Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

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Engineering Failure Analysis

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Fatigue lifetime estimation of railway axles

Luboš Náhlík a,b,⁎, Pavel Pokorný a,b, Martin Ševčík a, Rostislav Fajkoš c, Petr Matušek c, Pavel Hutař a
a
CEITEC IPM, Institute of Physics of Materials, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Žižkova 22, 616 62 Brno, Czech Republic
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Technická 2896/2, 616 69 Brno, Czech Republic
c
Bonatrans Group, a. s., Revoluční 1234, 735 94, Bohumín, Czech Republic

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The railway axles are subjected to cyclic loading during their operation. Their load is of long-
Received 2 September 2016 term nature, therefore a real risk of fatigue failure exists. This failure could lead to derailment
Received in revised form 28 December 2016 of the whole train with serious consequences. To prevent such scenario, the railway axles have
Accepted 29 December 2016
to be safely removed from operation before their final failure occurs.
Available online 30 December 2016
This paper presents methodology for the residual fatigue lifetime prediction of the railway axle
based on the linear elastic fracture mechanics concept. The methodology contains estimation of
Keywords: the critical position of initial crack, prediction of the fatigue crack front shape development
Residual fatigue lifetime
during crack propagation, separation of the bending and press-fitting contributions to the
Railway axle
axle load, experimental measurement of the crack growth kinetics of EA4T steel and subse-
Variable amplitude loading
Fatigue crack propagation quent estimation of the residual fatigue lifetime of railway axle. Part of the presented study
Damage tolerance methodology is also devoted to the probability aspects of determination of material characteristics describing
fatigue crack propagation and retardation effects caused by existence of plastic zone ahead of
propagating fatigue crack. Described methodology is already applied in the design process of
new railway axles in Bonatrans company.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Train components especially railway axles are subjected to a large amount of load cycles (108–109 cycles) during operation
period [1]. Therefore, risk of a railway axle fatigue failure with possible consequent derailment of a train is relatively high, how-
ever regular inspections and safe life design are demanded. According to the latest report of European Railway Agency from year
2014 [2], the number of all railway axle failures in European Union was 147 between years 2010 and 2012. It is decrease in the
comparison with the previous years (329 railway axle failures were recorded [3,4] during period from 2006 to 2009). However,
accuracy of the railway axle lifetime prediction is still important topic, see comprehensive articles [1,5–7]. Classical design based
on Wöhler's approach and knowledge of fatigue strength of the axle is in the last decade very often supplemented by “Damage
Tolerance Design” methodology. This methodology assumes existence of a small initial defect (e.g. fatigue crack) [5–11], because
there is not 100% reliability that this crack is detected during maintenance interval. It is given by the fact that detection by non-
destructive testing methods is of probabilistic character, see Fig. 1. For instance an existing crack with length about 2 mm is de-
tected by magnetic powder inspection in approximately 95% cases. In other words, the crack of 2 mm length is not detected in 5%
cases. According to this fact, the railway axle should be designed for the safe operation even though it can contain a crack of few

Abbreviations: RFL, Residual fatigue lifetime; FE, Finite element; MPC, Multi-point constraint.
⁎ Corresponding author at: CEITEC IPM, Institute of Physics of Materials, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Žižkova 22, 616 62 Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail address: nahlik@ipm.cz (L. Náhlík).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2016.12.014
1350-6307/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
140 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Nomenclature

a Crack length
A The deepest point at crack front
a0 An initial crack length
ac Critical crack length
ad Crack length which has to be detected
ai A crack length in actual i-th load cycle
ai − 1 A crack length in previous load cycle
aj Crack length after application of j load blocks
aj − 1 Crack length after application of j − 1 load blocks
aOL Length of fatigue crack in overload cycle
B Number of load blocks
b Parameter describing crack front shape
C Material constant
C99%, C90%, C50% Different conservative fit of material constant C
∅D Diameter of axle in critical position
∅d Inner diameter of axle in critical position
da/dN Fatigue crack propagation rate
E Young's modulus
F Applied force
f Crack opening function
k Dynamic coefficient
KI Stress intensity factor in mode I
KI,B Stress intensity factor corresponding to static bending load
KI,max Maximal value of stress intensity factor
KI,max,eff Effective value of maximal stress intensity factor
KI,max,i Maximal value of the stress intensity factor in i-th cycle
KI,max,OL Maximal value of the stress intensity factor in overload cycle
KI,max,th Threshold value in KI,max expression
KI,min,eff Effective value of minimal stress intensity factor
KI,PF Stress intensity factor corresponding to press-fit load
KI,red Reduction of stress intensity factor
KIC Critical stress intensity factor
Kt Stress concentration factor
Kth,99%, Kth,90%, Kth,50% Different conservative fit of threshold value in KI,max expression
L Distance from edge of railway wheel seat to critical position
m Material constant
n Material constant
p Material constant
q Material constant
R Stress ratio
rp,i Size of imaginary plastic zone of i-th cycle
rp,OL Size of plastic zone after overload cycle
rp,req. Minimal required size of plastic zone of i-th cycle to consider i-th cycle as new overload cycle
RyOL Is the radius of plastic zone ahead of the crack tip
SOL Material parameter describing retardation effect
α Angle describing position at crack front
σax Axial stress
σnom Nominal stress
μ Contact friction coefficient
ν Poisson's ratio
Δa Crack length increment per one load block
Δai Crack length increment per i-th load cycle
ΔKI Stress intensity factor range
ΔKI,eff Effective stress intensity factor range
ΔKI,th Threshold value in ΔKI expression
Δli Crack length increment per i-th load level
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 141

