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0066-4804/09/$08.00⫹0 doi:10.1128/AAC.00329-09
We studied the antifungal activity of anidulafungin (AFG) in combination with voriconazole (VRC) against
experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) in persistently neutropenic rabbits and further explored
the in vitro and in vivo correlations by using Bliss independence drug interaction analysis. Treatment groups
consisted of those receiving AFG at 5 (AFG5 group) and 10 (AFG10 group) mg/kg of body weight/day, VRC at
10 mg/kg every 8 h (VRC group), AFG5 plus VRC (AFG5ⴙVRC group), and AFG10 plus VRC (AFG10ⴙVRC
group) and untreated controls. Survival throughout the study was 60% for the AFG5ⴙVRC group, 50% for the
VRC group, 27% for the AFG10ⴙVRC group, 22% for the AFG5 group, 18% for the AFG10 group, and 0% for
control rabbits (P < 0.001). There was a significant reduction of organism-mediated pulmonary injury,
measured by infarct scores, lung weights, residual fungal burdens, and galactomannan indexes, in
AFG5ⴙVRC-treated rabbits versus those treated with AFG5 and VRC alone (P < 0.05). In comparison,
AFG10ⴙVRC significantly lowered only infarct scores and lung weights in comparison to those of AFG10-
treated animals (P < 0.05). AFG10ⴙVRC showed no significant difference in other outcome variables. Sig-
nificant Bliss synergy was found in vivo between AFG5 and VRC, with observed effects being 24 to 30% higher
than expected levels if the drugs were acting independently. These synergistic interactions were also found
between AFG and VRC in vitro. However, for AFG10ⴙVRC, only independence and antagonism were observed
among the outcome variables. We concluded that the combination of AFG with VRC in treatment of experi-
mental IPA in persistently neutropenic rabbits was independent to synergistic at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day but
independent to antagonistic at 10 mg/kg/day, as assessed by Bliss independence analysis, suggesting that
higher dosages of an echinocandin may be deleterious to the combination.
Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis is an important cause of The antifungal triazoles inhibit fungal cell membrane bio-
morbidity and mortality in patients with cancer, hematopoietic synthesis through inhibition of ergosterol formation at the
stem cell transplantation, solid organ transplantation, and level of lanosterol C14-demethylase (9, 17, 28, 29). Analysis of
other immunodeficiencies (1, 4, 8, 13, 21, 36). Despite the use pharmacodynamic interactions poses a challenge to assessing
of single agents, such as amphotericin B, its lipid formulations, the efficacy of combination therapy and its superiority over
antifungal triazoles, and echinocandins, mortality associated monotherapy. Robust mathematical pharmacodynamic models
with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis remains high (22, 32). are powerful tools for the detection of synergistic and antag-
Combination therapy with the echinocandins and triazoles may onistic interactions and for correlating in vivo data with in vitro
be more active against invasive aspergillosis than therapy with data. Bliss independence drug interaction analysis, which is
a single agent alone (10, 26). The echinocandins are a class of based on the probability theory for independent events, was
semisynthetic lipopeptide antifungal compounds that inhibit previously used to correlate in vitro and in vivo data on the
synthesis of (133)--D-glucan, a key component of the cell antagonistic combination of ravuconazole with amphotericin B
walls of most pathogenic fungi (6, 14). against invasive aspergillosis (16).
We hypothesized that the simultaneous inhibition of the
biosynthesis of key components of the fungal cell wall and cell
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Immunocompromised membrane by the combination of an echinocandin and an
Host Section, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, antifungal triazole may result in a synergistic interaction in
Building 10, Rm. 1W-5750, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892.
