OPTICAL MINERALOGY

Paul F. Kerr, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY, COLUMllIA UNIVERSITY

o
!I THIRD EDITION

Previous Editions
by Austin F. Rogers
and Palll F. Kerr

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

III
Ncw York Toronto London
1959 t
 To
the Memory of
LEA McILVAINE LUQUER

1864-1930

\'

OPTICAL MINERALOGY

Copyright © 1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Copyright, 1933, 1942, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in

thc United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without pemlission of the publishers.
t
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 58-13880
. 20 21 22 - MAMD - 9 8765
fs nN 07 -O:J~ 21O-r,
 Preface

Austin F. Rogers, the senior author of the first two editions of this text
and professor emeritus in mineralogy at Stanford University, passed away
at Berkeley, California, in April, 1957. His wise counsel as a former
professor and his judgment as a mineralogist have been greatly missed
during this revision. On the other hand, many readers, particularly those
most familiar with Professor Rogers and his work, will recognize the
influence of his teaching and will remember portions of the text which
remain unchanged in the third edition.
Sixteen years have elapsed since the second edition of this text
appeared. The fidelity of the readers who have maintained a steady
demand over this period indicates that the general features of the second
edition have been found useful and consequently they are retained.
The first objective in this revision has been concern over the student
who has found difficulty with the phraseology or explanations of previous
editions. Within the limitations of space every effort has been made to
prepare a text which could be used with a minimum of supervision and
a maximum of self-instruction. Optical mineralogy is acquired by the
student with greatest facility with a good set of illustrative material
under competent classroom instruction. On the other hand, experience
has shown that a considerable number, lacking classroom facilities and
desirous of learning the techniques described, have made considerable
progress with representative thin sections and the text alone.
The format of mineral description has been retained. The length of the
tcxt is essentially the same. However, each mineral description has been
reviewed, many have been revised, a few have been added. Descriptions
of opaque minerals have been reduced in order to make space for other
material. Selected references have been added in an attempt to extend
thc scope of the text without undue enlargement.
Th e polarizing microscope has undergone considerable evolution in
n'c('nt years. Ncw illustrations have bcen substituted to call attention to
ill q)l'(lVCd cqu ipmcnt now available. Ph ase microscopy is illustrated. The
(' lla plcr intend cd to g,lide th e stlld ent in thc selection of methods of
'~ I'i lldill g thill sec liolls ha s hcc n rcviscd. A chapter is includ ed to serve as
iO lI olillino ill a(;('pliri ll g a working knowl edge of the universal stage. The

vli
/1 PIlE FACE

1,," 1111" .11 ion tables have been revised in an attempt to make th em more
'1 " I,d III lhe solution of the problem of identifying unknown min crals.
'I'll " I, 'x t is intended primarily for thin-section study, but both thc
"'/I ', llifhU IS and the tables will be found useful for work with min cral
II', JiIl IIl I S. The feldspars have been the subject of considerable rcvision Contents
I I Ill' ligh t of recent studies. Other mineral groups have not b een so

di lll "lv,· ly revised, although frequent revision will be noted throu ghout.
'1d'i II pplie's to the pyroxenes, amphiboles, chlorite, serpentine, the clays,
1111 IIVII por i.tes.
Preface. vii
' 1'1 11 1 W I ilcr is particularly indebted to colleagues and research asso-
Abbreviations • xiii
III I ( \~ II I Columbia University who have offered suggestions. Profcssors
l in "oldervaart, Brian Mason, and Ralph J. Holmes; Miss P. K. Hamil- PART ONE. MINERAL OPTICS
III , It" s('arch Associate; Mr. Martin Molloy, Mr. William Bassett, and
Chapter 1. Mineral Preparations for Microscopic Study . 3
1,'. ' )!lvis M. Lapham, Graduate Assistants, have all provided assistance
Types of Preparations- Materials for Thin Sections-The Mineral Chip-
l VII I h)lls ways. The manufacturers of optical equipment have co-
Cutting the Chip to a Thin Section-Special Thin Sections.
1>" 1'11",<1 in furnishing a number of illustrations. Mr. E. O. Rowl and,
,II hlll'lIl nl'y Technician, Kings College, London, has advised on thin-
Chapter 2. The Polarizing Microscope . 11
i'(' lioll 1Il('lllods. Numerous conversations with instructors who have used General Features-Optical System- Parts of the Microscope-Precautions to
't"OViOIiS cd ilions have been particularly helpful. Be Observed in the Use of the Microscope-Care of the Instrument- Illumi-
nators- Phase Microscopy- Photomicrographs-Adjustment of the Polarizing
Microscope.
Paul F. Kerr
Chapter 3. A Summary of the Properties of Light . 38
Theories of Light- Nomenclature of the Wave Theory- Light Vector- Speed
of Light- Wave Motion- The Color of Light.
Chapter 4. Refraction 46
Snell's Law. The Index of Refraction- Dispersion- Critical Angle- Total
Reflection-Indices of Refraction of Anisotropic Minerals- Measurement of
Indices of Refraction by Refractometers- Index of Refraction by the Prism
Method- The Determination of the Index of Refraction with the Microscope
- Relief.
Chapter 5. Plane Polarized Light in Minerals . 64
Polarized Light- Polarization by Reflection- Polarization by Absorption-
Double Refraction (Birefringence )- Optical Indicatrix- Nicol Prism- Inter-
ference between Crossed Nicols- Phase Difference- Interference Colors-
Application of the Color Chart to the Study of Minerals-Determination of
Hetardation with a Berek Compensator- Determination of Thickness of Sec-
tion- Direction of the Vibration of Slow or Fast Rays-Extinction-Elonga-
tion- Anomalous Interference.
hapter 6. Convergent Polarized Light . 86
Goneral Statement- Formation of Interference Figures- Uniaxial Interference
Figures-Vibration Dircctions in Uniaxial Crystals- Positive and Negative
Si~ 1l of Unla.xia1 Crystals- 13iilxial Interference Figures- Eccentric Biaxial
1'Igur<ls- OpUclil Dlroctions in Biaxial Mincrals-Index EllipSOid (Optical
b:
 CONTENTS
CONTENTS xi
Indicatrix) - The Axial Angles 2E and 2V- Variation in Axial Angle-De-
termination of the Optic Sign of a Biaxial Mineral- The Optic-axis Figure- Scapolite Group.
Dispersion in Biaxial Intcrference Figures. Zeolites: Analcine-Heulandite-Stilbite- Chabazite- N atrolite--Mesolite--
Thomsonite--Scolecite.
'hapter 7. The Universal Stage. 111
Chapter 14. Silicates: Chain Structures (Inosilicates) . 302
Purpose-Stage Assembly- Graduated Circles- The Stereographic Plot'-
Adjustment- Orientation with the Universal Stage-Location of the Uniaxial Pyroxene Group: Enstatite--H ypersthene--Diopside--Augite--Pigeonite--
Optic Axis-Optical Directions in Biaxial Crystals- Illustrative Mounts- Hedenbergite--Aegirine-augite--Aegirine-J adeite--Spodumene.
Illustrative Exercises- Stereographic Net. Amphibole Group: Anthophyllite- Cummingtonite--Grunerite- Tremolite-
Actinolite--Nephrite--Homblende--Lamprobolite--Riebeckite- Glaucophane.
:hapter 8. General Features: Color, Mode of Aggregation, Cleavage and Epidote Group: Zoisite- Clinozoisite--Epidote-Piedmontite--Allanite.
Orientation . 124
Chapter 15. Silicates: Single, Multiple, and Ring SiO. Structures (Neso-, Soro-,
Color and Pleochroism- Form or Aggregation- Natural Crystal Form in Thin and Cyclosilicates ) . 344
Section- Cleavage, Parting, and Fracture as an Aid in Distinguishing Min-
erals- Orientation. Single SiO, Structures.
Olivine Group: Forsterite--Olivine--F ayalite- Monticellite.
;hapter 9. Mineral Fragments . 142 Humite Group: Chondrodite.
Crushed Fragments-Methods of Mounting-Immersion Method- Index De- Gamet Group: Pyrope-Almandite- Spessartite--U varovite--Grossularite-
terminations by Immersion- Form of Mineral Fragments- Immersion Media Andradite.
- Standardization and Care of Liquids. Stau rolite--Sphene- Idocrase- Zircon- Axinite- Iddingsite.
Sillimanite Family: Andalusite--Sillimanite- Kyanite--Mullite- DlImortierite
~hapter 10. Systematic Identification 152 - Topaz.
Tables-Opaque Minerals (Table 10-1)- Transparent Minerals (Tables 10-2 Multiple SiO. Structures- Sorosilicates.
to 10-10 )-Isotropic Minerals (Table 10-6 )- Birefringent Minerals (Table Lawsonite.
10-7 )- Optical Character (Tables 10-8, 10-9, and 10-10 )- Conclusion. 6-unit Ring Strllctures- Cyclosilicates.
Beryl- Tourmaline Group- Cordierite- Wollastonite.
PART TWO. MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Chapter 16. Silicates : Sheet Structures and Mineraloids 383
:ntroduction to Part Two 181
Muscovite Group: Muscovite-Lepidolite-Phlogopite--Biot:it~.
Mineral Groups Chlorite Group: Prochlorite- Clinochlore- Penninite--Chamosite.
:::hapter 11. Elements to Hydroxides 185 Brittle Mica Group: Stilpnomelane- Chloritoid.
T alc: Pyrophyllite.
Elements: Graphite.
Clay Mineral Group: Kaolinite--Dickite- H alloysite- Montmorillonite- Hy_
Sulfides: Sphalerite-Pyrite--Pyrrhotite--Chalcopyrite.
dromuscovite--Palygorskite-Sepiolite.
Halides: Halite--Fluorite.
Serpentine Group: Antigorite--Chrysotile.
Oxides: Periclase--Corundum- Hematite- Ilmenite--Rutile- Cassiterite.
Prehnite--Glauconite.
Multiple Oxides : Spinel- Magnetite-Chromite--Perovskite.
Mineraloids.
Hydroxides: Diaspore--Brucite--Boehmite--Gibbsite--Cliachite--Limonite.
Volcanic Glass: Palagonite.
Chapter 12. Carbonates, Sulfates, and Phosphates 209
Carbonates: Calcite--Dolomite--Magnesite--Siderite- Aragonite. Index 427
Sulfates: Barite--Celestite--Anhydrite--Gypsum- Polyhalite--Alunite--
Jarosite.
Phosphates: Monazite--Apatite--Dahllite- Collophane--Lazulite .
Chapter 13. Silicates: Framework Structures (Tectosilicates ). 236
Silica Group: Quartz- Chalcedony- Opal-Tridymite--Cristobalite--Lecha-
telierite--Coesite.
Feldspars : Orthoclase- Adul ari a- Sanidine--Microcline- Anorthoclase- -AI-
bito--Oli goclasc-And cs in c~Labradorilc-Bytownitc-Anorth1te .
•
Foldspath oids: L Cllcilc- Ncphclinc - Cancrinito--Sodalite--I Iuiiyne- .
Molilila .
 Abbreviations
SYM BOL S F OR I N DICE S OF R E FRACTION I N G ENERAL USE

Symbols used
by D ana,
Mineral t ype to which index Symbols used Symbols used
Joha nnsen,
symbol applies in this text by Winchell
Larsen and
Berma n

Isotropic . .. . . ... .. . . . . .. . . ... . . n n N

Uniaxial
Extraordina ry ray .... . . . . . .. n, • Ne
Ordinary ray . ..... , . . . . . . . . . nw w No

Biaxial
Least v alue ........... . . . . .. . . na a Np
Interm ediate v alue .. ... .. .... .. n fJ (3 Nm
Greatest value . . . .... ... . ... . .. noy -y Ng

n = index of refra ction.

na (alpha ) = t he index of the fast ray in biax ial minerals. The least index of refr action.
nfJ (beta) = t he index of t he ray at right a ngles to n a a nd n oy.
noy(gamma ) = the index of the slow ray in biax ial minerals. The greatest index of
refract ion.
n ,(epsilon) = the m aximum (in positive) a nd the minimum (in negative) index of
refract ion of the extraordinary ray in uniaxial miner als.
nw (omega) = the index of refract ion of the ordinary ray in uniax ial minerals. If
nw < n" the mineral is posit ive. If nw > n" the mineral is negative . nw is
constant in a given uniaxial mineral, whereas the index of the ext raordinary ray
v aries from nw t o n •.
n , and n. = the lesser a nd greater indices of refraction of the two rays in a ny crystal
section a t ra ndom orientation.
X = the ax is of greatest ease of vibration . Light vibrating parallel t o X travels
with m ax imum velocity (also indicat ed by a ) .
Z = th e ax is of least ease of vibration. Light vibrating parallel to Z travels with
minimum velocity (also indicated by -y).
Y = t he intermedi ate axis at right angles t o t he plane of X and Z (also indicated
by (3).
e = the ax is of vib ration of the extraordin ary ray .
w = the ax is of vibration of t he ord ina ry ray (in a pla ne a t right angles to .).
•
r - the d ispen;ioll for red .
II .. t he di ~ p o l'~ i() II [0 " v iolct.
:l V - t ho a xial a ll ~ l o wit hill t ho m ill era l.
d ll
v ABBREVIATIONS

'iJ = the axial angle observed in air.

r. = acute bisectrix.
ro = obtuse bi~ectrix.
~. pI. = the plane of t he optic axes.
= micron, tho usandth of a millimeter (0.001 mm.).
,.. = millimicron, millionth of a millimeter (0.000001 mm.).
= angstrom unit , tenth of a millimicron (0.0000001 mm.). PART ONE
= retard ation in m,.. (millimicrons).
= thickness of a t hin section. Usually given in hundredths of a millimeter (0 .01
mm.). Mineral Optics
b, and c = t he crystallographi c axes.
c<, (3, 'Y = angles between t he crystallographic axes.
" Y - na) = double refraction for biaxial minerals.
'W - n,); (n, - nw) = double refraction for uniaxial minerals.
1 = the slow ray of t he Berek compensator.

2 = the fast ray of the Berek compensator.

= the extraordin ary ray.
= the ordinary ray.
~ ngth-fast (or negative elongation) = elongation parallel to the vibration direction
of the fast ray.
~ ngth-sjow (or positive elongation) = elongation parallel to the vibration directio n
of the slow ray .
•. = circa (about).

•
 CHAPTER 1

Mineral Preparations for Microscopic Study

Types of Preparations. The preparation of minerals for microscopic

study depends largely upon the microscope used. If only surficial features
are to be examined as with a binocular microscope, little preparation is
required. In this case small crystals, mineral grains, or even specimens
several inches across, either opaque or transparent, may be examined
unmounted, under a range of magnifications up to about 100 times .
In other studies the microscope used differs for opaque and transparent
materials. Opaque minerals are often sawed to produce a flat surface,
mounted for convenience in handling, and polished until a brilliantly
reflecting surface is developed. Such surfaces are examined with the
reflecting microscope. Transparent minerals are usually cemented to glass
slides with Canada balsam or a similar transparent mounting material.
Small crystals, grains, or fragments are often scattered over the central
portion of the slide and mounted without further preparation. Sands and
mineral concentrates are particularly suitable for such treatment. When
mounted, the preparations are examined in transmitted light with the
polarizing microscope.
A common form of microscopic examination employed for transparent
materials involves the use of thin sections. This text is mainly concerned
with such study. Thin sections are ordinarily about 0.03 mm thick and
measure about an inch square.
Many mineral materials may be studied to advantage in thin sections
with the polarizing microscope. Probably the most widely employed
application lies in the examination of igneous, metamorphic, and sedi-
mentary rocks. The technique, however, is capable of wider application.
W ith suitable impregnation, soils, clays, and many forms of loosely con-
solid ated materials may be mounted for this form of study. Mineral frag-
ments may also be cem ented into a hriquette and ground thin.
C rystals of min erals or artifi cial chemical compounds are often oriented
II lId sli ced at desired angles in oreler to emphasize certain optical prop-
('rli( 's . fi'r('( I' I('1l11y rock sprc inwns aI'(' ca reflill y marked with respect to
' hoir posilioll ill Lit o Olll('J'O P wl\('11 il is (](.sir('(l 10 cOIT('bte tho position
:l
 MINERAL OPTICS
MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY 5
in 6 hours at 50°C or in 1 hour at lOO°e. Thin sections cut from decom-
>f individual crystals in a thin section with the rock mass from which the posed granite in which kaolinite has replaced feldspar retain sharp crystal
ection has been cut. boundaries with this treatm ent.
Materials for Thin Sections. Few students of mineralogy prepare their The earlier stages in the preparation of an ordinary rock section are
'Wll thin sections, but it is desirable for all to know how thin sections
illustrated in Figure 1-1. The first problem involves the choice of material
Ire made. With natural manual dexterity and patience students have and a decisiOl~ concerning the direction of the cut. A specimen suitable
earned to make sections equal to those ground by professional section for effective study with the microscope is selected. Such a specimen may
nakers.l The speed may not equal that of the professional, but with a contain fine-grained materials not easily studied by the unaided eye,
ittle care the section cut may b e equally satisfactory. structures that yield readily to examination with the microscope, or any
The technique employed varies with the nature of the material. Grind- one of those numerous minor features so effectively revealed by micro-
ng sections of compact igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks is scopic examination. The direction in which the section is to be cut should
i routine process. Friable or fractured rocks and unconsolidated materials
be clearly marked on the specimen.
;hould be firmly cemented with a p enetrating binding substance before
Shield Shield
","'-
/
Copper disc
I
/
I
I

\ ~
?y '
"
... .., ,....
I • '.
\
\
\
'\ /
Abr:asive
I
//
/' Abrasive
pan
~
(a) (b) (e)
\
,,'....'
....",
,---~~=~~-----~/
pan
//'
/'

FIG. 1-1. (a) A rock selected for a thin section and sawed to obtain a chip. (b) A
FIG . 1-2. A mineralogical saw consisting of a hard rolled copper disk used with
sawed chip of proper dimensions for a thin section (bottom surface smooth). (e)
The chip mounted on a glass slide with Canada b alsam ready for the first stage of carborundum.
grinding. The Mineral Chip. The first step in the manufacture of a thin section
involves the preparation of a mineral chip with a smooth smface suitable
being mounted on a glass slide. One method involves a preliminary heat-
for mounting on a glass slide. The chip may be broken from a specimen
ing with the mineral specimen immersed in Canada balsam either in an
and ground flat on one side, or a slice of suitable dimensions may be
open dish or under a vacuum b ell jar. Methyl methacrylate "lucite" has
sawed directly from a specimen. An ideal chip is about 1 inch square and
been used by Bell (1939) to impregnate friable material under a vacuum.
Exley (1956) has impregnated friable kaolin specimens with a synthetic
Ys inab thick.
Where it is desired to cut chips, several types of saws are available.
resin supplied by Bakelite, Ltd. A friable specimen is cemented with a
In each case, however, the cutting action is actually grinding along a
mixture of (1) resin, (2) a modifying agent, (3) a catalyst, and (4) an
groove rather than sawing in the ordinary sense of the word. The grind-
accelerator. The four materials (with corresponding trade numbers) are
ing action is accomplished with an abrasive powder. The saw itself is
mixed in order as follows: resin, 100 g (SR 17431); modifying agent, 10
usually a metal disk. The abrasive may be fed against the disk in loose
to 15 g (Z 17453) ; catalyst, 1 g (Q 17447); and an accelerator, 2 g
particles, or it may b e imbedded in the outer rim. Abrasives may be
(Q 17448). The mixture is said to gel in 2 hours at 25°C. It will harden
either carborundum or diamond powders.
, The foll owin g list is furnish ed for the convenience of readers who wish the names Figure 1-2 illustrates an ordinary mineralogical saw. It may be a hard-
of techni cians ITI nkin g thin sec tions: rolled copper disk that operates over a trough filled with carborundum
D. M. Organ ist, Box 176, Ncwa rk , Del. alld sludge. The edge of the rotatin g disk picks up carborundum and
C " C)"g" ntv , :12<1 S(,\H' nll c rilorll !laB, '11 9 SI. nllcl Amsterclam Ave ., New York rllhs it against the specimen. If a proper mixture of mud, carborundum,
27 . N .Y.
l"' f',1 II n\l! lil H, I:HlO S. MO III ('I "Y 1'1I )s lid ., MO Ili<" 'oy Pilrk, Calif. and water is maintain cd , it is possibl e to grind a n arrow channel com-
A\ "~ I II'''\( ' I' 'I'I1I1I1I1I1 V')V , 0:;11 1I11 '1~" \ AVi '., I.", A\t os, C" ll r. p lvll'ly throll gh all in ch or so lid ;'1'1 ;11' 1:1. in :1 few minnl cs.
1I,,"\ ,,\pll V(l il 11, ,,'1" " I\(lri N , MI I,1l 01' A VII " 1'11 '11 1.1.'" 11, ( ;11111.
6 MINERAL OPTICS
When a chip is ready, a smooth surface is polished on one side by
utilizing successively 100, FFF, and 600 carborundum and finishing with
3021h American Optical Company's emery. In case the rock is fairly soft,
the first grinding with 100 carborundum is omitted. The 100 carborundum
is coarse and tends to destroy soft material.
The smoothly ground but unpolished surface of the chip is cleaned and
dried. It is then mounted on a glass object slide, employing Canada
balsam or Lakeside 70 as a cementing material. Balsam should be cooked
about 2 minutes at 160a C until a bead is tenacious and solid. The chip
may then be warmed at 120a C for
mounting. Balsam should not be
overcooked, since it then becomes
too brittle and may even turn
::'1 Expansion .cylinder brown. While the balsam is still
)1 for glycerin, warm and liquid, the flat surface
of the warmed chip is placed upon
a slide containing a cooked smear
of Canada balsam. On cooling, the
chip will be firmly cemented to the
glass slide. The bond should be an
even layer of balsam unbroken by
air bubbles. If air bubbles are pres-
FIG. 1-3. A hot plate containing a glycerin ent, the chip should be warmed,
chamber and thermometer well for con-
trol in cooking Canada balsam. (D evel-
removed, and remounted. The
oped by Paul H . Bird. ) problem of properly cooking Can-
ada balsam may be solved by using
a hot plate with thermostat control, or a glycerin plate as shown in Fig-
ure 1-3. Lakeside 70, heated at 140a C, may be used to cement directly
without cooking. The index of refraction, n = 1.540, is close to but slightly
higher than that for balsam (1.537). Air pockets are less likely to form
between the glass slide and the chip than with balsam.
Cutting the Chip to a Thin Section. Much attention has been devoted
to the problem of producing a thin uniform slice 0.03 mm thick from a
chip several millimeters thick. In general, this may be accomplished in
two ways. In one method the chip is ground in successive stages with
carborundum and emery on laps, in a sequence similar to that used to
produce a smooth surface on the chip. In another, a carefully adjusted
saw is used to cut the chip to about 0.06 mm and it is then completed to
0.03 mm on a lap.
Mechanical grinding of mounted ohips usually takes place on flat metal
laps bccd to a planc Hat surface. The laps should be at least 12 inches
in diaJneter and sholild rotate at a speed of ahout 600 rpm. Bearings
UIIi NI bo shielded al!aillsl 1l1ll'llsiv(! powd er. Th(; lap for fin e grinding
MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY 7
should be made of copper or brass and grooved. A helical groove pattern
is effective. Where precision diamond saws are used to cut initial slices
0.06 to 0.08 mm thick, many sections may be completed by hand on a
glass plate with abrasive powder, or in some instances with abrasive
papers.
Great precautions concerning cleanliness are necessary throughout the
entire process. A single grain of coarse grit rubbed against the slide at
the wrong time will often destroy a thin section.
The exposed side of the mounted chip is ground in turn with medium
carborundum, fine carborundum, and alundum. Alundum is utilized when
the chip has been reduced to a thickness of about 0.1 mm. The specimen
may be ground on a rotating grooved lap or finished by hand on a smooth
glass plate. A fine alundum or emery paste is used for the final grinding.
Water is ordinarily employed to
make the paste, but kerosene or gly-
col are required for water-soluble
materials. This last stage demands
considerable manual dexterity. The
thin slice should be kept uniform in
thickness during grinding and th e
grinding continued until a thickness I_ 45mm _I
of about 0.03 mm is attained. The F IG. 1-4. A cross sec t'IOn a f the mount e d
thickness of the slide is controlled rock slice (vertical scale exaggerated) .
through the final stage by micro-
scopic observation of the interference colors given by some known min-
eraI in the section when covered with a film of water. Quartz is fre-
quently present, in which case the resulting interference colors should be
almost entirely white or gray. Some prefer large sections for which the
thickness may be about 0.04 mm. A thin section properly ground shows
a remarkable degree of b·ansparency.
Small holders are useful for holding the mounted chips during grind-
ing. Such holders keep the opposite surfaces of the slide parallel and
facilitate the process of fine grinding. Holders also permit the operator
to grind several sections at the same time until the final stage is reached.
Three holders form a useful combination. One, holding six slides, may be
used to glind the chip to a thickness of about 0.5 mm; the second, ar-
ranged for two slides, to carry the grinding to 0.1 mm; and the third,
holding a single slide, to complete the sections . In case a holder is not
available, a small cork may be connected to the back of the slide with I
halsam.
Wh cn th e seclion is ground to the proper thickness, it is washed free
from grinclin g powder and dried . Fresh balsam is then smeared over the
~ \lrFae() or Lh u ~ I leo. H is cookt:d, aud ra c(;d with a COvor glass (thickn~s
 MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY 9
MINERAL OPTICS
ingly thin, although coarse particles may be plucked from the clay mass
.bout 0.17 mm or less). The preparation is then cooled, and excess
and will protrude from the balance of the £1m.
lalsam around the edge of the cover glass is dissolved with xylol, fol-
A smooth surface is carefully prepared by polishing on dry ground-
owed by a wash with kerosene. The thin section is now covered and
glass plates. While still moist, the surface is covered with amyl acetate
eady for use (Figure 1-4).
and pyroxylin. After the preparation is dried for from 5 to 6 hours, the
In case the slice is composed of substantial and compact material, it
dry £1m formed by the pyroxylin is peeled from the clay surface with a
nay be transferred from the glass slide on which it has been ground to
knife blade. The £1m is then mounted with Canada balsam on a glass
.notller slide free from scratches. To effect the transfer, the slide holding
slide and covered with a cover glass.
he slice is smeared with balsam and heated on a hot plate as in covering.
Special thin sections are occasionally made in which the area of the
A clean slide smeared with balsam
section may measure as much as 3 inches by 4 inches although the thick-
is placed on the hot plate next to
ness is usually greater than normal. Such sections may provide a survey
the ground slide containing the
of textural relations which extends beyond the area ordinarily covered
chip, and the balsam cooked at the
by a thin section. They have also been used in a limited manner for
same time.2 When both smears of
lantern projection either directly or with polarized light derived from
balsam are cooked the slice is
superimposed polaroid sheets.
worked free from the ground slide
Specimens are frequently examined which contain both h'ansparent
with the aid of a toothpick and
and opaque minerals. The technique of polishing metallic minerals and
floated to the clean side. It is then
the methods of examination employed are beyond the scope of this text,
covered with a cover glass in the
but it should be pointed out that a number of laboratories have found
usual way.
it advantageous to prepare dual-purpose thin sections. These sections are
Rapid and precise cuts may be
not only ground to the conventional thickness, but one surface is polished
made with metal saws which con-
to allow examination of metallic constituents in reflected light in addition
tain diamond powder 3 imbedded
to the customary study with transmitted polarized light (Rankama, 1941;
in the metal of the rim (Meyer,
Kennedy, 1945) .
1946) . The smooth chip is ce-
mented to a glass slide with Lake- REFERENCES
"IG. 1-5. A diamond saw designed to cut side 70 as a cementing material. A
!ices of rocks to about 0.06 mm, by well-balanced diamond saw then Bell, James F.: Notes on the Uses of Methyl Methacrylate "Lucite" in a Geo-
~. O. Rowland. (ClItrock Engineering . . logical Laboratory, Ecan. Geal., vol. 34, pp. 804-811 , 1939.
~o., Ltd., Dollis Mews, Dollis Park, cuts the precIsely held chIp to a Exley, C. S.: A Method of Impregnating Friable Rocks for the Cutting of Thin
(inchley, London, N. 3, England.) thickness of about 0.06 mm in a Sections, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 31, pp. 347-349, 1956.
single operation. The slice is then Isachsen, Y. William: A Petrotome Modificat ion for Cutting Extremely Thin
:educed to standard thickness on a finishing lap. Rock Sections, P1'Oc. Penn. Acad. Sci., vol. 25, pp. 109-112, 1951.
Kennedy, George C.: The Preparation of Polished Thin Sections, Ecan. Geal.,
Rowland (1953) has described a saw as shown in Figure 1-5. The saw vol. 40, pp . 353-360, 1945.
s mounted vertically above a platform. The latter is free to move up or Keyes, Mary G.: Making Thin Sections of Rocks, Am. J. Sci. , 5th ser. , vol. 10,
:lown or horizontally with machine precision. A special holder mounted pp. 538-550, 1925.
) l l the platform holds the material to be sectioned. Equipment of this Meyer, Charles: Notes on the Cutting and Polishing of Thin Sections, Ecan.
lOrt has been called a p et1'Otome by Isachsen (1951). Geal., vol. 41 , pp. 166-172, 1946.
Rankama, K.: An Improved Technique for the Making of Thinned Polished
Special Thin Sections. Thin "peeled" £lms removed from the smooth Sections, Ecan. Geal. , vol. 36, pp. 561-563, 1941.
;urface of clays may be mounted in balsam on glass slides and examined Ross, C. S.: Methods of Preparation of Sedimentary Materials for Study, Ecan.
:ts ordin ary thin sections. The mounted films arc for the most part exceed- Geal. , vol. 21, pp. 454-468, 1926. See also Am. J. Sci. , 5th ser. , vol. 7,
pp. 483- 485, 1924.
' Precuokcd balsam may be healed lo 100°C for mounting. Howland , E. 0 .: A Rapid Method for the Preparation of Thin Rock Sections,
$ A O-Ili eh bl ado ehll rgcd willi powdered di Hmonds is made by the Consolidated
Mi7l eral. Ma g ., vol. 30, pp . 254-258, 1953.
oil\11 \l/l H,l Tool Corpol'llLi un, Yo nke rs, N,Y,
 MINEHAL OPTICS
10
Weatherhead, A. V.: A New Method for the Preparation of Thin Sections of
Clays, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 25, pp. 529-533, 1940.
Weymouth, A. Allen: Simple Methods for Making Thin Sections, Ecan. Ceal.,
vol. 23, pp. 323-330, 1928.
Wilson, D. A. P., and V. L. Bosazza: A Rock Cutting Machine for the Prepara-
tion of Specimens for Microscopic Examination, Can. Mining ]., vol. 59,
no. 10,pp. 549-550, 1938. CHAPTER 2

The Polarizing Microscope

General Features. TIle polarizing microscope is widely employed to

examine transp arent minerals although other types are used for special
forms of mineral work, such as (1) the phase microscope, (2) the reflect-
ing microscope, and (3) the binocular microscope. The phase microscope
is us eful in distinguishing minute obscure particles. The reflecting micro-
scope serves for polished surfaces of metallic minerals. The binocular
microscope is used mainly to observe surface features.
Aside from minor reference to other microscopes the discussion in this
text is confined to, the polarizing microscope since it applies to such a
broad range of study.l It is extensively used to examine mineral frag-
ments, grains, and small crystals, as w ell as thin sections of minerals,
rocks, and other crystals. It is p articularly useful in the determination of
the optical properties of individual crystals or aggregates, and in the
interpretation of textures, patterns, and various relationships of natural
or artificial substances as shO\vn in thin sections. Several polarizing micro-
scopes have been selected for illustration in Figures 2-1 to 2-6 from a
considerable number of models available. These range from serviceable
instruments suitable for most work to more advanced types speCially
designed for research.
The lens system of the polarizing microscope corresponds in many
respects to the lens system of the usual compound microscope, but con-
tains several modifications which greatly increase its range of usefulness
in work with minerals. The most distinctive features are the polarizing
and analyzing devices, both b elow and above the stage. The rotating
stage, the Amici-Bertrand lens, and several accessories such as the mica
1 A list of firm s that manufacturc or distribute polarizing microscopes is given h ere:
Am e ri ca n Op ti cal Company (Sci entifi c In strum cnt Division) , Buffalo 11, N.Y.
Bau sc" allci LO llliJ Opti ca l Co., Hoch cstc r 2, N.Y.
Coo k(" 'i' n) lI g lltol1 a lld Si IlIlIl S, York , 1 ~ lI g l and.
I<:. I." i! t:, I li t'. , I(ill !Coml " Ave., New York 16, N.Y.
1I , ·i(·I" 'I! , \\ ' illi :1I1I I. 11 ;I (' k('l' & Co ., '111('., III 13<-: lv(' r SI. , New York .'5, N.Y.
U ,dtllil' , lI ,d!, '" S(:i('lItifi (' Co " 2()/1 (J 1\ l i l l- St. , l\ostOll , M;l ss.
/ '('i'" Wl ll k, .1 (;,,!! i" g" " ), CII.I / ,(.1", 111('., IIWi " if til Ave ., New York 17, N.Y.
II
l2 MINE RAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 13
)late, the gypsum plate, the quartz wedge, and the compensator are also analyzer (Ahrens type ) , Amici-Bertrand lens, and the eyepiece. In this
Hstinctive. alignment the instrument yields conoscopie observation as used for inter-
The polarizing microscope as employed for the examination of minerals ference figures. With the removal of the Amici-Bertrand lens the instru-
ltilizes both plane-polarized light and light with the polarized planes ment yields orthoscopic observation.
~rossed. For ordinmy inspection a lower polarizing device is left in place Both sectional and complete views of a more elaborate polarizing
)elow the condenser, and the upper polarizing device remains at microscope of a combined research and operational type are shown in
one side. For examination between Figures 2-5 and 2-6. H ere the optical train consists of a polalizer plate,
crossed planes, opposed polarizing lower fixed lenses of the condenser, removable upper lenses of the con-
plates, or nicol prisms2 fit in the denser, object in position on the stage, objective, analyzer plate, deviating
optical train at right angles.
A serviceable polalizing micro-
scope for general use equipped
with polmizing plates (polaroid)
is illustrated in Figure 2-1. A ro-
Pinhole disc
tating stage with spring clamps Openinq for
holds the thin section. Special accessory plates
high-quality polarOid used for such ,. Objective clutch -
Rototinq stoqe
J:,jaJ!
Objective
microscopes furnishes sha11), black (0150 vertical
extinction and yields well-devel- motion)

oped interference figures . Combined

{ris diopllroqm ~ coarse
A polarizing microscope with and fine
a deviating prism and inclined adjustment

tube for convenient observation is

shovm in Figure 2-2. The names
used for the several pmts are given
at either side of the photograph. A l .
thin section appears in position on FIG. 2-2. A polarizing micro scope with polarizing plates and a deviating prism
(E . Leitz, Inc.) . The features shown are suitable for most microscopic work. The eye-
the stage. The stage not only ro- piece tube is inclined to permit observation at a convenient angle, the analyzer and
FIG. 2-1. A student model polarizing tates but may be raised and low- polarizer are polarizing plates, and either a mirror or substage illuminator may be
microscope equipp ed with polarizing ered. The analyzing nicol prism employed.
plates (Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.).
Both the analyzer plate and the Amici- and the Amici-Beltrand lens are
Bertrand lens are sealed in the tube and enclosed in the tube between the prism, and eyepiece. As aligned, the instrument would yield orthoscopic
aip in or out of the optical path as the objective and the eyepiece. observation. The deviating prism and inclined tube replace the inclina-
proper knob is turned. The stage may be tion jOint and tilting alTangement of Figure 2-4, while the stage remains
rotated and also raised and lowered. Both sectional and complete
views of a polarizing microscope horizontal at all times. Plates are used for both the polarizer and the
with polarizing prisms are shown in Figures 2-3 and 2-4. As illustrated, analyzer. The analyzer and the Amici-Berb'and lens are turned in and
the optical train from the mirror upward consists of the polarizer out of the train as a substitute for the sliding motion in the previous
(Ahrens type ), lower fixed lenses of the condenser, removable upper instrument.
Optical System. The polarizing microscope may be assembled either
lcnses of the con denser, object in position on the stage, objective,
fo r orthoscopic or conoscopic observation. The orthoscopic arrangement •
' '1'1,, · It'I'II' 1Ii1''' / is 111'1 (' 11 IIsed 10 ill(li (;al"(; Ihe polarizin g devic;c II scd in th e micro- proVides the eye with a realistic virtu al imagc with a Hat field showing
Nt''' lh'. II j , (i t',i VC' d 1'''"11 III(' pr bll' llI'igill ally dl'sigll ud by William Nicol. The prisms Lh e object on th e rni croseope stage. Min erals may be observed with a
1111 11' 1I ·",d " " ' ,I" , I IIII I ' IIS CI" 1I ,,",i1al' "'O''l' l' lli uil' IIL Lypu. Polarizing plates may also
single polarizing dev ice OJ' will, crossed ni cols. Conoscop ic observati on
I", I, ClI ".. I,",,,.I.
14 MINERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 15
If the best results are to be achieved, regardless of the source of
eyepiece "
illumination employed, it is important to regulate the light entering the
microscope with respect to the optical system. In order to accomplish
this result, suitable filters should be available for the source of illumina-
Coarse focllsing
od/Ilstment ----~-_, tion, the illuminator used should b e equipped with an iris diaphragm,
and the condenser system should
'f Body contain a suitable diaphragm. The
Compensating lens
, Micrometer- field of view in the microscope
i fine ndilJ<tmpnt~ Protecting plate -~, .
should be carefully bounded by
t Ahrens analyzing these diaphragms and the proper
prism filter system employed to reduce
• • ,1 Protecting plate the illumination to suitable inten-
~-CampensatinQ lens sity. Proper resolution for each
magnification may be secured in
this way.
Three important fields are in-
volved : the image, the object, and
the source. The circular field of
view seen by the observer when he
looks through the microscope is
'--Upper iris diaphragm bounded primarily by the dia-
~Pmfp('tlnfl plates phragm of the eyepiece. This dia-
phragm is fixed and also contains
the crosshairs. The magnified dia-
phragm image bounds the image
diaphragm field as seen through the eyepiece.
The object field is a field of view
L _~, ~ __'. ___ - --,~ ,-
FIG. 2-3. Sectional view of a standard polarizing microscope (American Optical Co.). equal in diameter to the diameter
The instrument is equipped with nicol prisms (Ahrens type), with a continuous of the image field divided by the
vertical optical system, and is suitable for either orthoscopic or conoscopic observation. total magnification. It measures the FIG. 2-4. A polarizing microscope (E.
The names of the different parts are indicated on the two sides.
area of the thin section or other Leitz, Inc. ). Both the stage and the tube
object under observation at a par- may be ad justed vertically. The instru-
yields interference figures which represent an optical effect caused by the ment is equipped with nicol prisms.
ticular instant. The source field is
behavior of light in individucll crystals. The figures are formed in the the field of view at the glass filter of the illuminator (Figure 2-8). The
back focal plane of the objective, where they may be observed with the eye diameter of the source field is equal to the product of the diameter of
alone if the eyepiece and Amici-Berttand lens are removed, or as an the object field and the reciprocal of the reduction caused by the con-
enlarged image with the eyepiece in place, and the Amici-Bertrand lens denser. In the control of illumination, the area of the light from the illu-
inserted. The paths of rays for conoscopic and orthoscopic observation Illin ator is cut by the condenser to equal the source field. When the light
are compared in the sectional diagrams of Figure 2-7a,b. Aside from (' nLering the microscope is limited in this way, only the circle of the ob-
polarizing devices , the optical arrangement in orthoscopic observation jl'ct th at is observed b ecomcs illumin ated, and glare due to the inter-
involvcs an illuminating source, a concentrating light system, a substage r(' rCIi CC 01: marginal li ght is elimin ated.
;ondclIscr, Lh e object Lo b e ohserved on the stage, the objective with the Wh e n th o c(')lItlenscr is in fO CIIS', tile iris di aphragm de termines the used
oi>j('(' ti vo circle \11 0 eyepiece wi th th e illl:l gO fi eld , :lncllhe eye pi ece circl e. aporlllro or 111 0 cO lld clIse):. It i!; illiporlllllt tllat I'his aper lure b e fill ed with
·6 MINERAL OPTICS
THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 17
miform illumination. If the objective is placed in focus and the eye- in using objectives yielding high initial magnification with correspond-
)iece removed, the used aperture of the condenser may be observed by ingly high numerical apertures. Oil-immersion objectives usually require
ooking down the tube of the microscope. This may be termed the con- the use of immersion condensers in order to avoid the loss of useful
lense1' ci1'cle. It is a bright circular area encircled by a dimly lighted band magnification from glare. Either corrected water or oil-immersion con-
densers may be used. The numerical aperture of the condenser should be
less than the numerical aperture of the objective by a small amount.
Conoscopic Observation. The ar-
/ Cross Jines plan. rangement of the image-forming
Eyepiece ~ and illuminating beams in cono-
Eyepiece slee ve - - - - ---' llIt. Tube diaphragm
scopic observation differs in part
Mill ed ring for od iu, ting th e tube len gth _ __ _ ~ from the orthoscopic assemblage.
~r;:: Ami ci-Bertrand lens
'.Iilled rin g for the tu be diap hragm ~ The object may be considered as
M icroscope tube ----------~
-~
_"i an originating source for the obser-
De viat ing prism ,./
1-- - - -- Tube head vation of interference images which
Circul a r dove tail ing ./
An alyzer intermediate tube appear in the objective circle. The
Analyze r filter -----~ light rays which pass through the
condenser diaphragm have passed
through the polarizer and are po-
li mb _ _ __ larized. The rays are parallel to
each other on emerging from the
condenser front lens, but then be-
come convergent to an extent which
depends on the aperture of the
~ack-ond - p i n i o n housing substage. The convergent rays pen-
e trate the object, which modifies
Substag e cond enser the light transmitted and develops
unusual optical effects,
:oorse od iustm ent head The rays diverge above the ob-
Fine ad justm en t head
jective circle and pass through a FIG. 2-6. A polarizing microscope previ-
Eccentric d omp
polarizing device with a plane at ously illustrated in section (Fig. 2-5)
. I I I' th (Carl Zeiss, Gottingen, W est Germany) .
Milled ring
ring for radiant field .stop rig lt ang es to the po .anzer ( e F eatures of this microscope are pol ariz-
Bulb holder
:llIa Iyzer ). They merge Il1 the plane ing plates, eccentric centered objectives,
E;lectric cabl e Circular bose (If Lh e fi eld stop in the eyepiece to a rotating nose piece, built-in illumina-
Screw ring for b ulb _ _ -'-_ _ _ _ _ _.J d . f tl b' r tion, inclined tube, and vertical as well
6V. 15W. bulb - -- - -_ _ __ ---1 pro uce an Image 0 le 0 Jec Ive as horizontal stage adjustment.
:tperLure stop. The field-stop image
FIG. 2-5. Section al view of a research polarizing microscope (Carl Zeiss, Gottingen,
W est Germany). Thc instrument is constructed with an inclined tube, deviating is seen in the eyepiece and forms an image on the retina of the eye.
prism, polarizing pl ates, intern al illumination, and eccentric centerin g objectives. Thc position of the exit pupil dep ends upon the objective employed.
'1' 11(' dis Lance of the image in the fi eld stop from the Bertrand lens will
or rill g. T,he lattcr is somctim es termed the objective circle. The objective ,!Iso (Iiflcr. Th e position of the eyepiece must be adjusted to permit a
;ircl e is 1I0t hound ed hy a diaphragm hut is limited by the margin of the " H'ltS at tI lc neIcl stop.
O\lj( 'cli vO lellses . In Irll croscopi c adjusLm ent, it has b een found that the Th o illla gc of th e ohjcct, which simulates a light source, is brought by
('(llId"IIS('I" (" it'd, ' sll Ottid I)( ) as II Ci\rly C(I1I ,11 Lo Lh e objective circle in tli n Alltici - Ikrlrancllcns Lo Lh c pla ll e of 110 0 diaphragm in the microscope
d llllll( l(( II' li S plIss lltl, ', wll lH lliI t'HIi Silt g glUI'll, Tlli ~ is pll rli cul \l rly important _ Jtli l('. 'I' ll( ' ('y('pi( 't'( , 111( '11 ope rates Lo brill g Lh e ilila ge inLo th e plane of the
 MINERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 19
18
orthoscopic
Conoscopic

Eyepiece

source

~~
oll'llumination
Lens to concentrate light
Bertrand lens .a
(Light Mter
~ t:Field diaphragm
~ lie'
-Objective cire/e
?:2 ~ "ource lield
II

Analyzer .::::::::::

Objecttve
Sample
Condenser
0/_~
Polarizer
Mirror
(al (bl
FIG. 2-7. A diagram showing the path of light through the microscope. (a) eono-
scopic observation, high magnification, Huygenian ocular, Amici-Bertrand lens, polar-
izing prisms, crossed nicols, and an au xiliary condenser immediately below the object
are illustrated. An optical pattern is obscrved in the eye. (b) Orthoscopic observa-
tion, crossed nicols, intermeuiate magnification, Huygenian ocular, and polarizing
prisms are illustrated. A realistic flat picture of the object is formed in the eye.
(American Optical Co.)
exit pupil of the microscope. The pupil of the eye is placed at this level
to observe the interfercnce figure.
Parts of the Microscope. The parts of a polarizing microscope equipped
either with polarizing plates or nicols are indicated in Figures 2-2, 2-3,
and 2-5. The names of the mechanical features are largely self-explana-
tory, but a number of the optical items will receive further comment.
Oculars. The ocular consists of a tube which fits snugly into the tube
of the microscope, ordinarily with a small sel screw lo hold it in a fixcd
Mirror
FIG. 2-8. Diagram showing the relative dimensions of the different fields in the micro-
scope and their relation to the illumination. (After Belling. )
position with cross hairs north-south and east-west in the field of view.
An eye lens is located above and a field lens below. A visual ReId stop
with crosshairs, cross lines, or a ReId micrometer lies above the Reld lens
in the Huygenian ocular (Figure 2-9a). The ReId stop lies below the
ReId lens in the Ramsden-type ocular (Figure 2-9b) . The image plane
and the plane of the crosshairs should coin-
cide.
Oculars used in modem petrographic mi-
croscopes are ordinarily of the Huygenian
type or a simple modification. TIlese are
usually used in combination with 40 mm or
16 mm or cOlTesponding objectives. Where
'ombinations giving higher magnifications
are desired, the ocular is similar to the Huy- (al (b)
gcnian ocular but contains a specially cor- FIG. 2-9. Sections of positive
reclcd cyc-Icns arrangement giving a flat and negative oculars. (a) The
field . Such corrcction is particularly impor- Huygenian ocular (a negative
ocular) . ( b ) The Ramsden
lant for photomicrography. ocular (a positive ocular).
Thc IIuygenian ocular is frequently called
a negative ocular. The eyepiece as a whole has no external focal plane
on the field-lens side. The Ramsden ocular is described as a positive I
Deu/m·. The foca l plane li es below the field lens and the object image is
form cd by th l) ohjcctive in lhi:; plane.
on'pollsatillg oculars arc cOllstru cted lo accompany apochromatic
objcellv('s, III ol'dor lo securo Ih n h('st I'('s lilts, oClilars magnifying more
20 MINERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 21
than ten times should b e of this type. Ordinary 5 X and lO X oculars are Micrometer eyepieces of the grating type (Figure 2-11c) are employed
satisfactory for most work with the polarizing microscope. to measure the areas of grains or fragments in the microscope field.
The Filar micrometer eyepiece (Figure 2-10) is designed for accurate These are also calibrated for different lens combinations with a stage
horizontal measurement across the field of view. A small cross line is micrometer.
moved to and fro. The movement Objectives. Views of several cut objectives appear in Figure 2-12.
is recorded on a drum at the side Achromatic objectives are ordinarily used for thin-section or fragment
of the eyepiece. A fine line through studies. Manufacturers usually supply as standard equipment 40-, 32-,
the center of the field parallel to 16- and 4-mm achromatic objectives, which serve for most purposes. In
the screw axis serves as a guide the case of achromatic objectives correction of aberrations of the image
in orienting the object with refer- becomes more difficult with high eyepiece magnification, and only the
ence to the direction of movement
of the crossline. In the lower sec-
tion of the field, a scale ruled in
0.5 mm with every second interval
numbered serves for counting screw
revolutions.
FIG. 2-10. The filar micrometer. The Micrometer eyepieces are also uti-
drum records the movement of a cross- lized when the dimensions of particu-
line which traverses the field of view. lar objects in the field of view are de-
(Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.)
sired (Figure 2-11a). The Huygenian
eyepiece contains a scale divided into 0.1 mm movable by means of a
screw at the side. The eye lens is focused on the scale. Such eyepieces are
useful in determining the axial angle of interference figures with the
microscope. The eyepieces should be calibrated with the aid of the stage
(0) (b) (c)
F IG. 2-12. Sectional views of objectives. (a) Objective lO X, 16 mm, 0.25 N.A.
d ivisible achromatic. ( b ) Achro matic objective 43X, 4 mm, 0.65 N .A. (c)
Ac hrom atic objective 97X, 1.8 mm, 1.25 N.A. oil immersion. (Bau sch and Lomb
O/J/ical Co.)

hes t achromatic objectives will give satisfactory results with an eyepiece

Iilagnincation of 12 X or greater.

•
(0) (b) (c)
FIG. 2-11. (a) Micrometer ocular; (b) scale in a micrometer ocular; (c) grating
micrometer. (Carl Zeiss, Gottingen, W est Germany.)
micrometers for various objectives. Th e dimensions represented by the
divisions in the micrometer ocuhu- (Fi gure 2-11h) as observed a t the eye
are govern ed by relations b etween th e objec li ve, the eyepi ece, the tube
longl-l l, and hy lh o prese nco or ahSI' I1C'O ill the op li callrain 0 1' th e anal~zer.
Apochromatic objectives are constructed to prOVide additional color
('o rrection b eyond that usually given by achromatic objectives. In this
objective practically all the images produced by the different colors of
I li e sp ectrum lie in the same plane and are equally sharp. The lenses are
II lade of combin ations of fluorite and glass. The problems of securing
good fluorite and the practical difficulties in their manufacture are con-
siti nahle; consequ ently the cost is greater than the cost of ordinary
.l1 ,lIr(l!l1atic ohjec tivcs. Th ose objectives are only occasionally used for
II li ('l'os('op ic sl ild y or min erals.
Tll o prillcipal rc~lllII'oS of :1 n objec tive that are of intcrest to the student
," '(\ 11 10 illili nl III:lgllifkalion, the 1I111neri cal aperture, thc focal length,
lit ld 111( \ work ill g disllllll '(' ,
22 MINERAL OPTICS
The optical tube length divided by the focal length equals the initial
magnification. Several manufacturers stamp the initial magnification for
a standard mechanical tube length 3 on the objective. This figure multi-
plied by the power of the eyepiece gives the magnification for a standard
tube length. This should be corrected , however, when the analyzing
prism is inserted (unless the prism mount contains a correcting lens).
Corrections may b e determined by using stage and eyepiece micrometers .
The working distance is the distance b etween the objective and the top
of the cover glass of the microscope slide when the objective is in focus .
The numerical ap erture (N.A. ) of an objective is a measure of the
largest cone of light th at it covers from an object point at the principal
focus. N.A. equals n sin p., where n is the index of refraction of the
THE POLARIZIN G MICROSCOPE 23
A considerable advantage is also gained by placing a drop of oil b etween
the auxiliary condens er lens and th e microscope slide. The working dis-
tance of an oil-immersion objective is very short; the lenses are difficult
t o manufacture and are consequently exp ensive. A good oil-immersion
objective, however, gives a b eautiful field with high magnification. The
objective should be handled carefully, especially in focusing. After use
the oil should b e removed by the use of lens p ap er moistened with xylol
or b enzine.
Magnification. The microscope is primarily an instrument for magnifi-
cation. It is worthwhile, therefore, to form an idea of the enlargement
of the fi eld of view with the lens systems available. The follo wing table
outlines the magnifications at the eye for diffe rent combinations of objec-
tives with an equivalent focus of 40, 32, 16, 8, 4, and 2 mm (oil immer-
sion) and also oculars magnifying five, ten, and fifteen times, resp ectively.