Fig. 1. Probability of crack detection [9].

millimetres in length. Then it is necessary to determine the residual fatigue lifetime (RFL) of the railway axle, which corresponds
to fatigue crack growth from size of a small detectable defect to the critical crack length. Some methodology is being currently
developed (see [5–11]) and several projects were dedicated to this issue e.g. WIDEM [12], MARAXIL [13] or EURAXLES [14].
Due to many important factors which can significantly influence fatigue lifetime of the railway axle the whole methodology is
still in development, see e.g. papers from last 2 years [15–20].
The aim of this paper is to present the procedure of determination of RFL of the railway axles developed in the cooperation
with Bonatrans Group as one of the leading producers of railway wheelsets.
The methodology presented is based on Damage Tolerance concept. For safety reasons initial defect has to be detected by non-
destructive testing method with high probability (1– 2 mm defects are considered). Using finite element analysis of the railway
axle containing crack, stress intensity factors of growing crack are determined and the number of load blocks necessary for fatigue
crack propagation from initial defect to critical crack length is evaluated. As an example the driving railway axle is considered in
the following, see Fig. 2.

2. Determination of critical position of the initial crack

For the RFL estimation of the axle it is necessary to determine location, where potential crack causes the shortest RFL (the
fastest propagation growth from initial crack size up to critical one). There is two main sources of loading in the critical area -
bending and press-fit loading. Press-fit loading is a constant during whole service interval (for given location). Bending loading
is changing due to dynamic forces (effect of ride to curved track, over switches, crossovers, etc.). The variability of bending
load is caused by various operation regimes of trains [21,22]. Load amplitudes were determined experimentally during train
ride (based on personal consultation in Bonatrans Group). In this measurement the axial load was determined and load ampli-
tudes were sorted according to Rainflow method, see histogram in Fig. 3. The load spectrum corresponding to certain amount
of operation distance of train is called load block.
Used load block corresponds to train operation [23]. In the presented load block the load amplitudes were sorted into 36 load
levels. Each load level is related to certain amount of multiplication of static loading (static loading means loading by weight of
the train without additional dynamic forces). Maximal load level in this spectrum corresponds to 2.9× magnification of static
load. For propagation of typical initial crack lengths (1 or 2 mm) mainly the highest load amplitudes from the load spectrum
are contributing to crack elongation (initial crack propagation is close to the threshold values).

Fig. 2. Scheme of the railway wheelset.

142 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Fig. 3. Load block of railway axle (histogram of load amplitudes).

For determination of the critical position the bending load is dominant. In our case press-fit loading represents approx. 20% of total
load considering multiplication of bending by factor 2.9. Then critical position was determined based on maximal “opening stress” of
the considered fatigue crack (axial stress σax). This assumption is given by conservative approach for determination of maintenance
intervals – RFL is computed in the area of minimal residual fatigue lifetime (area with the highest stress concentration) [6,24].
The numerical model of the driving railway axle has been extended with two railway wheels, forming driving wheelset, in order
to take the compliance of the wheels into account. Due to the geometrical symmetry only one half of the driving wheelset was
modelled, see Fig. 4. Finite element (FE) software ANSYS and 3D 20-nodes element SOLID95 were used for numerical calculations.
The geometry of the railway axle corresponds to commercially manufactured axle, which is used for high-speed trains [23]. The elas-
tic material properties of the EA4T steel considered in the analysis were Young's modulus E = 205 GPa and Poisson's ratio ν = 0.3.
The resultant stress distribution is shown in Fig. 5. High stress concentrations close to the applied loading forces (in the loca-
tion of bearings) and in the locations of contacts between wheels and rails is given by “point load” at these areas and naturally

Fig. 4. FE model of the railway wheelset considered in the numerical analysis.

Fig. 5. Result of FE analysis: distribution of the axial stress in the railway wheelset.
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 143

Fig. 6. Distribution of the axial stress in the critical section of the axle. Axial stress on the axle surface, nominal stress, and axial stress in the case of existence of
initial cracks of various crack length are plotted along the critical area.

isn't considered in the following analysis. If the mentioned areas are excluded, high stress concentrations are located at the geo-
metrical transitions of the railway axle. The most critical location was found in the transition between railway wheel seat and
driving gear seat (S-transition), see Fig. 5.
Distribution of the axial stress in the critical section of the axle corresponding to basic level of bending load is shown in Fig. 6.
It is visible that the maximal value of axial stress is different on the surface of the axle and below the surface at depth 1 or 2 mm
(lengths of possible detectable defect/crack). The critical position is at the point with the highest maximal principal stress (max-
imal principal stress is almost the same as the axial stress). The highest axial stress is approximately 8 mm from railway wheel
seat in studied case, according to Fig. 6. This position is considered as the critical for further fracture mechanics procedures. The
stress concentration factor Kt in critical position is determined by

K t ¼ σ ax =σ nom ; ð1Þ

where σax is axial stress (comprising stress concentration) and σnomis nominal stress which corresponds to the pure bending load
of the axle. The stress concentration factor in the critical position reaches ca 1.7.