Phone: (301) 402-0023. Fax: (301) 480-2308. E-mail: walsht@mail.nih
vitro and in vivo. We further hypothesized that Bliss indepen-
.gov. dence analysis of this possible in vitro and in vivo interaction
䌤
Published ahead of print on 23 March 2009. may provide a useful tool by which to assess probable syner-
2382
VOL. 53, 2009 COMBINATION THERAPY FOR PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS 2383
gistic antifungal effects. We therefore examined the potential curves of anidulafungin and voriconazole alone. For each combination of x
therapeutic utility of the combination of anidulafungin and mg/liter of voriconazole with y mg/liter of anidulafungin, the ⌬E (EOBS ⫺ EIND)
was calculated and the interaction was assessed as described above. When the
voriconazole in the treatment of experimental invasive pulmo- statistically significantly different from zero ⌬Es of all combinations (7 ⫻ 10)
nary aspergillosis in persistently neutropenic rabbits and stud- were plotted in a three-dimensional plot, an interaction surface plot was ob-
ied the in vitro and in vivo correlations of this interaction by tained, with peaks above and below the 0 plane indicating synergistic and an-
Bliss independence drug interaction analysis. tagonistic combinations, respectively, while the 0 plane itself indicated no statis-
tically significant interactions. As summary measures of the interaction surface,
the sum and the mean of all statistically significant synergistic (⌬E ⫾ 95% CI ⬎
MATERIALS AND METHODS 0) and antagonistic (⌬E ⫾ 95% CI ⬍ 0) combinations were reported.
Isolate. NIH Aspergillus fumigatus isolate 4215 (ATCC MYA-1163), obtained Animals and inoculation. Healthy female New Zealand White rabbits (Co-
from a patient with a fatal case of pulmonary aspergillosis, as previously de- vance Research Products, Inc., Denver, PA) weighing 2.6 to 3.5 kg at the time of
which was then vortexed. A 0.1-ml sample of this fluid and 0.1 ml of a dilution measured variables for residual fungal burden (CFU/g), the number of pulmo-
(101) of this fluid were cultured on 5% Sabouraud glucose agar plates. nary infarct lesions, the lung weight (g), serum GMI, BAL fluid GMI, BAL fluid
Galactomannan assay. Blood from each rabbit infected with A. fumigatus was DNA, and pulmonary infiltrate volume (computed tomography [CT] scan) for
collected every other day for determination of serum galactomannan concentra- treated and untreated animals, respectively.
tions. Serum and BAL fluid galactomannan concentrations were determined by The expected effect EIND of a noninteractive (independent) theoretical com-
the Platelia Aspergillus EIA (Bio-Rad, Marnes la Coquette, France) one-stage bination of the voriconazole dosage with either dosage of anidulafungin was
immunoenzymatic sandwich microplate assay method (33). Enzyme immunoas- calculated with equation 1, where EA ⫽ EAFG was the effect of anidulafungin
say data were expressed as the serum GMI plotted over time. The GMI for each acting alone at a dosage of either 5 or 10 mg/kg (AFG5 or AFG10 group) and
test serum sample was equal to the absorbance of a standard sample divided by EB ⫽ EVRC was the effect of voriconazole acting alone at the dosage of 10 mg/kg
the absorbance of a threshold serum provided by the manufacturer. (VRC group). The difference, ⌬E, between the EIND and the experimentally
DNA extraction from BAL fluid. Frozen BAL fluid samples were thawed observed effect EOBS for the combination groups AFG5⫹VRC and
before extraction was performed. As previously described (20), samples were AFG10⫹VRC and Bliss interaction were assessed as described above.
standard two-compartment pharmacokinetic model was used, with zero-order considered to be statistically significant. Survival was plotted by Kaplan-Meier
time-delimited input and first-order elimination from the central compartment. analysis. Differences in survival of treatment groups and untreated controls were
The entire data set (combination and monotherapy) was comodeled. The phar- analyzed by the log rank test. Values are expressed as means ⫾ standard error of
macokinetic data were weighted by the inverse of the estimated assay variance the means (SEMs). Pharmacokinetic parameters were compared using ANOVA
for each drug. The fit of the model to the data was assessed using the log or Student’s t test, as appropriate.