MAGNIFICAT IONS

Equiva- Work-
Magnificatio ns
lent Mag ni fi- in g d is-
wit h ocul a rs
T ype of obj ec tive focus, cation tanee, N. A.
mill i- numb er m illi-
(0) (bl
meters 5X lO X 15X m eters
FIG. 2-13. Diagram illustra ting the conve rgence of ligh t by means of cedar oil placed
- - -- - --
in front of the lens of an oil-immersion objective. (a) Air alone without ced ar oil;
( b) with cedar oil. Achrom a t ic .. . .. .. .. ..... . . 40 3. 2 16 32 48 34.5 0 . 12
Ac hromatic ... . ... . .. . .... . 32 4.3 22 43 65 27 .0 0 . 15
medium b etween the object under examination and the objective 4 and A,·hrom a tic .... . . . .. .. .. ... 16 10 50 100 150 5.8 0 .25
p. is one-half the angle of the cone of light entering the lens. The numeri- A po..i1l'om a tic ........ ...... 8 23 115 230 345 0 .85 0 .65
A po(' hromat.ic . ....... 4 46 230 460 690 0 20 0 .95
cal aperture furnish es a criterion of the quality of an objective. Other 2 92
A po(' hrom a t ic (oil imm ersion ) 460 920 1380 0 . 11 1. 32
things b eing equal, at any magnification, the intensity of the image de-
p ends upon N .A.; th e resolving power is directly proportional to N.A.; T tlbe length : 170 m m
the depth of focus is inversely proportional to N.A. In two objectives Im age d ist a n ce : 250 m m
HOU HCE : After L eitz .
haVing the same focal distance and therefore the same magnification, the
one with the greater N.A. will take a larger cone of light from the object
T hcre are limits to the resolving power of the microscope, even with
and will yield a brighter image. In general, with ordinary lighting, the
Ilu ) hest lens systems available. As long as the increase in magnification
limit of useful magnification for an average observer lies between 500
I('s lil ls in b etter vision of an object and more definite separation of detail,
and 1000 times the N.A.
III(' magnification may b e said to be "useful. " When the object merely
Oil-immersion objectives are used for high magnifications where a high
IIt 'c'omcs brgcr without aI)Y increase in resolving power, the magnifica-
degree of resolving power and correction are required. The oil should
110 11 is "empty." So-callcd empty magnifications of great magnitude are
agree in both dispersive power and index of refraction with the front
possi blc.
lens of the objective. The effect of oil immersion on the cone of light en-
I"or praclical p urp oscs the uppcr limit of "useful" magnification with
tering the front lens of an oil-immersion objective is shown in Figure 2-13. 111 0 polari zin g microscopc is about 1800 :1. 5 L arger magnifications, as

3 Bau sch and Lomb Op tical Co. and Spencer L ens Co. = 160 mm , L eitz = 170

mm, Zeiss = 170 mm. • All 1111 1IIIIII l'I'hinli o hjC'cli ve (Ca rl Zeiss ) p rim a ry mag nifica ti on 120, N .A. 1.3, free
=
• Air ( n 1) in tho case of a dry objective and speCially prep ared cedar oil \\ 111ki ll /: .!I , III II ' ·I) O.OH 111111, i ll ('llI lI hill ll li o ll w ilh a 15 X OCill aI', shou ld yi eld a magnifl-
( n = 1.515 ) in un oil -hnll1lJrs ion objective, 1'11 1111 11 111 1111 II I' IKOO : I.
24 MINERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 25
usually reported, are the result of some form of projection or special Pola1'izer. The prism or polaroid plate mounted in the substage system
equipment in which the exact limits of useful magnification are not <Figure 2-14) is known as the polarizer. It may be set at any angle
clearly known. A common form of projection is the enlargement em- through 3600 but is usually kept adjusted to a plane at right angles to
ployed in taking photomicrographs. Photomicrographs taken with a the plane of the analyzer. The cross hairs in the eyepiece are set parallel
camera having a long bellows may increase the magnification ratio given to the two planes. A polarizing plate mounted in the substage assembly
by the microscope several times. Thus magnification ratios of 3000 : 1, is shown in Figure 2-5.
4000: 1, or even considerably higher may be obtained. Such increase in Amici-Bertrand L ens. This lens is inserted in the tube of the micro-
magnification above the magnification of the microscope is essentially scope between the ocular and the analyzer (Figure 2-3). It serves to
enlargement and does not result in increase in resolution. From the
standpoint of increase in resolution or detail, it is "empty" magnification.
Enlarged photomicrographs of this type, however, may have value for
purposes of demonstration.
The limit of resolution for green light with a lens of N.A. 1.40 is said
to be approximately 0.18",. This might be d escribed as the distance apart
of two object points in the field of view of the microscope whose disk
images would just touch as projected to the eye. It has been shown
mathematically that the limit of resolution equals the wavelength divided
by twice the numerical aperture. From this relationship it is possible to
compute the number of lines per inch that can be separated by different
numerical apertures. Several may be given as follows for blue light wave-
length 486:
Lines per inch
N.A. separated
1.30 136 , 000
0 .85 89 , 000
0 .65 68 ,000
0 .30 31, 000

An accurate check of the magnification of the field of view in the

microscope may be obtained by using a stage micrometer. The stage 1",(:. 2-14. A sectional view showing a prism in position in the substage assembly.
micrometer is a glass slide carefully ruled into hundredths of a millimeter '\ "'<;l ion of a sub stage assembly containing a polarizing plate (filter) is shown in
or 0.001 inch. It not only serves as a comparison object for determining 1,'lg.2-4. (Am erican Optical Co.)

the magnification of the microscope but also may be used to give the
magnification of micro drawings, of micro projections, and of photo-
micrographs.
Analyzer. The nicol prism or polarizing plate mounted in the tube of
the microscope above the objective is known as the analyzer. The nicol
is carried on a sliding mount (Figure 2-4) while in some models the
plate (Figure 2-1) flips downward into the optical path. Either may b e
inserted or withdrawn from the optical path at will. The plane of vibra-
tion is normal to the plane of the polarizer and is usually either p erpen-
dicular or horizontal in the fi eld of view. More elaborate microscop es
t Fi gllJ"c 2-6 ) are fined with a mea ns [or rota tin g; th e analyzer.
hri ng the image of an interference figure into the focal plane of the
1)('1dar. The device was originally used by Amici (1844) and was later
oI d:lptecl by Bertrand (1878).
IlIlerference figures may b e observed without the Amici-Bertrand lens
il lli c ocular is removed. For superior results, an Amici-Bertrand lens with
01 IO(, lI sin g d iaphragm and an auxiliary magnifier to fit over the eyepiece
j ', II St· t! .
( ; () IIr/ f' IIS('J' . T llfCO co mpon ents may be present in a condenser system
.. I Ih' Iy pe sel cclcd forillu slrali on. Tn ordin ary examination with low-
(1"\\/(' 1' oiJjvclivos a lens compon ent with an illuminating ap erture of
,dhli ll 0.22 is Il s('d . III work in g willi hi gh powC'r or in obtainin g inter-
26 MIN ERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 27
ference figures, another condenser on a movable mounting (Figure 2-15) The mica plate and gypsum plate (G erman- Glimmer and Gips ), to-
swings across the axis. This suffices for all objectives of N.A. up to l.0. gether with a centering pin, are illustrated in Figure 2-18. The slow-ray
In the case of higher numerical apertures a special lens is inserted in directions in both the mica and gypsum plates are indicated.
place of the condenser in the movable mounting. This is more effective Berek Compensator. The com-
if used with oil immersion. pensator is designed to fit the
The arrangement of the condenser, together with the various adjust- tube slit above the objective in
ments for the polarizer, is shown in Figure 2-14. the same opening used for the
Iris Diaphragm. The iris diaphragm is attached to the lower side of gypsum and the mica plates. It is
the tube that holds the polarizer. It serves to reduce the cone of light, employed in the d etermination of
lessening the illumination of the the order of interference colors
\\/1 field of view, and causes objects to bel:\veen crossed nieols.

~
/1 \\
stand out with increased relief. The
diaphragm is useful in the applica-
tion of various tests when deter-
A calcite plate with the c-axis
vertical is inserted in the acces-
sory slot of the microscope. The
1/ \ \ mining indices of refraction with plate forms a window in the com-
I I \\ the microscope. pensator and is rotated by turn-
I I \\
I I \ \ Mirror. The mirror is usually re- ing a graduated drum. T.he com-
Front lens Condenser
I I \ bock lens versible, with one surface plane pensator (Figure 2-19) is rotated
I I \
I and the other concave. The plane IIntil the color of the mineral is
\
mirror surface is suitable for low- neuh'alized (becomes gray) . The
power microscopic work. Th e con- rolation of the compensator nee-
cave mirror converges the light ('S5ary to bring this about is a
upon the object. It is especially Ill('asure of the retardation.
useful in high-power examination. A compensator to measure small
It should also be used for low differences in retardation is shown
I I power when the illuminator pro- il\ Figure 2-20. A mica plate with
FIG. 2-15. A diagram illustrating the con-
struction of the condenser system.
duces a convergent beam. . 1 re lardation of YaO A red is tilted

(American Optical Co.) Fine Adjustment. It is advanta- II)' lurning a h orizontal graduated
geous to h ave the finest adjustment dlllm.
graduated so as to permit the measurement of the displacement of the OlJiect Slide. Various lengths
tube to within 2.5p. (thousandths of a millimeter). The adjustment is d lid widths of object slides may

used both for measuring depth and for focusing on objects at high mag-
nifications. Th e relationship b etween a coarse and fine adjustment and
the detail of the fine adjustment for one type of microscope are illus-
trated in Figure 2-16.
Microscope Accessories. The accessories provided with the microscope
generally include a quartz wedge, gypsum plate, and mica plate. These
are marked with arrows indicating the fast- and slow-ray vibration direc-
tions and are mounted in frames to fit the opening in the tube of the
microscope b etween the objective and the analyzer.
The qu artz w edge is ground to produ ce interference colors from the
beginnin g of the first to th e end of the third or fourth ord er. It is marked
and mOl1n ted as shown in F igure 2,-17.
hI' Iised, but the thickness is of
,',I( 'a(' 1' importance. Immersion
IOlld( 'nsers are mad e to work to
111", 1 adva ntage with slides from
II l) I() 1.0 m m lhiek. Thus slides
FIG, 2-16, The fine ad justment. ( American
iJ II I 'lI{led for slud y at hi gh mag- Optical Co. )
Ilili(': dions sll olil d con ronn to this
IIIII''' "('SS ir th e mos t sa lisfactory res ul ts are to be secured.
~>1i( h's 2G mm w ide hy 45 111m long arc gencrally used for mounting
Ill ill ."('(' lioIlS or mi ll era l:; and rocks. Sli ch sli des fit easily on the rotating
. 11l1~1l of lil t ' polnri zill g lili eros('ope yeL ;l rc la rge c nough to contain a
1:111111 ·,, !z('c1 sli( '(' II l1d II lso II 11 11 )('1 of' sllil ahl e tlill H'lI sions. Lo ng slides
28 MINERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 29
usually employed in biological investigations may be quite inconvenient upon the eyes. It is essential, therefore, to employ the best possible condi-
on a rotating stage. tions of work in order to reduce such strain to a minimum.
Cover Glass. Objectives usually employed for thin-section work are The student should assume an erect but not too rigid position. Such
corrected by the manufacturers for a cover-glass thickness of from a position with the microscope tube
0.15 to 0.17 mm. It is assumed that the top of the slice is pressed inclined allows him to work with
maximum comfort.
Both eyes should b e kept open

t ~
~
@ ~ ~ Quartz while looking through the instru-
/ -3 ard.
~ ment. If it is difficult to do this at
IIrst, a shield should b e placed over
the eye not in use. It is also a good
plan to learn to observe equally
well with either eye and not to de- FIG. 2-19. The Berek Compensator. (E.
c;.;.r ~'" "". '"',. ~~~,·"="1!...C!:>..1 . Leitz Inc.)
vclop the so-called 1nlC1'OSCOpe e y e . , .
FIG. 2-17. The quartz wedge mounted on a glass plate and in a metal frame. The Care of the Instrument. A polarizing microscope is expensive. Properly
arrow marks the slow-ray direction. Ordinarily a wedge covers four orders from the Ilscd, it should last a lifetime. Otherwise, it may become useless with
thin edge to the thickest portion. (Am erican Optical Co.)
littlc real service. Most of the precautions to be observed in the use of
the instrument are such as should
be applied to any piece of fine ap-
paratus. A few, however, are of
special nature and should be spe-
Gypsum Mica cially mentioned.
red 1/4 A
Fine-textured lens paper or, still
better, a camel's-hair brush should
be used for cleaning all optical

0Nr t
0L IF'"
parts. This applies to the ocular,
the objectives, the substage system,
the mirror, and the two nicols.
Objectives should be brought

--
Fast

LN
(0)
Slow

(b)
N
- Slow

(c)
into focus by moving the tube of
the microscope upward rather than
downward. Possibility of contact
between the lower lens of the ob-
FIG. 2-18. The gypsum plate (a), mica plate (b), and a centering pin (c). (E . jective and the thin section is thus
Leitz, Inc.) I".. !2 20. A cOlllpensator to mcaSUl e
llilo ill dili'ercnces in retardation. Mica avoided . High-power or oil-immer-
directly against the bottom of the cover glass. In case the slide is 1'"111 ', II willdow in the accessory plate. sion objectives should be cleaned
II !l Illy 1)(' lilted liy lurning the drum.
poorly mounted and a space intervenes b etween the top of the slice and 11,11 " ,t:t ld atioll is y", red. (E. Leitz,
with lens paper and xylol or ben-
the bottom of the cover glass, the extra distance should be considered III' zinc (not alcohol).
as so much additional thickness of cover glass. In order to obtain the Chemicals should not be used on
best results with objectives, cover glasses of standard thickness should lilt' ~ I "I.'t 1111 I('ss sp('ci:11 preca utions are takcn to protect the objective.
b e employed . (lIl l"" ti v,'s 'lill y Ill' prol('('I ('d hy lit e usc of cover glasses fastened to the
Precautions to Be Observed in the Use of the Microscope. Even under I"\\'~' r 1('ll s. OI'I':l sioll;tlly i lll old objective is reserved for chemical work
the h es t conditiolls mi crosc(lpe work prodll('('s :I ('('rtain allloHnt of stra in d"" Il,
30 MINERAL OPTICS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 31
Illuminators. At ordinary magnifications a good north light with a mal-evaporation processes. Patterns of annular shape which introduce a
broad, clear sky forms an excellent source of illumination for the polariz- phase shift of one-quarter wavelength of green light have been found
ing microscope. effective . An annular aperture diaphragm is placed at the front focal
In case such illumination is not available, artificial daylight lights may plane of the substage condenser. When illuminated it furnishes a light
be successfully employed. These consist of various types of electric bulbs
mounted in cases with a speCial blue-glass light filter in the path of the
illumination. Tlu'ee types are illustrated in Figure 2-21a,b,c. A low-volt-
age bulb with a condensing lens and diaphragm, as illustrated in Figure
2-21c, provides suitable illumination for a wide variety of magnifications.
At high magnifications and for
photomicrographic work a me-
chanical-feed arc lamp is some-
times used. The beam from the arc
is very warm and should always be
passed through a cooling cell of
water in order to avoid injuring
the cement in the prisms of the
microscope (unless special prisms
are employed).
Phase Microscopy. The tech-
nique of phase microscopy has FIG.
,~·,~w~·~_"""",.

2-21b. A strong lamp for general utility. (Am erican Optical Co.)
FIG. 2-21. Various types of artiRcial illu- found considerable application in
mination for the microscope: (a) small biological science where specimens
substage Jamp. (Bausch and Lomb Op- lacking in contrast may be illumi-
tical Co.) .
nated 111 such a way that struc-
tures become visible without using stains. In the examination of minerals
the technique of late has received some attention. In case the refractive
index of a mineral less than about 10", thick differs but slightly from the
refractive index of the mounting medium, phase microscopy may offer a
significant method of examination.
The theory and application of phase microscopy have been reviewed
at some length by Bennett et al. (1951). Phase differences between light
waves passing through points in the mineral and in the surround
are utilized to bring out contrast at the eye. An annulus at the level of
the condenser diaphragm and a diffraction plate at the back focal plane
of the objective are utilized to produce phase differences (Figure 2-22).
Minerals with extremely low relief in balsam may be made to stand out I",, :. 2-2 1c. A low-vollage lamp with V-slots for filters. (B ausch and Lomb Optical
(II )
more distinctly with this arrangement.
The use of annular diaphragms develops a change in optical path, or ', 11111'('( : atinRnily with respect to the object plane. The two annuli when
phase relation, in light entering the objective directly from an object and , \d( 'lly t'O Il Ct'lllric and. supcr imposed produ ce a phase difference of one-
light diffracted from an object. A phase-shifting element may be mounted ' I" I"I('J' w;lv(' lcll gtll .
at the rear focal plane of the objective. Such elem~nts may be made by Iloll I " <I;[l'k" ( ' (JIII I'us l and "hl'i ght " (,Oll t ra st may he produced by conb'ol
tho doposition of films of predetermined thickness by high-vacuum ther- Iii 11111 111111 IIJiv!(III 'SS wiJi<'i I ('() lill'ihIJl \'s In 11,( , pll:ls(' sllii't. Where the
32 M1N!,;RAL Ol'T1CS THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE
33
directly transmitted light is eltectively accelerated over the diffracted ries of trial exposures will first be necessary. The exposure reading for
light, the regions of greater optical path in the specimen will appear each exposure, as well as the time, should be recorded, When a satisfac-
darker than the surrounding background. Where retardation of undif- tory exposure has been secured, the time and exposure reading should be
fracted light occurs, regions of greater optical path in the specimen ap- noted. For example, suppose the time is 10 seconds and the meter reads
pear bright against a darker background. "5" when a good photograph is secured. For another exposure the meter
In Figure 2-23 photographs taken at
magnifications of 900: 1, 1700: 1, and
2000: 1 show fine particles of clay min-

~\ 1
erals in phase contrast. The range in
Eyepiece
diameter of the kaolinite particles a and
b is 2 to 6.3/L. The range in diameter of
'-Focal the halloysite particles c and d is 2 to
point of
eyepiece 6.3/L; while halloysite particles e and f
are about 2/L in length. Both "bright"
an d "dark" contrast are illustrated.
Photomicrographs. Photographs of thin
sections are frequently desired for pur-
poses of record. These may be obtained
quickly with simple equipment unless
.'" 'I ~
I t~JjIIi ,1.~~ ,
~
prints of exceptional quality are re- #'

qUired. In the latter case a special study

of equipment available on the market is
' \:.~.~. >.~ ~ ~.~.
~.J~~,
desirable. ~,., ~~"~"'.
A small camera designed for 35-mm ". ' t·,'!.,.' : i::- t
film may be fastened to a tube above
. f.:."
''" c. 2-23. Microphotographs of clay minerals by pllase contrast technique. Mounts
the microscope (Figure 2-24). A view- =
, I - II--,} C"d"", ing lens is attached to the side of the
tube. An exposure meter is placed be-
( c ) and (d) were immersed in a mixture of butyl carbitol and clove oil (n

West Germany.)
1.500);
(e ) and (f) in glycerine (n = 1.463). (Courtesy Dr. H . Piller, Carl Z eiss, Gottingen,

tween the viewing lens and the camera. ( a) Kaolinite, Schnaittenbach.- (900: 1 ). Phase contrast, light field, ordinary
= " Annular
+-- diaphragm
The entire assembly is arranged to fit
polarized light.
(b) Kaolinite, Schnaittenbach.- ( 900: 1). Phase contrast, dark field.
Solid lines represent direct rays the tube of the microscope above the (c) Halloysite, Lawrence Co., Ind.- (l700: 1 ). Phase contrast, light field, ordinary
Dotted lines represent diffracted rays ocular. The excellence of the photo- polarizecl light.
FIG. 2·22. Phase contrast arrange- (d) Halloysite, Lawrence Co., Ind.- ( 1700: 1). Phase contrast, dark field.
ment with an annular diaphragm
micrographs secured will depend upon ( e ) Hal1oysite, Lawrence Co. , Ind.- (2000:1). Phase contrast, light field, ordinary
in the front focal plane of the sub· the quality of the illumination, focus, polarized light.
stage condenser and an annular exposure, and the area selected for (f) Halloysitc, Lawrence Co., Ind.- ( 2000: 1). Phase contrast, dark field.
phase shifting element in the back photography.
focal plane of the objective.
(Am erican Optical Co.) Good quality microscope lamps with r('ads "2.5." Then the required time for the second exposure would be
suitable filters will provide a satisfactory G scconds.
illumination. Focus may be adjusted with the aid of the viewing lens . Where larger photomicrographs are desired cameras equipped for cut
The exposure may b e determined with the photometer. Study of photo- fi lms or plates may be uscd in place of the small camera mentioned
micrographs in various textbooks and professional journals will serve as above. rll gcncral , photomicrographs of thin sections are taken with
a gllide in selectin g areas slIitahle for phoLography. :1.2X Or 'lO X objeclivcs si nce th e depth of th e scction interfcres with the
Exposllre md( 'rs « S ( 't! wil h 1'111 1 mi crost'opn am IlIi('rop holo melers and I OC Il S at lli gh IlIil gnifi calioll. AI III(' sa mc lime the Lextnrcs ord in arily ob-

wi ll III'I'd 10 hI) ('I !l ill l'lI li'd for tlil l plll'lkll lll l' ('cpr/pllll'''l II v lli llll>k. A s(:· s\'rv\,d 01'1( '11 II PP('III' tt) h('tll ' l' II d Vll lllll j.(t ' ti l low\'!' II lilglljfkaliOl1s.
34 MINERAL OPTICS
Adjustment of the Polarizing Microscope. Four separate steps may be
outlined to arrange the polarizing microscope for the examination of thin
sections:
1. Centering the stage with the field
2. Crossing the nicols
3. Testing the crosshairs
4. Determining the vibration plane of the lower nicol
1. Centering the Stage with the Field. The stage is centered when the
axis of rotation coincides with the tube axis of the microscope, the tube
axis standing perpendicular to the
center of the field of view. Screws
on the side of either the objective
collar or the stage (Figure 2-25) are
used to align the tube axis and the
stage. A simple procedure is fol-
, lowed. While looking through the
instrument at the field of view, pick
out an easily recognizable point, and
then rotate the stage. The point
should describe a concentric circle
of rotation about the intersection of
the cross hairs. If it does not, rotate
the stage until the point is farthest
from the intersection of the cross-
hairs, bring it in halfway by means
of the centering screws, and then
bring it to the center of the stage by
actually moving the slide itself. Ro-
tate the stage, and repeat the opera-
tion if the centering has not been
FIG. 2-24. Photomicrographic camera, completed the first time.
exposure meter, and viewing lens. 2. Crossing the Nicols. The planes
(Courtes y of Paul Rosenthal, 505 Fifth
of vibration of the hvo prisms
Ave., New York 17, N.Y.)
should be set at right angles to each
other. The plane of vibration of the analyzer is usually fixed by the manu-
facturer either from left to right or up and down as one observes the
microscopic field. The lower nicol is adjusted at right angles by rotating
it in the substage collar until the field becomes dark, with both nicols in
the path of li ght. The nicols should remain in th e position giving max-
imllm darkn css. A small pin usually fits into a notch at this position.
3. '/' es(ill {!, (I, c Cmss lwi'l's. The (Toss klirs 'in Ihe oc ular mav h c cithcr
THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE 35
Image centered
Stage Stage
FIG. 2-25. Diagram illustrating centering the field of view of the microscope.
the spiderweb type or lines engraved on a glass plate. In either case it is
important that the hair lines be parallel to the planes of vibration of the
two nicols. Ordinarily these are set by the optical firm supplying the
microscope, and the ocular is so arranged that it will not fit the tube
of the microscope in other than the correct position. The adjustment
should be checked occasionally, how-
II
cver, and in case the alignment is
inaccurate, the cross hairs should be
rcsct by an experienced technician.
A slide containing small elongated
rcctangular crystals of natrolite (Fig-
II1'C 2-26) is useful to test the setting
of the crosshairs with the planes of
I hc nicols. G The nab'olite becomcs
dark between crossed nicols when
I he edges of the crystals are parallel
10 the vibration directions. A slide
('() lIlaining a small natrolite crystal
IIlay be placed upon the stage be- FIG. 2-26. Testing the adjustm ents of
I w('on crossed nicols and turned until the crosshairs with natrolite frag-
ments.
II becomes dark. If the crosshairs
dl'0 in adju stment, th e web lines should be parallel or at right angles to
111( \ strai ght lin es of the cryst~l. This is true in each of the four positions
01 ('x till ction. I'n 45° intermediate positions the natrolite will show max-
11 111 1111 illllillinalion .
d. /)1'I1 'l'IIlillill {!, (he Vi l)1'IIlion PI(/n e of th e Lower Nicol. Aftcr the other
oI lijl lslllll'lIl s l"l ve 1)('('11 Iliad e , 111(' vihration direction of thc lower nicol
• II 11 11 1, (1 111(\ I ~ liol ",," Hllhl!', li lly (' ryslll tt llh l I1l IlLcrinl w ith slra ighL-lin c edges and
1'01111 11 (,1 n~ I I II ("11) 1I 111 11" Ill' Nllh, IIIIII (;d .
,j6 MINERAL OPTICS
can be determined with either fibrous tourmaline fragments or a rock
.5ection containing biotite showing cleavage.
Tourmaline (Figure 2-27a) has maximum absorption when it is
oriented with the c-axis (usually the long direction of a crystal or frag-
ment) in a direction at right angles to the plane of vibration of the
polarizing prism. Biotite (Figure 2-27b), on the other hand, is darkest
when the cleavage is parallel to the vibration direction. Note the positions
of greatest' and least darkness, observing with the upper nicol thrown
t t
i t
(0) (b)
FIG. 2-27. Determining the vibration plane of the lower nicol : (a) elongated
tourmaline fragments; (b) biotite in thin section.
THE! POLARlztNG MICl\OSCOP~ 37
Burri, c.: "Das Polarisationsmikroskop," Basel, 1950 .
Chamot, E. M., and C. W. Mason: "Handbook of Chemical Microscopy," vol.
1, John Wil€y & Sons, Inc. , New York, 1930.
Ehringhaus, A.: "Das Mikroskop," Leipzig, 1943.
Gage, S. H.: "The Microscope," Comstock Publishing Associates, Inc., Ithaca,
N.Y., 1925.
Hallimond, A. F.: "Manual of the Polarizing Microscope," Cooke, Troughton &
Simms, Ltd., York, England, 1953.
Hartshorne, N. R., and A. Stuart: "Crystals and the Polarizing Microscope,"
Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1950.
Johannsen, A.: "Petrographic Methods," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1918.
Marshall, C. R, and H. D . Griffith: "Introduction to the Theory and Use of
the Microscope," Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., London, 1928.
Michel, K.: "Die Grundlagen der Theorie des Mikroskops," Stuttgart, 1950.
Niggli, P.: "Lehrbuch der Mineralogie und Kristallchemie," 3d. ed., vol. 2,
Verlag Gebriider Bomtraeger, Berlin, 1942.
Piller, H.: Die Phasenkontrastmikroskopie als Hilfsmittel zur Bestimmung fein-
korniger, speziell dunner, transparenter Minerale, H eidelberger 13eitr.
Mineral. u. Petrog., vol. 3, pp. 307-334, 1952.
Raaz, Fr., and H. Tertsch: "Geometrische Kristallographie und Kristalloptik
und deren Arbeitsmethoden," Vienna, 1939.
Spitta, E. J.: "Microscopy," E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, 1920.
Wahlstrom, Ernest E.: "Optical Crystallography," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1943.
Zernike, F.: Phase Contrast, a New Method for Microscopic Observation of
Transparent Objects, Physica, no. 9, p. 686, 1949.

out from the tube. These indicate either the vibration direction or the
normal to the vibration direction, depending upon whether the slide is
biotite or tourmaline.
REFERENCES
Allen, R M.: "The Microscope," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton,
N.J., 1940.
Amici, G. B.: Ann. chim. et phys., 3d ser., vol. 12, p. 114, 1844.
Beck, Conrad: "The Microscope," R & J. Beck, Ltd., London, 1938.
Belling, John: "The Use of the Microscope," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. ,
New York, 1930.
Bennett, Alva H., Harold Osterberg, Helen Jupnik, and Oscar W. Richards:
"Phase Microscopy," John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , New York, 1951.
Berek, Max: "Anleitung zu optischen Untersuchungen mit dem Polarisations-
mikroskop," Verlag Schweitzerbart, Stuttgart, 1953.
Bertrand, E.: Z. Kryst ., vol. 1, p. 69 , 1877.
Bcrtrand, E.: 13I/II. soc. fmm; . ·min e'm l., vol. 1, pp. 27, 97, 1878.
Bcrtrand, L. , and M. TIOllballlt: "L'cmploi cl\.l Mi croscopc Po1::tris:lllt," Paris ,
I D3fl.

CHAPTER 3 metal was exposed to light. Then the electron was discovered in 1897,
A Summary of the Properties of Light
Theories of Light. Since light crosses interstellar space, penetrates
transparent solids or liquids, and also travels through a vacuum, a medium
has usually been postulated by which it could be conveyed. The medium
is the ether, which has been assumed to permeate all matter and to per-
vade all space. Modern studies h ave shown, however, that in order to
account for certain things the ether must be endowed with the most
extraordinary physical properties, and according to some concepts it is
unnecessary. The source of the light and its effect on the eye are ap-
parent, but some explanation must be advanced to account for its trans-
mission.
Several prominent theories have been advanced. According to one, a
beam of light consists of a stream of minute particles, or "corpuscles,"
given off at high velocity by the sun or any luminous body. The cor-
puscles travel through space in straight lines and eventually reach the
eye. This is generally referred to as the corpuscular theory, a theory that
received much attention because it was supported by the famous physicist
Sir Isaac Newton.
Another theory was Rrst advanced by the D utch scientist Christian
Huygens in the latter part of the seventeenth century. According to
Huygens, the ether is supposed to vibrate, and light is transmitted through
it by the vibration of particle after particle in waves. The phenomena
of light such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference may be
readily explained in accordance with this theory. The theory of Huygens,
however, failed to explain the apparent rectilinear motion of light and
was not accepted by Newton.
A modiRcation of the wave theory was proposed by the Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1873), who considered light as made
up of waves but said that the waves were electromagnetic. According to
Maxwell, a wave consists of rapidly alternating elecbic and magnetic
field s normal to each oth cr and normal to the direction of propagation
of li ght. TTcrlz ( 1888 ) succeeded in produ Cin g waves having propcrties
:11-1
A SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT 39
similar to light waves by electriCity. As a result of the work of Maxwell,
Hertz, and other experimenters, the electromagnetic theory of wave mo-
tion was for a time generally accepted.
Toward the end of the last century evidence began to appear that did
not accord with the electromagnetic theory. It was found that the space
around certain metals would become electrically conductive when the
and it was assumed that the photoelectric effect was due to the emission
of electrons as the metal became exposed to light. This was based on
the fact that expulsion means energy, and it was presumed that the
energy in the case of the photoelectric effect would come from light.
However, the energy given by light is so small that it could not account
for the emission of electrons. This led to the assumption that the light
was concentrated in points and not uniformly distributed. At about this
time Planck developed the assumption that radiating oscillators in a
black body radiate energy discontinuously in units called quanta. Einstein
in 1905 suggested that the absorption of light in the photoelectric process
might also be in quantum units. Later experiment demonstrated that the
quanta of Einstein were of the same size as those postulated by Planck.
As a result of these developments the explanation of light seems to rest
upon two apparently contradictory theories, the wave theory being more
appropriate for phenomena such as reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction, and polarization, whereas the quantum theory is more ap-
plicable to the recent discoveries in the ReId of X rays, radiation, and
photoelectricity. Speaking of the two theories, Einstein has stated as
follows :
We have good proof that both waves and particles exist. Our present effort
is to understand how this is, to find a theory that will unify the nature of light.
The composition of a two-point view has not yet been found. It is a quest of
science in which our present methods are imperfect.
Nomenclature of the Wave Theory. The nomenclature of the wave
thcory used in this text is summarized in the follOwing paragraphs.
D isplacement. In wave motion the form of the wave may be described
if pm·ticles in the medium are assumed to be displaced in sequence. The
fo rm of displacement represents a curve combining movement around a
('i rcle with motion along a straight line.
=
\1ibTot'ion direction electric vector = electrical displacement. The
vibra tion direction lies in the wavefront and is perpendicular to the ray
II I iso tropic m edia. In anisotropic crystals it is not perpendicular except
ill limited directi0ns.
W avelength. The distance b etween two successive crests or troughs,
or any corresponding distan ce along the wave (denoted by the Greek
40 MINERAL OPTICS
letter lambda, A). A is usually measured in millionths of a millimeter or
millimicrons (mp.) .
Wavefront . The surface determined at a given instant by all the parts
of a system of waves traveling along the same direction and in the same
phase. In space, in air, or in any other optically isotropic media when
light moves along parallel lines the wavefront is perpendicular to the
direction of transmission. In anisotropic media the wavefront is peI'pen-
dicular only in certain directions.
Wave normal. The direction perpendicular to the wavefront. In iso-
tropic substances the wave norm al and the ray direction are the same.
Frequency. The number of vibrations in a given unit of time. Ordinarily
several trillion per second in the case of light waves.
Phase. The relative position of corresponding points on different waves
moving along the same line. Two points on waves are in the same phase
when they are in the same relative position in regard to the crest or trough
of the wave and are both moving either toward or away from the line of
transmission. Two points are in opposite phase when they are in the
same relative position but when they are moving in opposite directions
with reference to the line of transmission. Other phase differences may
occur.
The phasal difference represents th e portion of a wavelength by which
one wave train fails to match the other.
Amplitude. The maximum displacement of a wave from the line of
transmission.
Period. The time interval necessary for a wave to undergo a complete
oscillation.
Crest. The point of the wave with the maximum upward displacement.
Trough. The point of the wave with the greatest downward displace-
ment.
Beam. A group of light waves following along the same path. A familiar
example is the white beam of a motion-picture projector clearly visible
in the dusty atmosphere of the theater. Beams can be made narrower
and narrower.
Ray. The straight-line path followed by light in moving from one point
to another in a given medium. The ray is perpendicular to the electrical
field and is the direction of propagation of the energy.
Refractive Index. The refractive index is equal to the ratio of the wave-
normal velocity in a vacuum to the wave-normal velocity (not the ray
velocity) in the medium, whether isotropic or anisotropic.
Monochromatic Light. Light of a single wavelength. In practical tests
li ght is frequently used coverin g a small range of wavelengths but ap-
pearing as one color to th e eye.
A SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
41
Light Vector. The action of light may be described as depending upon
the periodi c altern ation of a light vector that lies parallel to the plane
of the wavefront and in isotropic media is perpendicular to the direc-
tion of propagation. In anisotropic media the vector is still parallel to the
plane of the wavefront but, aside from certain limited positions, is not
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
In the case of monochromatic light, the light vector follows the laws of
simple harmonic motion, the vibration period T dep ending upon the color
of the monochTOmatic light. The wavelength A- i.e., the distance between
two successive like points on a wave train- is equal to the velocity of
propagation v multiplied by ~he vibration period:
A = vT
In any transparent mass A is fixed, and v varies with T. The intensity of
light is the average of the intensities in the various light-vector quadrants
and varies with the amplitude.
The light wave is electromagnetic with two vector movements in the
system. In isotropic media these are transverse and perpendicular to each
other, one limited by the magnetic field of force, the other by the electric
field of force. These are connected with two other vectors distinguished
in isotropiC media by their magnitude and in anisotropic media also
through variation in direction. These two vectors may be called the elec-
tric vector and the magnetic vector. The first of these measures the
electrical displacement; the second, the magnetic displacement or induc-
tion. Maxwell worked out equations applicable to the movement of
these vectors (although the movement had been originally worked out
before vector analysis was introduced). Experimental evidence has shown
that the vibration direction of light corresponds to the electrical dis-
placement (electric vector) in isotropic bodies. In anisotropic bodies it
has been shown to correspond to either the electrical displacement (elec-
tric vector) or the electrical field. In the electromagnetic theory light is
assumed to correspond to the electrical displacement (electric vector) ,
an assumption made plausible by the conception of light as an electrol-
ys is.
Speed of Light. Light waves travel along the direction of transmission
at a sp eed of approximately 186,284 miles per second. The same law of
frequency used in the case of sound applies to light and is expressed
by the equation
v
f = "}.
or v = fA
12 MINERAL OPTICS
A SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
43
[n this equation the frequency f is obtained by dividing the velocity v
goes a change in velOCity. A corresponding change must occur, therefore,
by the wavelength it. In the case of violet light (it = 0.000037 cm) the
in either the wavelength or the frequency. Since the vibration period re-
velocity (v = 186,284 miles per second) divided by the wavelength gives
mains the same for a given color, the change occurs in the wavelength.
a frequency of 800,000,000,000,000 ( eight hunched trillion) vibrations per
The wavelength will differ even for the same color in different bodies;
second.
Wave Motion. An idea of the behavior of light waves may be gained
by a study of waves generated by simple harmonic motion and uniform
rectilinear motion.
Simple harmonic motion is uniform motion in a circular path as it
would appear projected on the diameter of a circle. If a particle as il-
lusb"ated in Figure 3-1 is assumed to move clockwise around the circum-
ference of a circle, occupying various positions in turn, the projections on

(0)
R

,. jL '\\: /N--

B
FIG. 3-1. The harmonic curve produced by movement around a circle combined with
motion along a straight line. (b)
R
the vertical diameter AB will be at the intersections \vith the horizontal
dotted lines shown in the figure. If observed from the side along the
plane of the circle, the particle will appear to oscillate back and forth
with varying velocity. If, in addition to the harmonic motion, the particle
moves along a straight line MN at a uniform rate (rectilinear motion) ,
it will no longer move in a circular path but will follow a curve of the
type illustrated in the projection. The projection on the vertical diameter
of the circle, however, will still be the same. The curve is a harmonic
curve, which has the form of a sine curve. (e)
Differences in phase produce a number of resultant forms when two F IG. 3-2. Combinations of waves produced by several phase differences. (a) The
or more waves follow the same line (Figure 3-2). Two sets of waves may phase difference is ¥.! A, and the two waves are equal and opposite in phase. (b) The
be equal and opposite, thus nullifying each other (Figure 3-2a). Other resultant wave (R) produced by two equal waves of slight p ath difference. (c) The
resultant wave (R) produced by two waves of equal length and identical phase, but
sets may be equal in amplitude and wavelength but differ in phase. The cliffering in amplitude.
latter sort will produce a resultant R of intermediate crest and increased
amplitude (Figure 3-2b ) .
thus the number of vibrations p er second or the frequency of the waves
When two waves are equal in phase, wavelength, and period but differ reaching the eye determines the color.
in amplitude, a resultant R is produced of the same phase and wavelength
Waves of visible light vmy in length, the longest being red and the
with increased amplitude (Figure 3-2c ).
shortes t viol et. Thc portion of th e sp ectrum directly visible to the eye
The Color of Light. The brightness of a ray is determin ed by the am-
varies he tween relatively narrovv limits. The extreme wavelength of red
plitude of the wa v~ vibration. Light, on entcrin g vari ous bodies, under-
ligllt is 0.00007.')9 em, and Lh e rclaLive wavelongth of extreme visible
14
!iolet is 0.0000393 cm. In terms of millimicrons (the units commonly em-
)loyed in dealing with light) , the figures are:
Red light = 759 mM
Violet light = 393 mM
White light, or ordinary light , is a combination of all the different
wavelengths visible to the eye in one simultaneous effect. When only
c>ne wavelength is observed, light is singly colored, or monochromatic.
White light may b e considered composed of seven different colors. These
grade into each other, forming a continuous spectrum. The colors of the
spectrum are frequently represented by arbitrarily chosen wavelengths
representing mean values of the various colors, as follows:
MINERAL OPTICS
A SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
45
Hardy, A. C., and F. H. Perrin: "The Principles of Optics," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1932.
Heyl, P. R. : The History and Present Status of th e Physicist's Concept of Light,
]. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 18, pp. 183-192, 1929.
"Huygens' Treatise on Light," trans. by Silvanus P. Thompson, Macmillan &
Co., Ltd., London, 1912.
Newton, Sir Isaac, "Opticks," repr., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1931.
Pockels, F. : "Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik," B. G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1906.
Saunders, F . A. : "Survey of Physics," H enry Holt and Company, Inc., New
York, 1930.
Webster, D . L. , E. R. Drew, and H . W. Farwell: "General Physics for Col-
leges," Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. , New York, 1926.
Whittaker, E. 1'. : "History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity," Long-
mans, Green & Co., Ltd. , London, 1910.

R ed = 700 mM
Ora nge = 620 mIL
Y ellow = 560 mIL
Green = 515 mM
Blue = 470 mIL
Indigo = 440 mIL
Violet = 410 mM

The elech'omagnetic spectrum (Figure 3-3) extends fa r beyond the

r ange of visible light. The mechanisms by which the different radiations

Blue
Indiqo
~Gfileetf;n Yellow
/,/,;Oronqe
1\ A VAt) A A{ Red ___
, , -'"
x- Ex- Ultro: Visible '. _-/--
roys tremf I violet,: spectrum \ _---- Infro red
I U. v. './ \~ 'w"'--
o 3,900.00 7,600.00 10,000.00 Au
390. 00 760.00 1,000.00 MfL
0.39 0.7 6 1. 00 fL
0.00039 0.0 0076 0.001 mm
F I G. 3-3. The approximate range of visible spectmm.

are produced, however, must be much different because of the great

difference in frequency.
REFERENCES
Coker, E. G ., and L. N. G . Filon: "A Treatise on Photo-elasticity," Cambridge
Univcrsity Prcss, London , 1931.
Crew, H.: "The Wavc Thcory of Light," Am crica n Rook Compa ny, New York,
1900 .
F:dsn , E .: "Lighl ror SlllCkllls," Macmill a ll & Cn., 1,l d., 1,l)lI doll , 1930.

CHAPTER
R efraction
Snell's Law. The Index of Refraction. When light p asses obliquely
from one medium to another in which it travels with a different velocity,
it undergoes an abrupt change in direction. This abrupt change in direc-
tion is known as refraction. The relationships of the incident and refracted
REFRACTION 47
the trace of the plane normal to the incident beam I strikes the surface at
II, the point 15 is still a considerable distance above the bounding plane.
The positions 12 , l a, and I ., together with corresponding intermediate
points, are also above the surface.
Let the beam advance until the ray at 15 has reached R 5. During this
4 advance the ray at II has penetrated the denser medium and has con-
tinued with diminished velocity until it has arrived at the circumference
of a circle with a radius I 1R" which represents the distance traveled
in the denser medium. Similarly, 12 has penetrated to the circumference
R 2 , 1a to Ra, and 14 to R •. A tangent common to these circles represents the
new wavefront, and the new beam is p erpendicular to the new wavefront.
The spherical waves sent out from b and other points on the bounding
plane destroy each other except along bc and corresponding directions.
In the above construction, the distances 15R5 and 11Rl may be con-
sidered proportional to the relative velocities of light in the two media.
It is apparent from the relationship of the lines of the diagram that
p ao
sin i = bo

or bo =~
sin i
be
also sin r = bo

be
or bo = sin r
Since bo is common, the equations may be combined, and
Air
I, a
ao be
b\ Rs l\ Wafer - .-
sm '!,
. = - .-
sm r
\ \
\ \
\ \ ao sin i
\
or
\
\ be = sin r
\
c "t
R;\ The index of refraction is determined by the distance light will travel
\ \ in a given time interval through a transparent substance as compared
\.
\
\
rA with air. In Figure 4-1 light h'avels the distance ao in air, while it travels
\ the distance bc in water. It follows , therefore, that the index of refraction
,
\
ao
FIG. 4-1. Light b eing refracted on p assing from a rare into a denser medium. n = be
light m ay be illustrated by the adaptation of the construction of Huygens sm '!,
0 1' n - .-
shown in Figure 4-l. smr
L et us supposc, for example, that a rare medium- ail- is in contact
It appears from the foregoing equation that for any angle of incidence
wilh a denscr med iu m - walcr. An incid cnt b ca m I strikcs the surfacc
the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
01' Lho wa leI' ohli (I', ely, mak in g all a ll gle i w ith a pe rpc ndi c ula r P. Whc n
1\(1
 MINERAL OPTICS REFRACTION 49
48 Ordinarily, h'ansparent minerals with a high index of refraction (HI or
refraction is a constant. It is also true that the respective velocities of
more ) have the brilliant appearance called adamantine luster, while
light in the two media bear the same ratio. The relationship between the
minerals with a lower index of refraction have a vitreous luster.
sines of the two angles and the velocities is known as Snell's law. It was
Dispersion. The index of refraction for the violet end of the spectrum
discovered by Snell in 1621 but was not made known until after his death.
is greater than for the red end of the spectrum and on refraction red
Let n be the index of refraction of a transparent material referred to
is deviated less than violet. The ordinary refraction of the two is indi-
air.l Then V = the velocity in air, and v = the velocity in the transparent
cated in Figure 4-2.
material; also The difference b etween the index of refraction for red and the index
n = v
v for violet is often briefly referred to as the dispersion. A cut prism p laced
in the path of a beam of white light produces a beautiful display of
If n and n 2 are the indices of refraction of two different materials, then spectrum colors. The difference be-
l
tween the angle d,. and the angle dv
nl V2
registers the dispersive power of the ..:;
n2 Vl 0- '
~
prism (see Figure 4-10) . ?",
Thus the indices of refraction of two transparent substances are inversely Minerals differ widely in their dis-
<5
~<:-?
proportional to the velocities of light in the two media. persive power. One h aVing the least
The angles i and r may be measured experimentally for many sub- dispersion is fluorite; a mineral with Air
stances, thus determining n. The index of refraction depends both upon Water
one of the highest values is diamond.
the substance and upon the kind of light. The indices of isotropic sub- The "fire" or brilliant play of colors of
stances or general values are designated by the letter n. The extreme the cut diamond is due to the high
values for hexagonal or tetragonal minerals are deSignated by ne and nw. dispersion from the prismlike faceted
OrthorhombiC, monoclinic, and triclinic crystals h ave their extreme values gem stone. Fluorite, on the other vr
designated by n)' (greatest) , n O! (least), and n j3, the value in a direction at hand, if cut and faceted, appears
right angles to the two others.2 The following t able gives examples of correspondingly dull. Because of its FIG. 4~2. Variation in .the angles of
values for the indices of refraction of several well-known minerals that · . . 11 1 fl . refractIOn for lIght of dIfferent colors.
1ow dIsperslOn, optica y c ear uonte
occur throughout the normal range: is in demand for microscope lenses of high magnification to be corrected
for chromatic variation. Comparative figures for the dispersion of fluorite
Indices of refraction
Minerals (N aD) and the diamond are given:
n = 1. 4338
Fluorite .... .. . . ... . . . ... . .. . Fluorite Diamond
n, = 1.5533; nw = 1 5442
Quartz * . . .. .. ... . . . ... . . '
nw = 1 .6585 ;n, = 1 .4863
Calcite * ......... . . . . .. . ... .
nw = 1.6461; n, = 1.6417 Index of Index of
Apatite * . . ... . ..... . . . . . . . na = 1.5301;n~ = 1.6816;ny = 1 6859 Illumination refraction, Illumination refraction,
Aragonite * . . .. . n n
Garnet (grossular ite) .. (Yellow) n = 1.7714
Sphalerite .. ...... . (Yellow) n = 2.3692
Red K( A') , A = 768.2 ...... 1.43095 R ed (B line) . ..... . .. . .... 2.40735
* Quartz,calcite, and apatite are a nisotropic with a r an ge of values for refractive Violet H(G'), A = 434.1. ..... 1.43963 Violet (H line) ... . .. . . . . . . 2.46476
indices between n, and n w , the two extremes. Refractive indices of a ragonite vary
between ny and na· Dispersion . .. .... . . . . .. .. . . 0 .00868 Dispersion .. ...... .. . . ... 0 .05741
1 The refractive index of dry air at 760-mm pressnre referred to a vacuum is only

slightly different from unity (1.000274 at 15 °C) ; th ercfore, indices of refraction of All min erals have some disp erSive power, but fluorite and diamond
material substances referred to air arc approxim ately equal to th eir indices referred
represent approxim ately the two ex tremes.
to a va cllum (lhe hUer :11"e call ed Lhe a/Jso /ltte f efm cNve inrl·ices ).
' In Ame ricll II k cl1l1i (;:11 jlll lrll ;lls c! t':ll ing wilh op ti cal descri pli ons of min erals, many On aCCOlin t of the d ispersion of min erals , accurate de terminations
Illllil(lrs IIndl II,, ' Idl ('r 'I/. Il lid " ' " liI(' C,..· .. k !vll"rs II', (I, "I , c, OI lid '" alone in reeordi.ng of illlli <.; os of l'l'i"r;lclioll a rc mud e w il·h monochromatic light. In
IlId ll'II' "I' , .,1', 11, '110 ,1 ,,,, 1, 1(\ (1 11/11 1, 01 111111 il ' ~ysl",n ,
50 MINERAL OPTICS REFRACTION 51
routine study, however, the highest accuracy is seldom necessary, and Indices of Refraction of Anisotropic Minerals. Minerals b elong to two
white li~t is generally employed. As a matter of fact, white light as optical class es: (1) isotropic and (2) anisotropic.
usually employed in determining mineral indices gives an average Mineraloids such as opal and gl ass which lack regular internal
value for practical purposes somewhat comparable to yellow. The structure and other minerals such as d iamond, garnet, spinel, fluoritc,
dispersive effect with white light is also extremely useful for several etc., crystallizing in the isometric system are isotropic. Minerals crystalliz-
common tests. ing in the other crystal systems are anisotropic.
Critical Angle. In the formula n = sin i/sin r the angle of incidence Light traveling through anisotropic minerals is doubly refracted. Thus
may vary between 0° and 90° . When i = 0°, the incident beam strikes a b eam of monochromatic light p assing obliquely from air into an aniso-
the bounding surface at right angles . Sin i in this case = 0, and r must tropic medium not only is b ent to one side but also is broken into two
also equal O. Thus an incident beam going from a rarer medium into a beams. At the same time each of the two b eams is polarized- i. e., limited
denser one is not refracted to either to a single plane of vibration, as will
side but merely suffers a loss of be explained in the chapter on po-
velocity. larized light. In addition, each b eam
tt ! / =If i =
90°, sin i 1, and the is differently refracted for different
<,;r equation becomes n = l/sin r. In colors of light.
~ this case, since n is a constant for Double refraction of two rays oc-
a particular substance, the angle curring in anisotropic minerals is Air 'oJ
Air,______,...."rl-,,~=_----
Water __ ::::;::. ~ ~ (ff §2 ~ :::: - of refraction also becomes fixed. illustrated in Figure 4-4. The inci- Ilnisotropic mineral ~
~ --:r-::::- ~~
~o'~ '/ '/
~ $':::-::::::~
"-:::- ----...~~
=
When i 90°, the angle of refrac- dent beam is broken into nvo sets of
rn"O /j,. " '- ~L\) ~ tion is known as the critical angle. rays, white light prodUCing two dis-
~.- /"./": '--........ ... ~
~ // ~ The critical angle is important in persed spech'a with opposite direc-
c;.~?!!t ft
/~cO/ 'J'r
the practical determination of in-
dices of refraction.
tions of vibration. Monochromatic
red light will yield two angles of re-
Ongle
Total Reflection. Figure 4-3 fraction, and monochromatic violet
FIG. 4-3. The relation b etween refraction light will also yield two different
shows light going from water into
of light passing from a denser medium
into a rarer medium and reflection be- air (or from a denser medium into angles. In each case of monochro-
yond the critical angle. a rarer medium). A ray striking matic light and also in the case of FIG. 4-4. A diagram illustrating the vari-
the surface of the water vertically white light the directions of vibra- ation uf the an gle of refraction for red
and violet in an anisotropic mineral.
from below continues out into air along the same path. If the path devi- tion are opposed but may not b e
ates from the vertical, the beam is refracted-i.e., bent away- from the exactly at right angles in the mineral. On emerging into air on the oppo-
perpendicular at the surface. When an angle of 48° 31' with the vertical site side of a mineral plate, however, the vibration is at right angles .
is reached (the critical angle), the beam grazes the surface. For any Measurement of Indiccs of Refraction by Refractometers. Several
angle greater than the critical angle, however, li~ht is reflected down- types of reh:actometer have b een devised for determining the indices of
ward. This phenomenon is known as total reflection. refraction of liquids or of solids. A glass hemisphere is utilized in dif-
If the angle with the perpendicular is increased until light travels along ferent ways .
the surface between the air and water or strikes the surface at a grazing Figure 4-5 illusb'ates the determination of the index of refraction by
incidence, the beam is turned downward at the critical angle on the op- the method of total reflection. Light is directed against the surface of a
posite side of the perpendicular to the bounding surface. glass h emisphere from b elow at an angle of refraction greater than the
The same principle applies to all dense substances in contact with air. critical angle. The light rays are reflected downward from the upper
In practical determinations with a refractometer <1 glass h emisphere of surfa ce of th e hemisphere and emerge on th e opposite side. The material
high refractive index serves as the dense medium ; lig ht is directed against to be dctcrmin ed, cithcr a min cral platc with a polished lower surface
the hemisphere by a mirror, and the critical angl e is dctermined with a or a liqllid , is pla ced on thc h emi sph erc. Tf the ma leri al is a min eral plate,
measurinl"!; t oloscoI?c . a thin flIIH of oil of lli gh rcfr;lc li v(' ill (k x is placed betwcen the he mi-
,
52 MINERAL OPTICS
sphere and the mineral. The light from the mineral is r eHected through
the hemisphere in part and produces an image in the obs erving telescope
focus ed at 0, as illustrated in the figure . The upper half of the field will
be dark, while the lower half is illuminated (or vice versa if the image
is inverted). If monochromatic light is used and the mineral is isoh'opic,
the boundary between the light and dark areas will b e sharp, marking
the critical angle accurately (Figure 4-5a), O n the other hand, in the case
of white light the colors of the spectrum lie between the light and dark
Images observed
REFRACTION 53
eral from the side and is refracted downward through the hemisphere
as shown in Figure 4-6. In this case the upper half of the fi eld of view
is dark, and the lower h alf is illuminated. Otherwise the same principles
prevail that apply to the oth er method. The conh'ast between the two
fields is more pronounced when the mineral is illuminated by grazing
incidence.
Whether employing total reHection or grazing incidence, the index of
refraction of the glass hemisphere must be accurately known. This is
usually ascertained by determining the index of refraction by total re-
Hection in reference to air with the mineral plate removed, before de-