3. Estimation of the fatigue crack front shape during crack propagation

According to relevant literature e.g. [24,25], a crack front shape can be simplified as semi-elliptical. Nevertheless, the ratio be-
tween axes of the ellipse is continuously changing during crack propagation. It is necessary to estimate crack shape evolution nu-
merically due to significant influence of the crack shape on the resulting stress intensity factor and consequently on the estimated
RFL of the railway axle [23–25].
According to work of Sih, see e.g. [26,27], the shape of propagating crack is given by minimization of the strain energy density.
This minimal value of the strain energy density is then constant along the crack front during crack propagation. Note that in the
framework of linear elastic fracture mechanics there is direct relation between strain energy density factor or crack driving force
and the stress intensity factor. The isolines describing semi-elliptical shape of the crack front with constant stress intensity factor
correspond to energy considerations, and well describe the crack front of propagating fatigue crack, see e.g. [28,29]. Sih's assump-
tion was used in the computational strategy simulating fatigue crack propagation through the railway axle.

Fig. 7. Preview of the numerical model containing the crack used for the fracture mechanics analyses.
144 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Fig. 8. Scheme of procedure used for numerical estimation of the real crack front shape.

The railway axle with crack was modelled for the case of in plane bending, see Fig. 7. Due to the geometrical symmetry only
one half of the driving wheelset was modelled. The geometry of the railway axle, similarly as in previous model, corresponds to
commercially manufactured axle, which is used for high-speed trains [23]. The elastic material properties of the EA4T steel were
considered in the analysis: Young's modulus E = 205 GPa and Poisson's ratio ν = 0.3. The finite element mesh was strongly
inhomogeneously distributed in the body in order to describe the singular stress field near the crack front properly (fine mesh
in the vicinity of crack front is visible in detail in Fig. 7). The stress intensity factor values were estimated in each from 30 points
homogenously distributed along the crack front using so-called direct method. Note that the stress field near the free surface is

Fig. 9. Scheme of distribution of the stress intensity factor values KI(α) along the crack front of semi-elliptical cracks.
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 145

Fig. 10. Development of the fatigue crack front shape in the railway axle with change of the crack length.

affected by so-called “vertex singularity”, see e.g. [30–32], which influences also crack propagation in this area [33,34]. The stress
intensity factor values were not estimated along the crack front in the vicinity of free surface, due to different stress singularity in
this area caused by existence of vertex points. Based on our former experience the crack front shape in the vicinity of vertex point
was extrapolated on the base of knowledge of approx. 80% of the crack front length in the middle of the cracked axle [34]. The
iterative process was used to find crack front shape fulfilling condition that stress intensity factor value is constant for given
crack length in all 30 points along the crack front where was determined. The shape of crack front has to be determined for
many possible crack lengths (from initial crack length up to critical one). Final algorithm for crack front shape evaluation is de-
scribed in Fig. 8 and in the following paragraphs.
As the first step the initial crack length and crack shape is estimated based on experimental observations or simply the semi-
circular shape can be used. Then, the stress intensity factor KI(α) is evaluated in 30 points distributed along the crack front as a
function of position determined e.g. by angle α, see Fig. 9. If the stress intensity factor is constant (sufficiently similar in all eval-
uated 30 points) along the crack front, the shape of the crack front is optimized for given crack length and computation continues
by next step with crack length elongated by increment Δa. When function KI(α) along the crack front has negative/positive slope,
the crack length a remains unchanged and the dimension b of the semi-ellipse describing the width of the crack is elongated/
shortened. Then the function KI(α) is computed again for given crack length and crack width is changed. This procedure runs
in a loop until the function KI(α) reaches constant value along the crack front. This procedure is repeated for many possible
crack lengths.
The advantage of this procedure is possibility to change crack front shape during crack propagation and to take into account
specific stress field in the area around crack front.
The crack front shape evolution during the crack growth from the initial defect of length a0 = 1 mm was estimated numer-
ically in the critical crack location. Resulted aspect ratio b/a of the semi-elliptical crack is shown in Fig. 10. Note that this function
of aspect ratio is valid only for considered railway axle and it should be redetermined for another design or critical position of
railway axle. The considered railway axle in the critical area has dimensions ØD = 182 mm and Ød = 30 mm. The shape of
the crack front is determined for practical reasons only up to a/D = 0.3. The crack lengths longer than a/D = 0.3 exhibit much
faster propagation rate and crack propagation from a/D = 0.3 up to a/D = 1.0 takes insignificant amount of whole residual fatigue
lifetime.

Fig. 11. Stress intensity factor of the semi-elliptical crack in the axle under bending loading for several load levels of load spectrum.
146 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Results follow the assumption that the initial crack shape is close to semi-circular, i.e. the aspect ratio b/a is 1.2 for a/D = 1/
182. As the crack propagates the aspect ratio b/a is continuously increasing approximately till b/a = 6 for a/D = 0.3. This numer-
ical prediction of the evolution of the crack front shape is also in reasonable agreement with experimentally obtained crack
evolution.
The papers Zerbst et al. [35] and Madia et al. [24] studied the effect of rotary bending on the crack front shape and RFL. The
conclusions in both paper is that rotary bending in comparison with pure bending has insignificant effect on the RFL of axle. On
the base of mentioned studies, the effect of rotary bending was neglected in performed numerical simulations.