likelihood value and a visual inspection and coefficient of determination of the
observed-versus-predicted values after the Bayesian step. The population mean
and median parameter values were evaluated within the maximum a posteriori RESULTS
Bayesian analysis. The estimates of the pharmacokinetic parameters for each
individual rabbit were obtained using the “population-of-one” utility within Survival. Improved survival was achieved through the entire
NPAG. The Bayesian estimates for each rabbit within the various treatment study in 6 (60%) of 10 AFG5⫹VRC-treated rabbits, 6 (50%)
groups were collated. The AUC which developed in each rabbit at steady state of 12 VRC, 3 (27%) of 11 AFG10⫹VRC, 2 (22%) of 9 AFG5,
was determined by integration.
and 2 (18%) of 11 AFG10-treated rabbits in comparison to 0
Toxicity studies. Blood was collected as previously described (26). Chemical
determinations of creatinine, urea nitrogen, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), (0%) of 17 untreated control rabbits (P ⬍ 0.001) (Fig. 1). Even
aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and potassium concentrations in serum were though the combination of AFG5⫹VRC demonstrated the
performed on the penultimate sample drawn from each rabbit. highest survival rate (60%), there were no significant differ-
Statistical analysis. Comparisons between the groups were performed by ences between either of the combination therapy groups and
Kruskal-Wallis test (nonparametric analysis of variance [ANOVA]) or the
Mann-Whitney U test, as appropriate. The central hypothesis of this analysis was
the monotherapy groups.
based upon the response of the combination treatment in comparison to that of Organism-mediated pulmonary injury. There was a signifi-
anidulafungin alone and voriconazole alone. A two-tailed P value of ⱕ0.05 was cant reduction in organism-mediated pulmonary injury as mea-
2386 PETRAITIS ET AL. ANTIMICROB. AGENTS CHEMOTHER.
sured by infarct score, lung weight, and lesion volume. Rabbits AFG5⫹VRC in comparison to that of AFG5-treated rabbits,
receiving the AFG5⫹VRC combination had significantly lower (P ⬍ 0.05). There were no significant differences between
infarct scores in comparison to that of AFG5 (P ⬍ 0.01), and AFG10⫹VRC-treated rabbits and rabbits treated with AFG10
VRC (P ⬍ 0.05) alone. In addition, rabbits treated with and VRC alone (Fig. 4A).
AFG10⫹VRC had significantly lower infarct scores in com- BAL fluid DNA. There also was a similarly significant de-
parison to that of AFG10 (P ⬍ 0.05), but not of VRC-treated crease of the concentration of Aspergillus DNA in BAL fluid of
rabbits. rabbits treated with VRC alone or in combination of
Lung weight was significantly decreased in AFG5⫹VRC- AFG5⫹VRC in comparison to that of AFG5-treated rabbits,
treated rabbits in comparison to that of AFG5 (P ⬍ 0.01) and (P ⬍ 0.05). In addition AFG10⫹VRC treated rabbits showed
VRC (P ⬍ 0.05) alone treated rabbits. Moreover, lung weights a significant decrease of DNA in BAL fluid in comparison of
in AFG10⫹VRC combination were significantly lower in com- that to AFG10-treated rabbits (P ⬍ 0.05), On the other hand
parison to that of AFG10 (P ⬍ 0.05), but not to VRC mono- there was a significant increase of the DNA concentrations in
therapies (Fig. 1). BAL in AFG5 and AFG10-treated rabbits in comparison to
The pulmonary lesion volume measured by serial CT scans that of untreated controls (Fig. 4B).