~ Mineral plate I
./ K
I
I
Glass I
hemisphere I
I
I
I
I
I
(bl (dl I
Isotropic Anisotropic

~:~:(\\\

(a 1 Monochromatic
light
( 1
C surface of the hemisphere.
Isotropic Anisotropic
FIG. 4-5. Illumination from below in determining th e critical angle by total reflection.
areas (Figure 4-5b). If the mineral is anisotropic and the observation
occurs with monochromatic light, two boundary lines will be seen spaced
a short distance apart (Figure 4-5c). If an anisotropic mineral is ob-
served with white light, the two boundaries will be marked by spectra
(Figure 4-5d). When the anisoh'opism is not strong, the two spectra
frequently overlap. The light waves of each image from the anisotl'opic
mineral are polarized at right angles to the other.
Instruments operating on this principle are arranged with graduated
FIG . 4-6. D etermination of the index of refraction with the incident beam grazing the
termining the index of refraction of th e mineral. The index of the liquid
used for mounting the mineral plate can also be determined by total re-
flection if a few drops are smeared on the upper surface of the hemi-
sphere. The refractive index equation for the d etermination of the mineral
may be stated:
n (mineral) = n (glass) X sin r
where n (mineral) = index of refraction of the mineral
n (glass) = index of refraction of the hemisphere
l' = critical angle for the min eral as read with the refractometer

scales and verniers for measuring the critical angle. When the critical
angle is known, the index of refraction is computed from Snell's law,
sin i being equal to 1. The w avelength is contl'ollcd at the source by using
monochTomatic li ght.
The method or grazin g in cid ence can b e appl ied with the same glas s
homi splwro Ii sed r<,)r 111(' 1l)('lltod or l ol :il J"( ·II( ·cli on. I ,ighl en ters the min -
The glass used in constructing hemispheres has a high index of refrae-
lion, usually about 1.80. The mineral should have a polished surface to
he placed toward the h emisphere, and a liquid with a high index of
rdract ion is p;illccl by capillary attraction between the mineral and the
"
he misphere. lVfcthylene iodide (n =1.74) is usually preferred for this
p urP()so.
54 MINERAL OPTICS
REFRACTION 55
Figure 4-7 is an illustration of one of the standard Abbe (Zeiss) refrac-
tometers commonly used in determining the indices of refraction of
liquids (also of minerals and crystals). The refractive index is read off
a graduated sector, and the instrument may be quickly set for reading
directly. A scale is arranged in the image of the eyepiece that gives the
values of indices of refraction for all angles within the range of the in-
strument, which extends from nD = 1.3 to nn = 1.7.
A refractometer of this type consists essentially of a double prism
that receives the liquid to be tested, a t elescope for viewing the line of
the critical angle, and a scale sector for reading the angle. The double
prism is made up of an illuminat-
ing prism F (Figure 4-8) with a
ground-glass surface and a refract-
ing prism P that operates on the
principle of grazing incidence. The
refracting prism takes the place of
the glass hemisphere in other re-
fractom eters. A compensating de-
vice is inserted in the telescope to
approximate monochromatic light
(D line of sodium). The refrac-
tometer is usually adjusted for use
by testing the instrument with a
glass plate of known index.
Index of Refraction by the Prism FlG . 4-8. Sectional view of the refractometer. (Carl Z eiss, Inc . )
Method. In Figure 4-9 a beam of
When the beam of light striking the prism is not monochromatic but
FTG. 4-7. The Abbe refractometer. (CaTl monochromatic light strikes the consists of the various wavelengths that combine to produce ordinary
Z eiss, Inc . ) prism ABC. At AB the beam R is
light, a spectrum is produced as shown in Figure 4-10.
bent toward the perpendicular OP.
The prism formula is paIi:icu-
At BC the beam R' emerges and is bent away from the p e11)endicular
!arly useful for determining the in- B
O'P'. R' continues in a straight line from this point, making an angle of
d ices of refraction of glass prisms,
deviation d with the original direction.
When the angle d is the minimum that can be observed when the
lranspaI'ent crystals, and hollow
prisms filled with oil. A prism is
P-', ,
"
'..-1'<',
,--'"'--::1
/,.-
,.-/ p '

prism is turned with respect to the b eam (the angle of minimum devia- '/0' d
adjusted vertically on a one-circle ,~
tion) and the angle p of the prism is also known, the index of refraction
goniometer and the prism angle
of the glass of the prism may be computed. The formula by which the R
Ill eas ured by obtaining reRections
index is computed is lirs t from one side and then from
A --0
Ihe other and reading th e an gle on
sin Yz (d + p) FIG , 4-9. A bcam of light bent to one
n = ---'-0::....:.,,.....,..'----"-'- Ill e gradu a tcd circl e. 'W ith th e same side by pass ing throu gh a glass prism.
sin Yz p
p = angle of I he prism
';('I-Ilp a b eam oJ light is passed •
1III"OII gii Lll e prism a nd the an gle of minimum deviation is measured. The
d = fl. ll l-!; le of millimum devirtl,ioll of Lh e hea1U
1I 1t\( 'X or wrr;t (;liull is lill'lI (;OIlIPUlccl directly from th e formul a given above,
n = ir~d ex of rdn tetioll of ('11 0 priHI(\
IIli li zili g III(' 1III g\(o of III(' prislI) a lld lil t! all g lo o\' minimum deviation.
56 MINERAL OPTICS REFRACTION 57
p arts are b eveled and cemented to a solid glass wedge. If the walls of
3

/\ the hollow prism are made of glass with p arallel sides, correction for the
glass is not necess ary. It is b est, however, to assume an exaggerated b evel

~
//\ d, ~;:"" and mount th e two sides in oppos ed p ositions. Any existing lack of paral-

/// d, %:f lelism will be largely corrected in this way. Index of refraction determi-
nations using this method are useful for determining the indices of re-

~~~~E========-,
~. ! JndlqO
fraction of liquids b eyond the range of commercial refractometers . The
Violet method is also suitable wh en a refractometer is not available and as a
check when it is available.4
If the same prism is always used, a chart may b e prepared givin g the
index of refraction corresponding to each angle of minimum d eviation
"/p for a given w avelength . If the chart covers the range of indices of re-
'Ii~'\ fraction from 1.400 to 1.850, it will include all ordinarily determined
~F values. Indices of refraction may b e determined with the light of a sodium
flame obtained by holdin g an asb estos sh eet previously saturated in salt
F IG. 4-10. Diagram illustrating the variation in the angle of minimum deviation of a in a fan-flame burner. Light from a mercury-vapor arc or white light
prism with the wavelength of light. transmitted through a standard color RIter is also occasionally employed.
Hollow prisms made of specially ground thin glass or plates with A h elium-gas tube gives an ideal sodium line.5
p arallel surfaces or selected glass slides cut and cemented together are A convenient method of securing a sodium flame h as been suggested
useful for determining the indices of refraction of liquids. F igure 4-11 by F. Lowell Dunn, M.D. , of Omaha, Nebr. H e uses a coarse alundum
illustrates a hollow prism made of glass plates of equal thickness and RItration crucible filled with salt and susp ends it over a Meker burner .
h aving parallel surfaces. Bakelite A molten h emisphere of NaCl form s in the bottom of the crucible, which
may b e used to cement the glass gives a sodium flame of extremely high intensity. The burner should b e
plates to a solid prism. In ordinary p laced under a hood and at a safe dist ance from the microscope.
I
d etermina tive work, one prism cut SpeCial light bulbs giving a strong sodium light h ave b een developed
L_- -- -'IA by the Gen eral Electric Company (Figure 4-12). These require about
"' ~"'_ at 45° is usually sufficient. Two
11Jt1~1
(I"

prisms, one cut at 30° for high de-
terminations and one at 60° for
I
1
1 lower values, may b e employed. Oc-
1 equipment are determined to the eighth decimal place with sodium light,
'" l:-:::---:::::.::::::':: casionally microscopic slides will
possess the p arallelism of surfaces
(b ) required for the prism w alls. Such
(0 )
FIG. 4-11. Glass prism to be mounted in slides should b e tested by observing
a goniometer for determining the indices the reflection of a h anging window
of refraction of liquids. (Hollow space cord ill-awn taut by a suspended
for liquid in upper portion of wedge be-
tween the plates.) weight or some other suitable
straight line from b oth surfaces of
the slide. The slide should b e h eld close to the eye to observe thi s and
20 minutes to acquire the proper color value but after developing the
correct intensity fw-nish an excellent source of illumination.
T he refractive indices of the various types of glass used in optical
mercury-vapor light, and several other light sources. Such precision is
not employed in examining minerals with the microscope, nor is it pos-
sible without a speCial goniometer.
T he D etermination of the Index of Refraction with the Microscope.
T he index of refraction of a mineral is seldom determined completely in
('xamination of thin sections . The slices are mounted in Canada b alsam,
and the usual t est consists in ascertaining whether a given mineral has
3 Bakelite resinoid, baked at 70°C for 10 hr and followed by baking at 125° for

turned until the reflections from both the upper and the lower surface
can b e seen at the same time. If the straight lin es arc p arallel and uni-
formly distant in each im age, th e slid e is sat isfa ctory. It s.h ould also b e
tested in two peqw ncli cillar p ositi ons. vV II (' 11 a go()d slid e is lO lln cl, it
sll( )lIld h o Cllt ili lo I ~v() pi('('('S, () II (' for (';Id l sid(' ()r II I(' prislii. TIl(' Iw('
I() hI', will make a sol id prism. Bakelite vamish containing china oil is affected by I
j"d"X li(l' licl s anc! sholl lcl he avoid cd.
I Ii ollow prisills of sl've r:11 lypcs have heen developed by Dr. E . S. Larsen of
11 "I'v"I'd tJ niv('I's ity, Dr. C. S. Hoss of Ihe U.S. Ccologieal Survey, and Dr. H. E.
tl'\ , " wi" of Iho (;,,"p hy, il',, 1 I ."hol': ll ory.
n 1 '~ "l p l () yl ' d \" 11 " , 1:t " "t: tI () tl l '~ of II ", U.S. C\'ologica l S," vcy,
58 MINERAL OPT ICS
FIG. 4-12. Sodium laboratory arc furnishing a strong source of sodium light. (N ela
Specialty Division, Lamp Division of General Electric Co.)
an index of refraction greater or less than b alsam. The indices of ad-
jacent minerals are also compared with each other.
The indices of refraction of adjacent transparent substances can b e
compared in several ways. The two most useful methods are the method
of central illumina tion and that of oblique illumination.
A method of direct determination with the microscope exists, but un-
fort unately it is not sufficiently accurate with thin sections.
The M ethod of Central Illllmination . The test is b est made with a
magnification of 80 or grea ter, with th e iris di aphragm p artly closcd . It
is quite scnsitive lo small diffe rcnces in refrac tive indi ces a t sll ch mag-
lIill c: Lli olls. Ir ITIOII ()(' llrO!1):lli (' li ght is ('nlpl oy('d, il is p oss ihle to (Ii s-
REFRACTION 59
tinguish b etween the indices of refraction of two minerals even when
they di ffer by as little as on e in th e third place of decimals.
The test may b e applied to thin sections of transp arent minerals in
comparin g their relative indices of refraction with adj acent minerals or
b alsam. The phenomenon used in making the t est dep ends upon the
total reflection of light incident at more than the clitical angle when
p assing from a mineral of greater to a mineral of lesser index in a thin
section. The test is employed for comparing the indices of refraction of
the various minerals of thin sections with b alsam, for comparing the
minerals with each other when observed in contact, and for comparing
fragments of minerals with various immersion media in which they may
b e mounted. Light enters the section from b elow and is transmitted
through both m edia. At th e bounding edge both reflection and refrac-
tion t ake place, and a p ortion of the entering b eam is b ent either to one
side or to the other, dep ending upon the rela tive indices of refraction
of the adjacent media. If the two indices h appen to be the same, no
refraction t akes place. In case the index of refraction of one is greater
than t hat of the other, light will strike an inclined boundary b etween
the two in some place at an angle greater than the critical angle. A
p ortion of the b eam will b e deflected toward the mineral with the greater
index. If the boundary b etween the media is not inclined, grazing in-
cidence may occur, bringing about the same effect. The d eflection results
in a light blur, visible through the microscope just inside the boundary
of the mineral grain of greater index. The blur is more apparent if the
iris diaphragm is p artly closed and if the tube of the microscope is
slightly raised. It forms an irregular white line; and as the tube is raised
still farther, an illusion is produced , the line appearing to move toward
the center of the mineral. If the tub e is lowered , the effect is reversed.
In reference to the mineralogist F. Becke the blur is often called the
Becke line.
Since the index of b alsam is known (approximately 1,537), minerals
may b e quickly divided into two groups, one with indices greater than
halsam, the other with indices less than b alsam. It is convenient to re-
memb er in making the test that when the tube is mised , the line moves
IowaI'd the medium h aving the higher refractive index. Conversely, when
lhe tube is depressed , th e line moves toward the medium h aving the
/owe1' ind cx (Figure 4-13 ).
Exp7anation of the Wh ite-lin e E ffect. Hotchkiss h as given an explana-
t ion of lhe rcfraction and reflcction involved in th e m ethod of central
ililimi na li on. T he construction shown in Figure 4-14 is modified from
•
Il is {'x plan ~lt () r y d iagram .
Two mill (' r:ils, j\ an d 13, a rc :1ss lIm cd to b e in contac t in a thin section
wil li a \1( ' 1'\ i(';1 I lHlllllti ill g pl:ill (', Y7.. ;\ is \h (' mill C'ral w ilh a lesser ind ex
30 MINERAL OPTICS REFRACTION 61
( n = 1.50), and B has a greater index, 1.70. A cone of light rays enters A band of light appears within the mineral of higher index at level M.
the two minerals from the balsam below, divided evenly on both sides Within this vertical distance nearly all the light of the cone is concen-
)f the bounding plane. The cone of light may be represented by the rays trated in B. If the plane of focus of the microscope is brought within
1, 2, 3, and 4 with angles of inclination as indicated in the diagram. this zone, a band of light is visible within the mineral with a higher index.
The critical angle in mineral B with respect to the bounding plane is If the plane of focus is elevated by raising the microscope tube to level
about 62°. The rays of light within B (3 and 4) which strike the surface U, the band becomes broader and furnishes the illusion of moving to-
ward the center of B and away from the bounding plane. If the plane of
focus is lowered to level L, on the other hand, a greater concentration
of light is present in r than in s, and the light band will appear to be
within the mineral with a lower refractive index. The circles adjacent
'\2]
--------'
,
~
\
"', H t to the braces and indicating the vertical extension of the zones are in-
'. \
' ... _---, tended to illustrate the positions of
L L the white line corresponding to dif-
ferent elevations of the plane of focus .
~
Tube raised
FIG.
Tube at focus
4-13. Central illumination, n

/
> balsam.
Tube lowered

Totally reflected 3 and 4

Oblique Illumi1Ultion. The method
of inclined or oblique illumination
is more convenient for making the
same relative comparisons of refrac-
~

~
~
'"~
'"
'6 Balsam
tive indices outlined above, but at a ""'"
Reflected I and 2 ~ ~Refracted , and 2 ~
magnification of about 50 or lower. C5
zoneu - A larger area of the thin section is
included within this field, and the
method allows the observer qUickly
ZoneM --

Zone L
t -+-
3 I
20° r-45" '\,4
FIG. 4-14. A theoretical explanation of the movement of the light line in central
illumination. (Modified from Hotchkiss.)
YZ at an angle greater than the critical angle are totally reflected. The
rays of light within A (1 and 2) are split at the bounding surface, part
being refracted into B and part being reflected back into A. The compara-
tive intensity of the reflected and refracted rays depends upon the char-
acter of the boundin g planc. If thc contact smface is highly polished ,
morc li ght is rcncctcd and less rcfractcd. If th c smfacc is rough, as is
IIslially th o case, more' li ghL is rdra CI('<l inLo 13.
to compare a large number of mineral FIG. 4-15. Illustrating oblique illumi-
grains; also, it provides an easier in- nation with the condenser removed.
terpolation of values between 1:\'10 Higher = mineral grain, n > balsam.
Lower = mineral grain, n < balsam.
mounting media.
The effect is best observed without a condenser lens. Oblique illumi-
nation may be secured by inserting a card below the stage cutting off
half of the light. This darkens one-half of the field, at the same time
allowing the opposite half to be illuminated largely by oblique rays
(Figure 4-15). A similar effect may be secured by inserting a nalTOW
card in the accessory slot above an objective of moderate power (with
the condenser in the system). This effect may be either the same or re-
versed, depending upon the focal length of the condenser.
Individual crystals of minerals will be unevenly illuminated by the
method of oblique illumination. One side of the mineral will be dark,
and the opposite side will be light. When the card is inserted below
Lhe objective, thc shadow will appear eith er on the side of a mineral
Lowa rd th e dark half of the field or on the side away from it. When
Lhe shadow appears on the side away from th e dark half, the index of
refraction of Lhc mincr al in qu cs Lion is greater than that of the adjacent
rnedillm ; ir ,)I) Lh o side lI ex t Lo th e clark haU, the ind ex of the mineral
32. MINERAL OPTICS REFRACTION 63
~s less. In case the index of refraction of the mineral is about equal to direction is parallel to the lower nicol, a calcite cleavage fragment on
:he index of the mounting material and white light is employed, one side the stage of the microscope shows low relief. ' '''hen the cleavage frag-
will be blue while the other is red. When the card is inserted in the ac- ment is turn ed at right angles until th e long diagonal is parallel to the
cessory opening, the shadow in the mineral is on the side of the field lower nicol, light travels through the mineral with the velocity of the
next to the dark area if the index of the mineral is greater than balsam. 6 high er index, and the same grain stands out with high relief. A number
The index of a known mineral should be tried first in making this test of common minerals vary in relief with direction.
in order to be sure of the set-up in the microscope. The relief of a mineral may b e estimated as low, moderate, high, or
Double Diaphragm Method. Saylor's investigation of the sensitivity of extremely high. In the tables to follow, such a descriptive term is given
various methods of matching indices of refraction with the microscope for each mineral.
has led to the proposal of the double-
diaphragm method, a modification of REFERENCES
y-Cordboard
: ±:3:r i diaphragm the method of inclined illumination. Becke, F.: Sit:::;bel'. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Cll , Abt. 1, pp. 358-378, 1893.
This is more particularly applicable to Graham, G. W .: Mi11eml. Mag., vol. 15, pp. 341-347, 1910.
the immersion method, as described in Hotchkiss, W . O.: Am. C eol. , vol. 36, pp. 305-308, 1905.
Objective Chapter 9. The set-up, with a mineral Saylor, C. P.: Accuracy of Microscopical Methods for Determining Refractive
Index by Immersion , Nat. BUT. Sta.ndards, Research Paper 829, vol. 15,
fragment mounted in an immersion pp. 277-294, 1935.
Cover-
Crystal
liquid of higher index, is shown in Fig- Wright, F . E.: The Methods of Petrographic-microscopic Research, Carn egie
g/ass
ure 4-16. The solid lines show the light I11st. Pub. 158, 1911.
;" ~ I <-~/1d/f rays entering the mineral, and the dash
lines indicate emerging rays.
Relief. Certain minerals stand out
strongly in the field of the microscope,
others are moderately visible, and fre-
t
Celluloid
diaphragm
~
quently the mineral is hardly visible at
all. This appearance or visibility of out-
dlt;~ragm line and sUlface is described as relief.
The relief of a mineral mounted in
balsam depends upon the difference be-
FIG. 4-16. Double. di aphr~gm tween the index of refraction of the
method of oblique I1lummatIOn. . . .
(C. P. Saylor.) mmeral and balsam. Mmerals WIth low
indices of refraction ( cryolite, n = 1.364)
and high indices of refraction (spinel, n = 1.75) have strong relief. On
the other hand, such a mineral as apophyllite has approximately the same
index of refraction as balsam and consequently is hardly visible in thin
section.
Anisotropic minerals with a wide divergence between the two ex-
tremes of refractive indices exhibit a variation in relief as the stage of the
microscope is rotated. Calcite furnishes one of the best illush'ations of
this feature. The ray vibrating parallel to the short diagonal of the
I
cleavage rhombohedron has nearly the same index as balsam. ~lh en this
" Anolh er sirnple W[lY 10 see\ll'c Ih e ('IT('e l of oh li qii e illuminalion Sii ggcs led by Dr.
J. D .If. DOiiiiay ('o"" i , l ~ in shadiii g 11\\; ndd hy partial ly iii M' rting the (nul lQ CO\\-
Irlinlng tho lll\ r dy/' ir( ~ (,(cot
 PLAN E POLARIZE D LIGH T I N MINERALS 65
through a nicol prism. The instrument was used before the advent of
the modern polarizing microscope for the study of mineral plates.
Polarization by Absorption. Tourmaline yields polarization by absorp-
tion. Light that strikes the clystal vibrating in a variety of planes is
strongly absorbed except along one plane. The rays of light that emerge
CHAPTER 5 limited to this plane of vibration are thus plane-polarized. The crystal-
lographiC axis c (often the long direction
Plane Polarized Light in Minerals of the clystal) lies parallel to the plane of
vibration.
Observation through another plate of

Polarized Light. In the foregoing it has b een assumed for descriptive

Jml:wP",m tourmaline cut in a similar fashion and
superimposed at right angles effectively re-
mrposes that light may be considered as wave motion. This condition veals the polarization. Light transmitted
lolds for ordinary white light or for monochromatic light of any sort. through the two is eliminated where plates
t is also assumed that the vibrations take place in all directions around overlap and the overlapping portion is
he line of transmission. Many times, however, the tendency to vibrate dark (Figure 5-3).
[l all directions around the line of transmission is modified, and the I(%(WR1rJ Miner ai Thin clystals of a sh'ongly absorptive
\Taves b ecome restricted for the most part to a single plane of vibration. I compound, iodocinchonidine-sulfate, were
iVhen vibration is thus restricted, light is said to be polarized. I described in 1852 by William Bird Hera-
Polarization of light may be demonstrated in several w ays : (1) by re-
I path , M.D. (Figure 5-4). Because of their
.I strong absorption in one direction corre-
lection from a polished surface; (2 ) by repeated refraction at an angle '1
through several plates of thin glass; 1
1 I
( 3 ) by absorption by certain clystals I Ic -axis Ic -axis
I i
1 such as tourmaline or herapathite
5r~57 °
I (polaroid); ( 4) by cleavages or I
I prisms of optical calcite. I M 'Ab,m,
x'. a l ::... .• · r:..:...oxis
I mum tlon
Polarization by Reflection. Light
.f-
reflected obliquely from a polished I
n =/. 539
surface, such as a t able top or a mir- r Glass plates i
Sin gle tourmaline
i
Two crystals
ror, is p artially polarized . If the re-
flection is examined through a polar-
I crystol superimp osed
Flc . 5- 1. Polariza tion by reRection. F IC . 5-2. Polarization by reRec- Flc. 5-3. D arkn ess due to absorption
izing sheet, the field of view will tion in a polariscope. produced by two superimposed tounna-
larken when the vibration plane is turned at right angles to the plane of line crystals.
~flection of the polished surface. sponding to the behavior of tourmalin e, the clystals were referred to as
According to Brewster, the polarization with a glass plate is at a max- "artificial tourmalines." The material was subsequently called herapathite
num when the directions of reflection and refraction are 90° apart in honor of the discoverer. Methods now exist for producing thin trans-
Figure 5-1). At such an angle r b ecomes the complement of i, and the parent sh eets containing small crystals of herapathite in parallel orienta-
::>rmula n = sin i/sin r may be written sin i/cos i = t an i = n. Thus, at tion embedd ed in a plas tic binder. Two overlappin g sheets of this mate-
he angle of maximum polarization the tangent of the angle of incidence rial arc illu strated in Figure 5-5. I t is possibl e to prepare such polarizing
quaIs the index of refraction of the reHecting substance. The angular sheets coyerin g more th an a sf[ll arc Foot in area.
elationships for a plate n = 1.539 are shown in Figure 5-1. Seyeral or lh l! Illi croscopcs described in thi s tex t arc eqllippeci wi ~h
A sectional vi cw of an old -fashi oncd polariscope is shown in Fig lll"e poh rii'.in g ploi k s. IllslI"Illl\(' I\Ls m ~ lIl1lra(" llIr('d in Lh e United States utilize
-2. Refl ec ti on from glass pl:ilcs yields polarized li ghl which p asses plll ll 'S mll rkdl'<I III1<1 l'r Ih (' Initi o 1I 11 11W " Polaro id ." T ho plntes nol only
(iiI
6 MINERAL OPTICS PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS 67
,rovide excellent optical effects, but permit improvements in microscope 5-7). The hll/o light rays have been differently refracted, and the indices
esign through a saving in space. Polaroid sheets are useful for optical of refraction are different. The extreme indices of calcite are 1.516 and
demonstration and for supplementary uses, particu- 1.658 with a difference of 0.142. 1'1, the position indicated the two indices
are far apart.

~s;~
larly where a wide fi eld of polarized light is
required. A large quartz sphere such as the crystal ball more than a foot in
Double Refraction (Birefringence). Light in diameter in the United States National Museum in Washington exhibits
passing through a large number of b'ansparent min- easily visible double refraction. H ere the
erals is doubly refracted into hII/o b eams vibrating indices are 1.544 and 1.553 with a difference
along planes that are approximately at right angles of 0,009, To exhibit the same separation of
to each other. l Transparent minerals , with the ex- images shown by calcite, quartz must have
IG. 5-4. Crystals of ception of those crystallizing in the isometlic a thickness some 15 times as great. The
erapathite showing ( cubic) system, and amorphous minerals are doubly calcite of Figure 5-6 is about 4 inches across ,
n area of extinction Even a quartz sphere of museum size does
Ih ere individuals with
refracting ( anisob'opic) .
.irections of greatest A good illustration of double refraction and ac- not show as much separation of images.
b sorption at right companying polarization by a min eral occurs in No double refraction is noted when crys-
ngles are superim- transparent calcite, or Iceland spar. Objects viewed tals such as calcite or quartz are obs erved in
losed, (Afte1' H em-
lath, 1853. ) through a rhombic block of Iceland spar appear the direction of the principal crystal axis (c-
double; if such a cleavage is placed over a dot axis) which is also the optic axis. The same FIG. 5-6, Double refraction il-
lustrated by a cleavage rhomb
vithin a circle marked on a piece of paper, the dot will appear to the applies for all hexagonal or tetragonal of transp arent calcite or Ice-
~ye as two dots and the circle as hll/o circles (Figure 5-6). The light crystals. land spar,
The direction of the optic axis is one of
isotropy. In any other direction the mineral is anisotropic. In the latter
cases light is polarized into two rays vibrating at right angles to each
other. One vibrates at right angles to the optic axis (the onlinary my),
the other in a plane p arallel to the optic axis (the extraordinary my). In

Iceland spar
r-

FIG. 5-5, Two disks of herapathite (Polaroid) mounted on glass pl ates photographed
with the planes of polarization at right angles. (PoZal'izing Instrument Co,)
o 1
1111
1. 1•1,1. ,1••••
ie
~o

QiJ .0
e

\0(\
\~p,
r;/
osQ,

lo J Original ( b ) Dou ble refroction (e ) Tra ns mitted '

giving rise to one image will be composed of waves vibrating parallel to image in to e and 0 rays double image
the long diagonal of a rhombic surfacc; that givin g risc to th c othcr will I" ,c , 5-7. Se p:lra lioll of eX lraordin ary ( r ) and ordinary (0) ray images in Iceland spar.
b e composed of wavcs vibra tin g parallcl to th c short diagonal (Fi gurc
I': dcil( ' 111( ; OI'<iillal'Y ray viiJr:ltes parallcl to th c lon g diagonal of a
'F. K vVri g hL iI;, ~ d VIII(lIlslr:ll("(\ 111:11 111(' pr c' (' i ~ (' d('l('l'IlIill alioll or ll1<' an gle be- , 11() llIiJi (' L, ('(, or 1111: c1(,:l V: l g <' rll()lllhollf'dron as shown in F iglll'c 5-8, Th e
lWl','1I II" , Iwo 1"':1 111 ' i, :1 111 :111 " 1' "r (': 11 1' 1111 pll )" i(', d 11 11':" "1 ('"" '" 1. III di ~(; II " ili g "\ I r:I()l'd i11 :11')' 1':1)' vihl'nl('S ill :1 pl :II1( ' p:lssing lhl'oll gh the oplic axis a nd
<11)11111 11 1I ,1" 11('li ll ll , II" , 1I 11 " MII" III 1'11 ,1 111 1011 111)11 1 00 w ill 11 111 h,' 1,,1-" 11 illi o 1I(;('(l1l1ll,
11 1111 111<1 Iwo II IYI, will I", ,'oll ', III "II ,d III .,1 1111'1" ["1111 " II ', 1,1 ", "1 II I d l~ 111 11 11)',1(" . pnl':IIld I() 1111' slll)!'1 di ll l ~lI l1 j ll.
 MINERAL OPT ICS
68
Optical Indicatrix. The indicatrix serves to illush'ate the optical fea-
tures of a crystal. It consists essentially of a surface generated around a
point with the indices of refraction serving as radii.
I The indicatrix for tetragonal and h exa-
Ie'
OXIS gonal crystals (Figures 5-9a,b) is a sphe-
I raid of rotation, The index for the exh'a-
I ordinary ray shows a range in values,
while the index for the ordinary ray re-
mains constant. The index £ coincides
with the axis of principal symmetry in the
crystal (c-axis) . \ Vhen £ is greater than
w the spheroid is prolate and the crystal
is optically positive (quartz) . When £ is
less than w the spheroid is oblate and the
crystal is optically negative (calcite ).
I The indicatrix for orthorhombic, mono-
I clinic, and triclinic crystals is a triaxial
FIG. 5-8. The extraordinary and ellipsoid (Figure 6-16) and is related to
ordinary rays in a calcite cleav- the symmetry of crystals in these three
age. systems. It forms a useful device for ex-
plaining the optical properties of biaxial crystals.
The principal section of a uniaxial indicatrix (Figure 5-10) may b e
used to examine the directional features of a wave normal and the cor-
responding ray where both are inclined to the <L'{es. The section is prolate
c-axis
and c-axis
optic axis and
optic axis
1 ~
" _-- ----- 1__ - ~~
,~--w--l~-~~~~~.
_ __ .......~/I - wLh
_ -1----)/.)-;
~'-....~~ -r--~///!~
~---::::-- .:::-€ - .-/'/~»
::-::::- +- --~./.?
~ at right angles. The rays travel parallel to the wave normal. One ray
(0 ) (b)
F I G. 5-9. Uniaxial indicatrix. ( a) Positi ve. (b) Negative.
with the major ax is LL' cqual to 2£ corres ponding to the c-axis of thc
crysLal. T ho m in or axis 55' is ('cli ial Lo 2", a nd li es in a pbn c normal Lo
th o ('-;Ixis or tll O er),s t,al .
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS 69
The direction of an intermediate wave normal is indicated by the line
OD. Along this lin e one set of waves vibrates in the plane of the section,
while the other set vibra tes in a plane p erpendicular to the plane of the
section.
The index of refraction of the set p erpendicular to the plane of the
section is wand the minor semiaxis of the indicatrix corresponds to this
value. The index of refraction of the set in the plan e of the section cor-
responds to the semiaxis OV (or OW) . Both sets of waves vibrate perpen-
dicular to the wave normal OD.
Along the principal axes of the in-
dicatrix the direction of the wave nor-
mal coincides with the direction of the
corresponding ray. E lsewhere the ray
and wave normal differ in direction.
In Figure 5-10 the line OT indicates
the direction of the ray correspond-
ing to the wave normal OD. The posi-
tion T is the point of tangency on the
ellipse of the line DT p erpendicular to
OD.
The wave velocities may b e obtained 'L' /
, / f'
from the properties of the ellipse. The , I
'.t
area of th e p arallelogram (dashed lines FIG. 5-10. Section of a uniaxial
in Figure 5-10) equ als the area of the positive indieatrix.
rectangle (solid lines in Figure 5-10).
The conjugate radii are OT and OV. The area of the parallelogram is
given by 2VR . 20T where VR is normal to ~T.
The velocity of the component of the ray OT which vibrates normal
to the principal section is l /w. The velocity of the component which
vibrates in the principal section is I /VR.
In the direction of the optic axis (LL ' ), the wave normal and ray
directions coincide, there is a constant index h', and the velocity l /w is
also constant.
In the direction p erpendicular to the optic axis, light consists of two
sets of waves, on e vibrating p arallel to th e optic axis, the other Vibrating
component is the extraordinary ray. This vibrates parallel to the optic
axis, has an index £ and has a velocity proportional to I / L The ordinary
ray vibrates normal to th e optic axis, has an index w, and has a velocity
pro porLional to 1/ ",.
N ico l 1)riSI11. T il e nicol prisms in th e polarizing microscop e utilize the
pri lI ('i pi c· of ci Cli lhl (' rC'l'r:lc lion to prod li ce po/;1 ri zec1 1ight. O ptically clear
 MINERAL OPTICS
ro
~alcite is used, and a prism is made of two parts cemented together with
Canada b alsam. The two h alves form
a prism of the type illustrated in Fig-
ure 5-11. Light entering the base of
the prism is broken into extraordinary
and ordinary rays. The extraordinary
} ray has an index of refraction
n = 1.516 at the angle of incidence
for the prism; th e ordinary ray has
an index of refraction n = 1.658. The
index of the extraordinary ray is close
to the index of refraction of b alsam,
n = 1.537. The index of the ordinary
ray, however, is considerably greater.
Both rays strike the cementing plane
of b alsam obliquely. The obliquity of
the ordinary ray exceeds the critical
ordinary angle b etween the ordinary ray and
ray b alsam . As a result, it is not refracted
n=t.516
through the b alsam but is reflected
to the side of the prism. Since the
extraordinary ray does not exceed the
critical angle b etween the extraordi-
nary ray and balsam, it passes on
through the prism with little devia-
tion.
The extraordinary ray is polarized
with one plane of vibration; conse-
\1<.-22°
\ ' quently, the light emerging from the
'--.1
,
\\V2'°- ' prism and made up entirely of the
"--- --\\ extraordinary ray is plane-polarized.
\' Modifications permit an enlarged
\ field (Thompson) and a more com-
\ e'_
\ --~ pact prism (Ahrens) . In the Ahrens
\
prism (Figure 5-12) the optic axis of
calcite lies at right angles to the path
of light through the microscope.
Interference between Crossed Nic-
. . . oIs. When two nicol prisms arc super-
FIG. 5-11. Thc polarIZatIOn and devla- . ' I 'tl tl " I . f 'b " r
lion of light in a nicol p risill . ImpOSeC WI ] len p anes 0 VI 1.1 IOn
at n ght an gles to each oth er, th e
ni cols a rc saicl (:0 'bo crossed. Th e pol:iri zill g rn icrosco pc is norm all y Iised
witll th o prisilis ill tlli, s positio ll . OIl C'C ' ;I<i jll s«'d , 111( ' pl ;ill C of each lI icol
PLANE POLARIZE D LIGHT IN MINE RALS 71
remains fixed, but the upper nicol slides in or out of the tube of the micro-
scope. Crossed nicols produce darkness when the stage is unoccupied or
when it holds optically isotropic materials such as glass or opal or crystals
of the isometric system of crystallization. Minerals crystallizing in crystal
systems other than the isometric are anisotropic and in most positions
produce a range of interference colors b etween crossed nicols.
In Figure 5-13 polarized light is shown passing through a mineral plate
after leaving the lower nico!. Light strikes the lower surface of the min-
eral plate vibrating in one plane. On entering the plate, it is broken into
Uppernico!
Extraordinary ray
Ordinary ray
Optic
axis
--\l<iperO--
\
"- '"~
'"
.~ ~
"<
"<
2
'~
Lower nieo!
5-12. A block of calcite with squ are
F I G. FIG. 5-13. The vibration directions of
cross section cut to fo rm a polarizing the extraordinary and ordinary rays in
prism. (After C. D. A hrens. ) an anisotropic mineral illuminated with
polarized light.
two sets of rays. Both sets are polarized, but at right angles, and light
travels at different velocities within the mineral along each plane. As a
result, when the two sets of rays emerge on the upper side of the plate,
one set has traveled farther than the other. Both travel along a straight
line to the analyzer and continue to vibrate at right angles.
Irregular grains of anisotropic minerals on the stage of the microscope
resolve light from the polarizer into the separate extraordinary and ordi-
nary rays for each min eral ( F igure 5-14 ). A wide range in directions may
r(,S IlJ t b ut in cach crys tal the extra ordinary and ordinary rays are at
righ t a ngles.
In Lh c ;In alyzcr, wh c Lh er p ohiro;cl or a ni col prism, the two rays are
I'!'solvc'd 10 ;1 sill g lo pl:111 0 as indi cnlcd in F ig llt'c 5-:15. Thus the two rays
oll\()rgo frolll lho Hll:l ly:t.<.,'I' vi hrul,ill g ill tll O ~':l Il\O pl nno, H owever, the in.i.-
72 MINERAL OPTICS PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS
73
tial phase separation due to the mineral is retained. As a result, when the Phase Difference. The two rays emerging from the mineral have
ordinary and extraordinary rays emerge from the analyzer they are in a a phase difference P. This difference is equal
position to interfere, and interference colors are observed. An outline of to the retardation divided by the wavelength:
the mechanism is shown in Figure 5-16. In this relationship the separation
of the e and 0 rays, as determined by the thickness, position, and indices p_Do
of the mineral, yield phase differences as waves emerge from the analyzer. A
Here resolution of effective components of each takes place into the
Since it has just b een shown that
plane of the analyzer, as illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 5-15.
As a result of this resolution, two rays emerge from the analyzer.
Do = t(n 2 - nJ)
The interference color produced depends upon the nature of the
light and the amount of retardation of one set of waves with respect it follows t hat p = t(n 2 - nl)
A

When the retardation is some whole multiple

of a wavelength (nl..), the waves emerging
from the upper nicol become equal and oppo- e 0
site in phase. The resultant is then equal to re$olved

Anolyzerlt e ',I
1
1
1
1
1
1

to ~
zero, and the field produced is dark (Figure
5-17).
Midway between, maximum intensity occurs.
- in
onalyzer
~

plone u- 1
/
I
I ,( I
Here the r etardation is [( 2n + 1) /2]1.., and the
/ components of the waves in the plane of the
1
/
/ upper nicol are equal and on the same side of
I
the line of transmission. The resultant wave is
equal to the sum of the two components (Fig-
FIG . 5-14. Irregular mineral grains on FIG. 5-15. Resolution of extraordinary
microscope stage above polarizer. Light and ordinary rays of the mineral into the
ure 5-18) .
is polarized by each grain into ordinary plane of polarization of the analyzer. Interference Colors. If the mineral plate lies
and extraordinary rays at right angles. with the planes of vibration parallel and p er-
pendicular to the planes of the polarizing de-
to that of the other. The retardation can b e determined with a fair de- vices, no light passes through the analyzer, and
gree of precision from the inteIference color and is expressed by the the mineral is in a position of extinction. On
Greek letter 6.. The value of 6. is expressed in millimicrons (millionths the other hand, if the plate is rotated to either
of a millimeter = mp' ), the same units used to measure the wavelength side, the field of the analyzer is no longer dark
of light. but becomes illuminated with interference
The retardation may be changed through a wide range by (1) varying colors. The interference colors vary with the
the thickness t of the min eral, (2) changing the orientation in such a lh iekness of the mineral section, the nahlre of
way as to change the indices of refraction n 1 and n 2 of the two rays lhe mineral, the way in which the mineral sec-
emerging from the mineral. This relationship may be expressed by the lion is cut, and the light employed. The ex-
Lower I nicol
equation planation of the relationship of these various
Do = t(n 2 - nl) fac lors involves many of th e prin ciples of opti- FIG. 5-16. Sorting of rays
(';1 I min e ralogy. It is des il'ablc for the sake of sim- by the analyzer when the
In the equation, t r epresents the thjckness of the min eral expressed in p liC' iLy Lo consid er Lh c variables one a t a time. mcob arc crossed.
millime ters, 1l ~ is the greater ind ex of r efraction , and ntis the lesser indel( If HlO Llli ck \\ css of a min e ral p'ictLe h e tween. cross ed nicols is cilanged,
of ruhaclion for 0. ptll;tic\!lu,r ori on t~~tiorl , ~1 1()\l g ll III(' ol'i( 'llillli(JlI r(' ma ills 111 0 S lllll(', a eh:llI go ill ilil orfc rence color
 MINERAL OPTICS
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS 75
74 c:
OJ
ensues. One of the best ways to illustrate this phenomenon is by means ;:
cQ) OJ
L..

of the quartz wedge that accompanies the polarizing microscope. >. ~

Q)
L.. ""
.<::
2 ~ ""
-
V>
;: .c '3: ;:
Figure 5-19 is a diagram illustrating a portion of a quartz wedge cut 0- Q)
2 a.
""0
L.. Q)
=> .c .c -0 (l) '0
'"=>
V>
=>
0 0

m
t--
m m ~ ~
Q)

along the c-axis and varying in thickness from 0.0 to 0.10 mm. The wedge 0 3: 3: '"
>- 0 '"
n::

Ii
is placed between crossed nicols in a position at 45° to the planes of First order Second order
the nicols. In this position it b ecomes brilliantly illuminated with inter-
ference colors. The colors gradually merge into each other and change
t ~ ! ! t i ±±t t
,0
I
1I=0 90 180 270 360
Upper nicol

450 540 630 720 810 900mp.

I
t
0.10

Quortz 0.05~
n 2 -n l = 0.0.0.9
----i>- o.ptic oxis [
R
I---===--- 0
e

I) I11111I )
EO 0('{' )
o
1
-J
e
Anolyzer ·:t>< · Anaif"r Lower nicol '-j

n>..
FIG. 5-17. Resolution of waves in ana-
(2n+1l >..
2
FIG. 5-18. Resolution of waves in ana-
i
FIG. 5-19. Interference colors due to a portion of a quartz wedge between crossed
lyzer for retardation of whole wavelength lyzer fo r retardation of one-half wave- nicols with white light.
or multiples. length or multiples.
with increase or decrease in thickness along the wedge. Anyone thick- eye. In the thicker portion of the w edge, however, less contrast appears ;
ness yields a uniform band of one color across the wed ge. The quartz and in w edges several times as thick the colors at the thick end are faint
wedge should be placed on the stage of the microscope and moved b ack iridescent tints.
and forth in order to observe the full range of color due to varying If the source of illumination is monochromatic the effect produced is
thickness . illustrated in Figure 5-20. In this case, when the thickness reach es such
Each portion of the wedge is subject to the equation a point that the retardation becomes equal to one wavelength, the two
monochromatic waves are equal and opposite in phase and nullify each
/: :,. = t(n2 - nl) other, causing darkness . As a result, dark bands will occur at all points
Since the optic axis of the wedge remains parallel to the stage, (n2 - n 1 ) where th e retardation is a whole multiple of A. Conversely, at odd mul-
is fixed and equals 0.009, the accepted value for quaTtz. Consequently, tiples of ~ A , maximum intensity will occur. Here the two waves are
the retardation tl vaTies with the thickness t. equal and in th e same phase. Ii
When t is zero, the retardation in any li ght is also zero, and the fi eld The inLc rference colors du e to white li ght may b e considered as a com-
of vi cw is dark. In white light, wh en t in creases, a definite sequence of posiLe of the varioliS wavelengths of Lhe spec trum . The rela tionship of
;olors OI IS I I( :S. Starli" g wiLh gray and COlltinlling Lhroll gh bluish gray, 111 0 ilil("l"l"c l"( 'II C(' co lors Lo Lll e 11101l0cill"OmaLic co mpon ents is illustrated
wllil. " )'1' lIo w , Orilll g\', ill til(' m<i!"r 11 :1111('11 , LII(' co lors arC' sLrikill g to til" ill Fi glli'( ' :5-2 1. Th <, r;) ll g(' in ilit er r('I"(' I1('(' colors tllroll gh rom orclers is
 B MINERAL OPTICS
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS
ll"'O ..... =). ..... =2~ ..... =3). ..... =4).
77
shown at the top of the figure. The corresponding cumulative mono-
0 chromatic wavelcngths are shO\vn below.
1111 "" 1IIIIIIIIO"j' 111111111 H' 111111111 O"t' 11111 The various monochrom atic beams, on p assing tlll'ough a wedge, pro-
duce d ark bands at different thicknesses. Likewise, maximum intenSity
occurs at corresponding interm ediate intervals . The difference between the
wavelengths at the opposite ends of the spectrum is such, however, that
the first dark band for violet occurs almost in the first position of max-
~Optlcoxis
imum intensity for red. For violet the band is approximately 410 m""
"IG. 5-20. Altern ate dark and light bands produced by monochromatic light with a and the wavelength for r ed is about 700 m",. At ..... = 410 m", the inter-
luartz wedge between crossed nicols. ference color is elose to orange. The orange is a composite in which the
colors at the red end of the spectrum predominate and colors at the
violet end are minimized. The p er cent of maximum intensity for red
1'1 Order 2 nd Order yd Order 41h Order at ..... = 410 m", is about 83. The maximum intenSity for red OCCurs at
lo: 'I.>
<::
'I.>
<:: <:: <::
~
'I.>
~
y:! A or 350 m",. The p er cent of this maximum at 410 m", would be
~ ~
'I.> 'I.>
~ 'I.>
~ ~
"" ."""'- ""
qj .-t::> '- l': ~
""
'I.>
""
'I.>
»>
I
~
:;...
<:: ~
I
'I.>
<::
'I.>
lo: I
'I.>
<::
'I.>
lo:
". ""<:: ~ ""
I ?> ~

J:""
'I.> " ~ ~ ~ ~ :::, ~ ~~ ~
..:::
~ ~ ~ " ~ :::;: "" !5
~ ~ " ~
~ ~ !5 l': 'I.>
~ <::J ct: ~ ~~ ~ 2(Xr - Xv) X 100 = 2(700 .:-= 410) X 100 = 83 p er cent
2000

If the wavelengths are known , it is possible to compute the p er cent Ob

any given monoelu'omatic light present in an interference color of a
given retardation.
Application of the Color Chart to the Study of Minerals. The inter-
ferenc e color chmt is constantly employed in the study of minerals by
means of polarized light. The maximum double refraction, or the greatest
difference between n z and n is approximately constant for a given
"
mineral. If this constant is substituted in the equation ..... = t( n _ n ) , a
z 1
sh'aight-line curve is the result. In the case of qUaltz, where

(n 2 - nl) = 0.009
the relation between thickness and retarda tion is shown in Figure 5-22.
"Vhere n z - n 1 is maximum a normal sequence of colors prevails for
most anisotropic minerals. A few, such as idocrase, with abnormal dis-
persion fail to follow the normal sequence and must be considered in-
dependently. However, the relationship of the chart is adequate to yield
the color of quartz of a given thickness or the thickness of quartz haVing
a given interference color.
Sim.ilar lin es b ased on the maximum. n z - n Or birefringence, may be
drawn for other minerals. The color chart (facing " page 168) gives the
FIG. 5-21. Thc rclalionship betwccn int(!;·fcrcncc colors cluc to mono chrom ati c light
and colors cluc to while ligh'·. lin es of maximum double refrac tion for the common minerals.
I"n th c color ehmt interfcrcnce col ors with ..... lcss than 550 m", b elong
10 lh e first order. Violel ( ..... --= !550 ) forms II Ie hOllndary of the first
ord er alld is kllOW 11 as s('/I sili ,,(' " ill /d . sill( '(' II slll:JlI c1I :1 l1 gC eithe r way
 8 MINERAL OPTICS PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS
79
,roduces a decided color difference. From violet t::. = 550 to violet drum is graduated with a vernier reading to tenths and may be cali-
. = 1128 the colors belong to the second order. From violet t::. = 1128 to brated to read degrees.
iolet t::. = 1652 they belong to the third order. Above the fourth order The plate in the compensator is held in a small ring that may be
:olors are not easily separated. The colors at the end of the first order easily removed, and a plate of different thickn ess may be substituted.
and the b eginning of the second The range of the plate ordinal'ily employed covers retardations from zero
- ~ -~ ~'"
are the most striking and brilliant.
At the end of the fourth order they
to the fourth order.
~~~
LLL Q)Q)QJ
~"O V'J
~ ~ I
The axis of rotation of the compensator is arranged diagonally to the
Q\ CJ"I 0'1 Q)
c::
Q)
~ ~
C1I C1I '- 0
Q):- 0 0 c:: c:: a..~ OJ
OJ
'c c:: 3:-
QJ 0
merge into each other, forming polarization planes of the two nicols. If the planes of the nicols are
o2o-2~ =~ e~"O ~~~~ tints of green and pink tending
~roa..:::>--~ooo.sro~l9>- north and east, the tube slot holding the compensator will be north,
0.09 toward grayish white. Care should west. The compensator is marked with two arrows: H I, parallel to the
be taken to distinguish these colors
from the blue gray, white, and yel-
0.08
lowish white of the lower first
order.
0.0 Uncertainty concerning the order A
of a given color may be eliminated Hit HJY HI I
Y
by using a mica plate. The mica
0.0 plate is cut with such thickness
that it increases or decreases re-
E
tardation of a section by about Yt >.. --~
H2 ~-->­ ~
E 0.0 H2
c
VI
VI
(l)
C
(sodium light). Such an increase
or decrease in the lower first or
Cr C,
,
H2

