.Plastic welding:
In plastic welding or pressure welding process, the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state
and then forced together by external pressure. These welding are also known as liquid-solid welding
process. This procedure is used in forge welding and resistance welding.
2. Fusion welding:
In the fusion welding or no pressure welding process, the material at the joint is heated to a molten state
and allowed to solidify. These welding are also known as liquid state welding process. This includes gas
welding, arc welding, thermite welding etc.
3. Cold welding:
In this welding process, the joints are produced without application of heat, but by applying pressure
which results diffusion or inter-surface molecular fusion of the parts to be joined. It is also known as solid
state welding process. This process is mainly used for welding nonferrous sheet metal, particularly
aluminum and its alloys. This includes ultrasonic welding, friction welding, Explosive welding etc.

4 Main Welding Processes:

1. Arc Welding (Fusion Welding):
In this type of welding process, weld metal melted from the edges to be joined and allow to solidifies
from the liquid state and usually below the recrystallization temperature without any applied
deformation. Arc welding is most extensively employed method of joining metal parts by fusion. In this
welding the arc column is generated between an anode, which is the positive pole of power supply, and
the cathode, the negative pole. When these two conductors of an electric circuit are brought together and
separated for a small distance such that the current continues to flow through a path of ionized particles
called plasma, an electric arc is formed. This ionized gas column acts as a high resistance conductor that
enables more ions to flow from the anode to the cathode. Heat is generated as the ions strike the cathode.
This heat used as melting of metal to be joined or melting the filler metal which further used as joining
material of welding metal. The electrode is either consumable or non-consumable as per welding
requirement. The temperature at the centre of the arc being 6000 OC to 7000OC

2. Gas Welding:
The gas welding is done by burning of combustible gas with air or oxygen in a concentrated flame of high
temperature. As with other welding methods, the purpose of the flame is to heat and melt the parent metal
and filler rod of a joint. It can weld most common materials
3. Gas Metal arc welding (MIG):
This welding is also known as metal inert gas welding. In this type of welding a metal rod is used as one
electrode, while the work being welded is used as another electrode. It is a gas shielded metal arc welding
which uses the high heat of an electric arc between a continuously fed, consumable electrode wire and the
material to be welded. Metal is transferred through protected arc column to the work.

In this process the wire is fed continuously from a reel through a gun to constant surface imparts a current
upon the wire. In this welding the welding area is flooded with a gas which will not combine with the
metal. The rate of flow gas is sufficient to keep the oxygen of the air away from the hot metal surface
while welding is being done.

4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG):

This welding is also known as tungsten inert gas welding is similar to the MIG in that is uses the gases for
shielding. This arc welding process uses the intense heat of an electric arc between a no consumable
tungsten electrode and the material to be welded. In this process the electrode is not consumable during
welding process and gas is used to protect the weld area form atmospheric air.
TYPES OF WELDING RODS
When it comes to welding, having so much choice can be overwhelming. Knowing which auto-darkening
helmet to buy, which gear will be the most protective, or even which metal to use are all decisions which
you’ll have to make. Beginners only really need to consider a few basic factors, but once you’ve gotten up
and running and gained more experience, you’ll need to understand the more in-depth elements of your
equipment.
Being able to differentiate between the types of welding rods – and being aware of their strengths,
weaknesses, and best uses – is just one of those features which have a huge impact on the strength and
quality of your welds. In order to help you get to grips with this complex subject, we’ve put together the
ultimate guide covering all welding rod types.

What is the welding rod?

The
welding rod is the piece of wire connected to the welding machine. A current is fed through this wire,
which helps to join two pieces of metal together firmly.
In certain cases – namely SMAW and stick welders – the wires actually melt, becoming part of the weld
itself. These welding rods are referred to as consumable electrodes. For TIG welding, the welding rods do
not melt, so are called non-consumable electrodes. Within both of these groups, there are many different
variations and types, which will be covered in more detail later.
Welding rods are usually coated, although the materials that make up this coating can vary widely. Bare
electrodes (those made without any additional coatings) are also available, although they’re much less
common. These are used for certain specific jobs, such as welding manganese steel.
It is important to choose the right type of welding rod for your job in order to create clean, strong welds
with excellent bead quality.