was consistent with these findings and demonstrated significant Pharmacodynamic interaction analysis. The results of Bliss
decrease in AFG5⫹VRC-treated rabbits in comparison to independence drug interaction analysis for the in vivo phar-
AFG5 and VRC (P ⱕ 0.05) treated rabbits. On the other hand, macodynamic interaction of voriconazole and anidulafungin
there were no significant differences in AFG10⫹VRC group in are summarized in Table 1. Statistically significant Bliss syn-
comparison to that AFG10 or VRC monotherapies (Fig. 2). ergy was found for the combination of AFG5⫹VRC based on
Residual fungal burden. There was significant reduction of residual fungal burden, pulmonary infarct scores, and pulmo-
residual fungal burden (CFU/g) in AFG5⫹VRC-treated rab- nary infiltrate volume (CT scan) for which the observed drug
bits in comparison to AFG5 and VRC alone, (P ⬍ 0.05). There effects were 10 to 30% higher than the expected effects under
were no significant differences of AFG10⫹VRC-treated rab- the Bliss independent zero-interaction hypothesis (Table 1).
bits in comparison to that of AFG10 and VRC alone (Fig. 1). Similarly, Bliss synergy was found in vitro when voriconazole
Serum galactomannan. There was a significantly lower GMI was combined with anidulafungin (mean ⌬E⫾SEM 27 ⫾ 4%)
on day 6 postinoculation in VRC, and AFG5⫹VRC-treated (Fig. 5). Using the higher dosage of anidulafungin (10 mg/kg),
rabbits in comparison to that of all other groups (P ⬍ 0.05). there was Bliss independence (no synergy) based on residual
The GMI progressively increased in untreated controls, AFG5, fungal burden, pulmonary infarct scores, and pulmonary infil-
AFG10, and AFG10⫹VRC-treated rabbits during the experi- trate volume. Moreover, Bliss antagonism was found based on
ment (Fig. 3). BAL fluid DNA, GMI, and serum GMI (⌬E ⫺14% to ⫺37%)
BAL fluid galactomannan. Consistent with the response of (Table 1).
other parameters, there was a significant decrease of BAL fluid Pharmacokinetic analysis. The observed plasma concentra-
GMI in rabbits treated with VRC alone or in combination of tion-versus-time profiles of anidulafungin and voriconazole
VOL. 53, 2009 COMBINATION THERAPY FOR PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS 2387
TABLE 1. Efficacies of monotherapy and combination therapy and results of Bliss independence pharmacodynamic interaction analysisa
Efficacy of monotherapy Efficacy of AFG5⫹VRC combination Efficacy of AFG10⫹VRC combination
Biomarkerb ⌬E (95% confidence interval) ⌬E (95% confidence interval)
EVRC10 EAFG5 EAFG10 Observed Expectedc Observed Expectedc
(Bliss interaction)d (Bliss interaction)d
TABLE 2. Pharmacokinetic parameters for anidulafungin and voriconazole in rabbits with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis treated with either
compound alone or in combinationa
Drug and treatment regimen Vc (liters)b Kcp (h⫺1) Kpc (h⫺1) SCL (liters/h)c AUC0–24 (mg 䡠 h/liter)f
Anidulafungin at 5 mg/kg
Monotherapy 0.85 (0.38) 1.58 (1.49) 0.68 (0.27) 0.16 (0.06) 96.1 (39.07)d
Combination 0.94 (0.41) 3.22 (2.65) 1.55 (0.83) 0.40 (0.10) 38.1 (9.47)
Anidulafungin at 10 mg/kg
Monotherapy 1.02 (0.33) 1.00 (0.31) 0.36 (0.15) 0.20 (0.05) 136.29 (36.13)e
Combination 1.22 (0.62) 1.11 (0.94) 0.48 (0.26) 0.28 (0.17) 121.89 (50.96)
Voriconazole at 10 mg/kg
Monotherapy 5.26 (4.44) 1.69 (1.30) 0.45 (0.57) 5.40 (2.20) 6.02 (2.52)
Combination at 5 mg/kg 5.97 (2.25) 1.93 (1.12) 0.08 (0.03) 8.58 (4.60) 3.83 (1.49)
Combination at 10 mg/kg 5.67 (4.28) 1.43 (0.82) 0.09 (0.04) 6.19 (1.89) 4.84 (1.60)
a
Data are presented as means (SD). Vc, volume of central compartment; Kcp and Kpc, intercompartmental rate constants; SCL, clearance from central compartment.