-;C
~ 0.0
¢:
second orders produces a set of \, I /
colors markedly different. In higher /
0.0
orders little visible change occurs.
For example, in the case of first-
~4~ f0j1
~
!
Plate
I~
~ ~~~
\ I
order yellow t::. = 400 m"", an in- !
0.0 crease in t::. of 175 m"" will result \ !
I /
in violet t::. = 575 m"", and a de- FIG. 5-23. The vibrat ion directions and movement of the color rings in the ReId of
crease of the same amount will the ocular when using the Berek compensator.
o. produce white t::. = 225 m"". The
same increase or decrease in re- axis of rotation or along the access ory slot, is the slow-ray vibration di-
tardation above the fourth order rection; H 2 , at right anglcs to the axis of rotation, indicates the trace of
t::.=g2~~8g2~~8g2~¢ would produce little change per- the projection of the plane containing the inclined c-axis of calcite and
--(\Jr(')r(')o;;;to;;ttOtDwr-,....co
ceptible to the eye. marks the fast-ray vibration direction.
FIG. 5-22. Variation of retardation with
thickn ess in quartz. Determination of Retardation The compensator is first set with the plate horizontal within the frame
with a Berek Compensator. M. and inserted. Between crossed nicols a large dark cross will appear in
Berek (1913) described a rotary calcite compensator of simple mechan- the field . When this cross coincides with the crosshairs of the micro-
ical construction which may be used to measure retardation (Figure scope, the compensator is in the zero position (see Figure 5-23) . If the
2-19 ). A calcitc platc 0.1 mm thick, cut normal to th e optic axis , rests on comp ensator drum is then turned either to the left or to the right, the
a rOlalin g axis in a mctal hold cr. Th c fram c may b c inscrtcd in thc variou s orders of interference colors appear in the field in a sequence
accessory slol of th e mi croscope:. Tlw rolalion of Ih e compensalor plal corrcs ponding to th e order of th e quartz wedge.
is l'( 'g isl( 'I'('c\ Oil II g r ll\ III III( 'd dl'lllll (I [I II( ·II( ;d 10 lil(' ax is or rol :lliOIi . Th The co mpensalor may bc uscd to determinc thc rctardation ot a
minora l gru.in hotwoo\\ crossed nicols as fo llows : T ho !:.'l·ain in question
o MINERAL OPTICS PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS 81
; moved to the center of the field and placed in the 45° position with chart would be 0.03 mm. Other interference colors appear, but only those
he slow-ray vibration diJ:ection of the mineral parallel to H 2 of the with axes in an approximately horizontal position will be as high in the
!ompensator. The compensator is then inserted and rotated first to the first order as straw yellow.
ight and then to the left, stopping in each case ""hen the interference In any thin section, if sufficient grains of a known mineral are present
:0101' of the mineral has been completely reduced to extinction. The in random orientation and the highest order of interfeTence color can
neasured difference between the opposite readings is divided by two be determined, it is possible to ascertain the thickness of section by ref-
md the value inserted in a simple formula supplied by the makers of erence to the color chart. It is also possible to reverse the process if the
he instrument. Solution of the formula gives the correct retardation for thickness is known and determine the double refraction of an unknown
he mineral grain. mineral. Likewise, in a slide containing hvo or more minerals, one of
A view of the Berek compensator is shown in Figure 2-19. Figure 5-23 which is known, it is possible to determine the thickness of the section
ndicates the views obtained in the microscope field with the com pen- from the known mineral and determine the double refraction of the
;ator plates horizontal and rotated either to the right or to the left. unknown minerals from the determined thickness and the observed in-
The vertical sections in the lower terference colors.
part of Figure 5-23 indicate the in- Direction of the Vibration of Slow or Fast Rays. It is frequently
clination of the c-axis, and the important to ascertain the planes of vibration of the two rays vibrating
upper diagrams represent corre- at right angles in an anisoh'opic mineral grain. The two rays have dif-
sponding microscope fields . With ferent indices of refraction, the one with the greater index being the
monochromatic light, light and slow ray and the one with the lesser index, the fast ray. The determina-
dark bands are produced on either tion of the fast- and slow-ray directions is accomplished between crossed
side of a central cross. With white nicols, the location of the two rays b eing established by observing the
light, the bands on either side of position of extinction. When the mineral b ecomes dark, the vibration
the dark cross indicating the zero directions of the two rays are parallel to the planes of vibration of the
position are colored. nicol prisms . Since the planes of vibration of the nicols are parallel to
When the compensator is in- the crosshairs in the ocular, the vibration planes in the mineral will also
serted above a doubly refracting be parallel to the crosshairs when in the extinction position.
crystal in a thin section, the dark A mica plate or gypsum plate is used to tell which of the two rays is "I
J\/V k,!I - A \/11 / 1\--- A
[1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 \
cross disappears. As the plate is fast and which is slow. When the positions of the vibration directions I
rotated, however, the interference of the rays are ascertained, the mineral is turned from extinction to the
colors are changed until complete position of maximum interference. Next, either the gypsum or the Inica
FIG. 5-24. Determination of thickn ess of
section in quartzite. compensation occurs as mentioned plate is inserted in the tube of the microscope with the slow-ray vibration
above. direction parallel to one of the vibration directions of the Inineral. If the
Determination of Thickness of Section. Let us suppose that Figure order of color increases, the parallel direction is the slow-ray vibration
5-24 represents a thin section containing numerous small quartz grains direction of the mineral. If it decreases, the direction represents the fast
in random orientations. Grains 1 to 9 along the horizontal crosshair in ray. One direction being known, the other is the opposite. The mica
the field of the microscope are oriented with optic axes in the positions plate is usually used for minerals with weak double refraction, and the
shown in the sectional view. Most are inclined; occasionally a fe~ are gypsum plate is employed in the case of stronger double refraction.
vertical and a few are horizontal. Horizontal axes are in the correct When the mineral has very sh'ong double refraction, a quartz wedge
position to provide a maximum value of (n2 - n , ). All are of uniform may be us ed. Since the quartz wedge var-ies in retar'dation from zero
thickness; hence grains with horizontal axes will show the highest order to the fourth order, a variety of colors will be produced, the color at
of interference or maximum rctardation. In a thin scction th e grains with a particular part of the wedge depending upon the thickness. When
the hi gh es t order inlerfcrcncc color as ohservec1 hy means o[ ll lO color the slow ray coin cid es with th e slow-ray direction in the mineral, a cor-
churl will b e grain s ill a posilioll to ('xllihil Ih e Ina xillllli1l ("II" - n, ). ros polloin g reinforcement in relardation will occur. Thus the color of
In Ih o casu at hllllcl ) ~r:Jill Ij is ill lho corrm;1 posilioll . If grllin tl shollld {li e IIlill(~ral will sllIl (knly cli:lI1 g(: 10 :1 ('olor of hi gh e r ord er, dep endent
h o slnt w yullow. Iho II lick lIess o\' till) I1cclioll us dol('I'll Ii III'd I>y I ho colo)' IIpOIi 1111 ' porlioll or 111 11 w( ·d ~( ' S IIJl(·)'illllll)~ c(l . W III'Ii 1110 slow-ray d i-
82
rection in the wedge is opposed to the slow-ray direction in the mineral,
subtraction occurs.
Extinction. A doubly refracting crystal, mineral plate, or grain, when
dark between crossed nicols, is in the position of extinction. Frequently,
minerals have prominent cleavage lines or crystal boundaries that enable
one to refer the angle at which extinction occms to a crystallographic
featme. In the absence of a reference feature, the extinction angle be-
comes indeterminate. Parallel, symmetrical, and inclined extinction are
illustrated in Figme 5-25.
Pamllel Extinction. Frequently minerals have a single plane of cleav-
age. The traces of the cleavage planes appear in thin sections as ir-
regularly spaced lines. If the mineral becomes dark between crossed
Extinction angle
FIG. 5-25. Relative positions of greatest and least illumination in parallel, inclined,
and symmetrical extinction as observed between crossed nicols.
nicols, with the cleavage parallel to the vibration directions of the two
nicols, the extinction is said to be parallel.
A number of minerals crystallize in such a way that sections are elon-
gated, square, or rectangular. Square or rectangular cleavage patterns
may also be observed. If these minerals become dark between crossed
nicols, with the cleavage directions parallel to the vibration planes of
the nicols, they are said to have parallel extinction.
Inclined or Oblique Extinction. Many minerals extinguish betw'een
crossed nicols when cleavages or crystal boundaries lie at oblique angles
to the planes of vibration of the two nicols. These are said to have in-
clined extinction,
In this case it is necessary to know the position of either the fast-ray
vibration direction or the slow-ray vibration direction in the mineral
grain. The extinction angle is usually determined in terms of the slower
of the 1:\'10 rays, or the one having the greater index of refraction. The
nature of the two rays is detenn.ined with one of the accessory plates
of th e microscope.
Sove ral difTorenl an ~l o.~ of ox tin ction arc IIsliall y ohs(lrv('d for th e sa mc
millt 'l'iIl ill :I l!:iv (,11 ~ ('(' li()lI , Os iilllslr;iI('d ill l'i l!:"I'1' !)-2(i. Th o ma ximum
MINERAL OPTICS PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT I N MINERALS 83
reading on the slow-ray vibration direction with the plane of vibration
of the an alyzer is a convenient valu e to determin e. In the case of ob-
servation with the microscope, the stage is rotated until the mineral lies
in a position of ex tinction. The upper nicol is then pushed to one side,
and the angle b etween the vertical crosshair (parallel to one of the
nicols) and the cleavage lin e or crystal boundary is determined by read-
ings on the graduated stage of the microscope. The nicols are then
crossed again and the crystal turned to the extinction pOSition, the angle
·
0
1
':':. :::;::::'
,·8.•.•.• . . . .r
.; -
'5. ,
-- ' -- -'
i
FIG. 5-26. Diagram illustrating various positions of an elongated mineral with a
maximum extin ction an gle of 51 0 on the slow ray as it might appear in thin section.
z z
c
III
FIG. 5-27. Hornblende of F ig. 8-32 in FIG. 5-28 . IIed cnbergite of Fig. 8-33 be-
the pOSition of maximum ex tin ction be- tween crossed nicols in the position of
tween crossed n icols. C 1\ Z _30 0 • = maximum extinction. C 1\ Z = _48 0 ,
being measured . Next, the direction of vibration of the slow ray is verified
by using an accessory plate. A serics of readings should be repeated with
different crystals until it seems certain that the largest angle for a par-
ticular mineral has been found. When the angle is determined, it is neces-
sary to refer to a description of the optical directions in the crystal in
order to ascertain the proper reference plane for the extinction angle.
The min eral dcscriptions in Part 2 of this text include the angles of
extinction. Th e angle between Z and the c-axis of a crystal is frequently
recorded . Since Z .is a slow-ray direction and prominent cleavages or
crystal bound ari es are ofte n refcrred to the c-axis, it is usually possible
to inle rpre t lh e ex lin Clion from th e orientation diagram. Figures 5-27
antI 5-28 furni sh ill llslralions of' sli ch illtorpretalions.
SYI/III/ e/ri('{t/ K r lil/l'li ol/ . 1\ 111111111('1' of Illillc 'r;ll s fOl'ln cleava ge pattcrns
84 MINERAL OPTICS
or crystals with rhombic cross sections. In many instances these become
dark between crossed nicols when the planes of vibration of the nicals
are parallel to the diagonals af the rhombic patterns. Extinction of this
type is described as symmetrical. Several minerals forming crystals with
square outlines may also yield symmetrical extinction.
Elongation. Occasionally crystal grains develop with an elongated
habit and straight edges. These may have a lathlike shape under the
microscope, may resemble small
needles , may occur in long crystals,
or may show several other shapes
of similar development.
When such crystals are aniso-
tropic, it is possible to determine
the fast- and slow-ray vibration di-
rections with one of the marked
accessory plates. In case the vibra-
tion direction of the slow ray of
the crystal is parallel to the long
direction, the mineral is said to
have positive elongation. When the
vibration direction of the slow ray
lies across the crystal in the short
direction, the mineral has negative
elongation. These two terms may
be stated briefly as length-slow and
length-fast, length-slow indicating
that the vibration direction of the
F~G. 5-29. Phutug~aph between cross~d slow ray is parallel to the length of
mc~ls of equal mte~ference areas 111 the crystal and length-fast indicat-
stramed bakelIte cut m the form of a '
structural T and placed under pressure. ing the parallelism of the vibration
(Courtesy of Photo Elastic Lahomtol'Y, direction of the fast ray.
Depa~·tmen~ of. Civil Engineering, Co- Anomalous Interference. Occa-
lumbw Umv el'szty; photogmph by Ray-
mond D. Mindlin.) sionally minerals normally assumed
to be isoh'opic become anisotropic
and give intederence effects between crossed nicols. The abnormal pro-
duction of intederence colors often of a low order is called anomalous.
Figure 8-26 represents a thin section of garnet that exhibits symmctrically
arranged bands of interference colors photographed between crossed
nicols. X-ray studies show that the same garnet is still isomctric in
crystallization, so the colors are truly anomalous.
Interference colors and structural pattcrns may h e produ ced by strain
"in the crysta ls. According to Crookes, the gr('at Oi llin an diamond , meas-
II rin g :llmosl' 1, illc.:iws a("l"oss, ox llil>il (,d proIHlIlll( 'cd nni solropv dll o 1\'
Sll'ltlll .
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS 85
Idocrase in thin section often shows an unusual sequence of inteder-
ence colors, Berlin blue predominating. Although this mineral is tetrag-
onal and normally doubly refracting, the interference colors do not
follow the color chart and are anomalous. Clinozoisite, zoisite, brucite,
and some varieties of chlorite furnish other examples of anisotropic min-
erals that yield anomalous interference colors.
Equal interference areas are frequently produced in isotropic bakelite
through sh·ain. In Figure 5-29 a portion of a small bakelite frame cut
in the form of a T is shown benveen crossed nicols. The T would have
a shape illustrated by the insert, the portion photographed being out-
lined by the dotted lines. The photograph was obtained by utilizing
monochromatic green (5461 A) in the mercmy spectrum.
REFERENCES
Ahrens, C. D. : New Polarizing Prism, ]. Roy. Microscop. Soc., vol. 9, pp. 397-
398,1886.
Berek, M.: Zur Messung del' Doppelbrechung hauptsachlich mit Hilfe des
Polarisationsmikroskops, Centro Mineral., Ceol. , pp. 427-435, 1913.
Bouasse, H.: Optique cristalline double refraction polarisation rectiligne et
elliptique, Paris, 1925.
Drude, Paul: "Theory of Optics," trans. by Mann and Millikan, Longmans,
Green & Co. , Inc. , New York, 1925.
Groth, P.: "The Optical Properties of Crystals," trans. by B. H. Jackson, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1910.
Hartshorne, N. H., and A. Stuart: "Crystals and the Polarizing Microscope,"
Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1934.
Johannsen, A.: "Manual of Petrographic Methods ," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc. , New York, 1918. A summary of the various types of polarizing
prisms will be found on pp. 158-175.
MacCullagh, James: Crystalline Reflexion and Refraction , Trans. Roy. Irish
Acad., vol. 18, pp. 31-74, 1837.
Miers, H. A.: "Mineralogy," 2d ed., rev. by H. L. Bowman, Macmillan & Co.,
Ltd. , London, 1929.
Schuster, A., and J. W. Nicholson: "Theory of Optics," Edward Arnold & Co.,
London , 1924.
Thompson , S. P.: On a New Polarizing Prism, Rep. Br. Assoc. Advance. Sci. ,
vol. 51, pp. 563-564, 188l.
Tutton, A. E. H.: "Crystallography and Practical Crystal Measurement," 2d
ed., vol. 2, Macmillan & Co., Ltd. , London , 1922.
Weinschenk, E.: "Petrographic Methods," trans. by R. W. Clark, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1912.
Winchell , A. N.: "Elements of Optical Mineralogy, Part I: Principles and
Mcthods , 5th cd., John Wiley & Sons. , Inc. , New York, 1937.
VI/right, F . E.: Thc Transm iss ion of Light through Transparent Inactive Crystal
Plalcs, clc. , Alii . ]. Sci., 4lh SCI'. , vol. 31, pp. 157-211 , 1911.
Th o slllCl(' liI' is rd"rn 'd It) ('tlm nwnl s hy T lll1('l1 :llId Morc), rcgn rclill g cc rtain
flllld illl" ' lli ld op l!"11 1 PI'OP"l'li" H (1\111 , MIIII'I'(dngls / , VIII. 17, pp . 8G5-:3130, 1(82 ).

CHAPTER 6 a small axial angle as to appear uniaxial, and conversely on certain oc-
Convergent Polarized Light
General Statement. A conoscopic lens combination is used in the
microscope to obtain interference figures (see Chapter 2). Such figures
are particularly useful for determining the optical directions in crystals.
Their interpretation involves the principles outlined in the preceding
chapter on polarized light, combined with the use of convergent light.
A large transparent crystal plate may be used to observe an inter-
ference figure without a microscope. A sheet of mica between crossed
polaroid sheets, illuminated by a
window and held clos e to the eye,
reveals an excellent biaxial figure.
The eye provides conoscopic vision.
Large quartz plates reveal a uni-
axial figure in similar fashion.
In obtaining interference figures
of small crystals the microscope is
necessary. The elements in the op-
FIG. 6-1. Convergent light produced by tical train should b e exactly aligned
the front lens of the condenser. and properly centered. It is best to
use a moderately high magnifica-
tion, preferably a 4-mm objective, although an 8-mm objective is some-
times satisfactory and may be more easily manipulated. An auxiliary
condenser is inserted across the axis of the microscope below the stage.
The front lens of the condenser throws a concentrated convergent beam
against the mineral plate (Figure 6-1). Some microscopes are also pro-
vided with a diaphragm between the polarizer and the lower component
of the condenser. The diaphragm limits the field of view and hclps to
improve the outer portion of the interference figure. A Bertrand Icns is
inserted in the tube of the microscope above thc analyzcr. This Icns
brings the image of the interference fi g urc into focus ill thc ocular. Good
figures of small sizc can b e obtained by removing th e ocular and not
using the Bertrand ,Ions. A hl ack disk w ith n smn.l1 hole in tho center
flO
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 87
may be used to replace the ocular when an interference figure is obtained
without the Bertrand lens.
Anisotropic minerals yield two types of interference figures: uniaxial
and biaxial. Minerals crystallizing in the hexagonal and tetragonal sys-
tems are uniaxial; those crystallizing in the orthorhombic, monoclinic,
and triclinic systems are biaxial. O ccasionally biaxial crystals have such
casions normally uniaxial crystals may become biaxial b ecause of strain.
Such variations should be considered and may indicate structural fea-
tures of interest. In general, however, crystals follow the normal pattern.
Formation of Interference Figures. Convergent polarized light passing
through an anisoh·opic crystal plate yields a range in retardation be-
tween crossed nicols. The effect is similar in a number of respects to the
retardation obtained with the
tPOlorizer
quartz wedge, as described in the
discussion of parallel polarized
light. The use of a quartz plate in-
stead of a wedge, and convergent
light instead of parallel light, pro- 1!!.0lyzer
duces interference colors depend-
ent upon the convergence of the
beam. Variation in the angle of
illumination of the oblique rays re-
sults in a range of values of n 2 and axis
111 for a doubly refracting mineral.
Varying values of n 2 and n" in FIG . . 6-2. A uniaxial interfer~nce figure
. g ret ard a t IOn.
· lookmg down on an optic aXIs.
tu rn, cause varym
A quartz plate yields a striking interference effect with the optic axis
of the plate at right angles to the microscope stage. A black cross is
superimposed on concentric circles of interference colors. Here the
thickness remains constant, and the retardation ranges from zero at the
ccnter to a maximum in the outermost color circle. The angle of inci-
dcnce on the quartz plate due to the convergent beam employed also
ranges from zero at the center of the field to a maximum on either edge.
As a result, the difference (112 - n,) also changes from zero, at the center
where the incident beam is parallel to the optic axis, to a maximum
vallie at the edge of the field. D arkness occurs at the center and where
Lho vibration directions of the plate are parallel to the vibrationdirec-
Lions of the nicols. The cross marks positions of extinction. Vibration
di rec tions will b e arranged tangentially and radially throughout 360° .
As a res liit or tlds, vibrat ion directions of the extraordinary and or-
dina ry rays from the platc wi ll hc para ll cl to thc vibration plan es of
tllo ni co ls ill cc rla in dircct iOIi S. T il e two dir('c.:L ions arc di rec tions of
88 MINERAL OPTICS
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 89

extinction and in general uniaxial minerals form dark cross arms at 90° the cross aJ:ms marks the point of emergence of the optic axis, and its
(Figure 6-2) . In biaxial minerals the positions of extinction follow a more deviation from the center of the field is a measure of the angle b etween
complex pattern, and the interference figure is no longer a simple cross the optic axis and the axis of the microscope.
but changes as shown in Figure 6-3. The different orders of color are Although uniaxial figures are frequently eccentric in position, the cross
concentric with low orders at the center. Where the mineral remains in arms remain parallel to the planes of vibration of the nicols. Because of
the same position the number of color b ands observed in a particular
field is dependent upon the thickness of the plate and the double re- --__ I I II
----1.....J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -1 L ______ _ \ I
\ f
fraction. _----.\1------ --i i- - ----- \ I
Monochromatic light produces alternate dark and light b ands in inter- - . I: \ I
\ f
ference figures. The dark bands correspond to retardations of n>.., and
the intermediate maximum colored b ands correspond to a retardation of
\
\ ,I

--:~ ~:
//\
/

(2n + 1) >../2. The relationship is similar to the result when mono- I,

I,
II
II
II
II
II
, ___ J
••IIi-~r---l i-
L_

---...
'I
II
II

!'II
/ \

I "- \
\
\
\
,
\ ~ '-'
I I ..... ,', ~
)
I'
II
" \\ \ /
"
\
II .k'
II
II
90° 45° II
J L __ 6 •
FIG. 6-3. A biaxial interference figure in 90 ° and 45 ° positions. l r-- ;
,I
chromatic light is passed through a quartz wedge. The colors in inter- I',I',
\ /~
ference figures produced by white light are a combination of the dif- 1'1
I I
, I
ferent monochromatic wavelengths in an analogous manner to the in- -j / ,-
terference color chart where white light may be considered as a i //
/
I I /

summation of the various monochromatic wavelengths. I

I I
\
Uniaxial Interference Figures. In hexagonal and tetragonal minerals
the optic axis coincides with the c-a;ds of the crystal. Likewise, the center
I \
\
\
---
\ =- --- -, r---- - - -,,- __ _
\
of the cross in the interference figure marks the optic-axis position. If \ II "

the optic axis of the mineral coincides with that of the microscope, the
uniaxial figure will be centered with the two arms crossing at the inter-
section of the cross hairs in the microscope.
However, if the optic axis is inclined to the axis of the microscope,
the point of intersection of the cross arms will fall away from the inter-
section of the crosshairs. It frequently falls outside the field of th e micro-
scope. If the center of the axial cross does not coincide with the centcr
of the field, the point of interscction of the arms will move arou nd the
crossh air intcrsection wh c n th e slage is rot.llcd , desc ribin g a circle a nd
r O llll'nin ~ In il s nri ~ innl posilion Ilrll'l' rol:llin g ;1(iOo. '1'11 (' inlCl's('c lioll of
6-4. Uniaxial interference figure in eccentric positions. Dotted lines indicate the
F IG .
movement of the figure around the field of the microscope as the stage is rotated.
this fact the arms sweep the field first from one side, then from another
as the stage is rotated. It is important to note whether the arms remain
parallel to th e cross hairs, since anns in certain biaxial figures also cross
the field. Th e la tter are curved or crescent shaped, however, and swing
across th e fi eld rather than sweep parallel to the nicols . Several eccentric
posiliolls of a unia xial fi gure are shOvvn in Figure 6-4.
1'11 0 nlllnhcr or color bancls inlillia xial inle rference figmes varies with
90 MINERAL OPTICS
the thickness of the section and the double refraction of the mineral.
Thick sections may give a number of orders of colors, whereas a thin
section of the same mineral may not yield bands of color above the first
order. If two plates are made of different minerals, both of identical
orientation and having the same thickness, the mineral with the greater
double refraction will develop the greater number of color bands. The
relation between uniaxial figures due to mineral plates of the same thick-
ness but differing in double refraction is shown in Figure 6-5.
Vibration Directions in Uniaxial Crystals. In uniaxial crystals one sig-
nificant ray vibrates parallel to a plane that includes the c-axis of the
crystal; another vibrates parallel to a plane at right angles. The two ~u:e
Weak double refraction Strong double refract ion
FIG.6-5. The comparative effect of strong and weak double refraction on the color
bands of a uniaxial interference figure.
refracted differently and consequently travel different distances in pass-
ing through the mineral plate.
When the rays vibrate parallel to thc nicols, resolution is zero, and
darkness occurs- hence the axial cross in the interference figure. At the
45° position the greatest intensity occurs, and the interference colors
are most brilliant.
When two sets of rays are formed by the passage of light through a
uniaxial crystal, one set travels with uniform velocity in all directions
and is known as the ordinary ray; the other varies in velocity with di-
rection and is called the extraordinary ray. If light were to radiate out
from the center of a solid mass of such an anisotropic medium, at a given
instant the wavefront of the ordinary ray would be spherical, whereas
the wavefront of the extraordinary ray would be ellipsoidal. Any section
of the wavefront produced by the ordinary ray would th ereforc he a
circle. One section of the wavefront due to th e extraordinary ray would
be a circle; but others would bc cllipses. Figure 6-6 illu strates scclions
which includ e the optic axis . If the velocily or lh c eX lraorclinary ray "is
greator, th e ellipse li cs oill'sid e lli c circle, :l l1d lli e rnincr:il is optically
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 91
negative. If the velocity of the ordinary ray is greater, the ellipse lies
within the circle, and the min eral is optically positive. Uniaxial positive
and negative minerals are listed in Ta ble 10-8.
The velocities represented in the diagram Figure 6-6 are the re-
ciprocals of the indices of refraction. The ray velocities have equal values
in the direction of the c-axis, where the circle and ellipse coincide, and
are most unequal in a direction at right angles to the c-axis. The greatest
and least indices of refraction are observed at right angles to the c-axis.
C E C -axis = optic axis ~ c
Negative Posi t ive
FIC , 6-6. Sections of ray surfaces for uniaxial minerals.
In these directions (only) the indices of refraction are the reciprocals
of the ray velocities ,
The indices of refraction of the two rays at right angles to the c-axis
are represented by n E and nw. n E is the index of the extraordinary ray,
II", the index of the ordinary ray. In positive minerals ne is greater; in
Ilegative minerals nE is less.
In Figure 6-7 convergent light is shown striking the surface of a mineral
pla te such as quartz, cut normal to the c-axis. The convergent beam is
rd'racted and broken into two rays . The extraordinary ray e is radial in
:II'I'angement, is more refracted, and has the lesser velocity. The ordinary
1':1Y 0 is tangential in arrangement, is less refracted, and has the greater
velocity. Although the diagram is simplified by using two lines to rep-
I('sent the e and 0 rays , actually there aTe many multiples of each of
I he lwo rays. The radial and tangential arrangement, however, obtains
Illro ll ghoLlt.
Posilive and Negative Sign of Un iaxial Crystals. The optic signs of
1l lli :lxial mill cl':ds may h e clclerrninecl from inlerfcrencc figures with the
,liel or lI(;C'(,SSO(Y pl:'l('S. As sll()\vn in Fi ~ "r o 6-7 th e cXlTaordinary ray
vll>nl l\'s ill I I ,, ) 111"11I1'i1)(II Idl/III' plll'lI l1('! lo lil o c-lI xis; lli o orclinaxy ray
92 MINERAL OPTICS CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 93
vibrates at right angles. If the r ay vibrating in the principal plane is the
slow ray, the mineral is said to b e positive; if fast, it is negative. In Figur e
6-7 the mineral is positive since the slow ray e vibrates p ar allel to the
c-axis.
An accessory plate may b e used to show the position of the slow ray
with reference to the c-axis. If a mica plate, gypsum plate, or quartz
wedge is inserted in the accessory slot cut in the tube of the microscope,
the color bands of the interference fIgure will change position. The
color bands b ehave differently in alternate quadrants. In one set the
color circles will increas e in diam-
\ f
eter due to increased r etardation; in

*,-I
\

e,*/ /1'_,/-_-';1
/
I., e
the alternate set decrease will occur
due to decr eased retardation. When
"Yo \
- -/,' "
I
\ L
~\
\ \ _- the slow r ay of the access ory plate
~T-=~) r 0'-'--
- - ...\-'0\
==-f--
I \I I
is p arallel to the slow ray in the in-
terference figure an increase in r e- FIG. 6-8. D etermination of the optic sign for a uniaxial positive mineral.
\).. / \ 4 / tardation occurs and vice versa. If
e" . . . . _/++-\ ......... .... .... 'e
tr
"I
I \
th e retardation is increased p arallel In optically positive minerals subtraction occurs at right angles to the
direction of the slow ray in the accessory. In negative minerals the sub-
I \ to the slow ray of the interference
figure, the mineral is positive. If de- traction is in the quadrants lying along the slow-my direction.
creased, the mineral is n egative. The When a mica plate is inserted, decrease in retardation often produces
e 0 o e
i;
I I ,
( I
\ displacement of the color bands is two black dots in alternate quadrants at the center of an interference
/I
1 /

II
I,
\\
illush'ated in Figure 6-8. In quad-
i/ "' .I
rants 1 and 3 the color bands move
toward the center; in quadrants 2
and 4 they move away from the cen-
•
ter. Quadrants 1 and 3 r epresent in-
• (+)
FIG. 6-7. Vibration directions in a uni-
axial positive interference fi gure. a = crease in retardation, wher eas quad-
fast ray (least refracted); e = slow ray
rants 2 and 4 represent decrease in
(most refracted) . Velocity of 0 = lc; retardation. In the illush'ation the
nw
velocity of e = L slow ray of the mica plate is parallel
n. to quadrants 1 and 3.
In Figure 6-9 fast and slow directions for a mica plate are indicated
in four positions around the circular fI eld. The extraordinary and ordinary ~ (-)
rays lie in 45° planes. The interference cross becomes white, the inter-
ference for a 14"- mica plate. Positive
The slow-ray direction is marked on each accessory. If a mica plate FIG. 6-9. The vibration dircctions in both F IG. 6-10. Kcy to uniaxial interference
is inserted with the slow ray in the (1-3) position, the retardation along acccssory platc and min cral for a uni axial figures .
posi tive figure.
the extraordinary ray in the (1-3) quadrants will in effect b e reinforced.
At the same time, an effect of subtraction will occur in the (2-4) qu ad- fi gure. T he direct ion of the two dots forms a plus with the vibration
rants. The color bands of the interference fI gl1l'e will b e displaccd by dil'ecti oll of the slow ray or th e mi ca plate in positive uniaxial minerals
this s up ~rpos iti on. Wh ero re illrol'c('ment ncc lU'S, tho hinds will move to- and a minliS whon th e minerals arc n egative. This relationship is em-
wlI l'd Ih o ('Ollt ('1' or t,iI O (' ire·ll l. 'vVll( ln : sIlhtl'n('[ ioll O('(' III'S, 1110 h:ll1ci s w ill piri cu llilid indi (':llivl ' hili il se rv('s to kee p in mind th e fast- and slow-ray
rnov o ill 1110 0pPllsll O dil'( l( 'll oli . Vihrnl ion din '('1iOll s ill IIl1 ill Xill l (· rys tll is ( Fi glll'o 0- 1() ).
94 MINERAL OPTICS
If minerals have strong double refraction the gypsum plate may be more
useful for determining the optical character of a uniaxial mineral than is
the mica plate. With the gypsum plate two bright blue areas often form
in opposite quadrants of the interference figures. These stand out par-
ticularly in figures given by minerals of moderate or intermediate double
refraction. '''hen the optical character is positive, as in the case of quartz,
the two blue areas occur in opposite quadrants parallel to the slow-ray
vibration direction of the gypsum plate (see Figure 6-11a). When the
optical character is negative, as in the case of calcite, the two blue areas
occur in opposite quadrants at right angles to the slow-ray vibration di-
rection of the gypsum plate (see Figure 6-11h). The blue areas at times
«()~
,.. I
/ \"~ Point
~Q I of optic oxis
-\'/, I I
/'
~~
Red
-- ..........
o "\
~.A v~ \
<:>'0/........ \
(0) (b)
FIG. 6-11. (a) Uniaxial positive. Quartz cut perpendicul ar to th e optic axis as viewed
in the interference figure with a gypsum plate. (b) Uniaxial negative. Calcite cut
perpendicular to the optic axis as viewed in an interference figure with a gypsum
plate.
form dots (second-order blue) , but these should not be confused with
the mica dots (first-order black with a bluish fringe) .
Biaxial Interference Figures. Under normal conditions minerals crystal-
lizing in the orthorhombiC, monoclinic, and triclinic crystal systems give
biaxial interference figures. Rarely, because of crystallization under
strain, hexagonal or tetragonal minerals, normally uniaxial, are anomalous
and produce biaxial figures.
Biaxial interference figures are produced by the same optical arrange-
ment of the microscope employed for uniaxial figures. Unlike uniaxial
figures, curves of biaxial figures assume different relative forms as the
stage is rotated. Double refraction , orientation, and thickness of section
govern the character of biaxial interference figures.
As the stage is rotated a biaxial figure assumes a range of complex
patterns. Figure 6-3 illustrates a symmetrical biaxial interference figure
in two positions at 90° and 45° . The 45° position is the most useful for
ordinary optical determinations aud is often employed in the study of
biaxial minerals . Th~ figure in this position ts Qescribed as &Q qqut
hisectrix flguro at 45°.
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 95
The 45° Acute Bisectrix Figum. Figure 6-12 indicates the nomenclature
of the parts of an acute bisectrix figure at 45°. The different features may
be described as follows:
Isogyres. The two broad black curves, or brushes, which mark the areas
of extinction, are known as isogyres. Strong dispersion produces red and
blue fringes on the margins of the isogyres. By noting the distribution
of the colored fringes in the interference figure one may detennine the
character of the dispersion. In minerals with strong dispersion the curves
of emergence
Isogyre
Acute bisectrix
XorZ
lsogyre
Point of
emergence
of optic axis
r-- Obtuse bisectrix
~ ZarX
FIG . 6-12. The parts of a biaxial interferencc figure pe11)endicular to the acute bi-
scctrix in the 45 ° position .
are not so black or so sharp as in the case of minerals with weak dis-
persion,
Points of El1tergence of the Optic Axes. The vertices of the two cres-
contlike curves mark the points of emergence of the optic axes , The
amount of separation of these points differs with different minerals but
is a constant for an individual mineral. The line between the two points
of emergence subtends the optie axial angle.
Johannsen has suggested the word m elatope for the point of emergence,
Plan e of the Optic Axes. The plane of the optic axes, or axial plane, in-
c/lld es th e lwo points of emergence of th e optie axes, the aeute bisectrix
dil"('cl ioll, nntl tlt o oht nse hi sectri x direction.
Co /O,. Ho"rls. Iliterf('rcil cl' co lor hands roprosentin g positions of equal
I t"illrti lil i011 111'0 di slrii>lilcd ill SY "lIl ll' lri (': d CIII"VCS arolliid lli e points of
"lIlt l r g "II< '( 1 or I/ li l Ilplk II \ ( 'S 11 11<1 II I', · ( 'I II/( 'd I,WII" III'() ,,/ol!r' ( ''' ''''('S .
96 MINERAL OPTICS
x,
Y, and Z. The three axes X, Y, and Z are distributed in the interfer-
ence figure as shown in the diagram. Y is normal to the plane of the
optic axes. If the acute bisectrix is X, the obtuse bisectrix is Z, and vice
versa.
Optic Normal. The direction at right angles to the plane of the optic
axes is referred to as the optic normal. It is the axis Y.
Eccentric Biaxial Figures. Since biaxial minerals as observed in thin
section may be cut at any angle, a variety of modifications of the biaxial
interference figurcs result. A single isogyre may swing across the fi eld
in one figure, another may yield an optic axis, another may show the
Zorr
t the slow ray.
,
if",
--YorjJ
1 Z
if",
Zorr
FIG. 6-13. Biaxial ray surface.
acute bisectrix, etc. The most useful figures for optical determinations of
mineral properties are either acute bisectrix or optic-axis figures. In optic-
axis figures (see Figure 6-24) the convex side of the isogyre in the 45°
position indicates the direction of the acute bisectrix.
Optic-axis figures and most acute bisectrix figures are given by mineral
sections showing comparatively low-order colors between crossed nicols
in parallel light. Examination of a number of crystals of miscellaneous
orientation between crossed nicols will often quickly reveal those most
likely to give interference figures of useful orientation in convergent light.
Optical Directions in Biaxial Minerals. In all biaxial min erals the
various optical features may be conveniently oriented by refcrence to
three axes, X, Y, and Z, arranged at right angles to each other (Fi gure
6-13) . X, Y, and Z indicate th e easc of vibration of li ght in the min eral.
Li ght t ravolill g norm;,tl 10 X vihr~tl('s para11 (" 1 l o lh (' ax is and has Lhc ntaX-
CON VERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 97
imum velocity for the mineral lin". Light traveling normal to Z vibrates
parallel to the axis and has the minimum velOcity for the mineral Ilny.
The axis Y lies at right angles to the plane of X and Z. Light traveling
normal to Y vibrates parallel to the axis and has an intermediate velocity
l/nl3.
In a given mineral, light Vibrating parallel to X will form the fast
ray. Light vibrating parallel to Z is the slow ray, and light vibrating
parallel to Y will be intermediate in velocity. Thus, when the direction
of observation lies along the X axis, XZ will indicate the slow ray and
XY the intermediate ray; similarly, when the direction of observation
is the Z axis, ZX will be the fast ray and ZY the intermediate ray. When
the direction of observation is the Y axis, YX will be the fast ray and YZ
The fast- and slow-ray directions corresponcling to the various direc-
tions of observation along the axes may be indicated as shown in the
table below.
Direction of Two rays
Velocities
observation observed
X F aster ray l / ntl = interm edi ate ray
Slower ray l /n y = slowest ray
y F aster ray l /n a = fas test ray
Slower ray l/ny = slowest ray
F aster ray l/na = fastest ray
Slower ray l / n tl = interm edi ate ray
Vlhen the direction of observation lies along the X axis, light Vibrating
parallel to the plane XZ will have the greatest index of refraction, and
light Vibrating parallel to the plane XY will have an intermediate index
of refraction. When the direction of observation lies along the Z axis,
light vibrating parallel to the plane ZX will have the least index of refrac-
lion, and light Vibrating parallel to ZY will have an intermediate index of
refraction. Wh en the direction of observation lies along the Y axis, light
Vibrating parallel to the plane YX will have the least index of refraction,
and parallel to YZ will have the greatest index of refraction.
\i\1ithin certain limits, the axes X, Y, and Z have positions in minerals
lhat arc depend ent upon thc system of crystallization. In orthorhombic
lI1 in erals, X, Y, and Z arc flxcd with respect to the crystallographic axes
(f, b, and G. In th e monoclini c systcm on c of the three axes (often Y)
coin cid es wit'lt th e crys t;tllogr:tphi c ax is I) . Tn the lriclinie system there
<l1'1l II() liJrlil ll 1iOlts of posit iOIl Il ('c'ordilt g to t It o crys lall ographi c axes.

~8
The optical directions in biaxial minerals may be represented in several
ways. One of the most generally used devices is the ray surface illustrated
in Figure 6-13. Another is the index ellipsoid of Figure 6-16. The ray
surface is developed on X, Y, and Z arranged at right angles to each other.
The index ellipsoid (optical indicatrix) may b e developed on the same
axes, but by convention a, (3, and yare usually used instead of X, Y, and
Z . The accompanying table furnishes a comparison of the two systems
of representation.
COMPARISON OF THE BI AX IAL RAY S URFACE AND THE INDEX ELLIPSOID
D istan ce from center to surface
Compara tive features
Biaxial ray snrface
MINERAL OPTICS CONVE RGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 99
is the greatest. Since 1/ n(3 is intermediate in velocity, the circle around Y
will have intermediate size. Since 1/n-y represents the least velocity, the
circle around Z will be smaller than the circles around the two other
axes. Three combinations of ellipses and circles are represented. In the
section perpendicular to Y and in the plane XZ , the circle with radius
1/n(3 intersects an ellipse with major and minor semi-axes l i n" and 1/ny,
resp ectively. In the section perpendicular to Z and in the plane XY,
the smallest circle, radius 1/n-y, lies within the ellipse with major and
minor semiaxes 1/ na and 1/n(3, resp ectively. In the section p erpendicular
to X in the plane XZ the largest circle, radius l i n", lies outside the ellipse
with major and minor semiaxes I /n(3 and I / n-y, respectively.
Index ell ipsoid
--'- , --'-
"~ i- ~

o~ o~ xOs\ (} 0_ <?r...... ~'

Axial directions
Least velocity .. z "1 0<
-<9 " S\o\"

'"
-<9 " / " / 0
X Ci Zorr X orlX
Greatest velocity.
At right angles . y (3 ,/
i-.x()~ (} o~~ 0 / ",
M a jor semiax is ..... l/n" and l/n~ n'Y o -<9
0
. o{ " o_°J"
-<' ......

n~
Intermedi ate semiaxis .. . . . l/n" and l/n'Y
Minor semi axis . . ......... . l/n'Y and l/n~ ncr
Secondary optic axes Prim ary optic axes
Optic axes .. ... ..... · ··· · ·
or biradials or binormals
Surface . .. . ... . . ..... . . . . Double Single
The correlation of the ease-of-vibration directions, whether design ated
by X, Y, and Z or a , (3, and y, with biaxial interference figures of different
sign is shmvn in Figure 6-14.
Let us assume a single crystalline mass of a biaxial crystal of sufficient
size to allow examination of light variation in the system. If light w ere
to radiate out from the center of a solid mass of such an anisotropic
medium, at a given instant the wave front produced would b e a double-
sheeted surface with sections as illustrated in Figure 6-13. The optic
axes lie in the plane of X and Z and the acute angle 2V b en;yeen the
optic axes varies between 0 and 90 0 •
If the axis Z is the bisech'ix of the acute angle b etween th e optic axes,
the mineral is said to be optically positive. If the axis X is the acute bi-
sectrix, the mineral is said to be optically negative.
Two wavefronts appear in each section along the axes- one a circle,
the other an ellipse. The size of each circl e is determin ed by the vclocity
of the light ray Vibrating parallel to th e axis around which it is gcn-
eratcd . Aro nn cl X th c r:1clins or the circle is ] In,,; arouncl Y thc radius is
I Inn; :lncJ :lrolilid Z it is I Ill y. Sill('( ' /I n' is Ih (' lc;lst ill cl('x of refrac lion and
I III .. ill(li('; il cS III(' W<'II I( 'sl v( 'locil ), fot' III(' SYS « 'III , tll( ' circic ;11'()1111 Cl X
-<9
Bia xia l positive Biaxial negative
F lc . 6-14. Ease-of-vibration directions X, Y, an d Z, or a , {3, and "1, with reference to
biaxial positive and negative interference figures. Corresponding fast- and slow-ray
directions are also indicated.
Light vibrating p arallel to Z will radiate outward from the center in
the plane XY. The w avefront will b e circular, and the velOCity will b e
li lly. Similarly, light vibrating p arallel to X will travel outward in the
plane YZ with a circular wavefront, and the velocity will b e l i n",. Like-
wise, light vibrating parallel to Y will travel in the plane XZ with a
circular w avefront and a velocity 1/n(3 . In each of these instances n", n(3,
and ny represent, respectively, the least, intermediate, and greatest in-
clices of refraction of the mineral.
The planes XY , YZ , and XZ are especially significant. Sections along
each of these planes are iIlush'ated in Figure 6-15, a, b, and c.
In the plane XZ the ellipse and circle will cross at foW' points. At these .
fo m points no difference in wave velocity exists. These points of inter-
sec lion mark th e position of the secondarlj optic axes, or biradials. In
most crystals these seco nd ary optic axes lie very near the p1'i-ma1'1j optic
I/.\'('S bllt are not id c nli ca l with thcm. •
fndcx E llipsoid (Optical Indicatrix) . Tt is convenient to represent the
opti (':iI rc\:lli()IIS of OrLliorh()1l1h ic, monoclini c, and triclini c crystals by
111( ';! IIS or ll l\' illrll'.\' ellipsoid or OPlic;!i illclica lrix (F igure 6-]6 ). Gc:ometri-
00
:tlly the figure is a triaxial ellipsoid. The ongm lies at the center of
1.e ellipsoid, the coordinate axes are the axes of the ellipsoid, and the
oordinate planes are the principal planes.
The semiaxes of the ellipsoid are assigned the values of the indices
f refraction n", n(:1, and ny. The principal sections are any combination
I
Z gation of light along a given line. If the direction of S'S is known, the
MINERAL OPTICS
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 101
axes, or binoT11wls. These are sometimes called the primm·y optic axes
and differ slightly from the secondary optic axes (biradials) of the bi-
axial "lave surface.
The optical properties of light rays may be determined in any given
directioI'l in a h·iaxial ellipsoid as shown in Figure 6-18. The semia;'(es
are ny, n{3, and n it, resp ectively, and S'S represents the direction of propa-

«:'~y I +r f .x Opt/c axis _ -1"\

~!)
f f '1
<IG.6-15. Sections of biaxial ray surface. (a) Section pCl1)endicular to Z. (b) Sec- Rod/us = np
ion perpendicular to X. (c) Section perpendicular to Y.

r orZ
I
I

f]orY-- Diagram showing the Axial plane

circular sections
--f]or Y
FIG. 6-17. The relationship between the two circular sections, the optic axes, and
cllipsui<.lal axes (n. , np, and n., ) in the index cllipsoid.

following three pairs of optical properties become known by construc-

tion:

I 1. The vibration directions of the two rays traveling along S'S.

I 2. The two corresponding indices of refraction, 11.2 and 11. 1•
r orZ
FIG. 6-16. Index ellipsoid for biaxial crystals.
in which a plane contains hvo axes. These sections are ellipses and have
as major and minor semiaxes any pair of the values 11.'" 11.{3, and llry.
With the exception of the two circular sections, all of the plane sec-
tions that are cut tlu-ough the center of the ellipsoid are ellipscs (Figure
6-17) . The two circular sections include thc semiaxcs with lcngth n {3;
thus the kngth of the radins of each circu lar section cqualsn(J. T he di-
reclions perpencl iell ht r to tilt, l wo cirCli htr seelions a r(' ca II eel th e oJ)! in
3. The directions of the two wave normals.
If the direction of the diameter S' S is known, the position of the planes
tangent to S'S at th e two ends of the diameter also becomes known. It
is then possible to pass a p arallel di ametral plane through the ellipsoid
intersectin g the eenter and equidistant between the two tangent planes.
T ho tliam c tral plano thro ugh the center will cut an elliptical section in
:I II hili Lwo possihl e posilions or 5'S. Th ese two exceptional positions are
1110 oplic ;lX('S, :llId Il('ro tli e secl ions Cll t are circ ular. The elliptical see-
lioll flll"lIi sll('s 11I('; ISllr( 'IIH"lil s frolil wllicll 111(' op ti cal properLies ca.n b e
,02 MINERAL OPTICS CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 103
letermined. The diametral plane will have major and minor a;xes. ThesE' the oblique rays, as illustrated in Figure 6-20. The angle 2E is the angle
.xes mark the vibration directions of the two rays traveling along S'S . in air, while 2V is the internal angle.
['he major and minor radii represent the refractive indices of the waves Mallm"d's equation (D ' K sin E) may be used to determine the ap-
lssociated with the two rays, equaling n 2 and n 1 • The wave normal cor- proximate axial angle with th e microscope. In the equation, K is a con-
esponding to the ray propagated along S'S and vibrating along the stant for a palticulm" microscope,
najor axis lies in a plane through S'S and the major axis and is normal D is one-half the distance b etween .---2E
:0 the axis. Similarly, the wave normal corresponding to the ray prop a- the points of emergence, and E is
~ated along S'S and vibrating along the minor axis lies in a plane tlu"ough one-half the axial angle in air.
,'S and the minor axis and is normal to the axis. The computation of the axial
angle in a mineral from the ob-
served axial angle in air depends
upon the formula

sin E = n f3 sin V

FIG. 6-18. A ray OS in an index ellipsoid
with a conjugate plane through 0 and
parallel to tangent planes at Sand S'.
When n sin V is equal to 1, the FIG. 6-20. The relation between the ob-
served angle 2E and the angle 2V in
angle 2E becomes 180°, and the biaxial minerals.
axial angle in air cannot be meas-
ured. The value of an observed angle may be reduced to measurable
dimensions by immersing the objective in oil of known refractive index.
Large axial angles need to be measured with a rotation device. Such
devices for rotating crystals in a vertical circle may be adapted to the
stage of the microscope; otherwise special apparatus must be employed.
,,
,, ,
FIG. 6-19. Section through an ellipsoid ,, ,,
showing the ray OS together with traces ,, , ,
of tangent and diametral planes.
,, 1

/,'/ /
\\
" '"
The section which includes SOS' and n z - nz is shown in Figure 6-19. /

A similar section at right angles would include SOS' and n , - n , as may

be visualized from Figure 6-18.
,
" ,,
A perpendicular from the intersection of n 2 - n2 with the circumfer- "'''''\ I'"
,, ,,
ence of the ellipse would be the line P 2 - O 2 • The reciprocal 1/P 2 0 2 I

} :'
represents the velocity of the ray propagated along the line SOS' and ,, ,,
vibrating along the axis n 2 - n 2 • In a similar manner a reciprocal1/P 1 0 , \
would represent the velocity of the ray propagated along the line SOS' (01
\
(b)
and vibrating along the axis PIO , (Figure 6-18 p. F I G. 6-21. Comparison of axial an gles.
The Axial Angles 2E and 2V. The observed axial angle is greater than (a ) Aragonitc (b) Barite
the true axial angle within the mineral. This is due to the refraction of 2V 19° = 2V = 37 °30'
'/l y - 11" = 0.155 Il y - 11 " = 0.012
1 The foregoing di scll ssion is largely based IIpo n a paper, T hc Hay Sl\]'fa ce, the
Opt ical Indica trix, ancl T heir Iliterrelation , by D r. C eorge ' TIIIIl'1I ( '"Vll si i. A Clld. Sd., Variation in Axial Angle. Figure 6-21 illustrates two biaxial inter-
vol. 23, p. 235, 193.'3 ). forenco figun.l~ 10 tho 45° position. The figure on the left represents
L04 MINERAL OPTICS
llagonite and that on the right represents barite. The sections have each
been cut normal to the -acute bisectrix and are approximately equal in
thickness. Two variables remain to produce differences in the diagram :
variation in the axial angle 2V and variation in the double refraction
n2 - n j •
The figure on the left represents the approximate position of the two
isogyres in relation to the field of the microscope for 2V = 19° (arago-
nite). The figure on the right represents barite drawn to the same scale
with 2V = 37°30'.
The dotted lines indicate the distribution of the color bands. Aragonite
has a double refraction of 0.155, and barite is 0.012. Aragonite has more
bands for the same thickness of section.
It is worthwhile to record in a notebook the relative positions of the
isogyres for angles in the neighborhood of 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30°,
35°, and 40°. Such a record will assist in determining the approximate
axial angle of an unknovm mineral. Charts E, F, and G in Table 10-10
give values for common minerals.
It should be remembered that if the thickness remains the same, the
number of color bands of interference figures will increase or decrease
with increase or decrease in double refraction.
Determination of the Optic Sign of a Biaxial Mineral. The optic sign
is conveniently determined with the mineral in the 45° position with a
quartz wedge. In some cases a mica plate or gypsum plate may be
preferred.
W'hen the direction X is the acute bisech'ix, the mineral is negative.
If Z is the acute bisech'ix, the mineral is optically positive. As stated ,
X, Y, and Z are the axes of ease of vibration. Light traveling through a
clystal normal to X has the maximum velocity for all directions in the
crystal. Light traveling normal to Z has the least velOcity.
A biaxial negative crystal in the acute bisectrix position at 45° may
be used to illush'ate the d etermination of the optic sign (see Figure
6-22). A biaxial figure of this type is first observed carefully in order
to note the position of the color bands, both in the central area and
within the two small areas inclosed by the concave portions of the
isogyres. A quartz wedge is then inserted in the accessOlY slot with the
slow ray parallel to the axial plane. Movement of the color bands takes
place as the wedge is inserted.
The displacement of the color bands in a negative crystal is indicated
by the arrows in Figure 6-22. As the wedge thickness increases the color
bands in the cenh'al area move toward the two "eyes," or melatopes,
of the interference fi gure. At th e same time th e bands on the oppositc
sides of the isogyres within th e two small nrens move away from th c
)1lclalopos. As tho w (',(l f;0 is wilhdrawn , the lI1 ovom(' nt i ~ rov('I's('d . I r a
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 105
positive crystal is substituted, the movement of the color bands is also
reversed .
In the biaxial negative crystal illustrated, Z lies in the axial plane along
the obtuse bisectrix, X is the acute bisectrix, and Y is the optic normal. Two
rays travel along X with vibration directions at right angles to each
other, being parallel, respectively, to Z and Y. The ray vibrating parallel
to Z is the slow ray for the crystal velocity (l/ny); that parallel to Y
is intermediate in velOCity, having the value 1/n{3.
Two rays emerge in the central area of the interference figure at X, a
slow ray, velocity 1/ny, and an intermediate but faster ray, velOCity 1/n{3.
• .,.fb
~' (-'I;&'
'l,())
.0
:-.. ~ \t>s~
<ilv oo,e {o~
\,,~e S\O~
~,4.~
:-. iio,~
~
q,o,0
;..,0 \
\"i"'o~ -\
<i;P
FIG. 6-22. The determin ation of the optic sign with a bhudal negative interference
fig ure.
1£ the slow ray of the quartz wedge is parallel to the direction Z, increase
in retardation occurs as the wedge thickness increases. If the quartz
wedge is always ins erted as indicated in Figure 6-22, an acute bisectrix
biaxial negative interference figure in the 45° position will always show
movement of the color bands toward the melatopes in the central area.
Conversely, a biaxial positive figure treated in the same way will show
movement in the opposite direction. Since the slow-ray vibration direc-
tion in thc qu artz wcdge is marked, the slow-ray vibration direction in
tho intcrl'crence fi gure is easily determined by comparison. Directions of
movcment for posilive and nega tive bia;·d al fl gures in monochromatic
light will i th e slow-ra y viilratio ll direc lion of all accessory plato super-
im[)()s<'<l (l 1't ! S I IOW Ii ill Figlll'\ ' 0·23.
 06 MINERAL OPTICS CO NVERGENT P OLAlUZE D LIGHT 107
The Optic-axis Figure_ Interference figures produced by sections cut
Lormal or nearly normal to one of the two optic axes of a biaxial mineral
.re useful for determination of optic sign. Such sections yield inter-
erence figures with a single isogyre in the field of view. The melatope,
11' point of emergence, may coincide with the axis of the microscope or
nay be slightly off center.
As the stage is rotated, the isogyre swings around the field, remaining
:entered or nearly centered, depending upon the eccentricity of the sec-
ion. The color bands are arranged almost Circularly around the melatope
md vary in retardation with the double refraction of the mineral.
Without wedge
The curvature of the isogyre decreases with an increase in 2V. When
:he axial angle is large-i. e., near 90°- the isogyre is straight, and the FIG. 6-24. Movement of the color b ands in an optic-axis biaxial positive interference
lcute bisectrix side of the interference figure becomes indistinguishable fig ure as an accessory p late is inserted.
:rom the obtuse bisechix side. When the angle is small, however, the

Negative
1 to Bxo

Positive Negative
F IG. 6-23. Positive and negative biaxial crystals ( in dicating th eir appearance with a
mica plate in monochromatic light ).

isogyre is definitely curved in a crescentlike form. The convex side of the

curve in the 45° position points toward the acute bisectrix, and the obtuse
bisectrix is on the concave side.
Optic-axis fi gures showing even slight curvature are useful for de-
terminations of the optic sign. The mica plate, gypsum plate, or quartz
w edge may b e employed, depending upon the double refraction of the
mineral. The effect of the quartz wedge upon a biaxial positive optic-axis
interference figure is shown in Figure 6-24. An optic-axis figure without
the wedge inserted is shown on one side of the diagram, and the move-
ment of the color bands caused by insertion of the wedge is shown on
the opposite side.
Diagrams are shown in Figure 6-25, which should b e of convenience
in determining the signs of interfercnce fi gurcs in th e two most lI seful
positions upon ins cr ti on of th o qu artz wedge. Th e sa me p rin cipl es a ppl."
ill Iitili zi ng mica ;llld gy pSlI1I1 plates.
Positive
1 to optic axis v 1 to optic axi s
F IG . 6-25. Movem ent of the color b ands to be exp ected as the quartz wedge is in-
serted in acute bisectrix and op tic-axis interference fi gures of opp osite sign .
Dispersion in Biaxial Interference Figures. The optic angle for light
of on e wavelength is frequently greater or less th an for ligl"t of another
wavelength. In the normal interference fig ure produced by white light
thi s is usually dc tected by a p ecul ia r arran gement of the color b ands or
hy th e cl evelop ment of bllle a nd reel frin ges on th e isogyres.
T ho dispc rsioll record ecl ill rnost tahl es of op ti cal min cralogy is th at
o f 1110 opt ic' a Xt'S, 'T il e two cx t rc ·rtlt~ wav(·I(·ll g tII S or lhe spCC lnllTI arc used
[)S MINERAL OPTICS CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT 109
) designate the character of the dispersion. Thus, if the axial angle for The symmetry of the color distribution in the interference figure is a
~d r is greater than that for violet v, the dispersion is expressed r > v. reflection of the symmetry of the crystal. It is well to remember that the
n case the reverse is true, the formula is r < v. symmetry elements of orthorhombic crystals include axes of twofold
In many instances the dispersion can be determined by direct observa- symmeh'y, planes of symmeh'y, and the center of symmetry. Here the
ion of the biaxial interference figure (Figure 6-26). If the isogyres of common interference figure is symmetrical as shown in Figure 6-26. Less
symmetrical dispersion is possible but not common for the interference
r>v r <v
figures of orthorhombic crystals.
Monoclinic crystals exhibit less symmetry. The fringes of the isogyres
for monoclinic crystals exhibit crossed, horizontal, and inclined dispersion
Bille extinqllished as shown in Figure 6-27.
red shines throllqh
Triclinic crystals have no plane of symmetry. Dispersion shows asym-
metry which may in itself be distinctive.
The various types of dispersion arranged according to crystal system
are as follows:
Orthorhombic crystals:
Dispersion of the optic axes.
Crossed axial plane dispersion.
Bille extinqllished Monoclinic crystals:
red shines throllqh Inclined dispersion (both bisech·ices).
Horizontal dispersion (acute bisectrix).
Crossed dispersion (obtuse bisectrix).
F IG. 6-26. Biaxial interference figures illustrating dispersion r > v and r < v. The Triclinic crystals:
colored fringes as observed in the interference figure are reversed from the axial Unsymmetrical dispersion.
angles existing in the crystal due to extinction.
These types are b est distinguished by the use of light of various wave-
lengths. Red and blue color filters placed in front of the mirror of the
microscope are convenient.