4. Results of K-calibration

As soon as the critical position for the shortest RFL is known it is important to estimate the stress intensity factor KI as a function
of the crack length a. Using optimized crack front shapes obtained by the procedure described in the previous chapter a stress inten-
sity factor was evaluated in the critical position 8 mm from the railway wheel seat (see Fig. 6) as a function of crack length a. The
total stress intensity factor has to be separated into two kinds of loading; bending and loading caused by press-fit. For particular
crack length the press-fit loading represents constant loading, but the bending loading corresponds to load spectrum in Fig. 3.
The stress intensity factor KI,B corresponding to bending load was determined for static load of railway axle (load caused by
weight of the train, k = 1) and 25 crack lengths, see red dots in Fig. 11. It is visible nonhomogeneous distribution of the numerical
results along final K-calibration curve (see Fig. 11) due to focus on the small cracks especially in the area 1–10 mm. Stress inten-
sity factors values corresponding to these crack lengths are decisive for final RFL determination. These data were fitted by poly-
nomial function. As was mentioned the bending load is not constant. The variability of bending load is taken into account by
considering of load spectrum Fig. 3, where maximal and minimal load amplitudes correspond to dynamic coefficient k = 2.87
and k = 0.69 respectively. The dynamic coefficient k represents multiplication of static load caused by train weight.

5. Influence of press-fits on the stress intensity factor values

The existence of press-fits significantly increases the magnitude of the stress of considered crack in the critical location. There-
fore, the presence of the press-fits should be taken into account in procedures of RFL estimation. There exist several approaches
how model press-fitted wheel on the railway axle. In FE analysis the press-fits can be modelled using nonlinear contact (with
consideration of friction) between wheel and axle. Such procedure provides precise description of the stress and strain fields,
however on the other hand it is significantly more time consuming than only linear analysis. Another option is to model press-
fits by applying an external pressure on the contact surface between axle and wheel. However this model does not represent the
press-fits correctly and significantly underestimate its negative influence on the possible crack behaviour. It seems to be beneficial
to simulate the press-fits by using Multi-point constraint (MPC) contact. This approach simulates the press-fit using specific bound-
ary conditions. The displacement between nodes on the axle surface and on the wheel inner surface corresponds to the average geo-
metric tolerance of the axle external diameter and wheel internal diameter. The nodes are therefore supposed to move from each
other at about the prescribed interference fit. The scheme of the press-fit modelling using the MPC contact is shown in Fig. 12.
The distribution of the axial stress σax along the transition between wheel seat and driving gear seat is shown in Fig. 13. Fig. 13
contains comparison of two approaches for modelling of press-fit; full non-linear contact solution and solution with linear MPC
contact. Considering MPC contact procedure the axial stress distribution is nearly equivalent to the full non-linear contact with
contact friction coefficient μ = 0.6. Such friction coefficient is commonly used for numerical analysis of the press-fit on the railway
axles, see e.g. [24]. Furthermore, the axial stress distribution at the free surface and 2 mm below the free surface is plotted in Fig.
13. The same distribution is found for the full non-linear contact solution with contact friction coefficient of μ = 0.6 and linear
MPC contact solution. Based on these results it can be concluded that the press-fit of the railway wheel on the railway axle
can be simulated by linear MPC contact without loss of accuracy of numerical solution.
It should be emphasized that the effect of the press-fit is more noticeable at the free surface and decreases towards the axle
axis. For the considered configuration the effect of press-fit is significant rather for smaller cracks. This fact is documented in Fig.

Fig. 12. Scheme of the press-fit modelling using the MPC contact approach.
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 147

Fig. 13. Distribution of axial stress induced by press-fitting on the free surface and 2 mm below the surface along the transition between railway wheel seat and
driving gear seat.

14a. The values of stress intensity factor caused by pure press-fit loading increase to the peak value at about 5 mm of the crack
length and subsequently decrease for longer cracks.
The Fig. 14b shows interval of possible total stress intensity factors, which are decomposed into the two major kinds of load;
pure bending and press-fit loading. The amount of bending load is given by basic bending load lever (determined for static load
caused by train weight), which is multiplied by dynamic coefficient k according to load spectrum, see Fig. 3, where dynamic co-
efficient k = 2.87 and k = 0.69 corresponds to maximal and minimal bending load respectively.

6. Fatigue crack grow rate

The RFL of railway axle is considered as number of applied load blocks (load block considers all variable amplitudes of load
spectrum) necessary for fatigue crack growth from initial (detectable) up to critical crack length. Fig. 15 shows typical fatigue
crack length evolution in dependence on number of applied load blocks. It is obvious that fatigue crack propagation rate in
early stages is quite slow, but in final stages of lifetime the fatigue crack grows quickly and fatigue failure occurs. It is important
to discard railway axle with crack from service before its failure. Therefore, the estimation of fatigue crack evolution serves as
basis for regular inspection intervals including non-destructive tests for reveal of possible cracks.
The propagation rate of fatigue crack can be expressed as function of (maximal) stress intensity factor, see Fig. 16. This depen-
dence (da/dN–K curve) can be described by different descriptions, see e.g. [36] for overview. This paper takes into account two of
them, both very common, Paris-Erdogan [37] and NASGRO [38].

Fig. 14. a) Dependence of the stress intensity factor caused by press-fitted wheel on the crack length a. b) Interval of maximal values of stress intensity factor
during cycle, due to press fit and variable amplitude bending loading.
148 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Fig. 15. A typical dependence between number of load blocks and fatigue crack length.