b
P ⫽ 0.46 for comparison among groups for anidulafungin and 0.95 for comparison among groups for voriconazole, using ANOVA.
c
P ⫽ 0.003 for comparison among groups for anidulafungin and 0.15 for comparison among groups for voriconazole, using ANOVA.
d
P ⫽ 0.007 for monotherapy versus combination therapy at 5 mg/kg, using Student’s t test.
e
P ⫽ 0.54 for monotherapy versus combination therapy at 10 mg/kg, using Student’s t test.
f
P ⫽ 0.19 for comparison among groups for voriconazole, using ANOVA.
VOL. 53, 2009 COMBINATION THERAPY FOR PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS 2389
TABLE 3. Effects of anidulafungin-voriconazole combination on serum creatinine, serum urea nitrogen, serum ALT, serum AST, and
potassium concentrations in persistently neutropenic rabbits with pulmonary aspergillosisa
Serum creatinine Serum urea nitrogen Serum ALT concn Serum AST concn Serum potassium concn
Treatment group (n)
concn (mg/dl) concn (mg/dl) (U/liter) (U/liter) (mmol/liter)
Controls (14) 1.67 ⫾ 0.57 33.2 ⫾ 9.86† 45.2 ⫾ 13.5† 71.4 ⫾ 28.5† 3.20 ⫾ 0.21
VRC (12) 1.02 ⫾ 0.06 12.8 ⫾ 1.49 22.2 ⫾ 5.52 26.8 ⫾ 6.98 3.17 ⫾ 0.32
AFG5 (9) 1.50 ⫾ 0.24* 29.8 ⫾ 9.42* 22.2 ⫾ 3.65* 34.3 ⫾ 5.78* 2.82 ⫾ 0.13
AFG5⫹VRC (10) 0.98 ⫾ 0.08* 11.8 ⫾ 1.20*† 11.8 ⫾ 1.40*† 13.2 ⫾ 3.37*† 3.90 ⫾ 0.08
AFG10 (11) 1.34 ⫾ 0.25 22.4 ⫾ 2.54* 39.4 ⫾ 7.22* 48.3 ⫾ 15.4 3.45 ⫾ 0.22
AFG10⫹VRC (11) 0.94 ⫾ 0.07 15.4 ⫾ 1.86*† 19.2 ⫾ 3.57* 16.0 ⫾ 4.04 3.54 ⫾ 0.35
duced galactomannan antigenemia, and decreased pulmonary infiltrate volume in replicate experiments. There also was an-
injury (lung weights, infarct scores, and pulmonary infiltrate tagonism as shown by BAL fluid galactomannan, DNA, and
volume by CT) all of which were superior to the effects of the serum galactomannan levels at the higher dosage. Thus, when
single agents and untreated controls. choosing combination therapy, one should be aware that not
This synergistic interaction between the echinocandin and all doses might achieve the desired effect of synergistic inter-
the triazole is most likely due to simultaneous inhibition of action.
biosynthesis of (133)--D-glucan in the fungal cell wall and This dose dependent reduction of synergistic interaction
ergosterol in the cell membrane. These apparently indepen- may have several possible mechanisms. An increase of anidu-
dent mechanisms of action on the cell wall and membrane lafungin dosage from 5 to 10 mg/kg may cause increased cell
would likely lead to an additive or synergistic interaction wall injury and disruption of the tertiary structure of trans-
against filamentous fungi. This additive to synergistic interac- membrane proteins that otherwise would facilitate uptake of
tion stands in contrast to the potential antagonism observed voriconazole. Alternatively, the higher dosage of anidula-
with azoles and polyenes (16, 30, 31, 35). Antifungal azoles fungin may also result indirectly in secondary injury to the
deplete the fungal cell membrane of ergosterol and thereby fungal cytoplasmic structures, including mitochondria, and
diminish the principal biochemical target of amphotericin B. potentially antagonize the effect of voriconazole on ergos-
Both azoles and polyenes ultimately interact at the level of terol biosynthesis.