REFERENCES
Buchwald, E.: "Einfiihrung in die Kristalloptik," Sammlung Goschen, Berlin,
1912.
Horizontal Inclined Burri, C.: "Das Polarisations Mikroskop," E. Birkhiiuser & Cie . A. G . Basel,
Crossed
(el 1950.
to) (b)
E vans, J. W.: "The D etermination of Minerals under the Microscope," Thomas
FIG. 6-27. Dispersion fringes for monoclinic crystals. (a) Crossed dispersion. (b)
Murby & Co., London, 1928.
Horizontal dispersion. (c) Inclined dispersion.
F letcher, L.: "Thc Optical Indicatrix," Oxford University Press, London, 1892.
the interference figure (r > v) have a distinct red fringe on the convex Groth, P .: "The Optical Properties of Crystals," trans. by B. H. Jackson, John
edges, the angle for red is greater than for violet. Both isogyres should Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York, 1910.
be observed b efore reaching a conclusion. On the concave sidc of thc Johannscn, A.: "Manual of Petrographic Methods," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc. , Ncw York, ]918.
isogyre, as illustrated in the figurc, red li ght is extinguish ed , and conse-
T IlLton , A. E. .fl.: "C rys lallography and Pract ical Crystal Measurement," vol.
qnently the concave fringe is bIlle in color. Blue is extin gui sh ed on tho 2; "P hysical alld C he ll1ica l," 2d cd. , Ma cmillan & Company, Ltd. , London.
convex side, and I"he f",ill gc is red. HJ
10 MINERAL OPTICS

Nahlstrom, E. E.: "Optical Crystallography," John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New
York, 1943.
Ninchell, A. N.: "Elements of Optical Mineralogy, Part I: Principles and
Methods," 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1937.
Nright, F . E.: The Index Ellipsoid, Am. ]. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 35, pp. 133-138,
1913.
_ _ : The Formation of Interference Figures : A Study of the Phenomena CHAPTER 7
Exhibited by Transparent Inactive Crystal Plates in Convergent Polarized
Light, ]. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 7, pp. 779-817, 1923.
The Universal Stage

Purpose. The universal stage (Figure 7-1) is designed to tilt the plane
of a thin section at various angles to the plane of a microscope stage. It
contains a series of graduated circles (Figure 7-2) which measure the
angular positions of tilted sections. Such a device aids in the determina-
tion of optic orientation, 2V, optic sign, the directions of pleoclu'oism,

FIG. 7-1. A four-axis universal stage showing the upp er hemisphere an d four gradu-
ated circles fo r angul ar measuremen t. (E. L eitz, In c. )

dispersion, comparison of refractive indices, and the study of twinning.

W hen temperature control is added (Emmons, 1943) , the stage may be
uscd with liquid mounts in the prccise determination of refractive indices
of min eral fragments. It is also employed in the analysis of crystal orienta-
tions in thin scctions [or the interpretation of structure or p etrofabrics.
Stage Assembly. The universal stage is fastened with thumb screws
to tho microscopo stage and the microscope slide rests on a circular glass
III
112 MINERAL OPTICS
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE
113
?late in the center. Two glass hemispheres are provided to make the thi!1
,ection visible at various angles of inclination. One is fastened beneath
the glass plate and the other above the thin section. Special objectives
are inserted in the microscope to obtain images from the curved surface
:UI
o
of the upper hemisphere. Cedar oil or glycerin is used to make optical
€
contact above and below the thin section, also behveen the lower hemi- e}-3
·00
-a.
sphere and the glass plate. The polarizing microscope employed must . r2
3
provide a large working distance between stage and objective and the
N

Upright INS
orc (4) I
-u.--- I Outer vertical
Upright Outer circle (1)
orc (4) circle (2)

c/1'

Inner upright
circle (4)
FIG. 7-2. Diagram of a four- axis universal stage. Four graduated circles are indicated.
1
Axes OV and IV arc perp endicular to circles (l) and (3), while axes NS and EW I
lie in the planes of the inner and outer circles. FIG. 7-3. The graduated circles of a four-axis universal stage.

area for horizontal rotation must be broad. Usually only research micro-
scopes are adequate. Axis of microscope
Am
Graduated Circles. In the ordinary four-axis universal stage, measure- I
ments are made on four graduated circles, with the stage of the micro- I
scope providing a fifth circle. The axis of the microscope remains in the
same vertical position at all times and may be deSignated as Am.
The four movable axes lie respectively normal to the four graduated
circles (Figure 7-3) and may be deSignated as OV (vertical to outer
circle) , IV (vertical to inner circle) , EW (normal to circular drum), and
NS (normal to Wright arcs). When the stage is set with each circle at --A 2
zero, OV and IV are vertical, EW is horizontal east-west, and NS is hOli-
zontal north-south.
The outer circle of the universal stage rotates around OV and lies in
a horizontal plane in the zero position. An inner circlc holds thc slide
and hemispheres. It lies in a horizontal plane in th e zero position and
"
F lc. 7-tl. Diag ra m of a ri ve-ax is universal stage ( a[[er Emmons). Axes AI, A and
"
1\, :Iro pc rpClldicld ar to Ihe planes or th c circles 1,3, and 5 . The planes of the circles
rotates around IV. tl ru ti lted IIrol ll, d HA('S A" A" Hlle! A".
Thc outer circle is ,not o lll y frec to roLate nrOl llld th n OV axis, bu t il
114 MINERAL OPTICS THE UNIVERSAL STAGE 115
may be tilted from the horizontal in either direction about the EW axis . tions are drawn on the projection forming a so-called stereo graphic net,
The angles of tilt are measured on the vertical drum at the side of the Where the angular relationships are known from measmements with a
stage. universal stage, various positions may b e plotted directly on the stereo-
The inner circle measures angles around the IV axis. This circle may graphic net essentially as latitude and longitude may b e located on a
be tilted around the NS axis . Angles of tilt are meas ured on the two map. It is convenient to plot positions on a transparent overlay placed
graduated Wright arcs which curve upward from the outer circle. on the net.
The five-axis universal stage contains a Positions are recorded in terms of ¢ (phi) and p (rho) angles (Figme
\le re of pro/eel'.' third inner circle as illustrated in Figure 7-6), The angle ¢ is measured clockwise in the horizontal plane from the
5P~o-?
7-4. This circle holds the slide. Emmons
( 1943) recommends a five-axis stage and Crys ta l a ngles
p
points out that the additional motion pro- Forms
cOOl '"
(p hi) (rho)
0°00'
vided by an inner fifth circle is actually a b OlO 0°00' 90°00'
a 100 9 0°00' 90°00'
simplification. 1140 22°49)'i ' 90°00'
m 120 40°05' 90°00'
The Stereographic Plot. The angular y 01 2 0°00' 1 5°40 ~~'
x 011 0°00' 29° 18'
relations of a universal stage may b e con- t 20 1 90°00' 62°00'
veniently plotted by means of a stereo- e III 59°17' 4 7 °4 1 ~ '
n 22 1 59° 17' 65°31)1,'
graphic projection. Here the crystal is Brookite z 122 40°05' 36°15).2 '
Ellenville, N.Y. o 121 40°05 ' 55°43'
Stereographic construction imagined to lie at the center of a sphere. (Frondel, 1944)
The principal axis of the crystal coin- a

~o.v.,o\Or~/'>6' cides with the nOlth-south polar axis of the

sphere, The equatorial plane cuts the crys-
tal and also the spherical system into upper
and lower halves. In such a projection the
o
+ o

.-- --.·...-, ;--N •,

points of intersection of radii with the o 0
o
i
'
o
o
0

8 A spherical surface are projected on to the

b!
001, Oil
C, 012 010

I, ~O~l10 1220121
equatorial plane (Figure 7-5) , thus reduc-
ing a large variety of angular measure- o o
o
ments to a circular, two-dimensional plot. o t 201 \ 221 ~O.
Plone of stereographic projection
Projection of a crystal face to the equa-
torial plane is accomplished in two opera- //~
FIG. 7-5. The projection of tions, A radius normal to a crystal face is 100 /
crystal faces A and B to A' and a
B' in the plane of stereo graphic extended to the surface of the sphere, b
projection . Faces parallel to the Then a chord is drawn to the opposite pole FIG. 7-6, A crystal drawing of brookite with a corresponding stereo graphic projection
vertical axis are projected to from the intersection of the normal with based on phi and rho angles.
the circumference.
the spherical surface. The intersection of
the chord with the equatorial plane is the point of spherical projection. east-west axes. The angle p is measured along a vertical plane from the
Where faces are parallel to the north-south polar axis, the radii lie north pole of the stereo graphic net.
within the equatorial circle, and face positions are plotted on the cir- Brookite furnishes one of the most remarkable examples of disperSion
cumference. V\There a face radius coincides with the principal axis and
lies along the north-south pole, the face is proj ected as a point at the
observed among mincrals and m ay be used to illustrate a stereographic
net. The optic plane lies along (100) for violet while the optic plane for •
center of the equatorial plan e. red is (001) . The optic directions as shown in Figure 7-7 may be com-
In order lo pial opli cal posilions, opl ic ax('s lYl;l Y h(' Ir('atccl as race pa red with tho gco melTie relalions of tll e crystal (Figmc 7-6) by means
radii 1I()1'lYlal I() ilnn g illary eryslal fll ('('s . TIlliS 111<')' wi ll a pp< 'ar ; IS pOilll s of L.hc storeogJ'llpiti c rrojecLion. The re la tive posilions of the optical di·
Oil Iho S loJ'C ;o~rllplri( ' !,rojl '!' l!o" . !\I'( '~ ()r ('il'(,II's l'OPII 'SI'ldill g lI 11g"llIJ' posi. 1'('(' lions rnllv flo flll/ sln li nd wi llt 111 0 I/lliV(IJ'Sfd SI'IlKO,
116
Adjustment. A modern, well-constructed universal stage ordinarily re-
quires little adjustment. Nevertheless, attention should be directed to
centering both horizontally and vertically. The Rrst step is to center the
microscope stage with the objective, using a dust particle on the glass
plate of the universal stage as a reference point. Next, the microscope
stage is locked and the outer circle of the universal stage is rotated, the
center of rotation being brought into coincidence with the crosshairs. A
small amount of horizontal leeway permits adjus tment on the screws
which fasten the universal stage to the microscop e.
Vertical adjustment is largely Rxed by the construction of the stage.
Vertical deviation from the center of rotation may b e detected by the
MINERAL OPTICS THE UNIVERSAL STAGE 117
a way that the relative inclinations of the optic axes of several crystals
may be shown on the same stereographic net. When the planes of the
usual polarizing microscope are in alignment with the universal stage,
the east-west crosshair will ordinarily mark the plane of the analyzer
and the north-south crosshair the plane of the polarizer. The inclination
of each optic axis as Rnally measured will furnish angular readings on
the graduated circles which may be simpliRed to cp and p to plot on
a stereographic net (Figure 7-8).
Location of the Uniaxial Optic Axis. The angular inclinations of optic
axes in uniaxial crystals can be measured as truncated by the plane of

"""
I'
, ~~--1t~
/ // ~\ ,
,,,
" I /' ~ // a,<.\
"I"
o ,
............ """ , I /// C::::;... c:J ~ '-"
~
/ Q) f\.;:: 1\
~
->0-.
""
: ,. _ _ .+ I..c)
9-- .-<
~~ >' =555.5

" I ,-' b=Zj ~

(0) (b) (c)

/'"
" ,/c=',
YorX '-,- -< --<
,," ', ' - , FIG. 7-8. Stereographic projections showing steps in the orientation of the optic axis

''-'':;~
of a uniaxial crystal. u. Op tic axis inclined at random to th e plane of a thin section .
// i b. Rotated about the outcr graduated circle to extinction. c. Tilted by the drum to
coincide with the axis of the microscope. The crosshairs mark the planes of the nicols.

0=
XorY
FIG. 7-7. The range in the optic plane and 2E for brookitc with the wavelength of
light as plotted on a stereographic projection. All variations are with refercnce to the
crystallographic axes (I, b, and c.
drift of particles along the crosshairs of the microscope Reld as a plane
of the stage is tilted.
Illumination is one of the most critical factors. A strong, w ell-centered
source of artiRcial illumination is essential. Some prefer an arc light. A
substage diaphragm is desirable.
Cedar oil or glycerin is applied in three places for optical contact:
between the lower hemisphere and the glass plate, b etween the thin
section and the glass plate, and between the cover glass and the upper
hemisphere.
Orientation with the Universal Stage. Extinction is the optical fcature
most frequently employed. Vibration directions sho",m by cxtinction in
turn reveal the planes of optic symmetry. Thc planes of optic sym mctry
the thin section (Figure 7-9). The measurement of cp and p for a single
optic axis is accomplished in two operations, each depending on extinc-
tion.
First, the axis is to be rotated until it lies along the east-west extinc-
tion plane of the microscope. Th e various circles of the universal stage
and the microscope stage are set in initial position. The inner horizontal
circle of the universal stage is rotated until the crystal under observation
is in the extinction position. The optic axis will then lie within either the
north-south vertical plane or the east-west vertical plane.
Second, the a;xis is to b e tilted until it is vertical and in coincidence
with the axis of the microscope. It will be assumed that the optic axis
lics in the north-south plane. In this case it may be tilted to the vertical
position by turning the drum on the side of the universal stage. The
vcrtical position is recognized by a simple maneuver. As the drum is
lllrll cd , thc microscope stagc is oscillated slightly to right and left until
;t point is nolcd at whi.ch extinction p ersi sts on either side notwithstand-

iii I-.>; th e rolalion . Su ch a point is lh c optic-axis position . If rotation of the •

are adjusted to the crosshairs by oscillating the clystal tl) and from dn lll1 cause's Lhe cryslal lo leave eX lin ction , thc optic axis lics within the
extinction. ('lIs l-wesl ve rti cal plane. hi this casc the inn cr horizontal circle is rotated
A thin soction mar11(' fi xed in position on Il l( ' IIlIi v<'rsal slage in sil dl 00° , '1'11 0 oplic IIx is w ill lhell li o Itloll g th e norlh -~o ulh planc. Tho pro-
118 MINERAL OPTICS
cedure outlined above is then followed to locate the optic-axis position.
The position of the optic axis can then be located on a stereographic net.
The angles cf> (from the inner horizontal circle) and p (from the drum)
may be plotted (Figure 7-9). By convention the poles in petrofabric work
are ordinarily plotted in projection of the lower hemisphere. Occasionally
the optic <Lxis of a crystal lies too close to the plane of the thin section
to permit tilting to a vertical position within the limits of rotation of the
universal stage. In this case the angulm' position may b e determined
through the combined use of interference colors and extinction.
o - ~ -~
[J
~
"'-----1
° angles to the east-west axis. In this case, if the drum is turned, a position
(a) (b) (el
FIG. 7-9. Manipulation of a si ngle optic axis to coincide with the microscope axis.
(a) The uniaxial axis is shown in inclined position on the thin section (above) and
on the stereo graphic projection (below). (b) The crystal is rotated to the extinction
position about the vertical inner axis of the universal stage. (c) The axis is tilted to
coincide with the crosshairs by turning the dnIm on the east-west axis.
The crystal is first rotated to a position of extinction by turning the
inner horizontal circle. The optic axis will then lie in an inclined position
either along the east-west or the north-south vertical planes. If the crystal
remains in extinction as the drum is rotated, the <Lxis lies along the north-
south vertical plane. If it remains in extinction as the crystal is tilted by
moving the circle along the 'Wright arcs, the <Lxis lies in the east-west
vertical plane. . d ircc tions lies at 90 0 to the EW axis as already identified.
When the plane is known the stage of the microscope is rotated 45°
and the axis of the universal stage normal to the pla.ne rotated until the
crystal shows m<Lximum interference. The angle b elw een the plane of
the section and the positi.on of maximum inlerference then measures the
inclination of th e opti,c ax is from lil o horizonlal (or D()O (l) .
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE 119
The sign of a uniaxial crystal is determined with the mica plate, gyp-
sum plate, or the quartz wedge. When the direction of the optie axis in
an individual crystal is known, the crystal may be tilted in the 45° posi-
tion to observe interference colors along the axis. If the slow ray is
normal to the axis the mineral is positive and, conversely, if the fast ray
is normal to the axis the mineral is negative.
Optical Directions in Biaxial Crystals. The main objectives are to de-
tennine X, Y, and Z in terms of east, west, and vertical; to determine
2V; and to determine the sign. These may be accomplished by observing
maximum interference and extinction.
The circles are set at zero. The inner circle is then rotated to extinction.
The vertical drum is next rotated. Extinction may possibly remain whieh
indicates that the coincidence of X, Y, or Z with the east-west <Lxis has
already b een accomplished. If extinction does not remain the drum is
turned to the position of maximum illumination. The inner circle is then
tilted along the Wright arcs to the right or left to minimum illumination.
The drum is then returned to zero. Extinction should be complete, indi-
cating a coincidence of X, Y, or Z with the east-west axis. If extinction
is not complete estimates of m<Lximum and minimum illumination should
be repeated. When satisfactory extinction is obtained the cf> and p angles
can be indicated on a stereographic net. The next problem is to determine
which of the three-X, Y, or Z- coincides with the east-west axis.
If Y coincides, the optic axes will lie along the vertical plane at right
of minimum illumination will identify an optic axis. The axis position
may be verified by rotating the microscope stage. The crystal will remain
dark between crossed nicols during rotation. When verified, the position
of the optic axis should be recorded on the stereographie net.
If either X or Z coincide with the EW axis, rotation of the drum with
the microscope stage hu-ned at 45° will cause an increase in interference.
T hen the drum is returned to zero and an accessory plate used to note
whether the optical direction parallel to the EW axis is X or Z.
The final operation is the measurement of the second plane of optical
symmetry. The microscope stage is returned to zero. The tilt on the
YVright arcs is returned to zero. Then the inner circle is rotated 90° to
lhe second extinction position. The manipulations indicated above are
then rep eated in order to determine which of the remaining two optical
Illus trative Mounts. Special thin sections are convenient to illustrate
lho initial opera tion of a universal stage. A section cut at random from
•
illl irrcglllarly oriented clilstcr of small, well-d eveloped , h exagonal qualtz
(·rys lals provid('s a II sefll l exa mple of a uniaxial positive mi.n eral. The
I IOX III!;()J 111 I olillill( \S I"lII"lIi sll ~(' ()Il)('lri('[l l g lli(les lo ass ist in visualizing the
120 MINERAL OPTICS THE UNIVERSAL STAGE 121
position of the optical indicatrix for individual crystals as the axes of the plane of the optic axes is marked with ink on the slide- or b etter,
the stage are rotated. The variation of the interference colors with orienta- with a line drawn with a diamond point.
tion is well shown. The universal stage is then set in position and centered. With circles
An individual optic axis steeply inclined to the plane of the section and stage in initial position the muscovite slide is mounted b etween the
may be readily maneuvered into position in which it coincides with the hemispheres with the line indicating
axis of the microscope. The outer circle is rotated until the crystal b e- the axial plane parallel to the NS Outer ------ .... . . .
..... /:-~Tf - . . , ",
comes dark between crossed nicols. The principal optic planes then lie axis. A large sheet of a single musco- clrcle 7 . . . . . ~I" "\ \
parallel to the planes of the nicols as shown by the crosshairs. As this
move is made the microscope stage is oscillated at intervals. 'W hen the
vite crystal will yield an observable
gOO-type biaxial interference figure I I
I I
/
I ,
/" I
\ \ \\
~ ~,
~I~
"" EW
Arc f ~. uxfs-
oscillation shows extinction on rota- in this position. The stage of the
--~ f f
j I !:}
tion from the plane of tilt as well microscope is n ext set at 45 to the 0
' \ , I §
as on the plane, the optic-axis posi- first position. The crosshairs will \ \ "/

tion is indicated. The </> and p an- then indicate the acute bis ectrix for Inner \ \
the 45°-type interference figure. The circle
Y'" "-_l'. _--"" . . ' /~
'/'0
roO
gles may then be measured. " ' - - --- - - c ee
A section cut from a plastic axial plane is normal to the EW o9
(0)
tv\iCfO\\oq
brickette of topaz crystals in dis- axis. If the drum on the outer verti-
array, but each with rhombic out- cal circle is turned , either isogyre
lines, serves to illustrate biaxial may b e made to appear b eneath the
Outer
orientation. The orientation for
topaz may b e simplified by tilting
crosshairs. The angle between may
be measured directly. If n /3 for mus- -
-
.....,- ..-
"<~ .'
the universal stage until a crystal covite and n for the glass hemisphere
CirCle
X
~S~
/ o~~
with rhombic outline is oriented are known, 2V for muscovite may b e I I
I I
-----,.-
with the crystallographic axes a, b, computed from the angle measured . I f
I I
I I
FIG. 7-10. Diagram of an illustrative and c in coincidence with the ex- A second illustrative exercise may I \
\ \
biaxial exercise. A cleavage of muscovite tinction planes. With the crystal be attempted as shown by the dia- \ \
is shown beneath the hemisphere of the outlines as a preliminary guide, the gram in Figure 7-11. A thin section
universal stage. The acute bisectrix lies
beneath the crosshairs and the axial procedure for crystals lacking fa - of a single crystal of aragonite of the
..... _---
plane is normal to the EW-axis. Either cial boundaries is more readily un- lype frequently present in sets of
isogyre may be made to move to the dm·stood. thin sections will serve. These are
crosshairs by rotating the drum. (b )
Illustrative slides worthy of men- usually cut approximately normal to
FIG . 7-11. Diagrams shOWing the ad-
tion are brookite, showing dispersion of optic axes; piedmontite, which the acute bisectrix. justment of a large biaxial crystal on
exhibits strong pleochroic color variation with direction; muscovite, with The thin section is mounted on the universal stage. ( a ) The crystal
cleavage for the determination of 2V; vein quartz, with nearly parallel the universal stage and maneuvered is set to rotate in two vertical planes
with apparent movement along the
crystal axes to plot inclined axes; and coarsely twinned plagioclase, to with the NS axis and the inner circle crosshairs. (b) The stage is in the 45 0

indicate the orientation of twin individuals. Some slide manufacturers
supply special sections of minerals suitable for exercises with the univer-
sal stage.
Illustrative E xercises. A simple illustration to introduce the use of the
universal stage is to measure 2E for muscovite (Figure 7-10) . A cleavage
of muscovite about 1 cm square and about the thickness of a shcct of
textbook paper is mounted on a glass slidc using Canada balsam a nd a
ClOver glass. The slide is then ob served with conve rgent polari/'.ecl li ght
on tho mi croscope st\lgc (wi lllOlll lit e II II iv('\'sa I stage). Tlt o direc l iOIl oj'
into the position of most complete position and either isogyre may be
ex tinction. At this position an inter- moved to the intersection of the cross-
hairs by turning the drum which rotates
ference figure is attempted . 'W ith on the EW-axis.
l he comparatively large crystals in
I\l Ost se ts a fi gure is obtainable. The fi gure .i n the 90 0 position (Figure
- II a) is sec m cd first. It should b e centered with th e inner circle and •
lly lillin g Oil til(' "Vrigh t arcs unlil it ca n he rotated either way along
1': IC'l1 :11'11\ or 111( ' (,I'IlSS wilholll dc's lro), in g Ihe symme try of the cross. In
Illis posilillll , ro lll lill g Oil IIII' 1'; Wll xis :\IIeI O il 111(' NS axis will move the

CHAPTER 8 It is customary to record the absorption in terms of vibration parallel to
General Features: Color, Mode of Aggregation,
Cleavage, and Orientation
Color and Pleochroism. Many minerals are colorless, but color when
present is a distinctive feature. Deeply colored minerals are more likely
to be colored in thin sections than minerals with pale tints.
Minerals showing nahlral color are listed in Table lO-2. Among these,
isotropic minerals yield no color change as the mineral is rotated in plane-
polarized light. Anisotropic minerals exhibit a change in color in varying
degrees as the stage is rotated. The change in color produced is known
as pleochroism. Natural mineral color in thin sections is observed with
the polarizer alone.
Hexagonal or tetragonal colored minerals are dichroic- i.e., the pleo-
chroic coloring of minerals in these two systems as exhibited with the
polarizer is twofold.
Orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic minerals, when colored in thin
section, exhibit tlu·ee diHerent colors and are trichroic.
The pleochroic colors are normally oriented with the axes X, Y, and Z
of the crystal. In addition to the conventional colors of Table 10-2, white
or neutral may represent a pleoclu·oic change. Since X, Y, and Z are the
vibration axes, color distribution is related to ncr, n/3, and ny and also the
optic axes. The correlation of the relationships is best accomplished by
reference to the interference figure in order to determine the directions
of the axes. As soon as the acute bisectrix Z (if the mineral is positive )
or X (if the mineral is negative) is knmVI1, the Bertrand lens and analyzer
may be removed from the microscope tube and the corresponding nahual
color ascertained. The color produced by light vibrating in a plane at
right angles to the axial plane is Y. The third color will b e due to light
Vibrating parallel to the direction of the obtuse bisectrix. This will b e X
if the mineral is positive or Z if thc mineral is ncgative.
In pleochroic lmiaxial minerals, li ght Vibratin g parallel to th c optic
ax is is on c color, whercas li ghl at righl ~ lIl gks is anolil cr.
Bia xial milll' rais ('xllihil v;lI"y ili g clC'gn 'c's of ah ~ ()rpl iOIl of color. In ('om-
12/1
GENERAL FEATURES 125
man hornblende, for instance, light vibrating parallel to Z usually shows
the most absorption, Y is less absorbed, and X is the least. This is re-
corded by means of the absorption formula
X<Y<Z
the ease of vibration axes.
Form or Aggregation. A considerable number of the deSigns produced
by groups of crystals observed in thin sections and cross sections of in-
dividual minerals are so unusual that the pattern exhibited aids in identi-
fication (Table 10-3).
FIC . 8-1. F IC . 8-2.
FIG. 8-1. ( X 33 ) Incipient crystals of rodlike aggrega tes in a groundmass of volcanic
glass.
FIC. 8-2. ( X 33 ) Shatter cracks in halloysite (crossed nieols ).
Many minerals assum e a peculiar development with surprising can·
sistency. Such a tendency in thc case of individual crystals may b e de-
scribed as habit. Aggregation refers to the grouping of either a fevv or
numerous small crystals. The pattern that a min eral group assumes may
be described as its mode of aggregation. Both form and aggregation arc
much used features in mineral study.
Incipient Crys!allizal'ion. Natural glass frequently forms from a viscous
liquor that upon solidifying lacks crystalliza tion and is isotropic. Th c
matcrial, however, contains constitu ents capal1lc of producing a numbcr
of difFercnt min crals. D evelopm cnt of th ese min cral s is hind crcd by th c
viscosity of the inclosin g liqllor dmin g th e pcriod of crys lallization ,
largely h ccall sc of rapid coolin g. Crys tals 111ay not dcvclop, hill instea d
ncedlelike aggregates, fernlike growths , a nc! va riou s odc! cl es igns form ,
r oprcsclltill g lh e slldd en arrcs l of crys lalliza tion. Cryst (f77it f's, 1I1(fl"{!,(ffit es,
tri(;hifes, lHicrofU es, g7obll fit es, alld f(J1/ gll.7iles nrc nam cs appli ed to vari -
Ous forms or in cip ient crys talli zati on ( F igure 8-1). Tri chitcs lI ro cllrvod
126
streaks of embryonic crystals in glass. Margarites are long streaks of
globular forms resembling portions of strings of seed pearls in curved or
straight lines. Longulites are small rodlike forms composed of groups of
globulites. Crystallites m'e minute nuclei of crystallization suspended in
glass. Microlites are small needlelike, almost crystalline forms.
Non-crystalline Isotropic Minerals. Minerals lacking directional quali-
ties yielding double refraction are dark between crossed nicols. Such
minerals are chiefly identiRed by means of their structure in thin section,
combined with a determination of their indices of refraction.
Glass, opal, cliachite (bauxite) , and collophane appear non-crystalline
or microscopically amorphous. 1 In addition to incipient crystals, glass
MINERAL OPTICS
GENERAL FEATURES 127
scopic remains are usually opal and have the optical properties of that
mineral. The original structures of the microorganisms, however, are
on many occasions well preserved (Figure 8-7). Foraminifera are apt
to yield calcite, usually Rnely crystalline in nature, and difficult to dis-
tinguish from aragonite unless the structure is suffiCiently coarse to per-
mit the rhombohedral cleavage to d evelop (Figure 8-8).
Fragments of former vegetable matter preserved as carbonaceous
material- lignite, etc.- are usually black or brown in thin section. Cellu-
lar structures of wood as preserved in lignite are quite distinctive in
thin section. Opal formed by the replacement of wood frequently ex-
hibits cellular structure (Figure 8-4).

FIG. 8-5. FIG. 8-6.

FIG. 8-3. FIG. 8-4.
FIG. 8-3. ( X 33) Rounded sections of pisolitic bauxite made up of the mineral
cliachite. Interstices ( around holes in the section) contain gibb site.
FIG. 8-4. (X 33) Cellular structure of wood preserved in opal.
frequently exhibits flow lines, cracks, or concentric fractures. Opal is usu-
ally banded and may exhibit a play of colors. Shatter cracks are distinc-
tive features in minerals of colloidal origin (Figure 8-2).
Cliachite, the amorphous mineral found in bauxite, occurs in pisolitic
forms frequently cracked and fractured at random. Interstices between
pisolites may be RIled with gibbSite forming aRne-grained gray-and-
white mosaic of small crystals (Figure 8-3).
The rounded, more or less spherical forms assumed by amorphous and
metacolloidal minerals in open spaces are frequently described as collo-
form.
Materials of OrganiC Origin. In the study of thin sections, structures
are occasionally encountered that are residual from organic life. Dia-
tomaceous, radiolarian, or foraminiferal organisms have distinctive struc-
tures frequently preserved in minerals. Fossil diatoms and othcr micro-
1 The term micl'o(l /H ol'pholl s is lI scd bco[\ lIs0 X-my slll <i i('s hllvc shown 111('se ma-
teriab to have direclioll ul pr()p o rli c~ sC II ~ il iva In sllorl WIIVC I('lI gl li s.
FIG. 8-5. (x 33) Chalcedony between crossed nicols showing both radial aggregates
and ban ded structure.
FIG. 8-6 ( X 33) A flamboyant radial aggregate of sillimanite between crossed nicols.
Collophane, the mineral constituent of fossil bone, frequ ently retains
the structure of the bone that has b een replaced.
Fine Aggregates. Minerals frequently form Rne aggregates of dis-
tinctive p attern. Aggregate structure is emphasized bep-veen crossed
nicols either by radial groups or by aRne-grained mosaiclike ground-
mass of small crystals (Figure 8-9) .
In radial groups the small cITstals converge like the spokes of a wheel.
Radial uniformity of orientation produces with crossed nicols a da.rk
cross parallel to the positions of extinction (Figure 8-5). This cross
should not b e confused with the axial cross of a uniaxial interfercnce
Rgure.
An illustration of a mineral aggregate is funlished at times by silli-
manite (Figure 8-6) . Thc n ccdlcs of sillimanite, howevcr, are not so
rcgularly arra ngcd as is thc casc of chalccdony.
Crosscs cluc Lo rael ial arran gemc nt of fin e crysta l gro llps in po'i:trizec1
li ght aro frequently form ed ill microfossils replaced by calc- ite ( F il!lIr"
H- IO).
 GENERAL FEATURES 129
Spherulitic crystallization in glassy flow rocks is strikingly illustrated
behveen crossed nicols. Figure 16-43d represents a thin section contain-
~
ing spherulites photographed between crossed nicols. Spherulites of the
.~,

feldspars or oth er minerals are often fOlmd suspended in volcanic glass

''''
,'.~"~ V' .-:-~~ ..- of one form or another.
, ". " . -'t' ", Parallel orientation of fibrous aggregates is illustrated by a thin section
0 • .

10 '" 'e . , of chrysotile in serpentine (Figure 8-13). Veinlets of cross fibers ar-
,. t ~ _ .. ,,~
.... f !\ ,.,. ' I
ranged in parallel fashion perpendiculcU' to the walls of th e vein are

';... .r-'" -."

'\

It'
~. , - "'" 7, '" . ..:.1
4 ~'"\. ~
., ~
."",
.• >
common in serpentine. The fibers aTe moderately anisotropic, whereas
the serpentine is almost dark b etween crossed nicols.
Inclusions. During crystallization small aTeas of foreign substances
FIC. 8-7. FIC. 8-8.
may be caught within what are otherwise clear crystals. In leu cite, for
example, small areas of volcanic glass are often distributed symmetri-
cally as small isolated spheres suspended in the crystal (Figure 8-12).
Hypersthene (Figure 8-15) may contain areas of brown, fl akelike in-
clusions frequently accompanied by a fin e transverse system of lines
usually described as schiller st1'llcture .
Small vermicular growths of quartz occur as inclusions in stauroli te
( Figure 8-29). Carbonaceous matter forms symmetrical inclusions in
andalusite (Figme 8-24). Occasionally substances retain ed may be
radioactive and during geologic time will continue to give off emanations
until they finally lose their strength. Such inclusions, when trapped in
oolored min erals such as biotite, produce dark brown circular patches,
8-10. frequently pleochroic. Figure 8-16 illustrates halos produced by radio-
FIC. 8-9. FIC.
activity in biotite from western Connecticut.
Needlelike Crystals. A few minerals form fine, h airlike masses of
crystals, usually penetrating some other mineral, such as mica or quartz.
Sillimanjte often occurs in minute needles p enetrating qumtz (Figure
8-11 ) . Dumortierite occurs in a similar mann er. DumOltierite is often
pink and may impart to the hand sp ecimen a color resembling rosC
qum·tz, although deeper in color. Rutile forms red or brown needles that
may peneh-ate either quartz or mica. Tourmaline may also occur in sim-
ilar fashion. The radiating crystals of tommaline in qum-tz illustrated in
Figure 8-14 m'e ch aracteristic of luxullianite, a rock.
Although these occurrences are quite striking when observed , it should
be remembered that the same minerals may occur in large crystals hav-
Fic. 8-11. FIC. 8-12. ing an entirely different habit.
FIG. 8-7. ( X 33) The fine microorganic structures preserved in opal-forming fossil B7aded Crysta7s. Crystal groups may b e composed of largcr, coarscr
di atoms. Diatomaceous earth from Lompoc, California. individuals causing lathlike sections tmder the microscope. Also, intcr-
FIG. 8-8. \ X33 ) Calcite in sections of fo ssil foraminifera scattered tluough car-
bonaceous shale.
medi a te sizcs of different form an d developm ent may OCC Ilr. One il -
FIG. 8-9. ( X 33 ) Mosaic structure in chalcedony. A "salt and pepper" aggregate of Illslra tion of a co::m;e-hlad cd type of dcvelopm cnt is furn ish cd hy kyanil c,
small crystals photograph ed between cru ssed ni eols. as iIlnslral ec1in F ig lll'c 8-1?
FI G, 8- 10. ( X33 ) A pulariza tion cross ill fo ss il ror:llllill irL' ra of c:il c il o arra llgcd in
CO Il C(' III, ie.; hand s or ntdiu l ri lwrlih' c' ysl:ds.
Twin Cryst{/Is. Th e feld spars pro v id e :in Ol:( sl :lndin g illl lslr:llioll of
1'10. H- II. ( X :3:1) N", ·.ll,·li k., (,yst!ds "I' , illiIlIlIlJiI,' ill '1"1"1 / .
1" 0 . Ii 12, ( ":\:l) I':,dll ,d' id 1" y' llIJ.. III 111111'1" , ('11111 101,,1. '/" 1"" III ',il lIl 'l III g lll'.s.
. 1 ~1l
130 MINERAL OPTICS GENERAL FEATURES 131
lamellar twinning, particularly between crossed nicols. The twinning is
for the most part polysynthetic, comprising multitudinous lathlike in-
dividuals (Figure 13-54). Orthoclase provides illustrations of coarser
penetration and contact twinning. Microline provides an illustration of
two types of lamellar twinning superimposed (Figure 13-41).
Numerous minerals provide illustrations of hvinning. Calcite nearly
always twins parallel to the long diagonal of the cleavage rhombohedron,
and dolomite hvins parallel to both the long and the short diagonal of
the cleavage rhombohedron. Cassiterite, corundum, pyroxene, aragonite,
amphibole, lazulite, and gibbsite are frequently found in twin crystals,
F IG. 8-13.

FIG . 8-19. 8-20.

FIC . 8-15. FIG. 8-16.
FIG. 8-19. ( X33) Anh edral crystals of hornbl ende associated with qu artz.
F IC. 8-20. ( X 33) Subhedral garnet in quartz.

the twinning b eing easily recognized by the different extinction of the

various twin individuals between crossed nicols. The crystal of sphe ne
in Figure 8-18 is twinned into individuals sep arated by a plane parall el
to the length of the crystal.
Natural Crystal Form in Thin Section. There is a pronounced tend e ncy
among crystallized minerals of a given species to repeat habit of growth .
Outlines viewed in thin section, due to natmal crystal form , are sig-
nificant.
Apatite, for example, frequently appears in small , la thlikc, elongated
crystals with h exagonal cross sections (Figure 8-22).
FIC. 8-17. FIG. 8-18.
FIG. 8-13. ( X33 ) Bands of asbestos fi bers in serpentine (crossed nieols) . Corundum in mica schist may form skeleton crysta ls charac terized h y
FIG. 8-14. ( X33) Needl elike crystals of tourm aline arranged in radial groups. rounded elon ga te ol ltlin es (Figure 8-23) .
FIC. 8-15. ( X33 ) Schiller structure in hypersthene. Pyrite is often fOllnd in squa re areas, althou gh trian gltlar and ot her
FIG. 8-16. ( X33 ) Pleochroic halos in biotite.
FIG. 8-17. ( X33 ) Bladed crystals of kya llitc. shapes also OCCllr.
FIG . 8-18. ( x33 ) Sphene twinn ed parallel to th e lell gth or th e , (·clion. vvell -d eveloped crys lals with geoml'trical hOIJl1c!arit'S are culled ( ' 11 -
132 MINERAL OPTICS
3
hedral,2 Crystals with rounded or irregular boundaries are anhedral.
Partially developed crystals may b e called subhedral.
Anhedral, subhedral, and euhedral crystals are illustrated in Figmes
8-19, 8-20, and 8-21, respectively. Subhedral garnet (Figure 8-20) should
be compared with euhedral garnet (Figure 15-9).
FIG. 8-21. FIG. 8-22.
FIG. 8-21. ( X33) Euhedral hornblende associated with biotite in thin section.
FIG. 8-22. ( X 33) Apatite crystals in thin section ( crossed nicols) .
FIG. 8-23.
FIG. 8-23. ( X 33 ) Skeleton crystals of corundum in mica shist.
FIG. 8-24. ( X33 ) Andalusite containing symmetrically arranged carbonaceous in-
clusions.
Isometric C1·ystals. Euhedral crystals may exhibit cross sections of such
common isometric forms as the cube, octah edron, dodecah edron, and
trapezohedron.
L eucite and analcime are illustrated in Figures 8-12 and 8-25. The
outlines of both follow the trapezohedron.
2 Also called icZio mol'phic or automorphic.
3 Also called allotriomol'pll ic or ~·e n ol1lO rJ1hic.
GENERAL FEATURES 133
Occasionally isometric crystals are twinned, and in some cases weak
anisotropism exists, althou gh isometric minerals are normally isotropic.
Pseudoisomeb:ic minerals such as leucite exhibit low first-order inter-
fercnce colors . Garnet from contact-metamorphic deposits in limestone
may b e strongly anisotropic (Figure 8-26).
T etragonal Crystals. Small tetragonal crystals h aving euh edral develop-
ment are not numerous. Cross sections are usually the normal sections
to be exp ected from a tetragonal prism terminated with a bipyramid, as
in zircon, or a combination of two prisms and two bipyramids, as in
idocrase. The crystals are uniaxial, and sections cut normal to the c-axis
give optic-axis interference figures. Twinning and eleavage accord with
FIG . 8-25. FIG. 8-26.
FIG. 8-25. ( x 33) A euhedral crystal of analcime.
FIG. 8-26. ( X 33) Isometric crystals of garnet showin g anomalous aniso tropism and
banding b etween crossed nicols.
tetragonal symmetry. Crystals extinguish p arallel to the crystallographic
axes.
H exagonal Crystals. A number of common minerals encountered in
thin section are hexagonal in crystallization. Quartz, tourmalin e, apatile,
beryl, and nepheline are frequently encountered hexagonal crystals. The
sections of those minerals may b e hexagonal or triangular if normal t
the c-axis, and rect angular or modified rectangular where cut along
the c-axis. The crystals are frequently elongated p arallel to tho
c-u,"<is and exhibit parallel extinction with positive or nega tivc elonga-
tion, dcpending upon the sign of the mineral. The hexagonal scctions
are cithcr nearly or completely isotropic and yield uniaxial inte rfcre nce
flg llres. Ncphelin c (Figure 8-27) frcq uently cxh.ibits both h exagonal alld
rectangu lar seclions. Apatite (Fi gll1'e 8-22) furni shes both hexagonal alld
e1on galed , so mewh at rollncl cd, reclclll g lllar secLion s.
Hh ollihoheclral crysr. t1 s illt·hld tl lll(' ~ J'()JJp or r1lolliholl cdr:t1 c: lrbollilles,
alld :dll'o ll /.!; II Ilil's\' 11Iillt' r:ds iII' (' ol'di ll ar il y fOlilld ill II l:1 ll \'d n1I1SSes of
134 MINERAL OPTICS
anhedral crystals, occasionally euhedral crystals occur. The euhedral
crystals are rhombic in section and frequently exhibit cleavage lines
parallel to th e sid es. The section of the rhombohedron normal to the
c-axis may appear hexagonal.
Orthorhombic Crystals. A number of orthorhombic minerals encoun-
tered in thin sections exhibit euhedral crystals. Olivine, natrolite, barite,
zoisite, andalusite, dumortierite, and topaz are among the most common.
Euhedral olivine crystals (Figure 8-28) are frequently seen in thin sec-
tions of basic igneous rocks. The crystals are symmetrical "vith resp ect
to the crystallographic axes and b ecome extinct when the axes are
parallel to the planes of vibration of the nicols. Lathlike crystals of
natrolite with excellent parallel extinction mentioned in the discussion
8-27.
FIG . FIG . 8-28.
FIG. 8-27. ( X33) Nepheline crystals showing both hexagonal and rectangular out-
lines.
FIG. 8-28. ( X 33) A euhed ral crystal of olivine.
of the adjustments of the microscope are occasionally found in thin sec-
tions. Barite crystals may be square, rectangular, or elongated, with
parallel or symmetrical extinction. Staurolite crystals (Figure 8-29) are
often rectangular or rhombic. Andalusite forms symmetrical rhombic
crystals (Figure 8-24) .
Monoclinic C1·ystals. The pyroxenes, amphiboles, monoclinic feldspars,
sphene, mica, epidote, and a number of other less common monoclinic
minerals are frequently found in euhedral crystals in thin sections. The
crystals exhibit inclined extinction when sections are cut either p arallel
to or near the plane of the a- and c-axis. Certain sections, however, may
be so orient ed as to furnish either symmeb'ical or p arallel extinction.
Each monoclinic crystal is an individual problem in optical orientation
and should be considered by itself.
Figures 8-21 and 8-30 furnish comparative examples of euhedral am-
phibole and euhedral pyroxene. The views demonsb'ate both crystal
boundaries and cleavap;e.
GENERAL FEATURES 135
Triclinic Crystals. The plagioclase group, microcline, kyanite, and
rhodonite, constitute the ordinary triclinic minerals found in thin section.
The extinction is ordinarily inclined in all sections, and the extinction
angles may be high.
Cleavage, Parting, and Fracture as an Aid in Distinguishing Minerals.
Cleavage may b e denned as the ever-present ability of a mineral to sep-
arate into smaller and smaller p articles bounded by smooth surfaces
parallel to the directions of faces of possible crystal forms. Cleavage is
frequently of assistance in distinguishing minerals (Table 10-4) . Unfortu,
nately, many minerals show little or no cleavage. If cleavage is well de-
veloped, however, a mineral may be identined at times by this property
FIG . 8-29. FIG. 8-30.
F IG. 8-29. ( X33) Euhedral staurolite crystals in a gro und mass of mLlscovilc a il e!
other minerals.
FIG . 8-30. ( X 33 ) Euhedral crystals of pyroxene.
alone. In grinding thin sections cleavage planes often develop which ap-
pear in the nnished section as lines or b ands of varying width.
Some minerals separate only occasionally or break along planes of
twinning. This may be called parting. It is not always present and may
not continue to nner and nner particles. In an individual sp ecim en, in so
far as the effect produced is concerned, cleavage may b e indi sting lli sh-
able from parting.
Cleavage is a crystallographic feature and may b e discussed in terms
of direction. Cleavages in one, two, or three direc tion s arc freq uent;
Huorite and diamond cleave in four directions, while sphalerite cleaves ill
six directions.
In the app ended tables for identifyin g common min erals enco llnterod
ill thin sections, cleavage planes, fra cture planes, or th e tC' llcJ ell cy to break
p:l l':dkl to cerlain cknnite dil'c('[iol1 s is incii calcd ror each of Lhc IIlill C'l'nls
ill c\lI(kd .
e /m'mgt' i ll 01/ (' I)ir('('/ ill // . 1\ 1111111\ )(' 1' or IlIill( 'rllls hnvo :I sill gk plall (1
of u!(·;\V:I).!;( ', 11I1 1 ~ ( ·()vill ' 11 11<\ lOp ll '/. 1)( ' iI' ~~ ( '~II I11pl\ ·~ ( I'ig lll'i' H :l l ) . III tldll
136 MINERAL OPTICS GENERAL FEATURES
137
section, crystals showing one direction of cleavage usually exhibit sys-
stricted to the isometric system, where both sections and fragments are
tems of parallel lines. Occasionally, a cleavage plane may be almost
eaSily confirmed by the isotropic character of the material.
parallel to the section, in which instance practically no cleavage lines will
Rectangular cleavage resembles cubic cleavage in its appearance in
appear.
both thin sections and fragm ents (Figure 8-35) . Minerals haVing r ec-
In the case of fragments , minerals with one direction of cleavage
tangular cleavage, however, may be easily distinguished owing to their
usually lie flat upon the microscope slide and h ave irregular boundaries. anisotropism b etween crossed nicols.
The interference color is nearly always uniform for the area of the frag-
ment except on the outer edge, where a number of color b ands will b e
observed, forming color contours of minerals having strong double re-
fraction. Frequently, similar orientation of interference figures occurs
in such fragments since m any lie in the same position.

FIG. 8-33. FlG. 8-34.

FIG. 8-33. Euhedral pyroxcne crystals shOWing two directions of cleavage ill a ground-
mass of feldspar.
FIG. 8-34. Andalusite with cleavage in two dil-ections at about 90 0 , cut by veilliets
of nne muscovite with cleavage in one direction.

FIG. 8-31. FIG . 8-32.

FIG. 8-31. Anhcdral topaz crystals with broadly spaced cleavage in onc direction with
penetrating muscovite having closely spaced clcavage in one direction.
0 0
F IG . 8-32. Anhedral hornblende with cleavage at 56 an d 124 in a groundmass of
feldsp ar.