The Paris-Erdogan description is the most common relationship used for fatigue crack propagation rate description. This rela-
tion could be expressed in the form

m
da=dN ¼ C K I; max ; ð2Þ

where C and m are material constants. Deficiency of this relationship is that only linear part of da/dN–K curve (region II in Fig. 16)
is well described. Advanced NASGRO relationship can describe da/dN–K curve more accurately (accurate description of da/dN–K
data in the threshold region is very important for given application). The NASGRO relationship can be expressed in the form
[38]


p
  n 1− ΔK I;th p h in 1− ΔK I;th
1−f ΔK I ΔK I
da=dN ¼ C ΔK I
q ¼ C ΔK I;eff
q ; ð3Þ
1−R K
1− I; max
K
1− I; max
K IC K IC

where C, n, p and q are empirical constants and f is crack opening function. The meaning of each constant and functions is
in detail described in reference [38].
The da/dN–K curve is determined experimentally on testing specimens, which are made of the same material as the consid-
ered railway axle (EA4T steel). Middle tension M(T) specimens were chosen due to low in plane constraint (similar to the case
of railway axle – especially in the case of small cracks), see e.g. [39–41]. The specimens were tested in resonant testing machine
SCHENCK and crack lengths were measured optically. The measured data of da/dN–K curve were evaluated according to ASTM
E647 standard. The da/dN–K curves were determined for stress ratios R = −1, −0.5 and 0.1, which cover range of R-ratios,
which take place during considered crack growth from initial a0 to critical crack length ac, see paper [42]. Fourteen specimens
were used (five specimens for stress ratio R = − 1, five specimens for stress ratio R = − 0.5 and four specimens for ratio
R = 0.1) for determination of experimental data.

Fig. 16. A typical da/dN–KI,max dependence.

 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 149

Fig. 17. The dependence of propagation rate da/dN on a) effective stress intensity factor range and b) maximal value of the stress intensity factor.

Fig. 17a shows dependence of fatigue crack propagation rate on effective stress intensity factor range. The effective values of
stress intensity factor were determined according to relationship ΔKI,eff = (1 − f) / (1 − R)ΔKI. Fig. 17b shows dependence of
fatigue crack propagation rate on maximal value of the stress intensity factor.
The da/dN–K curves measured under different stress ratios R fit quite well each other using both mentioned expressions.
Therefore, using of da/dN–ΔKI,eff and da/dN–KI,max descriptions leads to similar results of calculated RFL. The reason that da/dN–
KI,max curves fit each other is that closure function f, see Eq. (3), is more or less constant (not zero) for considered range of stress
ratios (from R = −1 to R = 0.1). The huge advantage of da/dN–KI,max approach is that knowledge of only one da/dN–KI,max curve
measured for one stress ratio R is necessary for determination of RFL, see paper [42]. Moreover, if the input da/dN–KI,max curve is
determined for the lowest operation stress ratio (herein R = −1) then the determined RFL is conservative. This statement is
based on the fact that da/dN–KI,max curve determined for stress ratio R = − 1 exhibits slightly higher propagation rates than
da/dN–KI,max curves determined e.g. for stress ratios R = −0.5 and 0.1. Therefore, only one da/dN–KI,max curve determined for
stress ratio R = −1 was taken into account for conservative calculation of railway axle RFL. This curve is described by simplified
NASGRO relationship (area III of da/dN–K curve shown in Fig. 16 is neglected due to small influence on RFL)

!p
h in K I; max;th
da=dN ¼ C K I; max 1− ; ð4Þ
K I; max

where C, n and p are material constants, KI,max is maximal value of stress intensity factor in load cycle, KI,max,th is threshold value in
KI,max expression for R = −1.
Note, that the fatigue crack propagation under mode I is considered in the presented work, because this kind of crack propa-
gation is typical for railway axles. The fatigue crack can start to propagate from incline initial surface crack (defect) under mixed
mode conditions, however during fatigue propagation the crack changes direction of propagation to the direction perpendicular to
applied stress (axial stress). Further crack propagation is controlled by mode I only. Fatigue crack propagation from initial inclined
defect was studied in the work [43].

7. Lifetime prediction

The stress intensity factors in the numerical model are calculated for loading of railway axle corresponding to ride on straight
track (dynamic forces are not present in this case). However, RFL is given by acting of all load levels from load spectrum, see
Fig. 3. The total stress intensity factor KI,max is given by superposition of stress intensity factor caused by bending of the axle
(this part is described by load spectrum) and load caused by press-fitted wheel, see Fig. 14a. Each load level of the spectrum is
defined by dynamic coefficient k, which corresponds to magnification of static load (see Fig. 11 with several different dynamic
coefficients k). Then the total stress intensity factor for i-th load level is expressed as

K I; max;i ðaÞ ¼ kK I;B ðaÞ þ K I;PF ðaÞ; ð5Þ

where k is dynamic coefficient (multiple of static load), KI,B(a) is bending part of stress intensity factor corresponding to static
load (caused by weight of train) and KI,PF(a) is K factor belonging to load caused by press-fitted wheel for actual crack length a.
150 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Table 1
Estimated RFLs (in load blocks) for models of Paris-Erdogan and NASGRO.