Consumable electrodes
As mentioned previously, stick welders usually use consumable welding rods, which will be referred to as
stick electrodes here. These include light coated electrodes, as well as shielded arc or heavy coated
electrodes.
As the name suggests, light coated electrodes have been finished with a thin coating which has been
applied by techniques such as brushing and spraying. This is usually made up of a combination of several
different materials, which are likely to be similar to the metals which you are welding together.
The arc streams created when using bare rods can be difficult to control, so if your job allows it then
using a light coated electrode increases the arc stability. This will make your life quicker and easier.
However, that is not the only purpose behind having a light coating on the welding rods. Other benefits of
using light coated electrodes are that impurities such as oxides and sulfur are reduced (or eliminated
altogether), the drops of metal at the end of the welding rods are more regular in both size and frequency
– meaning that your welds are smoother and neater – and they only produce a thin slag.
Shielded arc electrodes are similar to light coated electrodes, except for the fact that they have a heavy
coating. Due to their tougher, heavy duty nature, they are better suited to applications such as welding
cast iron.
There are three different types of coating applied to shielded arc electrodes, which each have different
results during the welding process. Firstly, there are those with coatings containing cellulose, which uses
a layer of gas to protect the weld zone; the coatings on the second type include mineral substances, which
leave a layer of slag. The third type of coating on shielded arc electrodes is made up of a combination of
cellulose and minerals.
Shielded arc electrodes which form a layer of gas are ideal because they act as a highly effective
protective barrier, resulting in strong welds. The weld pool needs to be protected from certain
atmospheric gasses (namely oxygen and nitrogen), which affect the welds and make them weak, porous
and brittle. This protection can either be given through the use of a coated welding rod, or through a blast
of gas which can separate the weld pool from the air (as described in the cellulose-coated shielded arc
electrodes).
Just like light coated electrodes, shielded arc electrodes reduce oxides, sulfur and other impurities in the
metal, leaving clean, smooth, regular welds. In addition, the weld arcs created by these welding rods are
much easier to control than bare electrodes, which are prone to causing lots of spatter.
It might seem like a hassle if you opt for a mineral-coated shielded arc electrode which forms a slag, but,
in fact, this slag can have a beneficial effect. It cools slowly – much slower than cellulose-coated shielded
arc electrodes – which draws impurities up to the surface. As a result, you’ll end up with high-quality
welds which are strong, durable and clean.
The principal types of welding electrode coatings for mild steel and are described below.
Cellulose-sodium (EXX10):
Electrodes of this type cellulosic material in the form of wood flour or reprocessed low alloy electrodes
have up to 30 percent paper. The gas shield contains carbon dioxide and hydrogen, which are reducing
agents. These gases tend to produce a digging arc that provides deep penetration. The weld deposit is
somewhat rough, and the spatter is at a higher level than other electrodes. It does provide extremely good
mechanical properties, particularly after aging. This is one of the earliest types of electrodes developed,
and is widely used for cross country pipe lines using the downhill welding technique. It is normally used
with direct current with the electrode positive (reverse polarity).

Cellulose-potassium (EXX11):
This electrode is very similar to the cellulose-sodium electrode, except more potassium is used than
sodium. This provides ionization of the arc and makes the electrode suitable for welding with alternating
current. The arc action, the penetration, and the weld results are very similar. In both E6010 and E6011
electrodes, small amounts of iron powder may be added. This assists in arc stabilization and will slightly
increase the deposition rate.

Rutile-sodium (EXX12):
When rutile or titanium dioxide content is relatively high with respect to the other components, the
electrode will be especially appealing to the welder. Electrodes with this coating have a quiet arc, an
easily controlled slag, and a low level of spatter. The weld deposit will have a smooth surface and the
penetration will be less than with the cellulose electrode. The weld metal properties will be slightly lower
than the cellulosic types. This type of electrode provides a fairly high rate of deposition. It has a relatively
low arc voltage, and can be used with alternating current or with direct current with electrode negative
(straight polarity).

Rutile-potassium (EXX13):
This electrode coating is very similar to the rutile-sodium type, except that potassium is used to provide
for arc ionization. This makes it more suitable for welding with alternating current. It can also be used
with direct current with either polarity. It produces a very quiet, smooth running arc.
Rutile-iron powder (EXXX4):
This coating is very similar to the rutile coatings mentioned above, except that iron powder is added. If
iron content is 25 to 40 percent, the electrode is EXX14. If iron content is 50 percent or more, the
electrode is EXX24. With the lower percentage of iron powder, the electrode can be used in all positions.
With the higher percentage of iron paler, it can only be used in the flat position or for making horizontal
fillet welds. In both cases, the deposition rate is increased, based on the amount of iron powder in the
coating.

Low hydrogen-sodium (EXXX5):

Coatings that contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate or calcium fluoride are called low hydrogen,
lime ferritic, or basic type electrodes. In this class of coating, cellulose, clays, asbestos, and other minerals
that contain combined water are not used. This is to ensure the lowest possible hydrogen content in the
arc atmosphere. These electrode coatings are baked at a higher temperature. The low hydrogen electrode
family has superior weld metal properties. They provide the highest ductility of any of the deposits. These
electrodes have a medium arc with medium or moderate penetration. They have a medium speed of
deposition, but require special welding techniques for best results. Low hydrogen electrodes must be
stored under controlled conditions. This type is normally used with direct current with electrode positive
(reverse polarity).

Low hydrogen-potassium (EXXX6):

This type of coating is similar to the low hydrogen-sodium, except for the substitution of potassium for
sodium to provide arc ionization. This electrode is used with alternating current and can be used with
direct current, electrode positive (reverse polarity). The arc action is smother, but the penetration of the
two electrodes is similar.

Low hydrogen-potassium (EXXX6):

The coatings in this class of electrodes are similar to the low-hydrogen type mentioned above. However,
iron powder is added to the electrode, and if the content is higher than 35 to 40 percent, the electrode is
classified as an EXX18.