Cleavage in Two Directions. Several common min erals develop prom-

inent cleavage in 1:\'1 0 directions. The pyroxenes, amphiboles, and feld-
spars are outstanding illustrations.
Common hornblende of the amphibole group is distin guished from
pyroxene by a difference in cleavage angle. The cleavage of hornblende
(Figure 8-32) parallel to the rhombic prism {ll O} is in wo directions
at 56° and 124° . The cleavage of the rhombic prism in the case of
pyroxene (Figure 8-33) is approximately 87° and 93° .
The two directions of cleavage may b e at 90° in orthorhombic or tetrag-
onal minerals. Figure 8-34 illustrates andalusite (orthorhombic), with
wo directions of cleavage at about 90° (89° 12').
Cleavage in Three Directions. The types produced due to cleavage in
three directions vary considerably. One of the simplest types is th at pro-
duced by cleavage p ar allel to the faces of the cube. In thin scctions
cleavage of this type produces square or triangular p atterns . In fragments
the boundaries tend to b e square or rectangular. Cubic cleavage is re-
FIG. 8-35. Anhydritc (rcctangular cleavage) and fluorite (octahcdral clcavagc ) in.
th e same thin section. The octahedral cleavage of fluorite produccs a trian gular
pattcrn.
Rhombohcdral cleavagc is on e of the most common types found within
minerals, both in thi n scctions and in fragments. The common carbona le
min erals h ave cleavage of thjs type. The pattern produced in lhin sec-
lion is crisscross in deS ig n, and the crys lals usually show incli llcd cleavage
plan es p ene lra lin g th e secl ion. rn addilion , lhe re is f're(j ll enLly a sel of
lwin lin es p:lrall e l lo th e IOll g di:lgO II:iI or lli e ril OJrlhohcclrO Il . OccasioJl-
a lly Iwi lllJill g m:ly :l Plw: lr !lan dl ('ll o hoUI III(' IOll g li nd til e sll o!"1 di llgf)1I111,
as ill 111 11 ( 'II S C' or dnl(lJlJilc ·. III Il'iI /', llle 'III S, IlJlIJ(' nds wil li !"ilolldHl ll('drlll
138 MINERAL OPTICS
cleavage are usually Rat lying, with a fairly well-developed rhombic sec-
tion, and vary in relief with direction. The edges usually show wedgelike
or inclined swface boundaries.
Cleavage in three directions is frequ ently produced by breaking parallel
to various directions in crystals of the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and
triclinic systems. In most instances, the part of the mineral under ex-
amination presents a special case. As a rule, however, cleavage of this
type produces a crisscross of almost rectangular pattern in thin section,
and in fragments the boundaries either are almost rectangular or may
be Rat lying, with wedgelike edges.
Cleavage in Four Directions. One common Inineral, RUOl·ite, has cleav-
age in four directions parallel to the faces of an octahedron (Figure
8-35). Cleavages of Ruorite in thin section tend to develop triangular or
rhombic patterns. In fragments the outlines of individual fragments are
triangular or in-egular with pointed edges. These are easily detected be-
tween crossed nicols on account of the isotropic character of the mineral.
OccaSionally spinel is found with an octahedral parting imperfectly de-
veloped but somewhat resembling octahedral cleavage. The diamond has
octahedral cleavage but, needless to say, is not common in thin sections.
Cleavage in Six Directions. Sphalerite is one of the few minerals with
cleavage parallel to the six different directions of a dodecahedron. The
outlines of this figure may occasionally b e detected in pieces of sphalerite
within sections due to the intersections of inclined cleavage planes. In
fragm ents sometimes almost perfect dodecahedrons may b e observed.
Tendency to Break in Elongate Directions. Some minerals exhibit a
decided fibrous structure, being made up of numerous small needles
visible as parallel crystals b eneath the microscope. These may vary in
size from small elongated blades to minute capillary fibers . Coarser min-
erals of this sort change from fibrous to bladed shapes.
Orientation_ The optical orientation of a mineral involves the correla-
tion of the optical directions with crystallographic directions. In biaxial
minerals the problem usually involves locating the position of the acute
bisectrix, optic normal, and axial plane with respect to the axes a, b,
and c of a crystal. The orientation of uniaxial Ininerals concerns the re-
lation of the optical system to the c-axis.
In the following discussion it is assumed that the reader is faIniliar with
the simple rules of description of crystals in the various systems and the
conventions of orientation; othelwise a text on geometrical crystal-
lography should be consulted.
Isometric System. Optical orientation in isometric crystals is eliIninated
since isometric crystals are isotropic, hence becoming non-directional as
far as light is concerned.
TetragofUll and I-Jexagorw-Z Systems. The optic axes of uniaxial minerals
are parallel to the c-axos of tetragonal or hexagonal min enlls. The clirc:c-
GENERAL FEATURES
139
tion may agree with either the fast or the slow ray of the mineral, de-
pending upon the optic sign.
Orthorhombic System. The crystallographic axes a, b, and c of ortho-
rhombic minerals correspond with the vibration axes X, Y, and Z but
not necessarily in the order named. The crystallographic axis a, for in-
stance, may be X, Y, or Z, and the same substitutions are possible for
crystallographic axes band c. If two vibration axes are fixed, however,
the third becomes known. It is also evident that X and Z define the posi-
tion of the axial plane; thus, if a = Z and c = X, the axial plane includes
a and c. The axial angle 2V may vary in amount within the axial plane.
Orthorhombic crystals are indicated in several ways. The extinction is
parallel to a, b, or c. Thus if a, b, and c can be ascertained from some
FIG. 8-36. Thin-section and orientation diagram s of barite.
prominent cleavage or crystal outline, the nature of the extinction be-
comes known. Recognizable cleavage and crystal faces aid in examina-
tion. Good dispersion is useful.
When the positions of a, b, and c are once ascertained, the interference
figure will furnish criteria for the relative fixation of X, Y, and Z. The
position of the optic axes will also be ascertained at the same time. In
practice each mineral presents a special problem in orientation, and da ta
for the common minerals are included with the mineral description s in
Part 2.
Barite furni sh es a useful illustration of the probl em involved in th e
optical orientation of an orthorhombic min eral. An idealized cleavage
of barite is shown in Fig m e 8-36, togeth cr with a diagram of a thin sec-
tion and three orie nted cross s('('lions. In thin scction tho harito grai ll s
(~xhihil cimv;l ge in lllr('(' dir('ct iolls, II I(' ('lc-av~l ge p;lrnllelto (001) I>~'illg
lI1oro proIIOIIlIC'('d , TIl(' grll ill Ill ll l'k. 'd II ill III(' lhill s( 'dioll hllpp( 'ns In /)\ '
i ll II posilioll ill ""'Iic'l 111 0 1 1I' 1~ 1 j\.'1 cd c1. 'I IVllgO II I( IIi SII 1'0 7H o22' , Tltl~ {;-Llxis
140 MINERAL OPTICS GENERAL FEATURES 141
is perpendicular to this section. The planes {1l0} and {llO} are parallel Hornblende furnishes a good illustration of the problem of orientation
to the c-axis. In this grain the a-axis would bisect the obtus e angle or of a monoclinic crystal. The mineral has two prominent directions of
cleavage, and the b-axis would bisect the acute angle of cleavage. Be- cleavage parallel to the rhombic prism {1l0}. The c-axis is parallel to
tween crossed nicols the extinction will b e parallel to a and b, or sym- the edge between the cleavages, and the b-axis bisects the angle be-
metrical with respect to the cleavage. Grain S would have parallel ex- tween (100) and (110) (Figure 8-37). In thin sections either one or
tinction but might be normal to the b-axis and not in a position to give two sets of cleavage lines appear, depending upon the orientation. Grains
an interference figure of the acute bisectrix type. An interference figure with two cleavage directions are symmetrical in extinction and yield
is oriented with respect to the cleavage as shown in grain Q. A test with biaxial negative interference figures. The axial plane bisects the obtuse
the quartz wedge will confirm the fact that the mineral is positive; hence angle of the cleavage, and Y bisects the acute angle. The position of Z
= =
Bx" Z. The optic normal is Y, and Bxo X. If one refers again to the may be obtained from a section parallel to the plane of the axes a and c.
Light vibrating parallel to Z is the slow ray; the angle of maximum ex-
Ie tinction for the slow ray may be determined with the mica plate. The
maximum extinction angle for the single cleavage h'ace is the angle be-
(0101 tween Z and the c-axis. In hornblende this angle is about 25 0 . When Z is
b determincd, the angle of X is known since it lies at 90 0 to Z. Y is p er-
pendicular to the plane of Z and X.
Triclinic System. Each tIiclinic crystal constitutes an individual case
/0 Ie in optical Olientation. The center of the optical system must coincide with
i the center of the crystallographic system; otherwise there is no agrer'-
~I I
~p=y ___~r~i
ment.
__ I ---- REFERENCES
~(0101 {] '("\
. ",,0\ \1 Grout, F. F,: "Petrography and Petrology," McGraw-Hill Rook Company, In c.,
I New York, 1932.
Harker, A.: "Petrology for Students," 7th ed. , Cambridge University Press ,
London , 1935.
FIG. 8-37. Thin-section and orientation diagrams of hornblende.
Heinrich, E. W.: "Microscopic Petrography," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
figures illustrating the cleavage form, the following orientation is ap- Inc., New York, 1956.
Johannsen, A.: "Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections," John Wiley & SOilS ,
parent: Inc. , New York, 1908.
a = Z Kraus , E. H., W. F. Hunt, and L. S. Ramsdell: "Mineralogy," 3d ed. , McG ra w
b = Y Hill Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1936,
Larsen, E. S. , and H. Berman: Microscopic Determination of Non-opaqu e Mill
c = X erals, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 848, 1934,
Luquer, L. M.: "Minerals in Rock Sections ," 4th ed " D, Van Nostrand ~ , ()"I ­
The angle 2V as estimated with the microscope is approximately equal to pany, Inc. , Princeton, N.J., 1913.
the recorded angle 37 0 30'. Therefore the optic axes make an angle of Rogers, A. F.: "Introduction to the Study of Minerals," 3d cd. , McGraw.'lli"
18 0 45' with the a-axis. Book Compan y, Inc. , New York, 1937.
The orientation in the case of orthorhombic crystals is not always Wcinschenck, E.: "Petrographic Methods," trans. by R. W. Cla rk, McCr:lw-
Hill Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1912.
so simple as in the case of barite. The principles and procedure, however, Williams, H. , F. J. Turn er, and C. M. Gilbcrt: "Petrography," V\!. n . Fr('('mn ll
are essentially the same, and it is always fundamental to be able to fix & Co. , San Francisco, 1954.
the position of X, Y, and Z with respect to a, b, and c. Winchell , A. N.: "Eleme llts of OpLical Mincralogy. Part TT : Desc ripliolls ot
Monoclinic System . In monoclinic crystals, X, Y, or Z corrcspond to Mincrals," John Wiley & SOli S, IIIC., Ncw York, °1927.
the b-axis. If Y corresponds to b, which is oftcn the case, X and Z w:ill
occupy any position at 90 0 to each othcr in thc plan e of (f and c.

CHAPTER 9 size may be obtained by plaCing small lumps of a mineral between two
Mineral Fragments
Crushed Fragments. The principles of microscopic observation with
polarized light apply equally whcther minerals are studied in thin sec-
tions or in crushed fragments. However, differences in mounting, cleav-
age development, or the dish'ibution and orientation of the minerals in
the mount enable the student to make optical determinations more ac-
curately and conveniently with fragments than with thin sections. As a
result, supplementary studies of fragments are often advisable.
A small amount of material suffices for a complete examination of
crushed fragments ; no preliminary grinding is necessary; a minimum of
equipment is used (polarizing microscope and set of index liquids) ;
cleavage fragm ents break according to form and assist greatly in estab-
lishing orientation; and individual crystals may be isolated for inde-
pendent examination. Nevertheless, in spite of the utility of fragment
methods, it should be kept in mind that this type of examination fails to
yield the splendid exhibit of mineral association and texture observable
in thin sections.
The practical utilization of crushed fragments in mineral identincation
was nrst attempted by Maschke in 1872, although it was not until years
later that the method was sufficiently developed to be widely used. In
1898, Schroeder van del' Kolk assembled a list of fluids suitable for use
as immersion liquids ; in 1906, his publication of a list giving a more ex-
tensive series of liquids, together with the refractive indices of 300
minerals determined by comparison with these liquids, was a great step
forward. A. F. Rogers , E. S. Larsen, H. E. Merwin, C. S. Ross , F. E.
Wright, H. Berman, and others have accumulated data that have greatly
increased the application of the method. Perhaps the greatest stimulus
was brought about by Larsen's "Microscopic D etermination of the Non-
opaque Minerals."
Methods of Mounting. Permanent mounts are prepared with Canada
balsam. In the preparation, fragments are sprinkled on a slidc and
covered with balsam; then the balsam is cookcd by plaCing the slid e on
a hot plate, and the mount is covered with a cover glass. This may b
142
MINERAL FRAGMENTS 143
done in a few minutes, and the slide may be marked for purposes of
Rling.
Temporary mounts are made by utilizing the various inert liqUids used
for determining the indices of refraction. Screened fragments are prefer-
able for routine work. If screens are not available, fragments of suitable
glass slides and rubbing the slides together until the glass surfaces slide
smoothly over each other on the mineral powder. On a clean glass slide,
place about as many fragments as can be pickcd up on the tip of a small
knife blade. By tapping the edge of the slide with the knife, distribute
the fragments evenly over an area approximately 14 inch in diameter.
Then place a cover glass over the grains. With a small glass rod, apply
a drop of oil at the edge of the
cover glass. The oil will flow in and
around the grains by capillary action
(Figure 9-1). If one drop of oil is
not sufficient, a second and a third
may be applied until the fragments
are completely immersed. Care
should be taken, however, not to
apply an excess of oil for this may
cause the grains to float, thus hin- FIG. 9-1. Immersion of mineral grains.
dering observations and measure-
ments. With sufficient care, two or three mounts may be made on a
single slide. After use, the glass slides may be cleaned with alcohol,
followed by rinsing in water and drying.
Temporary mounts are by no means restricted to nne powders . Small,
well-formed crystals, deh'ital grains, coarse fragments, and oriented
cleavages or sections are representative of materials that may be ex-
amined in a variety of positions under the microscope. A slight move-
ment of the cover glass on a temporary mount frequently suffices to tum
a fragment. This is somewhat easier if powdered glass slightly eoarscr
than the fragments being studied is mixed with the sample. The glass
fragments being free from cleavage lie in random positions and are easily
turned , moving the fragments of the sample at the same time. Th e glass
is easily distinguish ed by its isotropic character and index of refraction .
A binoculru: microscope of low power is extremely useful for th c pur-
pose of isolating small crys tals or min cral grain s (Fi gure 9-2 ). Whil e
lookin g throu gh tlH' hinocular small crys tals may he pricd loosv from a
sp ecim en w ilh a needle anc1 these form ic1 e;)1 samp'les for ('xanlill :llioll
w illi til t: po'l:iri z in l,!; mi croscope, ill c illl(' r I C' lIlporary or P('rI1l :III (' 1I1 IIIOlllll s.
111ll1lCrsiol\ Melhod. In imm ersion , nlill c r:i1 fra glll('lIl s a)'(' plil ('('<I 1111<1 0 1'
III/l IlIi ('ro~ ( '()jl\ l ill It li(l' dd (If kllow " illdi ' ~ , alld Ilit l 1'\ ,1'1'111'11011 or Ii g;1I I
144 MINERAL OPTICS
observed at the edges of the fragments may be utilized in index com-
parison.
The fragments examined may range widely in size. Ordinarily, frag-
ments that pass through a standard 100-mesh screen and are caught on
a 120-mesh screen m·e satisfactory. Refractive index determinations of
minerals follow a routine procedure. Since the index of refraction of the
liquid is known, the method of central illumination or that of oblique
illumination may be used to compare the indices of refraction of the
FIG. 9-2. A binocular microscope. (Cotlltes!J of American Optical Co.)
mineral fragments with the index of refraction of the liquid. As soon as
the index of the mineral is determined to b e greater or less than the
liquid, the slide is placed in a cleaning jar, and another mount is pre-
pared, using a liquid with a different index. By utilizing a number of
liquids and making repeated comparisons the indices of refraction of a
mineral may be ascertained within reasonably narrow limits. In case the
mineral is isotropic, having only one index of refraction, it is customary
to determine the index of the mineral to within two or thrce in the third
place of decimals. When minerals are anisotropic, havin g indices of re-
fraction that vary with direction, equal accuracy is possible, but more
comparisons OIre necessary to determinc differc nt· valn cs . It is customary
MINERAL FRAGMENTS 145
to prepare a set of liquids with indices of refraction of 1.450, 1.455, 1.460,
1.465 . . . etc., up to a limit of 1.740. A considerable number of bottles
are required for such a group of liquids. These are usually kept in a dark
place and are painted black on the outside to keep out the light. A less
elaborate set of liquids with values 1.50, 1.51, 1.52, 1.53 . . . etc., is
frequently used. Such a set requires half the number of bottles, is more
qUickly standardized, and with careful mixing of drops on a slide will
vield results accurate to ± 0.003.
It is not always advisable to place the cover glass over dry fragments
and allow the liquid to be drmVI1 around each grain by capillary attrac-
tion, as explained above. To cite a speCific instance, it may be desired to
find the index of refraction of a mineral with a value between two liquids
such as 1.555 and 1.560. In this case a drop of liquid 1.555 is placed upon
a slide, and a drop of liquid 1.560 of the same size is placed near by but
not quite touching the first drop. The mineral powder is then sprinkled
between the drops, and both the drops and the powder are mixed with
a needle, small wire, or small stirring rod. A small cover glass is th en
placed over the mixture, pressed down to remove air globules, and th e
mount is ready for microscopic examination. The index of the mixed
liquid should be about 1.5575.
Index Determinations by Immersion. For hexagonal or tetragonal
minerals n e and nw are determined; for orthorhombic, monoclinic, or tri -
clinic minerals n", n{3 , and ny. In thcse d eterminations it should b e re-
membered that each mineral grain in the field of the microscope is doubly
refracting with values n2 and n 1 . Furthermore, when a crystal is in th e
position of extinction, the planes of vibration of n 2 and n 1 are parallel to
the vibration planes of the nicols.
The determination of n e and n w , or n" and ny, usually resolves ilseH
into a search with successive liqUids until both the upper and lower
limits of n 2 and n.l for a given mineral are located. The diITerence he-
tween the two values equals the maximum double refraction of lh e
mineral. It should be remembered, however, that cleavage or struelllr('
may limit the positions in which min erals will come to rest on th e slick
In such cases the two extremes may not be obtained unless fragm enls
are turned by movin g the cover glass or interference figures arc used 10
check th e orientalion .
Th e dcle rmi nalion or 111l in biaxial min crals may be carried Ollt ill Iwo
ways. H illtcrfcre nc(' I1 gm es on or ncar a bisectrix or an oplic axis call
he oh lain ed for se veral grains in different li rplids, th c dclcrmillalioll of
1I (l is s impl e. Tllis is elll(' lo 111(' r;lel lh al Lil(' index of lll(' ray vihra lill ~ OIl
ri ght <lilgh's \0 \11 (' ;lxi;Ji pl;1I1( · is 11 11. II is ;liso ("o ll vC'ni<' liI 10 ')"('ill(' lllI )('r
dIldo lill y gll ill ill n p (l ~ ili()n to l~ i Vl' 1111 optic : I \ i ~ ri gllr\' y icl <h rnys wil li
1110 illd( ,,< 1/ /1 ill nil dir,·( ·1i() II ~ . II /.,11 ,11 illl\-ri( ·I"'III", · 1i l',111'(·s lin ' 1101 ol ll :dll-
146
able, and specific information concerning the position of n/3 in fragments
is not known, the value can still be determined by a process of elimina-
tion as explained below.
For each fragm ent shown in the field of the microscope, somewhere
between n 2 and 111 is the value 11/3 . In certain fragments either 112 or n 1
may equal n/3, but from the consideration of biaxial crystals it can be
MINERAL OPTICS MINERAL FRAGMENTS 147
Form of minerals in crushed fragments is probably most frequently
related to the cleavage. Since cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break
into smaller and smaller particles with smooth surfaces th at are parallel
to possible crystal faces, it follows that tillS characteristic will be as evi-

g
shown that both 112 and n 1 will approach but never pass b eyond the Augite Hornblende

~ \
value of n/3 in the same fragment. Thus 11/3 may be located by varying
the liquids and observing both n2 and n 1 in a number of fragments. In
(\ ( I ___~ -
Figure 9-3 assume the vertical lines are the refractive indices of I

a certain mineral. The horizontal lines cover the range in indices of re-
fraction for different grains having different values of n 2 and n 1 • It will

r-
I nt
I
Iny
'0
I I i
II ntl
i
n2 I
I
I I
nlli I Iny
: nt I n2 I
I I I
i I
I ~ I~
I I I
~ : ~ II
I I
I n1----rn2 I
I nt I n2 I
I ~ I
nIX =1.662 np 7 t.680 ny=!.699
1.660 1.665 1.670 1.675 1.680 1.685 1.690 1.695 1.700
FIG. 9-3. The detennination of n in irregular non-oriented fragments.
Natrolite .

~~
be observed that all lines cross or meet 1.680, this being the value of n/3 ;
also, that no lines exceed 1.699, which is the value of 1Vy; and that no
lines are less than 1.662, which is the value of 11" . If fragments with weak
double refractions are tried in successive liquids, testing both n2 and n 1
in each case, the value of n/3 can soon be approximated within narrow
limits.
It is convenient as a confirmation of the determination of optic sign to
[CIC. 9-4. Cleavage and fracture fragm ents. (a) One direction- irregular plates (Il l}
remember that when (n/3 - n,, ) is decidedly greater than ( 1Vy - n/3 ), the iiiu strated). (b) Two direction s- orthoclase, augite, and hombl end e. ( c) Thr<>
mineral is optically negative. If on the other hand, (n/3 - n,,) is de- directions- kyanite, anhydrite (rectangular) , calci te (rhombohedral). (d) FO ll r d,'
Cidedly less than (IVy - n/3 ), the mineral is positive. reclions- flllorile (octahedral). ( e) Prismatic sillimanite. (f) Aciclllar- natrolite.
Form of Mineral Fragments. Mineral fragments often exhibit distinc-
tive forms under the microscope that are extremely useful in their identi- dent in fra gments as in a hand specimen. Minerals may exhibit cleavag!Y
fication. Such forms may be due to cleavage of the crystals of the mineral in one, two, three, or even four and six dircctions (Fi gure 9-1) . T h('
or may be due to a characteristic growth that causes peculiar fragments, iden.(ificalion of cleavage planes in mineral fragme nts is aided by til('
or the crystals may be so small that they appear as individuals beneath fact that Lhe fragmonls norrn:dly mi('ll t lhe msclves with ono of the okav-
the microscope. ago SlIrfHCOS ptlrnlicl 10 Iho slI rfll(,o of I·I\( · slid o. Thlls, if ;) millornl hll.~
148 MINERAL OPTICS
one direction of prominent cleavage, it will normally yield flat-lying
fragments, with ragged or b roken edges . Under crossed nicols , if the
mineral is anisotropic, the flat surface may exhibit a single interference
color, and the narrow ed ges will show color bands. H the mineral has
two directions of cleavage, one direction will probably be the surface on
which it lies, and the other direction will show as either inclined or
vertical parallel edges. H the cleavage is developed at right angles, the
edge may be vertical. H, however, the cleavage develops at an inclined
angle, the edge will appear beveled.
The influence of cleavage or other directional separation along smooth
planes is shown in Figure 9-4. The diagrams showing the cleavage frag-
ments are idealized. In a field containing many broken fragments, a few
will usually be found unmistakably representing the idealized shape.
The majority, however, show only portions of the maximum cleavage
development. Even minerals kno\'m to possess excellent cleavage are
likely to yield a considerable number of irregular fragments when broken.
In addition to the flat-lying, inclined , or vertical planes of cleavage
that modify mineral fragments, sh apes due to origin al characteristics of
crystallization may be observed. Asb estos, for example, produces thread-
like fibers. Acicular or needlelike mineral structures will frequently yield
fragments made up of bundles of elongated, thin, parallel crystals. Fine
mica flakes may exhibit both flat-lying flakes and needlelike form s when
the flakes are on edge. When the flakes are inelastic, wavy or curved
plates are likely to result.
Knowledge of cleavage in fragments is necessary in using the immer-
sion method for determining refractive indices.
Immersion Media. Liquids for use as immersion media should be color-
less, as odorless as possible, chemically stable, and miscible in all pro-
portions with each other. They should h ave low dispersion, low volatility,
and moderat e viscosity. Liquids should b e inert and not react with or
dissolve the substances to b e t ested.
Although many different liquids h ave b een suggested as satisfactory
immersion media, it has b een found that a few well-chosen liquids are
preferable to a wide range of complicated compounds. 1
Common liquids for immersion media are as shown in the table on
page 149.
In the prep aration of the liquids, isoamyl isovalerate and keros ene may
he mixed to fOlm liquids up to 1.466 in indices of refraction. Kcrosene
and h alowax oil may be used for mixtures betwcen 1.466 and 1.63. Halo-
wax oil and methylene iodid e may be mixed to form liquids with indi ces
1 Liquids suit'able far inclex re rra cl"i oll dd('l'1 l1 in :l ti () n ~ hy the imme rsion me th od
may be seellTed fro m n. P. Cn rgillC' L; "J<l I'lI I Clri(' ~, rll(·., 1 17 Liberly St. , New York,
N. Y.
ML'l"ERAL F RAGMENTS 149
Approximate index
Liquid of ref raction
Water ..... . . ........... . . .. .. .. ...... .. . .. ... . 1 .333
I soamyl isovalerate 1 . . • .• . . . . . . •. . . • . .• . . . • . .. 1 .428
K crasene 2 . . . . . . •.•• • • • •• . . • . . .• 1.466
P etrol eum oil . . . ... . . . . . . ... . ... . ...... ... . . 1 .475
a -m onobromnaph thalene 3 . . . . • . • . . . • . 1 .658
Meth ylene iodide'. . .. . ... .. . . . .......... . .. . . 1 .740
Solution of meth ylene iodide and sulfu r up to. 1.794
1 Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester , N. Y .
2 A clear, high ly refined product, call ed government oil, having t he v alue give n
above is sold by Leeds & Northrup Co.
3 Mo nochlorna ph thalene, or "halowax oil " (n = 1.63), has been fo und by a numbe r
of workers to be eq ually satisfactory and more eco nomical. It is sold by t he B ak eli te
Corp.
• Edcan Laboratories, 12 Pine St ., South N orwalk, Co nn.
of refraction between 1.63 and 1.74. For indices b elow 1.43, some diffi -
culty has been encountered in findin g suitable liquids. With more th an
forty minerals and many inorganic substances having indices below 1.43,
liquids in this range are desirable. 'Vater and the alcohols are impractical
because of their solvent action. E xperiments with peb'oleum distillates
have shown that fractionation of two ligroins, gasolene, and kerosene
between narrow boiling-point limits results in stable liquids with indices
between 1.3548 and 1.4593 at 22°C.
It has b een found also that ethyl propionate and mesitylene arc
miscible in all proportions to form satisfactory index media b etween
1.385 and 1.43.
Satisfactory liquids with indices of refraction above 1.74 constitute a
problem. Methylene iodide containin g diss olved sulfur has b een used
for the range from 1.74 to 1.78. Phenyldiodoarsine (n = 1.84) mixcd with
methylene iodide has been used for the range from 1.78 to 1.84. A set
of high-index liquids made up of phosphorus, sulfur, and methylene
iodide covering the range 1.78-2.06 has b een described by C. D . W cst.
These liquids are practically stable, inexpensive, and safe to use with th e
proper precautions.
A set of high-index liquids, composed of arsenic bromide-arsenic
sulfide-methylene iodide, has been described by L. H. Borgs b·om. Th eso
liqu ids h ave a range from 1.78 to 1.95.
Mixed melts of sulfur and selenium (2.05 t o 2.72) or piperin e and
arseni c and antim ony b'iiodid es (1.68 to 2.10) are used for hi gll -in ckx
determina tions. Th e melts arc prepared in advance and arra nged in :1
series of mixtll rcs . T he valu es of t11 (" indi ces of th e mixtllres :11'(' d<,-
Innni ned h y th e p rism metlH)(l. A slll;dl prism or th e tr;l nSp ;lJ'('nt II II'll is
Ili ado a lld ll1() lIlll ('d Oil Ilu' Slllgl' or II go ni ome ler. n n th Ih e II n g ] (' 01' 111( 1
pris lll 1I1i d I h(} 11 l1 glo of Illillillllllli <i( lvinl iO Il unl 1l1.)IIS II J'('d . T lln i lld ox of
150 MINERAL OPTICS
refraction is then computed as previously explained for the prism method.
The melt is molded into the form of a prism by using two cover glasses
placed at an angle of 30° to each other. The melt is poured into the
space between and allowed to cool. When cold, the cover glasses will
break away, leaving a prism with smooth surfaces. Great care must be
used not to overheat, or the indices of the piperine mixtures will vary
greatly. When the index of the melt has been determined, the material
is placed in a sealed tube and flIed for future use. When applied, the
ground-up material is melted around fragments of minerals, and the in-
dices are compared by the method of central illumination.
Extensive investigation of high-index media suitable for work with
minerals has been conducted by Larsen and Meyrowitz. Precipitated
sulfur in arsenic tribromide has been used with methylene iodide in
various proportions to form a series of high-index immersion liquids in
the range 1.74 to 1.81. The liquids are stable and reasonably durable. The
mixing curve is not a strai~ht line but may be utilized. In the range 1.82
to 2.00 solutions have been prepared with end members as follows : (1)
precipitated sulfur, 10 per cent, in arsenic tribromide, (2) precipitated
sulfur, 20 per cent, and arsenic disulfide in arsenic tribromide, 60 per
cent. The mixing curve is a straight line.
Standardization and Care of Liquids. Indices of refraction of standard
liquids are determined according to the methods of refractive-index de-
termination already mentioned. Standard refractometers are suitable for
indices to 1.7; the goniometer and prism may be used for the entire range,
including melts. Liquids should be standardized for the temperature at
which they are to be used, since changes in the index of a liquid occur
with temperature variations. Generally, increase in temperature lowers
the index of a liquid. This change is approximately 0.0004 per degree
centigrade for liquids with indices below 1.658, but for methylene iodide,
it amounts to as much as 0.007 for each degree.
In preparing a liquid of a desired index by mixing hvo liquids of known
indices, the following formula is convenient:
Vlnl + V 2n2 = V xn x
where V represents volume, n the index, and V"n" the volume and index
desired. To illustrate, let the volume of n l = Vl and the volume of
n 2 = V 2 , n l = 1.4, n 2 = 1.65 and V "n" = 20 cm3 of index 1.5. Two equa-
tions may be written as follows:
1.4V I + 1.65V2 = 30
VI + V = 2 20
and, by solving, V2 = 8
V l = 12
MINERAL FRAGMENTS l~l
Therefore, 8 cm 3 of index liquid 1.65 and 12 cm 3 of liquid 1.4 will make
20 cm3 of a liquid with an index of 1.5. For methylene iodide mixtures,
it has been found that slightly more methylene iodide may be required
than the formula indicates.
For accurate work it is important to protect liquids from light and
evaporation. Black bottles (from 15 to 20 cm 3 ) with glass applicator
stoppers and glass caps are preferable for storage. A wooden box, fitted
with a block recessed with round holes into which the bottles fit securely,
makes a convenient and safe container for a complete set. While the
liquids are in use, care should be taken to keep the bottles stoppered
except when the applicator is actually being used.
REFERENCES
Borgstrom, L. H.: Contribution to the Development of the Immersion Method ,
Bull. comm. geol. Finlande 87, pp. 58-63, 1929.
Glass, J. J.: Standardization of Index Liquids, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 19, pp.
459-465, 1934.
Kaiser, E. P. , and W. Parrish: Preparation of Immersion Liquids, Ind . Eng .
Chem., anal. ed., vol. 11, pp. 560-562, 1939.
Larsen, E. S., and H. Berman: The Microscopic D etermination of the Non-
opaque Minerals, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 848, 1934.
Larsen, Esper S., Jr., and Robert Meyrowitz: Immersion Liquids of High Hc-
fractive Index, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 36, pp. 746-750, 1951.
Maschke, 0.: Dber Abscheidung krystallisirter Kieselsaure aus wassrigc n
Losungen, Fogg. Ann., 5th ser. , vol. 25, pp. 549-578, 1872.
Merwin, H. E.: Media of High Hefraction, etc. , Am. ]. Sci ., vol. 34, pp. 42- 47,
1912.
- - - : Media of Lower Refraction , ]. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp . 35-40,
1913.
Meyrowitz, Robert: A Compilation and Classification of Immersion Media of
High Index of Refraction , Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40, pp. 398-409, 1955.
- --: A New Series of Immersion Liquids, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 37, pp.
853-856, 1952.
- --: Solvents and Solutes for the Preparation of Immersion Liqnids or
High Index of Refraction, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 41 , pp. 49-59 , 1956.
Rogers, A. F.: The D etermination of Minerals in Crushed Fragments by Mellns
of the Polarizing Microscope, Quart. , Columbia School Mines, vol. 27, pp .
340-359, 1906.
Schroeder van del' Kolk, J. L. C .: "Tabellen zur mikroskipisehen Bestimmlln g
der Mineralien naeh ihrem Brec11l1ngsindex ," Wiesbaden, 1906.
Switzer, George: Butyl "earbitol" as an Immersion Liqu id, Am. M 'i ll emlog i.l'/,
vol. 29, pp. 389-391 , 1944.
W est, C. D.: Imm ersion Liquids of High ncfraelive Tndex, Alii . Mi ll (im /IJg is/,
vol. 2], pp. 245- 2t19 , 1936.
Wright, F . F..: T he M cl hods of Pnl rogmphic-ll1ieroseop ie n()S()llrcli, CUl'l lflgilJ
TI1.~t . /'·,,11. 158, J Oll.
 SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 153
Transparent Minerals (Tables 10-2 to 10·10). The tables are designed
primarily for h'ansparent minerals in thin section. With two exceptions
(Tables 10-1 and 10-3) the tables also will b e found suitable in most in-
stances for mineral fragments as well as thin sections.
A systematic order of observation for each transparent mineral is (1)
CHAPTER 10 color, (2) shape or form, (3) cleavage, (4) index refraction; and (5)
anisotropism. Should any of these features appear signmcant the ap-
propriate table should be consulted.
Systematic Identification If the mineral is colored, note also whether it is pleochroic or non-
pleochroic; if pleochroic, note the colors of pleochroism. Should the
mineral occur in some significant shape it should be compared with forms
and shapes listed. Elongated crystals may b e tested for positive or nega-
Tables. The identification of mineral species involves procedures which
tive elongation. The presence of cleavage should lead to comparison with
must be repeated many times in the examination of even a few thin sec-
the cleavage types listed in the tables. If some knowledge of orientation
tions. Much wasted effort may be avoided if a systematic procedure is
may be gained from the cleavage, it should be applied.
adopted. Tables 10-1 to 10-10 are arranged in a progressive sequence
Isotropic Minerals (Table 10·6). The group of isotropic minerals is
which requires simple observations first and more involved manipulations
small, and p erhaps the mineral may b e recognized directly if color, cleav-
later. An outline follows:
age, and the relative index of refraction are taken into account.
Birefringent Minerals (Table 10·7). Anisotropic minerals range in
KEY TO MINERAL TABLES double refraction through wide limits. In general, however, the order of
Mineral to be identified the highest obs erved interference color for an unknovm mineral in thin
section can b e of considerable assistance in determining a mineral. Since
Opaque Table 10-1 Transparent
properly ground thin sections are about 0.03 to 0.035 mm in thickn ess,
Colored
the double refraction may be estimated from the interference colors and
Shape or form reference to the interference color chart (see page 168).
Cleavage Optical Character (Tables 10·8, 10·9, and 10·10). As a final stage in
Index of refraction Tobie /0-5
systematic identmcation, an attempt should b e made to determin e whether
a mineral is uniaxial or biaxial, positive or negative. Interference fi gurcs
Isotropic Table 10-6
{ Chart A
Anisotropic aid in this identification. If a mineral proves to b e biaxial, it is desirable
Birefringence Table /0-7 to ascertain the axial angle and if possible the nature of the disp ersion .
T hese features are summarized in Tables 10-8, 10-9, and 10-10 and Charts
Uniaxial Biaxial B, C, D, E, F, and C.
(+) {Table 10-8 (+) Table 10-9 (- )Table 10-/0 Conclusion. The identification on the basis of optical properties will
(-) Chart 8 Charts C. 0 depend upon the possibilities suggested by each of th e tables consulted.
Axial angle CliortsE,F,G Frequently several possibilities remain after the criteria covered by th o
FIG. 10-1. lablcs h ave b een considered. These may be investigated further by ref-
ercnce to th e min eral descriptions in Part 2 where more complete cbta
Opaque Minerals (Table 10-1) . As a first step, it is desirable to observe ;\I'e availahlc. Mineral fragments may b e used for refra ctive incl ex cle-
whether a mineral is opaque or transparent. Occasionally, areas of opaque I('rmin:llions as describcd in Ch ap ler 9 and the data ap plied to T"hl(
minerals are found. These should b e illuminated from above the stage 10-5. MiliCI'''] assoc iations and environment as described nl1ckr oC<'IIr-
and may be identified by reference to Table 10-1. Hovvever, for opaque !'i'II( '(' :11'< ' of Ien \1 clpf,d .
minerals, recourse must frequently be had to conventional min eralogical IO:x p( 'I'i( 'II ('( ' 11 ;ls SII() WII Ill al lil( ' lah l( 's :11'(' a<1('<I" :II(' for I'OIItinc id( 'Jllin.
methods bcyond the scope of this t cxt. ('a lioll (II' III Osl ( ' 0111111011 JlliJl" n " ~ "II( '()I"II( 'J'('d ill Ihi" s('(· lioJl:; . As IL
I S2
154 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 155
further aid in systematic identification, an outline procedure suggested TABLE 10-1. O PAQUE MINERALS

for anisotropic transparent minerals is included.

Color with Mineral Comment
re flected light
OUTLINE FOR IDENTIFICATION
(Transparent Minerals (> ) Black. Graphite, C Frequently occurs in thin
Hakes or scattered specks
Mineral de scription with micaceous cleavage.
Color. P leochroic colors ... Ca rbonaceous matter may
Shape . . . occur as fine black inclu-
sions.
Cleavage. Elongation ... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. ......... ...... .
Extinction. Brass yellow. Pyrite, FeS2 Euhedral crystals are com-
Index of refraction R elief in balsam . mon with square, triangu-
+ or - balsam . Compared to other minC'rals lar, or rectangular sections.
Cleavage indistinct or ab-
Birefringence. in the section . sent. High relief due to
Mineral possibilities as suggested by T ables 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, a nd 10-7 hardness.
10-2. 10-3. 10-4.
10-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 . Bronze to copper red 1 Pyrrhotite, FeS(S) Found in masses or bladed
Optical character crystals. Basal parting II to
100011. Darker color than
Uniaxial + .. .. Biaxial + E stimated 2V . . pyrite.
Dispersion.
Optical orientation data . . .............. . Strong brass yellow .. 1 Chalcopyrite, CuFeS2 Found in masses a nd ooca-
Mineral identification as suggested by T ables 10-8, 10-9, and Charts B, C, D, E, sionally in euhedral crystals.
Deeper yellow t han pyrite
F, and G. and lower relief.
Associated minerals .
Conclusion (verifi ed by refer ence to mineral descriptions in P a rt 2) .... . . . . .... . . . . Steel blue, red, or Hematite, Fe 20 3 Blood red on translucon t
blac k . edges. Occasionally shows
parting. Found in euhedral
.. Opaque minerals may be identified by reference to Table 10-1. crystals a nd masses .
Violet black . Ilmenite, FeTi03 More violet or purple than
hematite. Basal parting and
fl akelike crystals common .
Often found with m agnetite.
Steel blue black M agnetite Fe"Fe21l 'O. Oct ahedral (occasionally do-
decahedral) crystals a rc co m-
mon. T he mineral may have
oct a hedral parting. Fre-
quently a prima ry mineral.
rroll hl ack to brown- I Chromite (Fe,Mg)(C r,AI,F e)2o .i Us ually brown on th in edgell.
is ll black. Frequently fou nd with 110 1'-
pe ntine.
YC' lI olV brown .. Limolli te, II , F e 2 0 .. (Il 2 0 ). Colloform, pisoli t ic, POl'O Il A,
a nd massive agg regates COrYl-
mono Thin, tmnspflrentcdgc8
a re cla rk betweo n orOfleud
ni co ls .
While . . . . . . . . . . , LOll GUXC lle, TiO " elc. A white, fin e-gmi ll ori OplL(jll fl
a ltcmt ion prod uct of pri-
Ill l"'y tilall ium Illillcnd ll.
156 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 157
TABLE 10-2, COL ORED MINERALS
I
Red ! Pink rose Orange Brown Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray Black
--- - - -
Sodalit e Sodalit e Soda li te Sodalite
u
.
'0
os. g :E
Sphalerite
Fluorit e
Sphalerite
Fluorite
Spha lerite
Fluo rite Fluorite Fluorite Fluorite
Spinel S pinel Spinel
,g~ a'"
0
Collophane Collophane
Spinel Spinel Spinel

'"o Q'"'
'"'
~ Cliachite Clia chite Cliachite
8 Perovs kite P erovskit e Perovs kite P erovs kite P erolJskit e P erovskite Perovskit e
Garnet G a rn et Garn et Garnet Garn et
--- Zircon Zircon
La zuri te
Zircon
OJ C ass iter ite Cassiterite
'>l~ Cassiterite
Rutile Rutile Rutile
'a ±
p
Rutile
[Chlo ritoid]
Rutile
[C hloritoid]
R util e Rutile

[Chl oritoid] [Chlorite] [Chlorite]

[Biotit e] [Biotite] [Bi otit e]

Dra vite Dra vite
Stilpnomela n e Stilpnom ela ne Stilpnomelane
Schorlite Schorli te Schorlite Schorlite Schorli t e Schorlito
I
T ourmaline Tourma line Tourmaline Tourmaline
Corundum Corundum Corundum
Apatit e Apatite Apatite Apa t it e
J a rosite
Piedmontite Piedmontite Piedm ontite Piedrnonti te Piedmontite
Titanite Titanite Tita nite Sph en e Sph en e S1)h c1t6
Staurolite StaUr1"olite Staurolite
Mona zite Mona zite
I
± Clinochlor e
Chloritoid
Clin ochlo re
Chloritoid
Chlorite
Chloritoid I
I
Aegirin e-augite Aegirine-a u gite Aegirine-a ugite
Chondrodite Chondrodite
P erovs kite P erovs kite P erovs kite P erovs kite P erovskit e P ero !)skite
P ero vskit e _ _ I
Iddingsite Iddingsite Crocidolite Crocidolite Crocidolite
~

+I

..'" ,-..
u -u
,~
Chlori te C hlorite
o 0 OJ I Ri ebeckite Ri ebeck ite
'>l
_.<l
o u 1 - ---1- --
'a'" 0
.!:l iXi" I Biotite Biotite Biotite
Epidote
-< '" 1 I E pidote Epidote

Allanite Alla nite

Phlogopi te
Glaucophan e
Allanite
Phlogopite
I Gla ucop ha n e G la uco p ha n e Glaucophane

, Bas altic
Hornblende L fl m pro holi to
A egirine Aeg irin e A"(Jid n
(' Hypersthene Hypersthen e H y pers t he ne
Actinolite Ao tin oli te
Glauconite G la li ou llitl' O f (J.u {' (I",i l
Andalus ite
Dumortierite 1)1I111(n' t i critc D lllll o l' ti l' ri to
Hornblende Il o t'lIhl (l lid o
Co /'( l ·if' /'1;(,iJ
I.n l'. 1I1 i l 1l

Note: Ita lios indicate lesser examples ; bra ckets , occasional examples , C o lo red m inera ls, a l t h o ll ~ h i IH t' llIlIlI .v p L I1 (H I I ~ 1 Hi t), HIlL Y f Ilii I II Vll l y I II Ij o l lll' \v l ~ll l'II I , I ~ Uu n qUai,' fl l(l) l , pl lo li i d Il i rO il Il l1ti,' lIHh'i1,
158 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 159
TABLE 10-3. FORM' TABLE 10-3. FORM (Continued)
Minerals Found in Euhedral Crystals

_II
Forms of Crystal Aggregates
cc

isometric
very common

Tetragonal
c common r

H exagonal
rare rr

Orthorhombic
I
Monoclinic

Gibbsite r
very rare

I Triclinic

l\1icrocline r ~"
"/
:.~>:~:,-
' . ::~.
E /~
J~
Pyrite c Rutile c Quartz c C elestite r
Fluorite r C assi t eri te c Corundum c Forsterite c l\1onazite r Plagioclase c Granular Fibrous Acicular La thlike Foliated
Spinel r M elilite c Calcite r Olivine c Laz uli te rr
Magnetite c Idocrase c Dolomite r F ayalite c Ort hoclase c
Perovski te c Zircon c Jarosite rr Monticellite c Sanidine cc
Leuoite cc Scapolite r Aluni te rr Topaz r Adula ri a c Quartz Brucite Aragonite Feldspar Graphite
Sodalite c Apatite cc Anda lusite r Aegirine-augite c Chalcedony Gypsum Dumortierite Hedenbergite Hematite
HaUyne c D a hllite c Zoisite r Spodumene c Gibbsite Polyhalite Tourmaline J adeite Brucite
Garnet cc C a ncrini te r Staurolite c J a d eite rr Calcite J adeite Stilbite Wollastonite Muscovite
Analcime T Tourmaline r Lawsonite r La mp r obolite cc Dolomite Wollastonite Natrolite Tremolite- Biotite
Cha b azite c Dumortierite r Sph en e c M agnesite Anthophyllite Thomsonite actinolite Stilpnomelane
N epheline r E pidote c
Pyroxene c Siderite Tremolite- Scolecite Grunerite Phlogopite
Amphibole c Barite actinolite Glaucophane Lepidolite
Celestite Cummingto nite Beryl Prochlorite
Anhydrite Grune-rite Scapolite Clinochlore
Form of Individual Crystals Gypsum Nephrite Topaz Pennine
Polyhalite Riebeckite Andalusite Chloritoid
Alunite Sillimanite Tourmaline Anthophyllite

~o
Jarosite Prehnite Zoisite Iddingsite
C5 V- '~-i;l~ Dahllite Sepiolite Clinozoisite Talc

:'.-0
Equant grains
/ /('I~ ./-
Acicular Lathlike Columnar
Olivine
Epidote
Kaolinite
Halloysite
Antigorite
Chrysotile
M esolite
Pyrophyllite
Epidote
Piedmontite
Staurolite
Biotite
Pyrophyllite
Kaolinite
Montmorillon ite
Dickite
Montmorillonite Thomsonite Hydromuscovite
Analcime Scolecite
Fluorite Rutile Ilmenite Quartz Idocrase
Quartz Aragonite Aragonite Corundum Scapolite
Periclase Sillimanite Barite Orthoclase Dumortierite
Rutile Dumortierite Celestite Sa nidine Aragonite
Cassiterite Tourmaline Gypsum Microcline
Spinel Stilbite Aegirine Anorthoclase
Magnetite Natrolite Mullite Plagioclase
Chromite Dumortierite Nepheline

~
"'~I
Tourmaline Cancrinite

II
Anhydrite
Apatite Epidote Pyroxene
Leucite
Sodalite
Piedmontite
Prehnite
Pyrophyllite
Spodumene
Wollastonite
Amphibole
<2D.:. ,," I
Haiiyne
Melilite Kyanite Glaucophane Radia t ed Spherulitic Cemented Graphic intergrowths IIncipient crystaln
Forsterite Beryl
Olivine Sca polite
Fayalite Idocrase Dahllite Chalcedony Gibbsite Quartz-feldspa r Cristobali te in
Chondrodite Topaz Cllmmingtonite Cristoba lite Ant igorite Quartz-staurolite glass
Garnet Kyanite Schorlite Calcite Qua rtz-actinoli te
Zircon Zoisite (Tourm aline) Siderite Nepheline-feldspa r
Topaz Clinozoisite Prochlorite D ahllite Corundurn-ltnd aillsite
Andalusite Staurolite Pyrophyllite Orthuclase Glass-leucite
Axinite Micas Natrolite Preh ni te
Allanite Chlorites Chltlcedo ny
Cordierite Barite Gibbsite
Sphene T llum son iLe
Lawsonite i\ra~o nit, c
Glauconite fl t,ilbi Lo
Analcime Dllm ol"li (' rit,o
_...L______ _ _ ....l-- _ _ ~~ _ _ __ ' _

I Aa observed in thin section.

160 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 161
TABLE 10-3. FORM (Concluded ) TABLE 10-4. CLEAVAGE
Structures p perfect D = distinct
Minerals with Cleavage in One Direction

I~~ I l ltJ))J~1 r'E:;yl

(~~(: Index Relief
Double refraction
0.01 or less
Double refraction
0.01- 0.03
Double refraction
0.03 or greater
Shatter cracks I Shards I Perlitic cracks I Lithophysae F low (with -S-
phenocrysts) ;)\ Stilbite (OIO)P
0;;
.D Low Heulandite (OIO)P
V Thomsonite (OIO)D Montmorillonite (OOI) D
Glass I Glass I Glass I Tridymite Lechatelicri te
--~ Gyps um (OIO)P
Halloysite Montmorillonite Glass Cordierite (OIO)D
K ao linite (OOI)D Gibbsite (OOI)D
Opal
Low Dick ite (OOI)D Alunite (OOOI)D
Chlorite (001)1' Brucite (0001)1'
Polyhalite (100)D

'>;h.' ::'".",'
Prehnite (OO I)D

~ m .' I~'
'(ffD~$ ...
Low to Pyrophyllite (OOI)P
a moder- Cancrinite (IOIO) D Talc (OOI)P
:.~ ~",///, - .~"
. ' , .. ' . . . .. . . ...... , ~
0;;
ate Muscovite (001)1'
.D Lepidolite (OOI)P
/\
Banded Colloform Oolitic Pisolitic Organic structures ~ Pblogopite (OOI)P
.D Topaz (OOI)P Prehnite (OOI)D Biotite (OO I)P
bJ)

:.a Zoisite (OIO)P Glauconite (OOI)P Stilpnomclane (OO!)l'

.£ Clinozoisitc (001)1' Sillima nite (IOO)P Chondrodite (OOI)l'
Lechatelierite Opal Limonite Cliachite Bone (a) : Sta urolite (OIO)D Mullite (100)D Epidote (OOI)P
~
Dahllite Siderite CalCIte Limonite Colloph ane e Chloritoid (OOI)P Dumortierite (IOO)D Piedmontite D
Chalcedony Collophane Siderite Cellular (b): "0
-0 Corundum (0001) parting Jarosite (OOOI)D
Opal H alloysite Collophane Chalcedony ~ Monazite (001) (purting)
Calcite Chamosite Opal
Aragonite Palagonite Quartz Minerals with Cleavage in Two Directions
Barite
Fluorite
M esolite (110)p(1IO)p
S Scolecite (llO)D
;)\
0;; Orthoclase (OOI)l'(OIO) D N atrolite (IIO)P
.D
Low Sanidine (OO!)P(OIO)D
Microfossil V Anorthoclase (OOI)P(O IO)D
~
replace ment Microcli ne (OOI)l'(OIO) D
Albite (OOI)P(OIO)D
-- Low P lagioclase (OOI)l'(OlO) D Scapolite (1I0)D
Opal
Calcite Tremoli te-a ctinolite (1I0)l'
Aragonite Anthophyllite (110)
Dolomite Glaucopha n e ( 1I0)l'
W ollas tonite (lOO)P(OOl)D DioP8id e (IIO) }>
Collopha ne 8
.D
.:'1 H ornblende (110)1' Grunerito (110) / '
Glauconite ~ -"
E n. tatite (IIO)P CUlI1m ingto ni to (llO)P Pigeonito ( 110) / '
Chalcedony '"
.D ~
0
Andalu. it. (1 10) D I ndeite (IIO)P Aeg irine (I IO)P
1\ ~
Ilic bce kitc (!lO)l' Il ed c nberg it c (110)1' Llt lll probolito ( 110)/'
-----~ -, ------
~ "~ Au~it e (110) 1' ltut il o (IIO)D
"8 E lI 8t. lltito ( I 10) I ' f;p holl u (J)(\I'tI IlU)
~
" Ylwrkt hollo ( 110) /'
A n~ti liIl U · UIIJliitt , ( 110) / '
Hplldlllllfllli l ( 11 0 ) / 1

-'--- - ' - - - - -
162 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 163
T ABLE 10-4. CLEAVAGE (Concluded) T ABLE 10-5. INDICES O F REFRACTION

The indices of refraction n, n a , n~, n" a nd nUl are abbreviated n, a, 7, f, a nd w.