Model/initial crack length a0 1 mm 2 mm 5 mm

Paris-Erdogan 3989 133 64

NASGRO 5572 148 69

The discretized forms of the Paris-Erdogan relationship (Eq. (2)) and NASGRO (Eq. (4)) were used for calculation of fatigue
crack increment Δli per i-th load level. In the case of Paris-Erdogan relationship the crack increment is defined as

m

Δli ¼ C K I; max;i ΔNi for K I; max;i ≥K I; max;th ; ð6Þ


Δli ¼ 0 for K I; max;i bK I; max;th : ð7Þ

KI,max,th is the threshold value of stress intensity factor corresponding to mode I of loading. In the case of NASGRO the
discretized form of the Eq. (4) was used for calculation of fatigue crack increment Δli per i-th load level:
!p

n K I; max;th

Δli ¼ C K I; max;i 1− ΔNi for K I; max;i ≥K I; max;th ; ð8Þ
K I; max


Δli ¼ 0 for K I; max;i bK I; max;th : ð9Þ

Note that cycles with maximal values of stress intensity factor, which do not overcome threshold value, do not contribute to
crack elongation (not damaging cycles). For both approaches describing fatigue crack propagation rate (Paris-Erdogan and
NASGRO) the fatigue crack increment Δa per one load block is given by summation of fatigue crack increments (36 load levels)
in load block:

36
Δa ¼ ∑ Δli : ð10Þ
i¼1

The RFL of railway axle in this paper is considered as number of applied load blocks for fatigue crack growth from initial crack
length a0 up to critical (or final) crack length ac. The calculation of fatigue crack increment runs in a loop until the value of fatigue
crack length aj does not overcome its critical length ac:


a j ¼ a j−1 þ Δa for a j bac ; ð11Þ

where aj − 1 means crack length in previous loop.

The critical (final) crack length in this work is considered as 55 mm. This chosen final length (from practical reasons) is
shorter than the critical length ac calculated from the critical value of the stress intensity factor KIC. Nevertheless, due to rapid
crack propagation rate in the last stage of fatigue crack propagation (see stage III in Fig. 16) longer critical length does not lead
to significantly higher RFL. Note that all calculations of RFL are performed in in-house macros using MATLAB code [44].
Table 1 shows resultant values of RFL determined for railway axle with initial crack lengths 1 mm, 2 mm and 5 mm. The da/
dN–K curve was fitted by use of least square method for linear region (region II in Fig. 16) and threshold value KI,max,th was

Fig. 18. Evolution of fatigue crack length with highlighted number of damaging load levels for given crack length.
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 151

Fig. 19. Histogram and normal distribution fit of da/dN–K data with propagation rate lower than 10−9 m/cycle. Highlighted are 99%, 90% and 50% fits of threshold
value.

Fig. 20. da/dN–KI,max curves of stress ratio R = −1 with different conservative fits of threshold value: a) Paris-Erdogan relationship. b) NASGRO equation.

determined as mean value obtained from normal distribution function in the area of da/dN–K curve with fatigue crack propaga-
tion rate lower than 10−9 m/cycle.
According to Table 1 the Paris-Erdogan relationship provides more conservative results of RFL than NASGRO estimation. Paris-
Erdogan relationship does not fit “knee” of da/dN–K curve near to threshold value and propagation rate in this region is therefore
overestimated. The results in Table 1 also show significant difference in RFLs determined for railway axle with initial crack length
1 mm and 2 mm. This phenomenon is caused by significantly different number of damaging load levels (group of load amplitudes
in load spectrum) for initial fatigue crack lengths 1 mm and 2 mm. As was mentioned before, the cycles with maximal values of
stress intensity factor, which do not overcome threshold value, do not contribute to crack elongation. Nevertheless, not damaging
load levels in the case of shorter crack could become damaging with growing crack. Fig. 18 depicts number of damaging load
levels in dependence on the crack length. For initial crack length 1 mm there are only 5 damaging load levels (counting only
17 cycles in total). Next 31 levels are not damaging. However, for crack length 2 mm there are 17 damaging load levels (circa
7000 cycles) and next 19 load levels are not damaging. These results show that threshold value and initial crack length has sig-
nificant impact on number of damaging load levels in load spectrum and on the RFL in general.

8. Influence of threshold value determination on RFL

This chapter shows impact of threshold value on calculated RFL of railway axle. The RFLs in Table 1 were determined for mean
values of da/dN–K curve, see Fig. 17b. Fig. 19 shows histogram of da/dN–K curve data with propagation rate lower than 10−9 m/
cycle. These data corresponds to crack propagation near the threshold value. The histogram in Fig. 19 is fitted by normal

Table 2
Estimated RFLs calculated (in load blocks) for Paris-Erdogan/NASGRO relationship and various threshold value fits.

Initial crack length a0 1 mm 2 mm 5 mm

50% KI,max,th fit 3989/5572 133/148 64/69

90% KI,max,th fit 488/623 100/105 56/56
99% KI,max,th fit 200/223 84/84 54/52
152 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Fig. 21. Histogram and normal distribution fit of da/dN–K data (in log-log coordinates) in linear region. Highlighted is 99%, 90% and 50% fit of material constant C.

distribution function and two conservative fits 90% and 99% of threshold value are marked there. For instance the conservative fit
99% of threshold value means that the particular threshold value will be higher with probability 99% than the fit.
For determination of impact of threshold value on calculated RFL the 50%, 90% and 99% fits of threshold were used. Modified
da/dN–KI,max curves with different conservative fits of threshold value are shown in Fig. 20a for Paris-Erdogan relationship and in
Fig. 20b for NASGRO description of da/dN–KI,max curve. Table 2 shows RFLs determined by Paris-Erdogan and NASGRO relation-
ships for various fits of threshold value. Significant sensitivity of considered threshold value is evident for both descriptions.
The assumption of 90% probability fit of threshold value leads to almost 10 times shorter RFLs in the case of initial crack length
1 mm. For longer initial crack lengths 2 mm and 5 mm the difference in estimated RFLs for various threshold values is still sig-
nificant but not as much as in the case of initial crack length 1 mm.
As was mentioned before the threshold value determines how many load amplitudes from load spectrum are contributing to
crack elongation. In the case of short cracks (around 1 mm) the threshold value is crucial parameter for accurate determination of
RFL for given application, i.e. for RFL of railway axles. The longer initial crack is, the lower sensitivity of threshold value on calcu-
lated RFL occurs.