ergosterol and thus carry the potential for antagonism against At the same time, the effect of a given outcome variable
A. fumigatus (34). However, in the setting of CNS aspergillosis should be considered when analyzing results of combination
where concentrations of amphotericin B are substantially therapy. When combination therapy is not extremely superior,
lower in cerebral tissue, a different interaction may ensue to not all outcome variables or tests chosen to assess efficacy, can
result in additive to synergistic interaction. This is exemplified equally depict subtle differences. As evident from this study,
by the combination therapy study of voriconazole and lipid when residual fungal burden and pulmonary lesion score were
formulations of amphotericin B in experimental murine CNS chosen for analysis using Bliss independence model, the inter-
aspergillosis by Clemons et al. (2, 3). The synergistic interac- action between echinocandin and triazole was synergistic.
tion described between voriconazole and anidulafungin is However, when lung weight and BAL fluid galactomannan
likely applicable to the other combinations of the class of index were analyzed, interaction demonstrated independence,
echinocandins and triazoles. For example, Perea and col- with trends suggestive of the benefit of combination therapy.
leagues reported in vitro synergistic interactions between GMI and lung weight may be delayed in rapid return to normal
caspofungin and voriconazole (24). Manavathu and colleagues when therapy is effective. These findings underscore the im-
reported in vitro synergistic interactions between itraconazole portance of studying multiple outcome variables in vivo and in
and caspofungin, as well as between posaconazole and caspo- clinical settings.
fungin (15). Patterson and colleagues described in vivo synergy The dose-dependent increase in BAL DNA in Fig. 4 dem-
between voriconazole and caspofungin in reducing the number onstrates that the rabbits treated with echinocandin (anidula-
of positive cultures in experimental disseminated aspergillosis fungin, 5 and 10 mg/kg) had paradoxically higher concentra-
in guinea pigs (11). In addition, we previously described in vivo tions of DNA (log (femtograms DNA per ml)). This
synergistic interaction between ravuconazole and micafungin paradoxically increased amount of DNA may pertain to the
(26) in experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in per- mechanism of echinocandin where the effect of echinocandin
sistently neutropenic rabbits. fragments hyphal structures and contributes to an overall in-
Our analysis demonstrates that echinocandin-triazole inter- crease in the number of viable hyphal elements. In addition,
actions may be concentration-dependent and dose-dependent. echinocandins will inhibit germination of Aspergillus conidia,
The higher dosage of anidulafungin (10 mg/kg) in combination which will provide an additional source of DNA. The smaller
with voriconazole resulted in Bliss independence and loss of hyphal fragments may be more readily lavaged and recovered
the synergy observed at lower anidulafungin dosage. This loss in comparison to that of well-established hyphae invading tis-
of synergy at the higher dosage of anidulafungin (10 mg/kg) sue in untreated controls.
was consistent across several outcome variables, including re- Anidulafungin dosages were selected carefully to approxi-
sidual fungal burden, pulmonary infarct score, and pulmonary mate human AUC exposure. A single anidulafungin dosage of
2390 PETRAITIS ET AL. ANTIMICROB. AGENTS CHEMOTHER.
5 mg/kg in rabbits as monotherapy conferred a mean AUC of echinocandin-triazole interactions. These in vitro and in vivo
96.1 mg*h/L. Similarly, the phase I study of safety and phar- studies may help guide the design and interpretation of echi-
macokinetics of intravenous anidulafungin in children with nocandin-triazole clinical trials in treatment of invasive pulmo-
neutropenia at high-risk for invasive fungal infections at a nary aspergillosis.
single dosage of 3 mg/kg conferred a mean AUC0–24 h of 89.7
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