Minerals with Cleavage in Three or More Directions
Index Mineral Index Mineral
Double refraction Double refr action Double refraction
Index Relief -
0.01 or less 0.01- 0.03 0.03 or greater
1. 40-1. 46 n Opal 1. 525- 1. 530 7 Microcline
1.434 n Fluorite 1.525- 1.532 a Albite
Three direct i ons (mi scellan eous t ypes ) 1.458-1.462 n Lechatelierite 1.526 7 Orthoclase
1.469 a Tridymite 1.527- 1.543 f Nepheline
C a n crinite (101O)D
I Low Halite (lOO)P (isotro pic)
Scapolite (JOO)P(llO)D
Anhydrite (001) (010) (100)1'
1. 47-1. 63
1. 473-1.480
n
a
P a lagonite
Natrolite
1.527- 1.541
1.529
7
7
Anorthoclase
Gypsum
relief Ext. parallel or sym.
'C elestite (OOl)P(llO)D E xt. p arallel 1.473 7 Tridymite 1.530 a Aragonite
1. 478-1. 485 a Chabazite 1.530- 1.547 w Nepheline
.!l 1. 48-1. 61 n Volca nic glass 1. 531 a Chalcedony
~ 1.480-1.490 7 Chabaz ite 1.532- 1.545 a Oligoclase
.d
Barite (001)(110)P Diaspore (010)(210)P 1. 483-1.487 n Sodalite 1.532-1.552 Cordierite
S
:a'" Axinite (001)(130)(01O)D Ext. parall el or sym . Ext. parallel or s ym.
1. 484 Cristobalitc
a
£ Iddingsite (lOO)(OIO)(OOI)D
a 1.533 7 Palygorskite
Inclined Ext. Lawsonite (OlO)1'(llO)D
=
';;j
.d Jl Corund um (1011) (pa rtin g) I<ya nite (110) (010)P(001) Ext. parallel 1 . 485-1 . 493 7 Natroli te 1.535- 1.570 a Hydromuscovite
f pariing; Inclined ext. 1.486 f Calcite 1.536- 1.541 7 Albite
"" ""~'"
0 1 .487 n Analcime 1.538- 1.545 a Talc
1.487 7 Cristobalite 1.539 7 Chalcedony
1 . 490- 1.506 a Sepiolitc 1 . 539- 1.570 l' Cordierite
Ex-
treme Periclase (100)P(isotropic) Rutile (100)(1l0) D 1 . 492 a Montmorillonite 1. 540- 1. 571 f Sca polite
relief Perovskite (100)1'(isotropic) Ext. p a r a llel or sym . 1 . 493--1 . 546 a Chrysotile 1.541- 1.552 Oligoclase
7
1 . 494-1 . 500 a Stilbite 1.541-1.579 a Biotite
1. 496-1. 499 a Heulandite 1.544 n Halite
1. 496- 1. 500 f Cancrinite 1.5442 w Quartz
1. 496-1. 510 n Haiiyne 1 .545- 1 .555 a Andesine
Three directio ns (rhombohedral carbonates) 1. 500- 1. 508 Stilbite 1.548 Polyhalite
7 a
1. 500- 1. 526 f Dolomitc 1.549- 1.561 n H a lloysite
Calcite All minerals in this group exhibit the followin g : Variation in relief 1.50-1.57 n Antigorite (Serpophitc) 1.550- 1.607 w Scapolite
Dolomite with direction moderate to high. Very hig h double refraction. 1. 501- 1. 505 l' Heulandite 1. 551- 1. 562 a Phlogopite
Magnesite 0.172 (ca lcite)- 0.234 (siderite). Usually twinned . Uniaxial nega- 1.505 a Mesolite 1.552 a Pyrophyllitc
Siderite tive. Cleavage rhombohedral.
1. 505-1. 526 l' Sepiolite 1. 552- 1. 562 l' Andesine
1.506 7 Mesolite 1.5533 f Quartz
Specia l cases 1.507-1.524 w Cancrinite 1.554- 1.567 a Gibbsitc
1.508 a Leucite 1. 555- 1. 563 a Labradori tc
0 Fluorite (111) octahedral 1.509 7 Leucite 1.555- 1 . 564 a Antigorite
's, n < balsam Gypsu m (OIO)1'(lOO)D(lll)D
0
n > balsam l. 509- 1 .527 f M agnesite l. 556- 1. 570 a M uscovitc
!: Spinel (Ill) octah edral parting
l.510 a Palygorskite 1 . 560 Lepidolitc
~ Sphale rite (110)1' dod ecahedral cleavage a
1 . 512 a Scolecite 1.560 a Dicki te
-0-
's, a
~
1. 512- 1. 530 a Thomsonite J .561 a K a olinit e
0
!l -i.d N epheline (IOIO) D
l. 513 l' Montmorillon itc 1. 562- 1 .571 l' Labrador ite
0
Relief low
l . 517- 1.520 a Sanid inc 1.562- 1.573 Ant igor ite
'a
-< ""
(hexagonal)
---- 1 . 517- 1 . 557 7 Chrysot il c 1.56 :~ - 1 . 571
7
Ci Bytow lli te
1. 5 18 Ci Orthoc lase I . 5r.'1- 1 . 5!)0 < Urryl
1. 518 1.;;22 C< Mil"rol'ii ll l' I . ;;G;; l . tiO;; 7 I I yd r"""I R<" .vito
1. 5 18 1.!i4:.! l' 'i'illlll' HOIl il l' 1. 5(;(; w Ill'lll'il,'
I . fil\l 7 N.. "I. ,,·il. , 1. ;;I;(i 7 I)i('lcit (.
1. 6:.!0 C:YPHIlIl. I fi lili 1(llolilliLo
1. 1i:.!:.! I liau
" IIllort lI odllH'" I fi tl7
'Y
1'1l1 'y il alil,' l
1. 1I:.!'1 1, II1!II "
')' 1-\1l,llidi11 11 1 I)UR 1 (,H/{
')
I" 111l1,,)d
164 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 165
TABLE 10-5. INDICES OF REFRACTION (Continued) TABLE 10-5. INDICES OF REFRACTION (Concluded)
-
Index Mineral Index Mineral Index i\Iinera l Index Mineral

1.570 ex Anhydrite 1. 628- 1. 658 E Schorlite (Tourmaline) 1. 680- 1. 745 ex Aeg irin e-augite 1 .736- 1. 763 1 n Grossul arite
1.57- 1.61 n Cliachite 1.629- 1.640 ex Andalusite 1. 681- 1. 727 I' Diopside 1.738- 1.760 n Periclase
1.57-1. 62 n Collophane 1 630- 1. 651 E Apa tite 1.683- 1.731 I' Hypersthe ne 1. 741- 1. 760 n Pyrope
1.571-1.575 ex Anorthite 1. 631 I' Celestite 1.684 I' Lawsonite 1.745- 1 .758 ex Piedmontite
1. 571-1. 582 I' Bytownite 1. 632- 1. 634 w Melilite : .686 I' Aragonite 1. 745- 1777 ex Aegirine
1. 571-1. 588 ex Clinochlore 1. 632- 1. 655 w Dravite (Tourmaline) 1. 686- 1. 692 I' Dumol'tierite 1 . 746- 1.762 I' Staurolite
1.572 w Alunite 1 . 633- 1.655 w Apa t ite 1 . 688- 1.696 I' Ax ini te 1 . 750 I' Diaspore
1. 574-1. 638 I' Biotite 1.633- 1 .701 I' Hornblende 1. 688- 1. 712 ex Augite 1. 751- 1. 757 I' H edenb ergite
1.575-1.582 ex P ennine 1.634 I' Wollastonite 1. 689- 1. 718 I' Olivine l. 759- 1. 763 E Corundum
1.575-1.590 I' Talc 1 635 n Chamosite 1.693 ex Riebeckite 1. 767-1772 w Corundum
1.576-1.583 I' Pennine 1. 635- 1. 640 ex Forsterite 1.693-1.760 I' La mpl'obolite 1.778- 1.815 n Almandite
1.576-1.589 I' Gibbsite 1. 635- 1. 655 w E lbaite (Tourmaline) 1696- 1. 700 Cl Zoisite 1 .782- 1. 836 I' Aegirine
1. 576-1. 597 I' Clinochlore 1 .636 ex Barite 1.697 I' Riebeckite 1.786- 1800 Cl Monazite
1. 582-1. 588 I' Anorthite 1. 639- 1. 642 I' Lazulite 1. 699- 1. 717 I' Gl'unerite 1.792- 1 . 820 n Spessartite
1.585 E Brucite 1. 639-1. 647 I' Andalusite 1 .700- 1.726 w Magnesite 1. 805- 1. 835 Cl Fayalite
1. 588-1. 658 ex Prochlorite 1. 639- 1. 657 ex Cummingtonite 1. 700- 1. 745 I' Stilpnomelane 1. 806- 1. 832 I' Piedmontite
1. 590-1. 612 ex Glauconite 1. 639- 1. 668 I' Glaucophane 1.701- 1.726 E Idocrase 1 . 820 w J a rosite

1.592 E Alunite 1 64- 1. 77 ex Alla nite 1.702 Cl Diaspore 1.830-1.875 w Siderite

1. 592-1. 643 ex Chondrodite 1. 641-1. 651 ex Monticellite 1. 702- 1. 718 I' Zoisite 1837- 1.849 I' Monazite
1. 593-1. 611 I' Muscovite 1.642 ex Mullite 1.705-1.732 w Idocrase 1. 838- 1. 870 n Uvarovite
1. 596-1. 633 E Siderite 1. 645- 1. 665 I' Prehnite 1 .709-1.782 I' Aegirin e-augite 1.847- 1. 886 I' Fayalite
1. 598-1. 606 I' Phlogopite 1.648 I' Barite 1. 710-1. 723 Cl Clino zoisite 1.857- 1.887 n Andradite
1. 598-1. 652 a Anthophyllite 1 650- 1. 665 ex Enstatite 1. 712 Cl Ky anite 1.887- 1.913 Cl Sphene
1.599-1.667 I' Prochlorite 1 650- 1.698 ex Diopside 1. 713-1. 737 I' Augite 1.925- 1.931 w Zircon
1.600 Pyrophyllite 1.651- 1.668 ex Spodumene 1.715 E J arosite 1.979- 2.054 'Y Sphene
I'
1. 600-1. 628 ex Nephrite 1.651- 1681 ex Olivine 1.715-1.724 Cl Chloritoid 1.985- 1.993 E Zircon
1. 600-1. 628 ex Tremolite-a ctinolite 1.652-1.698 w Schorlite (Tourmaline3 1.718- 1.768 I' Iddingsite 1 . 996 w Cassiterite
1. 603-1. 604 ex Lazulite 1.654 I' Mullite 1. 719-1. 734 I' Clinozoisite 2.00- 2.10 n Limonite
1.605 I' Lepidolite 1. 655- 1. 666 ex J adeite 1. 719- 1. 744 I' Pigeonite 207- 2.16 n Chromite
1.607-1.629 ex Topaz 1 655- 1. 669 I' Monticellite 1. 72- 1. 78 n Spinel 2.093 E Cassiterite
1. 610-1. 644 I' Glauconite 1.657- 1.661 ex Sillim anit e 1.720- 1.734 Cl Epidote 234- 2.38 n Perovskit.f'
1. 612- 1. 634 ex Stilpnomela ne 1 657- 1 663 ex Grunerite 1.728 I' Kyanite 2.37- 2.47 n Sphalerite
1.613-1.628 E Dravite (Tou rm aline) 1.658 w Calcite 1 .731- 1.737 I' Chlori toid 2 . 603- 2.616 w Rutile
1.614 I' Anhydrite 1. 658- 1. 674 I' Enstatite 1.732- 1 .739 Cl H edcnbergite 2 .889- 2 . 903 E Ru t ile
1.614-1.675 ex Hornblende 1.659- 1678 ex Dumortierite 1 .734- 1.779 l' Epidote 2.94 E H em at ite
1.615- 1.629 E Elbaite (Tourmaline) 1 66- 1. 80 I' Allanite 1. 736- 1. 747 Cl Staurolite 3.22 w Hematite

1.615-1.635 ex Prehnite 1. 664- 1. 686 I' Cummingtonite ----- - ----

1.617-1.638 I' Topaz 1 665 ex Lawsonite
1. 619-1. 626 E Dahllite 1. 667-1. 688 I' J adeite
1.620 ex Woll astonite 1. 670- 1. 680 I' Forsterite
1.621-1.655 ex Glaucophane 1 670- 1.692 ex La mprobolitf'
1.621-1.670 I' Chondrodite 1.673- 1.715 ex Hypersthene
1.622 ex Celestite 1. 674- 1. 730 ex Iddingsite
1.623- 1.635 w D ahllite 1 677- 1.681 I' Spod um ene
1. 623- 1. 676 I' Anthoph yllite 1. 677- 1 . 68L~ I' Si llim a nite
1 625- 1 . 655 I' Nephri te 1. 678- 1. 68·1 ex Axinil c
1 . 625- 1 . 655 I' Tremol iLe-aeLinol iLe 1. 680 - 1. 7 1(; w Dolomit e
1. 626- 1 . 629 E MeliliLe 1. 08U 1. 7 18 lX l'i~eo "iLo
 MINERAL OPTICS
SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 167
166
TABLE 10-7. BIREFRINGENCE
TABLE 10-6. ISOTROPIC MINERALS
-
Mineral Index
Birefringence I Mineral Birefringen ce Mineral
R elief . _.
0 .00 - 0.002 Analcim e (possibly) 0 .009 Quartz
Opal 1.40 - 1.46
0 .00 - 0.002 P erovskit e 0 .009- 0.010 Topa z
Fluorite 1 .434
0.00 - 0.003 Antigori te (Serpophite) 0009- 0.011 Albite
Moderate Lechatelierite 1 .458- 1.462
0.00 - 0.004 Haiiyne (occas.) 0 .010- 0 .012 Axinite
relief Sodalite 1. 483- 1. 487
0.001 Leucite 0010- 0.015 Sta urolite
Analcime 1 .487
0.001 Mesolite 0 .010- 0 .016 Hypersthene
H a iiyne 1.496- 1.510
0.001 H alloysite 0.01- 0.03 Alla nite
0.001- 0 .004 P ennine 0 .010- 0.036 Sca polite
B alsam = 1 .537 0.001- 0 .011 Prochlorite 0 .011- 0 .013 Anorthite
0.002- 0.010 Chabaz ite 0 .011- 0 .014 Chrysotile
Halite 1.544
0 .003 Cristob alite 0.011- 0.020 Dumortierite
Low H alloysite 1 .549- 1.561
0 .003- 0.004 Apatite 0012 B arite
relief Antigorite (Serpophite) 1.50 - 1.57
0.003- 0 .004 N epheline 0 .012 Mullite
Cliachite 1.57 - 1.61
0.004 Tridymite 0.012- 0013 Natrolite
Collophane 1 .57 - 1.62
0.004 Riebeckite 0.012- 0 .023 J adeite
0 .004- 0.006 Idocrase 0 .013- 0.016 Chloritoid
P erielase 1 .738- 1.760
0 .004--:0 .008 Beryl 0 .013- 0 .018 Glaucophane
Grossularite 1 736- 1. 763
0.004- 0.009 D ahllite 0 .013- 0.027 Spodum ene
Pyrope 1. 741- 1.760
Moderate 0.004- 0.011 Clinochlore 0.014 Wollastonite
Almandite Garnet grou p 1. 778- 1. 815
to strong 0 .005 Collophane 0 .014- 0.018 Monticellite
Spessart ite 1 .792- 1.820
relief 0.005 K aolinite 0014- 0 .045 Epidote
Uvarovite 1.838- 1870
Andradite
1 1.857- 1.887
0.005- 0 .006 Melilite 0.015- 0.020 Sepiolite
0.005- 0.007 Anortho clase 0.015- 0.023 E lbaite (Tourmaline)
0.005- 0 .011 Clinozoisite 0.016 Kyanite
Limonite 2 .00 - 2 . 10
0 .006 Dickite 0 .016- 0.025 Anthophyllite
Very Spinel 1.72 - 1.78
0.006- 0.008 Stilbite 0 .018- 0 .019 H edenb ergite
high Chromite 2.07 - 2 . 16
0.006- 0 .012 Thomsonite 0.019 Brucite
relief Perovskite 2.34 - 2.38
0 .006- 0.018 Zoisite 0.019 L awsonite
Sphalerite 2 .37 - 2.47
0 . 007 Sanidine 0.019 Polyhalite
0.007 H euland ite 0.019- 0.025 Dravite (Tourm aline)
Vol canic glass (mineraloid) 1.48 - 1. 61
0.007 And esine 0.019- 0 .026 Hornblende
P alagonite (mineraloid) 1.47 - 1.63
0.007 Scolecite 0.020 Alunite
0 .007 Micro cline 0 .020- 0.023 Sillim a nite
0 .007- 0.008 Chamosite 0 .020- 0.032 Glauconite
0.007- 0 .008 Labradorite 0.020- 0.033 Prehnite
0.007- 0.009 Antigorite 0.021 Montmorillonite
0 .007- 0 .009 Oligoclase 0 .021- 0 .025 Augite
0 .007- 0 . 011 And alusite 0 .021- 0.033 Pigeonite
0 .007- 0.011 Cordierite 0 .022 Gibbsite
0 .007- 0 .028 Ca ncrillite 0 .022- 0 .027 N ephrite
0 .008 Chalcedony 0 .022- 0 .027 Tremoli Le-act. inol it,e
0 .008 Ort ho clase 0 .022- 0 .040 Schorlitc (Tollrm aline)
0 .008- 0 .000 Corundum 0.023 P iL ly gor~ kit,c
0 .008- 0 .009 Enstati te 0 .025- 0 .02U OumIII in gt.ollit,(·
0 .008- 0 .011 Bytownite 0 .026- 0 .072 Lft mprobolitn
0 .009 Celes tite 0 .027- 0 .035 Choudrodito
0 .009 Gypsum 0 .029- 0 .0:n Diopaido
168 MINERAL OP TICS

TABLE 10-7. BIRE FHINGENCE (Concluded)

-
Birefrin gence Mineral Birefringence M ineral '"
."!E FERENCE COLOR CHART
:='u
0_
"'0 : FOR
"' c
::;:<1 .COMMON MINERALS
0 .029- 0 .037 Aegirine-augite 0 .045 Lepidolite
0 .030- 0.035 H ydrom usco vite 0 .048 Diaspo re
(/)

-l '"
0 .030- 0 .050 T alc <I ~
0 .048 Pyrophyllite 0: ~
0 .030-0 . 119 Stil pnomelane 0 .049- 0.051 Monazite W
Z
0
~
0.033- 0.059 Biotite 0 .060- 0 .062 Zircon -
::;;: Cl.

0.035- 0 .040 F orsterite 0 .061- 0.082 P iedmontite 2!

"U;(l,)
.~
0 .036- 0 .038 L azulite 0 .092- 0 . 141 Sphene >.;:
Ou
'"
.~ 8>
:==>
0 .037- 0.041 Olivine 0.097 Cassiterite 0", ~ ~
I-l o ::;:
0 .037- 0 .041 M uscovite 0 . 105 J arosit e ~

0 .037- 0 .059 Aegirine 0 .156 Aragon ite

0.038- 0 .044 I ddingsite 0 .172 Calcite MINERALS
0.042- 0 .05 1 F ayalite 0 . 180-0 .190 D olomite
0.042- 0 .054 Grunerite 0 . 191- 0. 199 Mag nesite
0 .044 Anhyd rite 0 .234- 0 .242 Siderite Iddingsite
Anhydrite
0 .044- 0 .047 Phlogopite 0 .286- 0 .287 Rutile { PhloQopite
Lepidolite
- 0.05
Monozite
Pyrophyllite Diaspore
Aegirine
Talc
(/)
0:
W
f-
w
::;;:
-l
-l
::;;: Piedmontite
{ Zircon
Z

Z Gibbsite
0 Basaltic hornblende
i=
~ 0.0 3
(f)

z
:r:
f-
ll.. Cassiterite
0 Jarosite
(/) . Sphene (Titanite)
~ 0.0 2 Aroganite
z
""
u
Calcite
:r:
f-
Dolomite
Magnesite
0.01
Siderite
Rutile

a
Hill 2. 100 ?,?OO
 THICKNESS OF THIN SECTION I N MILLIMETER S
9 9 0 P 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 N 0J .l'> U1 (J)

MINERALS
{H OIl OYSite Mesolite
Leucite Perovskite Ana lcime

Cristobalite Collophane
{Riebeckite Tridymite .
Nepheline Idocrase (Vesuvianitel
Apatite Chabazite
Kaolinite Sonidine
{ Dick ite Beryl
Anorthoclase
Stilbi te Melilite
{ Andesine Scolecite
Orthoclase
Heulandite Dahllite
{ Microclin e Clinozoisite
Chalcedony Oligoclase
Corundum Laomdorite
{ Quartz Chlorite
Gypsu m Cordierite
Celestite Topaz
{ Bytownite Enstat ite
Hypersthene Axinite Albite
{ Antigorite Andalusite
Chloritoid
c adeite Zoisite
Barite Mullite Anorthite
Stauro lite Natrolite
Chrysotile Boehmite Thomsonite

Wollastonite
Sepiolite
Kyanite

Hedenbergite Glaucophane

{ Lawsonite Po ly hol ite

Bruci te
Alunite

Montmorillonite Sillimanite

Hornblende Anthophyllite
Palygorskite
{ Allanite Scapalite
Augite
Tremolite Glouconite

Diapside

Aeg irine-augite

Chondrod ite
Stilpnomelane
Prehnite

Epidote
Z
Biatite -I
ITI
:0
C')
0 ITI
"
;;: :0
;;: ITI
0 :z
Olivine z...., C>
;;: 0 ITI
Muscovite _::t!
z C>
fTI 0
::t! r
» 0
r :0
(I)
(")
:::c
l>
:0
-I
(J)c...(")
---. ---.
::0 (f) ;;: 0 0 1> wc> NlJ <1 l>-u;;:rlJl>Ci:
0 0 -, "000 , 'co' _ct)'<o('t) ::t":::lQ.
a go:
~ .0 0 00. (') '9.0 :J ~.o~ 5' ;;:
...a:
-, g; ~ ~g;. e.g- 03
iD o :J_.c;;- ~:g· 2~a.1O
~ CD ::s C'D
~. =+' "0 z
eD , 0 ... (TO
...- ...." ~. co ~. ~ ;: ~ :! ~~~~.~.~.
~ ::t!
~ ... »
a 0 r
cr
" (I)
~ ii) o·
... ...a."
..
"0
0
...-,
SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 169
TABLE 10-8. U N I AX I AL ~ [ INEHALS
I
Mineral n, nw Sign Birefringence

Calcite 1.486 1 658 - 0.172

Cancrinite 1 .496- 1 .500 1. 507- 1. 524 - 0 .007- 0.028
Dolomite 1 .500- 1.526 1. 680- 1. 716 - 0 .180- 0.190
Magnesite 1 .509- 1.527 1.700- 1 .726 - 0 . 191- 0.199
Nepheline 1. 527- 1. 543 1..530- 1547 - 0 .003- 0 .004
Scapolite 1.540- 1.571 1.550- 1.607 - 0 .010- 0 .036
Beryl 1 . 564- 1 . 590 1.568- 1 .598 - 0 .004- 0 .008
Siderite 1 . 596- 1 .633 1. 830- 1. 875 - 0 .234- 0 .242
Stilpnomelane 1 612- 1.634 1. 700- 1. 745 - 0 .030- 0 . 119
Dravite (Tourmaline) 1. 613- 1. 628 1. 632- 1. 655 - 0 .019- 0 .025
E lbaite (Tourm aline) 1.615- 1.629 1. 635- 1. 655 - 0.015- 0 .023
D ahllite 1 .619- 1.626 1. 623- 1. 635 - 0 .004- 0 .009
Melilite 1 . 626- 1.629 1. 632- 1. 634 - 0 .005- 0 .006
Schorlite (Tourmaline) 1. 628- 1. 658 1. 652- 1. 698 - 0.022- 0 .040
Apatite 1.630- 1.651 1. 633- 1. 655 - 0 .003- 0.004
Idocrase 1. 701- 1. 726 1. 705- 1 .732 - 0 .004- 0.006
J arosite 1. 715 1.820 - 0 . 105
Corundum 1.759- 1.763 1. 767- 1. 772 - 0 .008- 0 .009
H ematite 2.94 3.22 -

Mineral nw n, Sign Birefringence

Quartz 1.5442 1.5533 + 0 .009

Brucite 1 .566 1.585 + 0 .019
Alunite 1.572 1.592 + 0.020
Zircon 1.925- 1.931 1. 985- 1. 993 + 0.060- 0.062
Cassiterite 1.996 2.093 + 0.097
Rutile
I
2.603- 2.616 2 . 889- 2.903 + 0.286- 0.287
--
170
MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 171
TABLE 10-9. BIAXIAL POSITIVE MINERALS TABLE 10-10. BIAXIAL N E GATIVE MINERALS

na n{3 n~ Biref ringence Mineral na n {3 n~ Birefringen ce

Mineral

Tridymite. . .. .. .. . . 1.469 1 . 469 1 .473 0 . 004 Sepiolite. 1 .490- 1 506 1 . 505- 1 526 0 .015- 0.020
1 . 473- 1 . 480 1. 476- 1. 482 1 . 485- 1 . 493 0 .012- 0.013 Montmorillonite. 1 .492 1. 513 1 .513 0 .021
Natrolite ..
1. 478- 1. 485 1. 480- 1. 490 0 .002- 0 .010 Stilbite . 1. 494- 1 500 1 498- 1 . 504 1. 500- 1. 508 0 . 006- 0.00&
Chabazite ..
1 .493- 1.546 1 . 504- 1 . 550 1 . 517- 1 . 557 0.011- 0 .014 Scolecite. 1512 1. 519 1. 519 0.007
Chrysotile .
1 .496- 1 . 499 1. 497- 1. 501 1.501- 1.505 0 . 007 Sanidine .. . 1.517- 1.520 1 . 523- 1 525 1. 524-1. 526 0.007
Heula ndite .
Mesolite .. 1 . 505 1 . 505 1 . 506 0 .001 Ort hoclase. 1. 518 1 . 524 1 . 526 0 .008
1512- 1. 530 1.513- 1.532 1 . 518- 1 . 542 0 .006- 0 . 012 Microcline. 1 .518- 1 522 1 . 522- 1 . 526 1 . 525- 1.530 0 .007
Thomsonite . .
Gypsum . . 1.520 1 . 522 1 . 529 0.009 Anorthoclase . 1. 522- 1536 1526- 1.539 1.527- 1.541 0 .005- 0 .007
Albite ... . ..... . . . 1. 525- 1. 532 1. 529- 1. 536 1. 536- 1. 541 0 .009- 0.011 Aragonite. 1 .530 1 . 682 1.686 0.156
1 . 532- 1 .545 1. 536- 1. 548 1 . 541- 1 . 552 0 .007- 0.009 Oligoclase .. 1 . 532- 1. 545 1. 536- 1. 548 1.541- 1.552 0 .007- 0 .001)
Oligoclase ...
Cordierite . . . . .. . .. . 1.532- 1.552 1. 536- 1. 562 1.539- 1 . 570 0.007- 0.011 Cordieri te. 1 . 532- 1 .552 1. 536- 1. 562 1. 539- 1. 570 0 . 007- 0 .011
1. 545- 1. 555 1. 548- 1. 558 1. 552- 1. 562 0 . 007 Hydromuscovi te. 1.535- 1570 1565- 1. 605 o . 030- 0 . O ~~.')
Andesine . . . .
1.554- 1.567 1 . 554-1 . 567 1. 576- 1. 589 0 .022 T alc . . 1. 538- 1. 545 1 575- 1590 1.575-1.590 0.030- 0 . 050
Gibbsite .. . . .
1. 555- 1. 563 1. 558- 1. 567 1 . 562- 1 . 571 0.007- 0 . 008 Biot ite. . . .. . . . . 1.541- 1.579 1 574- 1. 638 1. 574-1. 638 0 .033- 0 .051)
Labradorite.
1 . 560 1.562 1 . 566 0 .006 Andesine. . ...... . . 1 . 545- 1 . 555 1.548- 1.558 1 . 552- 1.562 0.007
Dickite ...
Anhydrite ....... . . . . 1 . 570 1 . 576 1.614 0 .044 Poly halite. 1 . 548 1 . 562 1.567 0 . 019
1. 571- 1. 588 1. 571- 1. 588 1.576- 1.597 0 . 004- 0 .011 Phlogopite .. .. .... . . . 1. 551- 1. 562 1. 598- 1. 606 1. 598- 1. 606 0 . 044- 0 .047
Clinochlore .
1. 575- 1. 582 1. 576- 1. 582 1 . 576- 1.583 0.001-0 . 004 Pyrophyllite. 1.552 1 . 588 1 . 600 0.048
Pennine . . .. . .
1. 588- 1 . 658 1 . 589- 1 . 667 1.599- 1. 667 0 .001-0 .011 Ant igorite. 1.555- 1.564 1 . 562-1 . 573 1. 562- l. 573 0 . 007- 0 .00\)
Prochlorite .. ... .
1. 592- 1 . 643 1. 602- 1. 655 1 . 621- 1 . 670 0 .027- 0 .035 Muscovite .. .. . . . . . . . 1.556- 1.570 1.587- 1.607 1 . 593-1 . 611 0037- 00,11
Chondrodite ..
1.598- 1 . 652 1. 615- 1. 662 1.623-1.676 0 .016-0 .025 Lepidolite .. 1.560 1 .598 1 . 605 0 .045
Anthophyllite.
1 . 607- 1 . 629 1. 610- 1. 631 1 . 617- 1 .6380 . 009- 0 .010 K aolinite ... 1. 561 1.565 1 . 566 0 . 005
Topaz ..
1. 615- 1. 635 1. 624-1. 642 1 . 645- 1 665 0 . 020- 0 . 033 Bytownite . 1.563-1 . 571 1 . 567- 1 577 1.571- 1 . 582 0008- 0011
Prehnite.
Celestite. 1.622 1 . 624 1 . 631 0.009 Anorthite . 1.571- 1.575 1. 577- 1.')83 1. 582- l. 588 0 .011- 0 .01 :\
1.635- 1 . 640 1. 651- 1. 660 1.670- 1.680 0.035-0 .040 Pennin e . 1. 575- 1. 582 1. 576- 1. 582 1.576- 1.583 0 .001 0 .001\
Forst erite
Barite ... . . . 1 . 636 1 . 637 1.648 0 .012 Glauconite. 1 .590- 1 . 612 1. 609- 1. 643 1. 610- 1. 644 o.020- 0. O : \ ~
Cummingtonite .. 1. 639- 1. 657 1. 645- 1. 669 1 . 664-1 . 686 0 .025- 0.029 Tremolite-actinolite. 1. 600- 1. 628 1 . 613- 1 . 644 1 . 625- 1 . 655 0 .022- 0 .027
1 . 642 1 . 644 1.654 0.012 Nephrite. 1 .600- 1 . 628 1. 613- 1. 644 1. 625- 1. 655 0 . 022- 0 .02
Mullite ..
Enstatite . . . . 1. 650- 1. 665 1. 653- 1. 670 1 . 658- 1 . 674 0.008- 0.009 La zulite . .. 1603- 1. 604 1. 632- 1. 633 1. 639- 1. 642 o.O:'\G- O. 0:\8
1. 650- 1. 698 1.657- 1706 1 . 681- 1 .727 0 .029- 0 .031 Hornblende. 1 . 61 4- 1 . 675 1. 618- 1. 691 1.633- 1.701 O.Ol\)- O.O:,W
Diopside . . .
1. 651- 1. 668 1. 665- 1. 675 1.677- 1.681 0.013- 0 .027 Wollastonite. 1 . 620 1 . 632 1 . 634 0 . 01 4
Spodumene .
1. 651- 1. 681 1.670- 1.706 1.689- 1.718 0.037- 0.041 Cha mosite ..... . .... . 1 . 635 0.007- 0 . 00il
Olivine . . .
1 . 655- 1 . 666 1 . 659- 1 . 674 1. 667- 1. 688 0 .012- 0.023 Gla ucophane. 1 621- 1 655 1. 638-1. 664 1. 639- 1. 668 0.013- 0 . 01 8
Jadeite . . . '
1.657- 1.661 1 . 658- 1 . 670 1.677- 1.684 0 .020- 0 . 023 And alusite ...... .... . 1 629- 1 640 1. 633- 1. 644 1.639- 1.647 0 .007- 0 . 0 11
Sillimanite ..
Lawsonite . .. 1 . 665 1674 1 .684 0.019 Alla nite. 1 640- 1 770 1 . 650- 1 . 770 1.660- 1 800 0 . 010- 0 .0:30
1.674- 1.730 1715- 1. 763 1.718- 1768 0 .038- 0.044 Monticellite. 1 641- 1 . 651 1 . 646- 1 . 662 1 . 655- 1 . 66g 0 .014- 0 .01 8
Iddingsite .
Aegirine-augite .. 1. 680- 1. 745 1.687- 1770 1 .709- 1 .782 0 .029- 0 .037 Olivine. . ..... . . . 1 651- 1. 681 1. 670- 1. 706 1. 689- l. 718 0 .0:17- 0 . 011
Pigeonite. 1 . 680- 1 . 718 1.698- 1 .725 1 .719- 1.744 0 .021- 0 .033 Grunerite. 1 657- 1663 1 . 684- 1.6g7 1. 699- 1717 o.0 /12- 0 . 0.') /1
1. 688- 1. 712 1. 701- 1. 717 1 . 713-1.737 0.021- 0.025 Dumort ierite. 1 659- 1.678 1. 684- 1. 6g 1 1. 686- 1. 692 O.OII - O. O:'W
Augite .. . .
1. 696- 1. 700 1.696-1703 1 .702- 1.718 0 . 006- 0 .018 La m probc!ite. 1 670- 1.692 1. 683- 1. 730 1 . 6g3- 1 .760 O.02G- 0 . O
Zoisite . . . .
Diaspore . 1 .702 1.722 1 .750 0.048 H y persthene. 1.673- 1.715 1 . 678- 1 . 728 1. 683- 1. 7:31 0 . 010 0 . 01( \
Clinozoisite . 1.710- 1.723 1.715- 1.729 1719- 1734 0 .005- 0 .011 Idclingsite .. 1. 674-1730 1. 715- 1. 763 1 . 71 8- 1 . 768 o.0:38 () . 0 /1/1
1 .715- 1 .724 1. 719- 1. 726 1.731- 1 .737 0.013- 0 .016 Axinite .. 1.678-1.684 1. 685- 1. 6g2 1 . 688- 1 . 6gG 0 . 010 O . OI ~
Chloritoid . .
Hedenbergite .. 1.732- 1.739 1737- 1. 745 1 .751- 1 .757 0 .018- 0 .019 Riebecki te . 1 . 6g3 1 695 l . liD 0 .00'1
1. 736- 1. 747 1. 741- 1. 754 1.746- 1 . 762 0 .010- 0 .015 K yanite. 1. 712 .720 1. 728 0 .01(;
Staurolite .
Piedmontite . . . . . .. . . . 1. 745- 1. 758 1764- 1. 789 1.806- 1.832 0 .061- 0082 Epido te . J . 720- 1 . 7:{/t . 72·1 I . 7 li:\ l . n ·1 1.77 \) n . UI /I O. Otll)
1. 786- 1. 800 1.788- 1.801 1 .837- 1 .849 0 .049- 0 .051 A<'I-( irill c . 1.71\5- ] .77 1. 770 1.82:\ I . 7i12 I . iI:1ti O. fl:I 7 0 Ofill
Monazite ..
Sphene . . .. ..... .. . . . 1.887- 1.913 1.894- 1 . 921 1 .979- 2 .05 4 I 0 . 0~2 -0.1 4 1 F aYlI.lit (' .. I . XO.') I . X:\.') I . X:IX I . X I . R'17 I . RX(i () . ()I ~ OOfi l
______________~---------~--------~I- ! "---
 0 lD 0 t.D 0 <:;;t 0)
"" co co '" o <t co '" lD
'" lD "" co
...r: '" '" lD 0
q o '" lD o " lD
MI NERAL ~ rt; ..:: ~ I,() '" lD
"W <0
~ '~
" r--: ~ ~ co (j) (j)
N 0
. N N '". '"N N'" '"N '"N N"" <t
N "N '"N N'"
Opal
Fluori te
Lecha telierite
Pa laganite
Volcanic Glass
Sodoli te
Anolcime
Houy ne
Ser pophi te
Le uc ite
Ha lit e
Holloysite
.....
~
Cliochite
to Co llopha ne
Spi nel
Peri close
Grossulori te
~ Pyrope
~ Almand ite

1
Andradite
Limonite
Ch romit e
Perovsk ite
Sp hale rite

CHART A. Range of Refractive Indices-Isotropic Minerals.

g, a:>OruVIOCO
~~U""?~~~~t!:!
ON v W co 0 N V 1.0 0) 0 N V W co 0 N V W OJ
o N 0 000 o 0
MINERA L en ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o 0 ~ c.o co 0
Concrinite N N N N N r..-i
'"
rri <t
~
Colcite
Oolom ite
"'oqnesite
I';ephel ine
Sc-cpolite
Q_artl +
3uy l
Bruci te +
t. !u nite +
Sider it e
Stil pnom elone
:S Drav it e (Tou rma line)
Elbo ite (Tou rmal ine)
Dohll it e
Melili te
Schorl ite (Tourmaline)
Apat ite
idocros e
Ja rosite
Corundu m
Zircon +
Cossiterite +
Rutil e +
Hematite

CHART B. Range of Refractive Indices-Anisotropic Uniaxial Minerals.

 MINERAL OPTICS
SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION 175
174
g. ...'" a ... a N ...w W
'"w a~ N
e
en
N V W 00 0 N v W 00 0 N V W 00 a
5 w
a
'" '" '" '" '"'"
N W
w w ~
MINERAL Vi ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
MINERAL Vi
'" Hornblende
N

~
Tridymite Prehnite +
, Natralite Wollastonite
Chabazite

lt~~~~;;,, lilllBllllllllllllllllllllll1
Cristobalite
Sepiolite
Montmorillonite
Chrysotile
Stilbite
Heulandite
Mesolite
Scolecite
Thomsonite
Sanidine
Orthaclase
Micro cline
I Mulli te
Ensta t ite
Diopside
Spodumene
Oliv ine
Jadeite
+
'+
'+
'+
±
~
Gypsum Sillimanite
Anorthoclase +
Albite Dumartierite
Aragonite Grunerlte
Cholcedony Lawson ite +
Oligoclase Lamprobolite
Cordierite Hypersthene
Hydromuscovite Iddingsite
Talc Axinite
Biotite Aeoirini
Andesine 1+ Pigeonite I±
Polyholite Augite 1+
Phlogopite Riebecki te
Pyrophyllite Zoislte +
Gibbsite Diaspore '+
Labrodorite
Ant igorite
ft Clinozoisite
Kyan ite
'+
Muscovite Chloritoid +
Lepidolite 1+ Epidote
Dickite Allanite
Kaolinite Hedenberg ite 1+
Bytownite Staurolite +
Anhydrite 1+ Piedmontite +
Anorthite Aegirine
Clinochlore Monazite +
Pennine Fayalite
Sphene l±

~
Prochlorite
Glauconite
Chondrodite C HART D. Range of Refractive Indices- Anisotropic Biaxial Minerals.
Anthophyllite
Tremolite-actinolite
Nephrite
Lazulite
Topoz 1+
Chamosite
CHAnT C , Range of Refractive Indices-Anisotropic Biaxial Minerals.
176 MINERAL OPTICS SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION
117
Axial angle (2V)
MINERAL o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
MINERAL o
Phlagapi te
Son idine Proch lo rite
Biotite Ch obozite
Gibbsite
Talc
Pigeon ite
Montmorilloni te
Glauconite Heu landite
Chry sotile
Aragonite
Ant igari te
• Clin ochlore
Monozite
Dum ortierite Mullite
Muscovite Sillimanite
Stilbite
Sca leci te
• Sphene
Zoisite
Wollastonite Tridymite
Lepidolite Borite
Sepioli t e Chlor i to id
Glaucophone
Anhydrite
An orthoclase
Thom sonite
Foyol ite Topaz
Hornblende
Celestite
Py rophyll ite Dick ite
Aegirine Spodumene
Hyper sthene Piedmontite
Lomprob ol ite Gypsum

II/II W
I til
Lazulite

~:1.';g:,O;"
Epidote

jj~~;:~;: 1/
Orthoclo se
Polyhalite
Axini te
Monticellite
Anorthite
Microcli ne
Bytown ite Jodelte
) ; ·1
Tremolite·octinoli t , Anth op yllite
Nephr ite Ch ondrodite
Grun erite Lobrodorite
Kyanite Albite
Ando lusite Mesolite
Hydromu scovite Sma ll Stourolite
Chomosi le Sma ll Lawson ite
Allanite Lorge Diospore
Riebeckite Lor e Fors t eri te
Kaolinite Variable Prehnite I I I I I I I I Vonab le
C HART E. Range of Axial Angles- Biaxial Negative 'Minerals. C HART F . Range of Axial Angles-Biaxial Positive Minerals.

Ax iol Ang le (2V)

CUAlrr
rt:~I[;~ mm I'm rri'(ll
G. Range of Axial Angles-Biaxial Positive/Negative Mineral s.
 .....
i%)
~
.,.,a
.....
0 .~
i'"
~ G
i%)
f-' ~
f-' Q
~ ......,
~
p.. ~
.,..
~
.....~
~
 Introduction to Part Two

Approximately 1700 mineral species are recognized. Rock-forming con-

stituents ordinarily found in thin sections constitute a comparatively
small proportion of the total. In the following pages descriptions of indi-
vidual minerals, min eraloids, and mineral groups are given. The species
listed include practically all the important transparent minerals found
in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, together with the com-
mon vein minerals. Minerals other than those listed occasionally are en-
countered; th en the larger reference books should b e consulted.
For convenience, the microscopic and optical characteristics of the
minerals are given under a uniform sequence of headings. Color refers
to the color of the mineral in thin section. T.he term neutral is used for
very p ale colors of indeterminate hue. Pleochroism and absorption are
included along with color, for ordinarily the polarizer is in place during
the entire examination of the slide. Relief refers to ordinary thin sections
mounted in Canada b alsam or to fragments in immersion media of cor-
responding index. The interference colors listed are usually the maximum
colors for thin sections of about O.03-mm. thickness. If sections are thicker
or thinner than this value, allowance must b e made. The thickness may
be determined fairly accurately if a known mineral such as quartz or
plagioclase is present in the slide. Extinction angles measured clockwise
are considered positive; and counterclockwise, negative. Orientation re-
fers esp ecially to the position of the faster and slower rays in character-
istic sections. The complete optical orientation is given in the tabulation
just b elow the name of the mineral. The size of the axial angle for biaxial
crystals is indicated in a general way in the text. Exact values of this angle
are given in the tabulation just mentioned. Approximate measurements
of the axial angle can b e made in favorable cases by the use of a microm-
eter ocular that h as b een calibrated by means of several biaxial crystals
of known axial angles. The universal stage is useful for accurate de-
termin ations. Un der thc heading Distinguishing Features resemblances
f
to, a nel clirl"erences fro m, simil ar min erals are pOinted out as an aid in the
determination . Rel(ft ed iVfill era/s arc th e min erals simil ar in appearance
and prope rl it's 10 lh e one IInd e-r c1iscnss ion.
Or i('nl il lioll diagrums for 11 ('111'1 ), :t Il th e hia xial min erals are given, and
1111
182 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
for most of the monoclinic minerals plans combined with side views
are inserted in order to facilitate an understanding of their optical
properties. Photomicrographs of thin sections are included to aid in
identification.
MINERAL GROUPS
This text is devoted primarily to the examination of transparent min-
erals and p articularly common minerals encountered in thin sections.
Thus practical considerations cause a number of deviations from accepted
classified mineral lists. The mineral groups listed for the chapters of Part
2 conform essentially to normal usage. However, examination of chapter
headings in Part 2 r eveals a pronounced inequality in mineral distribu-
tion among the groups named.
The non-silicate minerals from elements to phosphates are covered
in two chapters, while five chapters are r equired for the silicates. This
reflects the importance of the silicates among rock-forming minerals.
The classification of the silicates is primarily sh·uctural. However, all
structures are not known with equal assurance. Also, a number of sili-
cates apparently are amorphous when examined with the microscope,
although they may exhibit evidence of crystallinity in X-ray diffraction
patterns. These species are termed mineraloids. In the classification they
are placed close to chemically related minerals.
The silicates may be divided into six groups which depend upon the
structural arrangement of Si0 1 tetrahedra. A single Si0 4 group consists
of four larger oxygen atoms each at the corner of the tetrahedron with
one smaller silicon atom at the center. The structural groups arranged to
emphaSize natural OCcurrence provide the skeleton of a useful silicate
classification.
Silicate Groups
1. Framework complexes- tectosilicates
Silica minerals, F eldspars, Feldspathoids, Sodalite group, Zeolites
2. Chain structures- inosilicates
Pyroxenes, Amphiboles, Epidote group
3. Single tetrahedral groups- nesosilicates
Olivine group, Garnet group, Zircon, Humite group, Sillimanite
group, Idocrase, Axinite
4. Multiple tetrahedral groups- sorosilicates
Lawsonite
5. Ring groups with six units cyclosili cat cs
Beryl, Tourmaline, Cordicr.i te, Wollastonite
INTRODUCTION TO PART TWO 183
6. Sheet structures- phyllosilicates
Micas, Chlorites, Clay minerals, Talc, Pyrophyllite, Serpentine
group
Group names follow the usage of Bragg (1930). The group order
selected favors occurrence.
Isomorphous groups are common among minerals. Several species that
crystallize in the same way may at the same time form a group that will
exhibit a range in chemical composition. The chemical formulas of the
group are analogous although each species will represent some chemical
substitution. The calcite group is an example, with calcite CaCO;], m ag-
nesite MgCO a, siderite F eC0 3 and other carbonates alike in hexagonal
crystallization but differing in the substitution of Ca, Mg, Fe and other
cations in the chemical formulas .
Polymorphism is also frequently recognized among minerals. The sarno
chemical substance as found in nature may crystallize in two or mora
ways. This applies to CaC0 3 , which crystallizes in the hexagonal system
to form calcite and in the orthorhombic system to form aragonite. Botll
minerals also b elong to isomorphous groups, the calcite group as just i ll-
dicated and the aragonite group, which in addition to aragonitc incllld cs
witherite BaCO" strontianite SrC0 3 , and cerussite PbC0 3 •
The oxide Ti0 2 is found in three types of crystallization which also
illustrate polymorphism. Rutile and anatase are tetragonal but witll
different structural dimensions, while brookite is orthorhombic.
Both isomorphism and polymorphism will be encountered rcpca tccll y
among the minerals des cribed in this text. Among isomorphou s grollps
particular attention should b e devoted to the range in optical propc rti es
exhibited by group members.
REFERENCES
Bragg, W. L.: The Structure of Silicates, Z . F. K1'ist ., vol. 74 , pp . 237- :m r; ,
1930.
Chudoba , K.: " Mikroskopische Charakteristik der gestc insbildclldc n Mi nc rali( 'II ,"
H erder u. Co. , Freiburg, 1932.
- - -: "Die Feldsp ~ite und ihl'e praktische Bestimmung," Schwe ize rbart V(\)'·
lag, Stuttgart, 1932.
Freund, H.: Mikroskopie del' Silikate, "Handbnch del' Mikroskop iC' ill <l tlr
Teehnik," vol. 4, Umschau Verlag, Frankfurt, 1955.
Hatch , F. II ., and A. K . W ells: "The Petrology of thc 19ncoli s lIoc ks ," 9t h (·d.,
George Alle n & U nwin , Ltd. , Lo ndon , ] 937.
[ddings, J. P.: "HOCK Minc rals ," 2d eel. , John Wiley & So ns, 111 ('. , N('w York ,
J911.
Ill gersoll , I~ . : Me illflii s :l lIci I'rohlc'IIIS or Ceolog ie 'J'11(,1'I1101lI e try, I ';(·() II. C(,II/.,
50LlI HIIII . voL, pp . :\ /11 Ii 10, IIl SS.
184 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS

Johannsen , A.: "Essentials for the Microscopical Determination ot Rock-

forming Minerals and Rocks in Thin Sections ," 2d ed ., University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1928.
Kennedy, G. C.: Charts for Correlation of Optical Properties with Chemical
Composition of Some Common Rock-forming Minerals, Am. Mineralogist,
vol. 32, pp. 561-573, 1947.
Larsen, E. S. , and H . Berman: The Microscopic D etermination of the Non- CHAPTER 11
opaque Minerals, U.S. C eol. Survey Bull. 848, Washington , D .C. , 1934.
Mason, Brian: "Principles of Geochemistry," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1951. Elements to Hydroxides
Milner, H. B.: "Sedimentary Petrography," 3d ed. , Thomas Murby & Co.,
London, 1940.
Rosenbusch , H .: "Mikroskopische Physiographie del' petrographisch wichtigen
Mineralien," rev. by O. Mligge, 5th ed., vol. 1, part 2, Schweizerbart ELEMENTS MULTIPLE OXIDES
Verlag, Stuttgart, 1927. Spinel Group
Graphite'"
TickeII, F. G .: "The Examination of Fragmental Rocks," 2d ed. , Stanford Uni-
versity Press, Stanford, Calif., 1940. SULF IDES Spinel
W ahlstrom, E. E.: "Petrographic Mineralogy," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Sphalerite '" Magnetite'"
York, 1955. Pyrite'" Chromite'"
W einschenk, E.: "Petrographic Methods ," trans . by R. W. Clark, McGraw-Hill Pyrrhotite" P erovskite
Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1912. Chalcopyrite () HYDROXIDES
Williams, H. , F. J. Turner, and C. M. Gilbert: "Petrography," W. H . Freeman
& Co. , San Francisco, 1954. HALIDES Brucite
Winchell , A. N.: "Elements of Optical Mineralogy," 4th ed. , part 2, John H alite Diaspore
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951. Fluorite Bauxite Minerals
OXIDES Boehmitc
P ericlase Gibbsite
Corundum Cliachite
H em a tite '" Limonite'"
Ilmenite'"
Rutile
Cassiterite
Opaque Minerals. In the list of minerals included in C h art('\' II II
number are either opa qu e or semitranslu eent. Th ese m ay b e ex,llllill( 'd
11y directin g a strong b eam of li ght on the upper surface of ll w lilill
section or b y transferring th e slide to a binoc ular microscop c. TIl(' 1( '11
opaque min erals llsted are fre qu ently found assoc iated wilh tr<lll sp;IJ'( '1I1
rock-formin g min erals. Since these are a mon g th e most common lllilll 'n ii s
k novm th e appearan ce of th e min eral in r eflected li ght lI sll<llly is sldli ·
c ic nt for ,. n approx im ate ide ntification.

ELEMENTS
As id e 1'1'0111 g r;lpllil( ', (' 1('IIH 'lIl s <Ire 1101 ordill ;lrily ('II ('Olllil (' re d il l li lill -
s('(' li o ll ('~ <l lIl ill ; il ioll . A p os~ ild, ' ('\('(' plioll is sldl'lII', w lli!'11 i ~ rOlil HI ill sil il
\1 01111 ' (,li p l'<H' k 11 1111 is d l' pll ,'~ iI, ' d ,Irnlilid 1'1I111 :lrn ll's .
" MI 'h', " I'1 11 1I11 " ' " "JI" tj" (I '" 11(I "d 1' " " "1"" 1',,1 1" '" IIi" I" 1' li d" wl'l l"",I,
1111.
186 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 187
GRAPHITE Sphalerite ordinarily occurs in irregular masses and anhedral crystals.
C Opaque Hexagonal It is gray to yellow or brown in thin sections but may not b e uniform.
Cleavage occurs in six directions (dodecahedral) forming an intricate
Graphite is black with a metallic luster in reflected light and often pattern. The relief is very high and the mineral shows an adamantine
occurs in thin flakes or disseminated scales. The crystals are tabular. luster in reflected light. Transparent crystals are isotropic.
Sphalerite is a common and widely distributed mineral in veins and
replacement deposits. The usual associates are pyrite, galena, marcasite,

'"
",. f,

FIG. 11-1. ( X20) Graphite (black) showing elonga te sections cut normal to fl akes. tt,
The mineral is characteristic of metamorphic rocks such as schists, FIG. 11-3. ( X20) Sphalerite partly translucen t with complex dodecahedral clc;)vll!-;c.
gneiss es, slates, and metamorphic limestones. The gray color of many and the gangue minerals: quartz, chalcedony, calcite, dolomite, and
metamorphic limestones may be attributed to graphite. In some occur- siderite.
rences it is the only mineral present in addition to calcite. PYRITE

Carbonaceous Matter. In some rocks it is FeS 2 Opaque I sometric:

common to find finely divided opaque par-
Pyrite is the most common sulfide mineral. It is brass yellow witl l 11
ticles in which carbon is a major constituent
metallic luster in reflected light. In thin section it may b e distin glli sll('d
but crystallization to a definite mineral has
from chalcopyrite, which is darker yellow, and pyrrhotite, which is a dnrk
not occurred. Such carbonaceous matter has
bronze. In thin section pyrite m ay resemble marcasite in color and SIlP-
not b een subjected to a temperature high
plementary methods may b e required to distinguish th e two.
enough to form graphite.
Pyrite is common in euhedral crystals. These are often cubes wlli ell
yield squ are, rectangular, triangular, or even hexagonal outlin cs. Lt nl so
FIG. 11-2. ( X 15) Small
crystals of graphite (black )
SULFIDES occurs in irregular grains, masses, and veinl ets .
dissemin ated through meta- Pyrite is an unusually common and widely distribu tcd !TIi ncral. It
morphic limestone. Aside from sphalerite the few sulfides ordi-
occurs in many rock types, in veins, and in rcplacemcnt dcposits. When !
narily observed in thin sections are opaque.
oxidation has b een present pyrite may b e altercd to limonite.
Often these may be examined more effcctively on polished surfaces with
reHected light. PYHHHOTlTE
SPHALERITE F c ,_xS Opaq ue Il oxngoll l\1
(Zn,Fe)S Opaque to Tra ll ::i pa rent TsomcLrie Pyrrllolil c is hrOI1'1.(' wH h 11 me talli c 1(l5t(' r ill r(' (kClcd li g llt,. It lJS1I[dly
n = 2.:37 Lo 2.47 ()('('llrs ill Wll ins lI lid irrl "~ 111 111' 1I 1l1 S~ ( ~~ , Pllrlin g pon dJd to (O()() I ) is fll id y
(n in crcm;!)H wi Lh 1"0) 'OUI mOil ,
188 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 189
The mineral occurs in igneous rocks as a late magmatic mineral. It is and other salts. The great basin of northern Germany and the basin
also found in veins, and in some m etamorphic rocks. It forms at higher which covers adjacent portions of New Mexico , Texas, Kansas , and Okla-
temperatures than pyrite. homa are outstanding examples . Among the basins recognized arc
CHALCOPYRITE
isolated marine remnants, shallow basins with intermittent oceanic con-
nections, and isolated d esert basins.
CuFeS2 Opaque Tetragonal As sea water evaporates in isolated basins such as th e Caspian Sea, tlw
Chalcopyrite is one of the most widely distributed copper minerals. It concenh'ation of salts increases and eventually NaCl, KCl, CaSO"
is deep brass yellow with a metallic luster in refl ected light. It is found CaS0 4 .2H zO, and complex salts which contain Mg, Ca, K, and Na an :
precipitated as minerals. Fluctuations in salinity due to intermitlcllt
streams have often occurred with the result that salts have b ecn (k-
posited in layers whieh are rhythmically repeated. The accumulatioll 01'
evaporites in enclosed basins may exceed the saline content of Lll(
original marine body.