Low hydrogen-iron powder (EXX28):

This electrode is similar to the EXX18, but has 50 percent or more iron powder in the coating. It is usable
only when welding in the flat position or for making horizontal fillet welds. The deposition rate is higher
than EXX18. Low hydrogen coatings are used for all of the higher-alloy electrodes. By additions of
specific metals in the coatings, these electrodes become the alloy types where suffix letters are used to
indicate weld metal compositions. Electrodes for welding stainless steel are also the low-hydrogen type.

Iron oxide-sodium (EXX20):

Coatings with high iron oxide content produce a weld deposit with a large amount of slag. This can be
difficult to control. This coating type produces high-speed deposition, and provides medium penetration
with low spatter level. The resulting weld has a very smooth finish. The electrode is usable only with flat
position welding and for making horizontal fillet welds. The electrode can be used with alternating
current or direct current with either polarity.

Iron-oxide-iron power (EXX27):

This type of electrode is very similar to the iron oxide-sodium type, except it contains 50 percent or more
iron power. The increased amount of iron power greatly increases the deposition rate. It may be used with
alternating direct current of either polarity.
Different Types of Welding Joints

Tee Joint
A tee joint is formed when two parts are interested at a 90-degree angle with one edge lying at the center
of the other. They are placed in the form of letter T. This type of weld joint requires the use of the fillet
weld that is applied on both sides of the metal.
The tee joint can also be used when a pipe is welded onto a base metal.

There are seven welding styles that can be used to create a tee joint:
 Slot weld
 Plug weld
 Fillet weld
 Bevel-groove weld
 Flare-bevel-groove weld
 J-groove weld
 Melt-through weld
 Butt Joint
Butt welds are created when two pieces of metal are joined when they are placed side by side in the same
plane. It’s often used for welding pipes, valves, fittings and other.
This type of joint is usually used for materials up to 3/16” thick. It’s also not advisable to use on metals
that will be in the future subject to high impact loads.
When welding thicker plates or if you need full penetration, the plates can be beveled. These types of butt
welds are called groove welds. If there is beveling, it will require more filler metal, which will ensure the
higher strength of the joint.
The most common style for creating a butt joint a square groove weld. It’s used when two parts are placed
together side by side in parallel.

All the styles for butt joints include the following:

 Square-groove weld
 Bevel-groove weld
 V-groove weld
  U-groove weld
 J-groove weld
 Flare-V-groove weld
 Flare-bevel-groove weld
 Corner Joint
Corner joints are some of the most common types in the sheet metal industry, such as in the construction
of boxes, frames and other such applications. It’s formed when two parts come together at the center of a
right angle. The two parts form a letter L.

The following are the styles for creating corner joints:

 V-groove
 U-groove
 J-groove
 Fillet
 Spot
 Edge
 Corner-flange
 Square-groove or butt
 Bevel-groove
 Flare-V-groove
 Lap Joint
This type of joint is usually used when welding pieces that have different thickness. It’s formed when two
parts are placed over each other in an overlapping way. The joint can be welded on either just one side or
both sides for more strength. This joint is widely used in electron beam, laser beam and resistance spot
welding.

There are following welding styles:

Spot
Plug
Slot
Bevel-groove
J-groove
Flare-bevel groove
Edge Joint
The edge joint is used to join together two or more parts that are adjacent parallel placed. The parts can
also be approximately parallel or they can have flanging edges. The process welds the same edges of two
parts.
However, keep in mind that it’s not a very strong joint as the weld doesn’t fully penetrate the thickness of
the joint. So, it’s mostly used for joining edges of sheet metal or mufflers, or in other low stress and
pressure applications. To reinforce the plate, the welder can add filler metal.

The following styles are applicable for creating these type of joints:
 J-groove
 V-groove
 U-groove
 Bevel-groove
 Corner-flange
 Square-groove
 Edge-flange
Welding rod material:
A welding electrode is made up of two parts: the actual metal, and the flux coating. The metal can vary
from mild-steel, cast iron, stainless steel, high-tensile steel, copper, bronze, brass, or aluminium. The
metal is then wrapped in a flux coating that is blends of cellulose, which is used by plants to give them
flexibility, iron powder, and hydrogen. It is also blended with some Sodium, Titania and Potassium. The
flux coating makes the electrical currents flow more evenly during the weld.

Main Chemicals, Compounds, Components

The two main ingredients of a welding rod would be iron (Fe) and cellulose (C6H10O5), which is a
carbohydrate. Iron is strong, hard, magnetic, silvery-grey metal, the chemical element of atomic number
26, a transition element widely distributed as ores. Cellulose is an insoluble substance that is the main
constituent of plant cell walls and of vegetable fibers such as cotton. It is a polysaccharide.

Chemistry's Role
When welding with a welding electrode on a specific joint or piece of metal, the electric current coming
from the welding machine to the rod holder, to the grounded-out area in which you are welding, to the
rod, heats up and melts the rod and the flux creating a bead. The bead then solidifies on the base metal
holding the joints together.