9. RFL calculated for various probability fits of whole da/dN–K curve

Previous chapter was focused on sensitivity of determination of threshold value on calculated RFL of railway axle. This chapter
shows difference in estimated RFLs determined for mean values of whole da/dN–K curve and two conservative fits of whole da/
dN–K curve. The data in linear region are fitted by least square method (by line in log-log coordinates). The line creates so-called
baseline (50% fit) for other two fits. Fig. 21 shows distances of da/dN–K data (in linear region) from baseline. Such distances were
put into histogram, which was fitted by normal distribution function. Based on this fit, another constants C90% and C99% (describing
different probability fits of linear region data) were determined. Note that parameter C in Paris-Erdogan and NASGRO equations
generally exhibits different values. Therefore, the parameters C90% and C99% have to be determined for both equations separately.
By knowing of da/dN–K data distributions in threshold and linear region it is possible to make simplified conservative fits for
whole da/dN–K curves. The conservative fits 90% and 99% of whole da/dN–K curve are shown in Fig. 22a for Paris-Erdogan rela-
tionship and in Fig. 22b for NASGRO description.

Fig. 22. da/dN–KI,max curves of stress ratio R = −1 with different conservative fits: a) Paris-Erdogan relationship. b) NASGRO description.
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 153

Table 3
Estimated RFLs (in load blocks) for Paris-Erdogan/NASGRO description and various fits of da/dN–K curve.

Initial crack length a0 1 mm 2 mm 5 mm

50% da/dN–K curve fit 3989/5572 133/148 64/69

90% da/dN–K curve fit 387/506 79/85 44/46
99% da/dN–K curve fit 131/157 55/59 36/36

Table 3 shows RFLs determined by Paris-Erdogan/NASGRO relationships for various fits of whole da/dN–K curve.
The NASGRO description exhibits again longer RFL estimations than Paris-Erdogan one, due to better fit of da/dN–KI,max data,
especially in threshold region of da/dN–KI,max. Results in Table 3 show that different conservative fits of da/dN–KI,max curve exhibit
relatively diverse estimations of RFLs. However, the comparison of these data with data in Table 2 shows that especially for short
initial crack lengths (1 and 2 mm) the threshold value is the main parameter which influences RFLs of the railway axles. Similar
conclusions were reached in papers [22,45] where the influence of different loading spectra on RFL was studied.

10. Effect of overload on residual fatigue lifetime estimations

Previous estimations did not take into account retardation effects which can occur during variable amplitude loading. The load
cycles with importantly higher amplitudes (overloading cycles) enlarge plastic zone ahead of the crack tip. Compressive residual
stresses ahead of the crack tip contribute to the decrease of fatigue crack propagation rate (retardation effect), see Fig. 23.
The generalized Willenborg model [47,48] was chosen for modelling of the retardation effects due to overload cycles. The ad-
vantage of this model from computation point of view is definition of retardation effect only by yield stress, stress state and pa-
rameter describing amount of retardation.
This commonly used model works with size of plastic zones from overload cycle and from the actual cycle, see Fig. 24. The
retardation effect is given by KI,red, which is defined as

ΔK I;th
1− sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi !
K I; max;i a −aOL
K I;red ¼ K I; max;OL 1− i −K I; max;i ; ð12Þ
SOL −1 Ry;OL

where

ΔKI,th is the threshold value of the stress intensity factor range for R = 0 (note that for R = 0: ΔKI,th = KI,max,th),
KI,max,i is a maximal value of the stress intensity factor in i-th cycle,
SOL is material parameter (according to [46]: SOL = 2, for steels),
KI,max,OL is a maximal value of the stress intensity factor in overload cycle,
ai is length of fatigue crack in i-th cycle,
aOL is length of fatigue crack in overload cycle,
RyOL is the radius of plastic zone ahead of the crack tip expressed as [46]

Fig. 23. Influence of overload cycle on fatigue crack propagation rate [46].
154 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

Fig. 24. Plastic zone size definitions used in generalized Willenborg model [46,48].

!2
1 K I; max;OL
Ry;OL ¼ ðfor plane stressÞ ð13Þ
2π σ yield

and
!2
1 K I; max;OL
Ry;OL ¼ ðfor plane strainÞ: ð14Þ
6π σ yield

The potential crack is subjected to plane stress conditions at free surface and to plane strain below the surface of railway axle.
It is assumed that plain strain prevails in the case of railway axle geometry and the plastic zone size is determined using Eq. (14).
Note that this is a conservative assumption because considered size of plastic zone is equal or smaller than the real one. Due to
this fact the calculated retardation effect is conservative.
The reduction stress intensity factor KI,red decreases the maximal and minimal value in load cycle [47]:

K I; max;eff ¼ K I; max −K I;red ; ð15Þ

K I; min;eff ¼ K I; min −K I;red : ð16Þ

The effective value of stress intensity factor range for the case of loading with negative stress ratio (Kmax,eff N 0 and KI, max ,eff b 0) is
expressed as [48]

ΔK I;eff ¼ K I; max;eff : ð17Þ

Note that negative stress ratio is typical for railway axle loading. By combination of Eqs. (5), (15) and (17) it is possible to
express effective stress intensity factor for railway axle loading:

ΔK I;eff ¼ K I; max;i;eff ¼ K I; max;i −K I;red : ð18Þ

For generalized Willenborg model the crack length increment Δa is calculated in each cycle therefore the computation is very
time consuming. In the case of NASGRO model the increment in i-th cycle is computed as follows:
!p

n K I; max;th

Δai ¼ C K I; max;i;eff 1− for K I; max;i;eff ≥K I; max;th ; ð19Þ
K I; max;i;eff

Fig. 25. Example of part of generated load block for calculation including retardation due to overload cycles.
 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157 155

Table 4
Estimated RFLs (in load blocks) for retardation model and 50%/90%/99% fit of da/dN–K curve.

Initial crack length a0 1 mm 2 mm 5 mm

1. Generated LB 5505/695/321 350/257/214 258/209/185

2. Generated LB 5955/678/300 325/235/195 234/188/166
3. Generated LB 5743/690/309 344/248/203 252/200/174
Arithmetic mean 5734/688/310 340/247/204 248/199/175

Table 5
Ratio between RFL estimations determined with and without retardation effects.

da/dN–K curve fit/initial crack length a0 1 mm 2 mm 5 mm

50% 1.03 2.30 3.59

90% 1.36 2.90 4.33
99% 1.97 3.46 4.86


Δai ¼ 0 for K I; max;i;eff bK I; max;;th : ð20Þ

Calculation of crack length runs in a loop until the value of fatigue crack length ai does not overcome its critical length
ac:

ai ¼ ai−1 þ Δai ðfor ai bac Þ; ð21Þ

where

ai is a crack length in actual i-th load cycle,

ai − 1 is a crack length in previous load cycle,
Δai is a crack length increment in actual load cycle.

There is no effect of load history included in RFL estimations without consideration of retardation effects. Nevertheless, the
generalized Willenborg model takes into account the load history and fatigue crack increments are calculated cycle by cycle. In
the case of creation of load block with random order of load amplitudes the resultant values of RFLs are very similar, see former
work [49]. Based on this experience, only three load blocks were arranged for following study. Each arranged load block had the
same number of load cycles with load amplitudes corresponding to the considered load spectrum shown in Fig. 3. The number
and size of load cycles is the same as in previous estimations of RFL without consideration of retardation effects. Generated
load blocks contained different random order of load amplitudes. Fig. 25 shows part of one arranged load blocks. The vertical
part corresponds to bending load (randomly arranged cycles with various dynamic coefficient k, see Fig. 3).
Table 4 shows RFL estimations including generalized Willenborg model for da/dN–KI,max curve fits 50%, 90% and 99%. These re-
sults were determined by assumption of NASGRO equation, so the fits of da/dN–K curve are the same as in Fig. 22b.
Table 4 shows that difference between randomly generated load blocks is relatively small. The inclusion of retardation effects
naturally leads to higher estimations of RFL of railway axle. The results show huge retardation effect for longer initial cracks and
less significant for short initial cracks. Table 5 shows ratio between obtained RFLs with and without effect of retardation (arith-
metic mean values from Table 4 are divided by the results in Table 3 – results corresponding to NASGRO description were used).
Table 5 shows that retardation effects are more dominant for more conservative fits of da/dN–K curve. The reason is that lower
threshold value and more load amplitudes (load levels) contribute to the crack elongation in the case of more conservative fits.
Including retardation effects in RFL calculations a significant amount of these amplitudes became also non-damaging after an
overload cycle and do not contribute to the crack elongation. Generally, it could be concluded that retardation effects can have
significant influence on RFL estimations and should be taken into account in determination of inspection intervals of railway axles.

11. Conclusions

This paper presents methodology for the fatigue lifetime assessment of railway axles using fracture mechanics concepts. Based
on the results obtained conclusions can be summarized as follows:
a) The evolution of fatigue crack front during crack propagation can be credibly numerically estimated by presented algorithm.
The algorithm is based on the assumption of the constant stress intensity factor value along the crack front. This assumption
follows from energy considerations of crack propagation.
b) It was shown that the effect of the press-fit loading of the railway wheel should be taken in to account in estimation of resid-
ual fatigue lifetime (RFL) of railway axle. Various approaches to the modelling of the press-fit are discussed. It is shown that
156 L. Náhlík et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 73 (2017) 139–157

multi-point constraint contact simulates the real stress state in conservative way and therefore the nonlinear analysis is not
necessary to perform in given kind of application.
c) Based on the typical loading spectrum valid for railway transport the RFL of the studied railway axle was estimated using prob-
abilistic fit of the experimental data. Two most common fits of da/dN–K data (Paris-Erdogan and NASGRO) were used and mu-
tually compared.
d) It was shown that threshold value of stress intensity factor is one of the most crucial parameters for accurate determination of
RFL especially for railway axles with shorter initial cracks (1 or 2 mm).
e) Retardation effects due to overloads were studied using the generalized Willenborg model. It was shown that the retardation
is important especially for longer initial cracks.

Acknowledgement

The work was supported through the specific academic research grant No. FSI-S-14-2311 provided to Brno University of Tech-
nology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and by research infrastructures IPMINFRA (supported by the Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic trough project No. LM2015069) and CEITEC – Central European Institute of Technology
supported by the project CZ.1.05/1.1.00/02.0068 financed from European Regional Development Fund.
The cooperation between the Institute of Physics of Materials and Bonatrans Group is realized in the frame of Strategy 21 “Top
research in the public interest” of Czech Academy of Sciences.

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