COMMON EVAPORITE MINERALS

In ter -
Index of refraction fe rence
Minera l System a nd co mposition n", nil n-y fi g ure C lf'flVn.KO
Syl vite I KCI n = 1.4903* 1100 1
Ha litet I N aC I n = 1. 5443* 1100 1
Carnalli te 0 K1I1 gCI•. 6H,O . 4665 1. 4753 1.4937* B% + I indis till ct
Kainite M K1I1 g(SO.)C1.3H,O .494 1 . 505 1. 5 16 B% 1001 1
La ng beinite I K , 1I1 g,(SO.J, n = 1 . 5347* no ne'
Poly ha litet T l(,Ca,1I1 g(SO. ) •. 2H,O . 54 7 0 .5(;0 1 .567 B% - 11011
Thena rdite N a,SO. 1 . 464 1 .474 .485 + 10 10 1,/ 101 1,/ 111111

FIG. 11-4. ( X 60) Chalcopyrite (black) surrounding quartz and muscovite.

Anhydritet
Gypsumt
°°
M
CaSO.
CuSO •. 2H , O
1 .5698
. 5207
1. 5754 1. 6 13H*
1 .5299 .5230 *
B%
13%
13x
+
+
1010 1,1 100 1, /00 11
10 10 1,1 100 1,1 1111 1
Kieserite 111 M gSO d {,O 1 .520 1 .533 . 584 Bx + /1101 , /111}' 1 i II I,
110 11,1 0 11 1
in anhedral grains and vein lets but only occasionally in euhedral Calcite t H CaCO . n, = 1.4863 nw = 1.6583* U 1101 1 I
Aragoni tet 0 CaC O , 1 . 5300 1. 68 10 . H854* Bx /0101 ,/ 1111 1, 111111
crystals. D olomi tet H Ca CM g. Fc ) (CO .)' n, = 1 . 500 llw I . G79 U I I()II I
Kerni te l\[ Na, B . 0 7.4H, O ] . 4:'4 1 .·172 . 488 Bx - / 100 1,1 11111 1
The min eral is common in veins and ore d eposits with several metals. Na , B. 0 7. 10]-[, 0 . 44(;(;
Borax 111 . ·W87 . 4717 * Bx - / IIIO }.I III i}
It is occasionally found in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic U lex itc T N"C" B ,O •.8 1-['O . 49 1 . 1;0,1 . ,,20 BI + 1010 }.1 110 1, 1111I 1
rocks. Col e lll a ni te
1M
Ca, B ,O " .r. rr, o 1 .58(;:1 . [,020 GHO* B%+ 101 01,1 (1111 1

* (Na- li g ht) .
HALIDES t Sec text des cr iptio ns .

The study of the halides and related species is a special problem.

Halite and fluorite are included in this text. Halite is an evaporite min-
eral. Fluorite is a vein mineral and an accessory in many rock types.
Evaporite minerals are numerous and worthy of more attention than
is possible in an introductory text. They include carbonates, sulfates, and
borates in addition to halides. It seems appropriate to call attention to
this group in connection with the halides.
Evaporite Minerals. At p eriods in geologic timc sedim entary basins
have accumulated large bodi cs of halite, gypsnm , dolomito, an hyd riLe,
Partly isolated basins may contain ahundant anhydrite and do l()lIJiII '
but are de fi cicnt in soluble salts. D escrL ba sin s y ie ld borales and less ('x
tensive acc nrnlllali ons of sol llhl c salls .
Th in secLions of evaporites ma)' h e m ~lcl (' hy g ri ll clill ~ in ~ I )'('o l , s /llil i, 'S
or th e lexllircs alld r(' i;lli oll sliips or tli ese 1ll<lt (' ri ;Jis 1i ;lv(' 1)( ' ( ' 11 111 : 111" I,
Stewart ( H).\9 ) , Sbll( 'r ; 111(1 11( 'II<i( ' I'SOIl ( 1!):12) , iJlld olli('l's, ( ;0 111111011
uVllporllll' IlIilll 'rnls il l'( ' Il ~ I, · d . 1\11 01'(' ('() lIlpll'lI' d~'s l' l'ipli () lI S will \)\' I'o lllld
ill Ih " n ' I (' I( ' II (' ( '~ III 11]( · ( 11](1 ,iI III I' (' 11 11I ) le ' l' ,

..
'

190 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
HALITE
NaCI I sometric
n = 1.544
Color. Colorless but may contain inclusions.
Form. Halite is not found in thin sections prepared in the ordinary
way, but the sections may be ground in glycol. The halite usually appears
in anhedral crystals (Fig. 11-5).
Cleavage. Perfect cubic.
Relief. Very low, n b eing about the same as balsam or clove oil.
FIG. ll-S. ( X 60) Halite with cubic outlines accen tuated by silty inclusions along
crystal boundaries.
Birefringence. Nil. Dark between crossed nicols. H alite from the highly
compressed salt of salt domes may b e anisotropic in thick sections.
Distinguishing Features. The very low relief, cubic cleavage, and
solubility are characteristic. About the only mineral that is likely to be
mistaken for halite is sylvite, but the latter h as appreciable relief and an
index less than balsam (for sylvite n = 1.490) .
Occurrence. Halite occurs in sedimentary b eds of rock salt that are
often accompanied by anhydrite and gypsum. Sylvite and polyhalite are
characteristic associates.
Fluorite
CaF 2 I sometric
n = 1.434
Color. Colorless or purple in bands or spots.
Form. F lu ori te is some tim es found in ellhedr:" crysta ls with square
ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 191
outline, but it is usually anhedral and often fills the spaces b etween other
minerals.
Cleavage. Perfect octahedral {Ill}. The cleavage usually appears as
two intersecting lines at oblique angles of 70° and 110°, occasionally at
three intersecting lines of 60° and 120° (Figure 8-35).
Relief. Fairly high, n < b alsam. According to Merwin, the index of
refraction is remarkably constant (1.4338 for sodium light). Dispersion
of fluorite is very low; h ence the use of fluorite for apochromatic objec-
tives.
F1G. 11-6. ( X 18) F luorite showing zonal structure.
Birefringence. Nil. Dark b etween cross ed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. The rather high relief, perfect cleava g<', 11 11(1
isotropic character distinguish fluorite from practically all other mi l1 ('rIl IH
The purple spots or bands ( see Figure 11-6) are very ch aracteri sli e.
Occurrence. Fluorite is a common vein mineral, but it is ratl ler 1'1 11 11
in rocks in general. It is found in some granites, occasionally ill sillld
ston es, limestones, and phosphorites. In the wes tern U lliled Sl:llt's I1 l1d
in W est Germany, radioactivc black fluorite is associaled willi lIr:lllil1ll1 .
OXIDES
At least six simpl e oxid es are frequ ently cneo nn tc rccl ill II,ill s('('1i()IIH.
1'1 mOil iI.c, 1I<'II1:1li\.(', :llId :II. times rutilo are \.ralls'llI c('1I1 or Op:lqll <l. 0111( '1"
w iso Iho oxi(l( ·s y illid di sl illdi vc opli.cal propcrl iI'S .
192 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 193
PERICLASE CORUNDUM

MgO I sometric AbOa Hexagonal

n = 1.738 t o 1.760 (Rhombohedral subsystem )

Periclase is a rare but widely distributed mineral. n, = 1.759 to 1.763

Color. Colorless in thin sections. n", = 1.767 to 1.772
Form. Pet'iclase occurs in small crystals or anhedral crystal aggregates. Opt. ( -)
Individual anhedra may be recognized
by cleavage traces.
Cleavage. Cubic. Parting, dodeca-
h edral.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Nil. D ark between
crossed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. The cubic
cleavage, high relief, and isotropic char-
acter taken together are distinctive.
FIC. 11-7. ( X IO) Core of pcriclase
surrounded by brucite in meta-
Alteration. Periclase is usually altered
morphic limestone. to brucite which, in turn, may be altered
to hydromagnesite.
Occurrence. The most common occurrence of p ericlase is in meta-
morphic limestones. It is found as cores within brucite spots that are
formed by hydration of the pet·iclase.

FIC. 11-9. (X40) Corundum crystal with rhombohedral parting in co rulldlllll

lyenite.

FIc. 11-8. ( X 60) Periclase in brucite-bearin g rock showin g cubic cleavage.

Artificial Periclase. Artificial p ericlase, now prcparcd on a commercial

scale from selcctcd magn csite, is more familiar th an th e n atural mineral.
It is used as a high-grade el ectri cal insul a tor. 1"11 :, 11 . 10. ( )o' r,O) C'" II II.l 1I 1I 1 " ' >,~ 1 1I 1 wi ll. w, ,11 d'IV"llIp"d p , "I I II I ~'
194 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 195
Color. Usually colorless, sometimes with blue or pink areas that are Occurrence. Corundum is especially characteristic of corundum sye-
not uniformly colored. Zoned crystals are not uncommon. In thick sec- nites, contact-metamorphic limestones, and metamorphosed shales. It
tions corundum may be pleochroic. may also be found in schists and as a sporadiC deh'ital mineral. It is one
Fonn. Euhedral crystals are common. The habit varies from tabular of the principal constituents of emery, which is probably a metamor-
to prismatic; cross sections are six-sided and may show zonal structure. phosed bauxite or laterite. In igneous rocks it never occurs with original
Skeleton crystals are often encountered. quartz.
Cleavage. Parting often parallel to the unit rhombohedron {lOil} or H EMATITE
the pinacoid {0001} or both.
Relief. Very high, n > b alsam. Fe 20 3 Opaque to translucent Hexagonal
(Rhombohedral subsystem)
Birefringence. W eak, nw - fi e = 0.008-0.009. Sections are usually
thicker than normal on account of the exh'eme hardness of the corundum.
n. = 2.94
n", = 3.22
For this reason the maximum interference color of most thin sections runs
Opt. (-)
up into the second order.
Extinction. P arallel to the crystal outlines or symmetrical to the Steel-gray black with metallic luster in rcflected light, with a tendency
rhombohedral parting. to a marginal red. Some occurrences are red and translucent.
Orientation. Sections of tabular crystals are length-slow, and sections
of prismatic crystals are length-fast since the optic sign of the mineral
is negative.
Twinning. Twinning lamellae or twin seams with {lOll } as the twin-
plane are rather common.
Interference Figure. The figure obtain ed in basal sections is uniaxial
negative usually with one ring. Some figures are biaxial with 2V as high
as 30° .
Distinguishing Features. The combination of very high relief with
weak birefringence, partin g, and tw'inning lamellae is distinctive.

F IG.11-12. ( X 20) Hematite (black) fillin g the interstices between quartz veins and
following fractures in a quartzite.
Hematite occurs in anhedral crystals, grains, masses and occasionally
in minute scales. Pseudocubic rhombohedral parting may be obscrved .
The mineral occurs as the main constitu cnt of hcmatite schist. It is a
secondary mineral in many rock types. Hematite is rare as an origill:d
constituent of igneous rocks.

ILMENITE

(i'cTi0 3 Oparp lC Tf() X H ~ () ll ld

(1l I1oll lill ll ,, 'd,,"1 HltlIHYHII 'III )

FIG. 11-1l. ( X 60) Small corundum crystals disseminated throu gh fluartz and inte.!'- 1I11l('lIit c: is hhw-gl'il y !lllll'k wi tll IIl('t :dli (' IlI stl 'r ill rdl(TI('d li g ll!. It.
spcrsed with biotite. Illay s ho w II w llil ( ' 01' v(,!l o wl ·,11 !JII I'II( ' I' I dl( ' I'I II inl l t o 1( ' III 'O X( ' I1( \
196 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
The mineral occurs in disseminated tabular crystals which may be
cut into elongate sections. Skeleton crystals frequently occur. It is also
found in irregular grains and masses.
Ilmenite is a widely distributed mineral in some types of igneous
rocks, more especially diabases and dolerites. It is an important constitu-
ent of titanium-bearing sands. It is often associated with magnetite in
iron ore.
Leucnxene. An opaque white substance called leucoxene is common as
an alteration product of titanium minerals in various rocks . It occurs on
ELEME:NTS 'to HYDROXIDES 191
characteristic. Capillary crystals are common, especially in quartz.
Cleavage. Parallel to the length of the crystals {1l0}.
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. Adamantine luster by reRected light.
Birefringence. Extreme, n e - nw = 0.286-0.287; interference colors are
very high but do not show well on account of total reRection.
Extinction. Parallel.
Twinning. Common (see Form).
Distinguishing Features. The mineral most likely to be mistaken for
rutile is probably baddeleyite (Zr02) , which sometimes occurs in conm-
dum syenites. The color, together with very high relief, is distinctive.
Related Minerals. Two polymorphs of rutile, anatase (also tetragonal) ,
and brookite (orthorhombic) are of importance as detrital minerals.
Occurrence. Rutile is a rather widely distributed accessory mineral in
varwus metamorphic rocks. It occasionally occurs in igneous rocks such
as the albitite of Kragera, Norway. Rutile also occurs as a detrital
mineral. Sphene is a common associate.

CASSITERITE

Sn02 TetragomLl
nw = 1.996
n, = 2.093
Opt. (+)

Color. Colorless to gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown in thin sections.

FIG. 11-13. ( x 18) Skeleton crystal of ilmenite. It often shows zones of varying color.

the surface and around the borders of ilmenite and is also disseminated
through various rocks and is probably the result of hydrothermal alter-
ation. Leucoxene has sometimes been identified with sphene. Leucoxene
in a detrital deposit in Oklahoma is amorphous hydrous titanium dioxide,
according to Coil.
RUTILE

Ti0 2 Tetragon al
nw = 2.603 t o 2.616
n , = 2.889 t o 2.903
Opt. (+ )

Color. Yellowish to reddish brown in thin sections. In reRected light

it shows adamantine luster.
Form. Rutile usually occurs in small prismatic to acicular crystals
and in grains. Knee-shaped twins with {101} as the twin -plane arc e ll I r1·0111 II
198 MINERAL DESCRI1'TIONS
ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 199
Form. Cassiterite is usually found in subhedral crystals. Veinlets are
rather common.
Cleavage. Prismatic, parallel to the length.
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. Adamantine luster in reflected light.
Birefringence. Extreme, ne - nw = 0.097; the interference colors are
high order but are usually masked by the color of the mineral.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage, oblique to the twin-plane.
Twinning. Twinned crystals are common; th e twin-plane is {10l}.
Distinguishing FeatUl'es. Cassiterite resembles sphalerite, but the latter
is isotropic. From rutile it is distinguished by lower birefringence.
Occurrence. Cassiterite occurs in granite pegmatites, in greisen, and in
high-temperature veins. The usu al associates are qumtz, muscovite, schor-
lite, and topaz. The wood-tin variety occurs in rhyolites.

MULTIPLE OXIDES a

The spinel group and perovskite have b een selected as th e members

of this division most likely to b e encountered in thin-section study.

The Spinel Group

The spinels are aluminates, ferrites , and chromites of dyad metals
magnesium and iron. They occur in isomehic crystals, usually octahe-
drons, and are optically isotropic.
In addition to the common spinels described here-spinel, magnetite,
and chromite- there are h ercynite (FeALO,\), magnesioferrite,
(MgFe 2 0 . ), galaxite (MnA1 2 0 4 ) , franklinite [(Zn,Mn)Fe 2 0 . L and
gahnite (ZnAI 2 0 . ).
SPINEL

(Mg,Fe) (Al,Cr) 20 4 '. I sometric

n = 1.72 to 1.78
Color. Colorless to green (pleonaste), olive green, or brown (picotite)
in thin sections.
Form. Spinel practically always occurs in euhedral or subhedral
crystals or in equant grains. Crystals are octahedra, and the most com-
mon sections are rhombic in outline.
Cleavage. Imperfect octahedral, but it may not show.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. It is one of the few isometric minerals that is invariably
isotropic.
Twinning. Twinning according to the spinel law with {HI} as twin-
plane is rather common, but it docs not uSll ally show in the slide.
b
FIG. 11-15. ( X20) Two views of a spinel section. (a) Ordinary illuminalion s h ()w i" l~
spinel in dolomite. (h) T he same crystals between crossed ni eols. (Slreaks a,,<1
patches of birefrin ge nce in th e spinel arc caused by alteratio n. )
Distinguishing Features. Pleonaste, iron-bearing variety of spin el, is
much like hercynite.
Spinel is distinguished from garn et by its octahcdral form.
Related M inerals. A related min eral, h erey nitc FeAI ~ O" is a prOlllill ('111
constitu ent or: certain lypes or e mcry. Pi cotilo is inle rill ed iale 1)(' lw('( '"
spin el Lind ehrOl11iLe. II' f'( 'SC' IIll )lc's cllrornil c hil t is 1I10J'( ' Ir:IIlsp:rrt'1I1.
::rl;r xilO is III : IIl g: II)( '~;() spill.'1 wil li lil o rOl'lllill u M II AI. O,. II O( '(, III'S wi lh
ullcgl' ll il y ilu.
 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS E LEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 201
200
Occurrence. Spinel occurs in metamorphic limestone with phlogopite Black with a submetallic luster in reRected light. The mineral is often
and chondrodite, in other metamorphic rocks, and also in various igneous translucent and brown on thin ed ges. It occms in subh edral crystals,
grains, or aggregates. Minute octahedra occasionally are found .
rocks. It is rare as a detrital mineral.
Picotite is common in peridotites, dunites, and derived serpentines. The chromite of meteorites approaches the composition F eCr20'l, but
terrestrial chromite always contains appreciable amounts of magnesium
MAGNETITE and aluminum.
Chromite occurs for the most part in peridotites, pyroxenites, dunites,
FeIlFe~II04 Opaque Isometric
and derived serp entines. It is at times a late magmatic mineral. In most
Black with a metallic luster in reflected light. If present in abundance serpentines it is a reli ct mineral but at times it may be formed during
the thin section is magnetic. Crystals may b e octahedra which yield serpentinization at the exp ense of picotite.
triangular, square, or rhombic sections. A triangular pattern due to octa-
hedral parting may be present. PEHOVSKITE

CaTi0 3 P seudoi sometric

n = 2.34 to 2.38
Color. Yellow to brown in thin sections.
Form. Perovskite is usually found in minute cubic crystals.
Cleavage. Cubic, noticed only in the larger crystals.
Relief. Very high , n > balsam. It is difficult to make the Becke test on
accolmt of total reflection. In reflected light it shows adaman tine lu ster.
FIG. 11-16. (x7) Euhedral to anhedral magnetite (black) in norite. Birefringence. Nil to 0.002. Minute crystals are dark between cross ed
nicols; larger crystals show very weak birefringence.
Magnetite is common in nearly all igneous and metamorphic rocks . In
Twinning. The larger crystals show complicated polysynthetic twin-
igneous rocks it is a 'late magmatic mineral. It is a common deh'ital
ning.
mineral in sands accumulated along modern or ancient strand lines.
Distinguishing Features. Perovskite resembles melanite (garnct) and
CHROMITE picotite (spinel) , but it has a much higher refractive indcx than eithe r
I sometric of these.
(Fe,Mg) (Cr,AI ,Fe) 20 4 Opaque to translucent
Occurrence. Perovskite is a rare, but widely distributed, min eral ill
n = 2.07 t o 2.16
basic igneous rocks, esp eCially melilite basalts and p eridotites. Tt is a Iso
found in chlorite and talc schists and in some metamorphic limes tones.

HYDROXIDES

All members of this group lose wa ter on ignition . Thus the t erril
hydrous oxide has b een frequently applied.

DJASl'ORE

AIO (OH) Ort.h orh om\)i'·

n" = 1.702
11 1l 1.722
'Il y 1.7:;0
')\1 XIO; ()pt.. ( I- )
I/, ,), Clr ;l,, 11 I Cl i' l' , /' IV 01' .Y
FIG. 11-17. ( x 20)
202 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES 203
Color. Colorless to pale blue in thin sections. Sometimes pleochroic in BRUCITE
thick sections. Mg(OHh Hexagonal
Form. Diaspore occurs in tabular crystals (Rhombohedral subsystem)
c
I, parallel to {OlO}. The crystals may be rather nw = 1.566
large to very minute. The mineral also occurs n, = 1.585
in minute aggregates. Opt. (+)
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {0l0}. Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Form. Brucite usually occurs in plates or scaly aggregates that appear
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n a = 0.048; so fibrous in sections.
y
the maximum interference color is about upper
third order. ..... .;.;32::::

Extinction. Parallel.
Orientation. The crystals are length-fast.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial
.X positive with a very large axial angle. The axial
I plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, l' < lJ weak.
FIG. 11-18. Orientation Distinguishing Features. Diaspore associated
diagram of diaspore. Sec-
tion parallel to (lOO). with Hint clay resembles clay particles in di-
mensions but has stronger birefringence. More
coarsely crystalline diaspore may resemble anhydrite but has higher
relief and only one cleavage direction.
Related Minerals. Boehmite is dimorphous with diaspore.

FIG. 11-19. ( X 20) Interlocking laths of diaspore.

Occurrence. Diaspore occurs in metamorphic rocks such as schists

and emery. It occurs in a few altered igneous rocks associated with
alunite. It is also a prominent constituent of the highly aluminous flint
clays.
/)
1"'\:. II -!W. ( X 2() ) 111I J('ili \ 1,1 l 'I< ,I,'" '"'l' ld (' l i ll, \·, IIIII('. (II) "Viti, o,dlll ll ' V 111,,111111 11-
110 11 . ( /1) iI"I IV, ·" " "11" ,,, ,01 1I 1(,1I1 ~,

......
204 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES
205
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {0001} but may not show in thin Birefringence. Moderate, 11ry - n" = 0.013.
sections.
Distinguishing Features. Closely resembles gibbsite in thin section,
Relief. Fair, n > balsam.
but the refractive indices are higher and the birefringence is less.
Birefringence. Moderate, ne - nw = 0.019. Some of the interference
Occurrence. Widely distributed in bauxite where at times it may be
colors are anomalous; a peculiar reddish brown hue takes the place of the main mineral.
the yellow and orange of the first order. If the section is too thin, the
anomalous colors do not show. GIBBSITE
Extinction. Parallel. AI(OHh (Hydrargillite) Monoclinic
Orientation. The scaly aggregates, which are apparently fibrous , are
length-fast. L(3= 85°29'
n a = 1.554 to 1.567
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniccdal positive with
n fJ = 1.554 t o 1.567
the first ring anomalous (see Birefringence ). At times the figure may be
n-y = 1.576 t o 1.589
biaxial with a small axial angle.
2 V = 0° t o 40°; Opt. (+ )
Distinguishing Features. It resembles alunite but has b etter cleavage
b = IX or X, a 1\ 'Y or Z = 26°
and anomalous interference colors.
Alteration. Brucite is often altered to hydromagn esite, Mg,, (OH) 2- Color. Colorless to p ale brown in thin sections.
(C0 3 )a,3H 2 0. Form. Gibbsite (called hydrargillite by European mineralogists) oc-
Occurrence. The most common occurrence of brucite is in metamor- curs in minute pseudoh exagonal euhedral crystals in cavities and in fin c
phic calcite-brucite rocks as an alteration of periclase, MgO. It is some-
times found in serpentine.
z
Bauxite Minerals
The term bauxite is widely used for aluminum ore. It was originally a
applied (Bet·thier, 1821) to aluminous material b elieved at that time to
b e a single mineral but since shown to contain at least two constituents.
Bau xite is properly a generic term for rocks rich in hydrous aluminum FIG. 11-21. Orientation diagram of gibbsite. Section parallel to (010).
oxides. Such rocks are frequently formed by weathering in warm, humid
regions where organic acids derived from heavy vegetation are abundant. crystalline aggregates that are often pseudomorphous after feldsp ars.
The process is frequ ently called lateritization. The product laterite, often Reticulate structure is common.
both ferruginous and aluminous, is a widespread intermediate stage in Cleavage. In one direction parallel to {OOl }, but it may b e diffi cult lo
the formation of bauxite. Aluminum minerals common in bauxite are see.
gibbsite, boehmite, and cliachite. Relief. Moderate, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, 11ry - n" = 0.022. The maximum intcrfercnce
BOEHMITE
colors are bright upper first-order or lower second-order colors.
AIO(OH) Ort horhombic Extinction. Oblique extinction angles, up to a maximum of 260 for
n a = 1.638 a 1\ y or Z in sections p arallel to {O1O}.
n fJ = 1.645 Orientation. Since the crystals are tabular p arall cl to {OOl }, clong:tlc
n-y = ] .651 sections with twinning are length-slow.
2V = moderate; Opt. (-)? Twinning. Pol)'s)'nthctic twinning with {OOl } as twinplanc is orleJl
a = IX or X; b = 'Y or Z; c = (3 or Y sharp and wcll dcfln cd.
Inlcrfcrence 'Figure. 'I'll(' l'I')'s Lds :l rc II sll"lI), too srn:i11 to g ive :Ill ill -
Form. Crystals arc minute and tabular. rrc rc ncc fi g lll'{'. III III()sl ( ' I'.\'~ I : ds Ill c' :lxi:t1 pl:lI1(' is norlll:l l 10 ( 010 ), hili
Cleava ge. Tn onc dircction parallclto {OlO}. in SO IlI(' il is jllll': t1ld 10 ( 010 ),

......
206 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES
207
Distinguishing Features. On account of the aggregate sbucture gibb-
shrinkage of the original spherOidal gel-form frequently appear in thin
site resembles chalcedony, but thc relief is higher and the birefringence sections.
much sb·onger. It also resembles dahllite, but the latter mineral has weak
birefringence.

FIG. 11-23. ( X 20) Bauxite showing a segment of a pisolite. The dark area is
cliachite. Contraction cracks are filled with gibbSite.

Occurrence. Cliachite is the main constituent of many bauxites. Com-

mon associates are gibbsite and siderite. There may also be relict min -
.. .... erals such as ilmenite and sphene, for in some cases bauxites are derivcd
FIG. 11-22. (X25) ( X nicols) Gibbsite surrounds and penetrates pisolites and from nepheline syenites.
broken areas of cliachite (black).
LIMONITE

Occurrence. Some bauxites (bauxite is used as a rock name) are made H2Fe2()4(H 2()):t ()paque to translucent Mincraloid
IIp largely of gibbSite, others largely of amorphous cliachite with crys- n = 2. 0 to 2.1
Ulline gibbsite in cavities.
Limonite is brown in reflected light. It may be translucent in som c
CLIACHITE masses and on thin edges. It frequently forms a stain or a border around
other minerals, particularly thos e with a high iron content.
.-\i 20 3 (H 20):t (B auxite in pa rt) Mineraloid
n = 1.57 to 1.61
Color. Colorless to deep brown or red in thin sections. Translucent to
nearly opaque.
Form. Cliachite is pisolitic or massive without any indication of crys-
talline structure.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam. It is difficult to test the relief and re-
fractive index unless the mineral is powdered.
Birefringence. Nil. In favorable spots or in a powdered form the min- FIc. J :1 -24. ( X 9) Lilll()n il l' l'l' llIl'lllin g deLrilal i'ra g lll(': lIls of <i" :II ' l z .
eral is isotropic.
Distinguishing Features. The pisolitic sb'ucture (Figure 8-3) and Th e mincr,il is Il sl l:t1l y isolropi c IlIll I1lay sllow irrcg ltlar hircl'rill g(" ll'('
association with gibbSite arc distinctivc. Contraction cracks dllc to cluo Lo slrai l' . Co('ll lil(' is slillil " r 10 liIlHlIli[() hill is tlisliflclly cryslnl/ill
witll I'"rallo'l ('xl JIIl 'I iOIl ,

.......
 MINERAL DESCRiPTIONS
208
Limonite is a secondary mineral product ordinarily the result of oxida·
tion or weathering. It may form a cement for sand grains. It is often pres-
ent on the weathered surface of rocks. It occasionally forms pseudo-
morphs after other minerals especially pyrite.
CHAPTER 12
REFERENCES
Evaporites Carbonates, Sulfates, and Phosphates
Schaller, W. T. , and E. P. Henderson: Mineralogy of drill cores from the
potash field of New Mexico and Texas, U.S. C eol. Survey Bull. 833 ,
p. 124, 1932.
Stewart, F. H.: The Petrology of the Evaporites of tl1e Eskdale No .2 Boring, CARBONATES SULFATES PHOSPHATES
East Yorkshire, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 28, pp. 621-675, 1949. Calcite Group Barite Monazite
Bauxite Calcite Celestite Apatite
"Problems of Clay and Laterite Genesis: A Symposium ," pp. 1-244, AIME, Dolomite Anhydrite Dahllite
New York, 1952. Magnesite Gypsum Collophane
Siderite Polyhalite Lazulite
Aragonite Group Alunite
Aragonite Jarosite

The minerals of Chapter 12 contain sevcral isomo11)hous groups wh er

the range in optical properties may provide inadequate criteria for posi-
tive identification b etween members. This applies particularly to several
carbonate and sulfate groups. The texhlral information revealed by th e
thin sections will b e found particularly useful but it may b e necessary to
resort to chemical and X-ray diffraction methods for precise identifI ca-
tion.

The Calcite Group

The calcite group of rhombohedral carbonates consists of th e min c rals

listed below, together with rhodochrosite (MnC0 3 ) and smithsonil('
C ALCITE GROUP

Chemi cal
M incral n, nw nw - n ,
com posiLion

Calcite ....... .... CaCO , 1 . 48G ] . G58 0 . 172

Dolomite ......... Ca(M f,!;,Fe) (CO ,h 1 . 500- 1 . 52G 1. G80- 1. 7 1(i O. 180- 0 . I DO
Mltf,!; ncs iLo . ....... Mf,!;CC)" 1 . 500- 1.527 1 . 700- 1. 72(; o . lnl O. I\)!)
f;ic\rl'iLc .. ... . .... l"cCO, 1 . 5%- 1. n:{3 J . 8:{0- J. 875 0 .2: I 'H) .2 /1 ~

( Zn CO:, ). Til ey al'O lH'xli /.';( lIlId ( rllollll)()ll ('drlll slIhsyS II 'II1 ) "villi per/'cci
rholl il )()lwdrlll (·II ': IVII/.';( · li lld II <"11 ' 11VII/-(I , all gk of' 7:1" 10 7f) o, T,II('Y ti l'( '
'. ( 1)
210 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 211
uniaxial and optically negative. All show change of relief when rotated;
the higher relief is obtained when the long diagonal of the rhomb is
parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol. The birefringence is ex-
treme, and the maximum interference colors are high-order white.
Dolomite and magnesite may contain ferrous carbonate in isomorphous
mixture, and this increases the value of the refractive indices.
Another member of the calcite group is rhodochrosite, MnCO a. It is
very similar to the other minerals in its optical properties. Rhodochrosite
occurs in veins but is very rare as a rock-forming mineral. Still another
member of the group is smithsonite. It usually occurs in the oxidized
zone and is sometimes pseudomorphou s after calcite and dolomite.

CALCITE

CaC0 3 Hexagonal
(Rho mbohedral subsystem) Fic. 12-1. ( X20) Anhedral calcite crystals shOWing rhombohedral cleavage.
n, = 1.486
n",= 1.658
Opt. ( - )
Color. Colorless in thin sections, but it is often cloudy.
Form. Fine to coarse aggregates, usually anhedral. Euhedral crystals in
rock sections are rare. Calcite often shows organic structure of some kind.
It is frequently oolitic or spherulitie.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral {lOll} , usually shows at two inter- I

seeling lines at oblique angles (75 0 if section is cut normal to the cleav-
age traces). In fine aggregates the cleavage may not show. There is some-
times parting parallel to {0112} which is due to twin-gliding.
Relief. Varies with the direction. It is high when the long diagonal of
the rhomb is parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol and low
when the short diagonal is in this position. Occasional sections parallel
to {0001 } h ave high relief in all positions.
Birefringence. Extreme, nw - n f = 0.172. The maximum interference
color is pearl gray or white of the higher orders. Thin edges of the slide
lamellac arc mostly parallel to the long diagonal, but they also inl('rs('('1
usually show bright colors of the fo urth and fifth orders and tints of
at oblique angles dep ending upon how the section is cut. The lwill
higher orders. Thin films and twin lamellae of calcite usually show bright
lamellae ill'e usually so thin that they show first-order interference colors.
interference colors.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial negative witll
Extinction. Symmeh"ical to the cleavage traces. When a section is in
many rings. Cleavage 1lakes give a very cceenh"ic fi gm c. OccaS ionally
one of the extinction positions, fine birefringent calcite dust formed by calcile gives a biaxial fi gure with a small axial angle.
grinding is prominent.
Dislinguishing Fealures, Dolomite, magn csite, a nd siderite may all 1>0
Orientation. Is difficult to determine on account of the extreme bire-
IIlislakell for c; dcile. Do loillilc' is Il slially subheclral to euhecl ral and oflell
fringence. II :lS lwill 1<1 111( ' 11 ;1(' pan dlvl 10 II I(' sll()rl dia gonal as well as 10 the IOll g
Twinning. Polysyntlletic twinning with {0l12} as twin-plane is very
dl agoll:d. Sid( 'I'ilo IISIIII II ), III IS "'Oil SllIills :lrolllHllll(l hOf"{]l'rs of Iho grllins.
common , espccially in th e calcite of metamorphic lim cs tone. 1110 twin
212 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 213
DOLOMITE

CaCM g,Fe) (C0 3) 2 (inc. Ankerite) Hexagonal

(Rhombohedral subsystem)
n, = 1.500 to 1.526
n ", = 1.680 to 1.716
Opt. (-)

FIC . 12-3. ( X 60) Finely crystalline calcite containing coarser quartz. (X nicols. )

FIC. 12-5. ( X20) A portion of a single anhedral crystal of dolomite showing rholllbo-
hedral cleavage.

Color. Colorless to gray.

Flc. 12-4. ( X 25) Calcite forming casts of foraminifera distributed through carbo-
naceous shale.
and the relief is not low in any position. Since there is no distinctive fea-
ture for magnesite, it may be necessary to make microchemical tests.
Aragonite is also similar to calcite but lacks the rhombohedral cleavage,
and in no section is the refractive index distinctly less than that of balsam.
Aragonite is also biaxial.
Alteration. Calcite is often replaced by quartz. This feature is often
observed in quartz veins.
Occurrence. Calcite is the principal constituent of both sedimentary
and metamorphic limestones, but it is found in many other rock types.
It is a very common secondary min eral in cavities of igneous rocks, where
it is often associated with zeolites. It is also it dellte-ri e mineral in som
i!!neolls rocks. Next to (l' t:lrlz, ('aicilt' is Ih e most C ClJIIII IO II ve in ntineral.
Form. Fine to coarse grain ed and usually subhedral. Euhedral crystals
of the unit rhombohedron {lOll } are rather common and the crystals <He
often curved. Zonal sh'ucture is frequent; this is due to variation in the
iron content.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral parallel to {lOll}, which usually
shows as two inters ecting sets of lines at oblique angles . There also may
be parting parallel to {0221}.
Relief. Vmies with the direction. It is high when the long diagonal of
the rhomb is pm'allel to the vibration plane of the lower nkol ancl Jow
when the short di agonal is in this position. An occasional section parallel
to {OOOI} has high relief in all positions.
Birefringence. E xtreme, n w - n c = 0.180 to 0.190; interference colors
arc p earl gray or whitc of the hi gh order. Bather bright colors of th"
fomth and fifth ord ers may show on the cdge of the sucle.
Extinclion. S)' lI1l1lclri cal 10 ollllin cs of crys lals and to th e c1eavag<:
Ira ('es. (; lIrv(,d ('I'),s l;t1s sll ow W; IV)' (''( Iill clion .
Twillllill g . T ll o (\ol oill il(' 01' 1lll'l il lll orplli (' rocks Ilsll ;dly shows Jlolys), l1-
Ilu 'li c Iwililtill g w itll (022 11 11 ~ Iwi ll p lnll (·. 'I'll(' [wi nllill g InIlI I' II II(' llro
p ll I'll 11(11 10 110111 ,~ lloll II l1d 1011 /', 11I 1 1 /'.' IJ II " ~ of' III( ' J'l1(lllIhs. I\ s ill ( '( iI( 'it( " (.il!

.-.
214 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 215
twin lamellae are usually so thin that they show first-order interference Relief. Changes on rotation like calcite and dolomite. It has high relief
colors. when the lon g diagonal of the rhomb is p arallel to the vibration plane of
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial negative with the lower nicol and low relief when the short diagonal is in this position.
many rings. An occasion al scction parallel to {000l} has high relief in all positions.
Distinguishing Features. Dolomite closely resembles calcite, but in Birefringence. Extreme, nw - n8 = 0.191 to 0.199; intederence colors
many cases it may be distinguished by its t endency to euhedral crystals, are pearl gray (white of the high order ).
by zonal structure, and by twinning lamellae parallel to the short diag- Extinction. Symmeh'ical with rcsp ect to cleavage traces.
onal. It is even more like magnesite, and thus it may be necessary to rely Twinning. Absent as far as known.
on chemical or microchemical tests. Intederence Figure. The interfercnce figure is uniaxial negative with
Occurrence. Dolomite is a very common mineral. It occurs in veins and many rings.
replacement deposits, in sedimentary dolomite rocks and limestones, and Distinguishing Features. Magnesite is very similar to dolomite and
in metamorphic dolomite rocks. calcite and has no distinctive optical properties of its own aside from
indices of refraction. For this reason chemical or microchemical tests may
MAGNESITE be necessary to distinguish it.
MgC0 3 Hexagonal Occurrence. Metamorphic magnesite rocks are found in Stevens
(Rhombohed ral subsystem) County, W ashington. Magnesite is a common mineral in serpentine in
n , = 1.509 to 1.527 both coarsely crystalline and microcrystalline varieties.
nw = 1. 700 t o 1. 726
SIDERITE
Opt. (-)
FeC0 3 Hexagol1lt[
(Rhomboh edral subsys t (' Ill )

n, = 1.596 t o 1.G33
nw = ] .830 to 1.875
Opt. (-)

FIG. 12-6. ( X20) Bancleu magn esite with a crystal pattern. A thin
quartz vein cuts the magneSite.

Color. Colorless.
Form. Magnesite usually occurs in anhedral to su bhedral crystal ag-
gregates. The porcelain-like microcrystalline variety has a grain size on
the order of l iL. Euhedral crystals are exceedingly rare.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral {lOll } as in calcite, dolomite, and CO IOI', III Il li ll s('d i() lI s il is ('o lor l(·ss 10 g r :ly lI lid III:ly 1)(' y t· I\() wi sll III'
browlI ill sp()l s Oil III(' I 'd g,'s , ' 1'11< 1 III'()W II spol s llro dill ' I() Idl (·l'II lioli .
siderite except in the microcrystalline variety.

....
216 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 217
Form. Siderite occurs in fine to coarse aggregates of anhedral to eu- I
hedral crystals and sometimes shows oolitic, spherulitic, or colloform 'y

structure.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral {lOll} as in calcite, dolomite, and
magnesite. 1
Relief. Varies somewhat on rotation. The relief is high when the long 1 '1[1 ' 1 I I 010. - - ,
diagonal is parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol and moderate II ~c-x( I
when the short diagonal is in this position. In both positions the index of /' I II -1 1 1
1 I

refraction is greater than balsam. IIIXo

Birefringence. Exh'eme, nUl - n £ = 0.234 to 0.242. Interference colors
are pearl gray (white of high order). Blighter colors may show on the
edge of the slide. a
Extinction. Symmetrical to cleavage traces. FIG. 12-8. Orientation diagram of aragon ite. Section parallel to (001).
Twinning. Twin lamellae parallel to the long diagonal [twin-plane =
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
{0112}] are occaSionally observed.
Form. Aragonite usually shows a columnar or fibrous structure. Cross
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial negative with
sections are six-sided.
numerous rings.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to the length of the crystals (010 facc).
Distinguishing Features. Siderite very much resembles the other
Relief. Varies with the direction; the relief is low when the columns or
rhombohedral carbonates but may often be distinguished by the brown
fibers are parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol and high whcli
stain around the borders of the grains and along cleavage cracks. The
these are normal to this direction. Basal sections show no change of relief
index of refraction in all positions is greater than that of balsam; in cal-
since n/3 is about the same as ny.
cite, dolomite, and magnesite the index of refraction n e is less than that
of balsam.
Occurrence. The chief occurrence of siderite is in veins or replacement
deposits with quartz as a common associate. Siderite also is a prominent
mineral in some bauxites. It is the principal mineral of septarian clay
ironstone concretions. Siderite is a prominent mineral in the oolitic iron-
stones of England as an associate of chamosite. It is a secondary mineral
in the cavities of some basalts.

Aragonite Group

Orthorhombic carbonates of Ca, Ba, Sr, and Pb form an isomorphous

group containing the minerals aragonite, witherite, strontianite, and
cerussite.
ARAGONITE

CaC0 3 Orthorhombic
(Pseudo hexagonal) FIG. 12-9. ( X 22 ) Euhedral ara gonile wilh j101ysy nlh cli (; lwinning. ( X ni co ls. )
n", = 1.530
nf3 = 1.682 Birefringence. Ex trc lIl C, lIy II " - 0. 156. Ililnkrc li ce co lors pen d

n)' = 1.686 gray (\V l lil( ' or [II(' lli g h ord('r ); hri g lil('r colors 1I"'y sll()w Oil thill t·d g(·s
2 V = 18°; Opt. ( -) :llId :doll g ('r:l('ks.
a = f3 or Y , b = 'Y or Z, c = a or X .I ~x tilll: tioll. PlIl'ldl( '1 10 ( ' I vs l ll is (II ' ( ·"IIIIIIII S.
218 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES: AN D PHOSPHATES 219
C
Twinning. Fairly common [twin-plane = {IlO}] both as twin lamellae
and as contact and peneh'ation twins.
!
Interference Figure. Basal fOOl} sections of aragonite give a negative
/ I±ftfB'o'lJ I I *t+t
O
biaxial interference figure with a small axial angle. The axial plane is . ) --b
{lOO}, Dispersion, l' < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Aragonite greatly resembles calcite but lacks
the rhombohedral cleavage. It is biaxial, whereas calcite is uniaxial.
Alteration. Aragonite alters easily to calcite, which is the stable form of FIG. 12-11. Orientation diagram of barite. See tiun parall el to (100).
calcium carbonate.
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Usually in granular aggregates, but the individual crystals may
be elongate,
Cleavage. In three directions, p arallel to fOOl} and {IlO} and there-
fore at angles of 90 0 and 78 0 .
Relief. Fairly high, n> balsam,
Birefringence. Rather weak, n-y - na = 0.012, slightly greater than
that of quartz. The maximum interference color is rarely above first-ord cr
yellow or orange. The interference colors are frequently mottled .

FIG. 12-10. ( X20) A portion of a radial aggregate of aragonite crystals. ( X nieols.)

Occurrence. The most common occurrence of aragonite is probably

as a secondary mineral in cavities of basalts and andesites. It also occurs
in seams of limestones, sandstones, and occasionally in veinlets. It was
probably a widespread original constituent of sediments but has since
been altered to calcite. It is also found in some metamorphic rocks.

SULFATES
About 150 sulfate compounds are found in nature. Among these a few
common species have been selected for optical description. Descriptions
Flc . 12-12. ( X 45 ) Barite (bladed) with calcite in Iimc slull c.
of sulfates of less common occurrence should be sought in reference
books,
BARITE Extinction, Parallel to thc bcs t clcavagc {001 }. Th e cxtin ction in {OOi I
BaS04 Ort horhombic sections is symmctrical.
na = 1.636 Orientalion. Th e direclioll or lh e b cs L clea va ge is th e slower ray .
n~ = 1.G:n Twinnillg. Po lysy "lht'li c Iwilillili g wiL h {I IO} as Lil(:: Lwill -pia llt: is
n 1' = 1.648 (l('casioll:tlly fOl lll d .
2V = 36° to 373-2° ; Opt. (+ ) 11111'1'('('1'('11('(' I'iglll'('. S"I 'I i llll ~ ('III pIll'ldl ('1 lo (IOO} g i vI' II positivo bi -

(t = 'Y or 7"b = (:J or Y, r; = (~ or X II xilll illlor('( II'OII('O li g lll'() IVl tll II 11111111 '1'111 0 II xlll l II l1g ll ' (Fl g ll1'O 8-30) ,
220 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATE S 221
Cleavage plates parallel to fOOl} give an obtuse bisectrix figure. The
axial plane is {010 } . Dispersion, l' < v weak.

\
••
'"

FIG. 12-15. ( X20) Interlocking crystals of celestite. ( X nicols.)

Color. Colorless in thin sections.

FlG. 12-13. ( x 20 ) Plumose pattern of barite crystals. ( X nicols. ) Form. Euhedral to anhedral crystals, sometimes fin e granular. Euhcdra l
crystals are mostly tabular parallel to fOOl } and elongated in th e dir N ' -
Distinguishing Features. Barite greatly resembles celestite, but the tion of the b-axis [010] .
axial angle is smaller. It may b e necessary to determine refractive indices Cleavage. Perfect p arallel to fOOl }, imperfect p arallel to {UO}.
carefully or to make chemical tests in order to distinguish them. Relief. Fair, 11, > b alsam.
Occurrence. Barite is a prominent vein mineral; the common associates Birefringence. Ra th er weak, 11,)' - 11,a = 0.009, the same as that of
are quartz and calcite. It also occurs in limes tones and sandston es and is quartz, so that the high est interference color is white or straw yell ow.
prominent in some concretions, but it is rare as a strictly rock-forming Extinction. Parallel to th e outlines and to th e cleavage.
mineral. Orientation. The elongation of tabular crystals is parallel to th e slow('r
ray.
CELESTITE
Interference Figure. Sections cut p arallel to {100} give a positive hi-
8r80 4 Orthorhombic axial interference fi gure with moderate axial angle. Clcavage' plaks
n" = 1.622 p arallel to fOOl} give an obtuse bisectrix figure. The axial plane is (0 10) .
n~ = 1.624 Dispersion, l' < v.
n oy = 1.631 Distinguishing Features. Celestite very much resembles h arite, hil i
2V = 51°; Op t. (+) the axial angle is larger.
a = l' or Z, b = (3 or Y, C = a or X Occurrence. Celes tite usually occurs in sedim entary lim es ton es, wlH'J'C
c it is probably more common than b arite.
! A NII YDIUTE

010 CnS O~ O rth orh Olllhlu

y
. ~-=.1~ -- b '11 " = I.mo
II Ii l .fi76
/l oy J.(i 1"
:~ I ' U O; Opl. . ( I )
FIc. 12-14. Orientatiun diagmm of celestite. Section panillcl to (100) . (I, 01 ' 'h , II rJ (II' l' , (; II' or .'I
222 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 223
c
I

010

y ':l:±= I) - b

x
I
FIG. 12-16. Orienta tion diagram of anhydrite . Section parallel to (loa).

Color. Colorless in thin sections.

Form. Usually fine to medium-grained aggregates or anhedral to sub-
hedral crystals, which are sometimes elongate. Euhedral crystals are rare. a
It also occurs as inclusions in halite.
Cleavage. In three directions at right angles parallel to {100}, {010},
and {ool}. It may also show parting parallel to {101 } which is due to
twinning.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam. Some sections show a slight change ot
relief when the stage is rotated.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n IX = 0.044. The interference colors range
up to about third-order green.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage traces.
Twinning. Polysynthetic t",rinning with {101 } as twin-plane is common.
The twinning lamellae show best on the (010) face and make an angle
of 42 0 and 48 0 with the cleavage traces. There may be two sets of twin
lamellae (101 ) and (101) intersecting at angles of 83 Y2 0 and 96 Yz o.
Interference Figure. Cleavage fragments and sections parallel to {100}
give a biaxial positive interference figure with a moderate axial angle.
The axial plane is {01O} . Dispersion, f < v. b
Distinguishing Features. Anhydrite is distinguished from gypsum by FIG. 12-17 a,". ( X 20) A crystalline aggregate of anhydrite with rcduli gul ar C I C llVIII ~("
higher relief and sh'onger birefringence. The rectangular pseudocubic (a) Ordinary illu mina tion. (b) X nicols.
cleavage is distinctive.
Alteration. Between grains and along vein lets anhydrite is often altered GYPSUM
to gypsum, and anhydrite may be found as remn ants within gypsum. CaS0 4. 2II 2 0 MOll oe liu iu
Occurrence. Anhydrite occurs in sedimentary beds. It is often en- (3 =- ~ O O /I ')/
countered in deep drilling but near the surface is usually altered to na = 1. 520
gypsum. It often occurs with halite an d is common in salt mines. In salt 1l ~ = 1.522
domes it is often found as cap rock. Metamorphic anhydrite rock is II .., - 1.!i2!J
found at the Nevada-Douglas mine, Lyon County, Nevada. It is occ~­ ~ I' GHo; Op l..(I- )
sioRally encountered in veins formed at depth. Ii (J i ll ' ) ', ( ' /\ f1' 01' .\' I ;i7 ° ~H'

_I
224 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, A ND PHOSPHATES 225
Orientation. Cleavage b'aces are parallel to both slower and faster rays
since b = (3 or Y.
Twinning. The polysynthetic twinning often found in thin sections of
gypsum is produced by heating the section.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with a
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is {01O} . Dispersion, l' > v. Sec-
tions parallel to (010) give a "flash figure."
Distinguishing Features. Gypsum is easily distinguished from anhy-
drite by lower relief and weaker birefringence.
Occurrence. Gypsum is the chief constituent of gypsum rock, which
in most cases has been form ed by the hydration of anhydrite. Anhydrite
may occur in the gypsum as a relict mineral. Gypsum occurs in veinlets
and between grains of anhydrite. Other commonly associated minerals are
calcite, dolomite, and halite.
POLYHALlTE

K 2MgCa2(S04) 4.2H 20 Triclinic

FIG. 12-18. Orientation diagram of gypsum. Section parallel to (010). La = 92°20'
Lf3 = 123°4'
L'Y = 88°21'
na = 1.548
n fj= 1.562
n'Y = 1.567
2V = ca. 70°; Opt . (-)
(Optical orientat ion unknown)

FIG. 12-19. ( X 18) Gypsum in gyp sum rock. ( X nicols.)

Color. Colorless in thin sections.

Form. Gypsum usually occurs in anhedral to subhedral aggregates and
is often uneven grain ed. It sometimes shows a fibrous structure.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OlO}, imperfect parallel to {100}
and {Ill} . (100) 1\ (101) = 66°10'.
Relief. Low, n slightly < balsam. F,c. 12-20. ( X 15) Poiyh:1 i ill' si l()willg jloi y'y "Ij,('li c Lwi lilling ~ nd v: lli :,Lioil ill pig-
1111'111. ( X IIit·ok)
Birefringence. Rather weak, 11.)' - no: = 0.009 (the same as that of
quartz) . The highest interference color is white or straw ycllow. Sections Color. Co lori( 'sS to 1'('(ldisl, ill Il l i" s('('(io ll s. '('li e I'cdJisl1 ('0101' is dll o 10
with the highest interference color do not usually show any cleavage. 11('111 : 11 il i(' l'i g lll ('1I1.
Extinction. Pa.rallel to th e b est cleavage in sections normal to (010). l'Ol'lli. I 'o ly il l ti i i( ' ,~ IIII W" 1', i" ill"I ," ' III ' I l hl'O II ~ S IIII('IIII'( '.

..
226 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, A ND PHOSPHATES 227
Cleavage. Parallel to (100) and parting parallel to (010).
Relief. Low, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - ncr = 0.019. The intederence colors
range up to second-order blue.
Extinction. Oblique.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning with (OlO) as the twin-plane is very
common.
Intederence Figure. The intederence figure is biaxial negative with a
rather large axial angle, but it may be difficult to obtain on account of
the small size of the crystals.

F lc. 12-22. ( X 60) Alunite in an alunite vein . ( X nicols.)

Cleavage. Fair cleavage in one direction {000l}.

Relief. Fair, n > b alsam. When the stage is rotated th ere is a slig lll
change of relief.
Birefringence. Moderate, n . - nO) = 0.020; th e interferencc colors
range up to second-order blue.
Extinction. Parallel or symmetrical in most sections. Basal scctions art'
dark in all positions.
Orientation. Crystals and cleavage traccs are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a positive unicL'::ial intcrfercII C'''
FIG. 12-21. (X20) Twinn ed crystals of polyhalitc in a gran ular aggregate. ( X nicols.) figure.
Distinguishing Features. Poly h alite may resemble gypsum, but both Related Minerals. Natroalunite, the sodium analogue of alunilc, is
its refractive indices and birefringence are higher. It is decomposed by very similar to alunite in its properties .
water with the separation of microchemical gypsum. Occurrence. Alunite occurs as a hydrothermal alteration prodll cl or
Occurrence. Polyhalite occurs in saline beds; the common associates rhyolites, dacites, and andesites. It is also prominent as a vein min e ral.
are halite, sylvite, magnesite, and anhydrite. In the West Texas-New
JAROSITE
Mexico Permian b asin it is an alteration product of anhydrite according
to Schaller and H enderson. KFe~II(OH) 6 (S04 ) 2 TTcxftJz;o lllll
ALUNITE
(llhomhohpdrnl HlrllHYHI""I )

KAI 3 (OH) 6(804) 2 Hexagonal n, = 1.715

(Rhombohedral subsystem) nw = 1.820
nw = 1.572 Op t.. ( - )
n, = 1.592 Color. Colorl css to hrown in lhin sections.
Opt. (+) Form . J:lros ile OCC III"S ill c rys l;rl agg rega les :l lltl occasioll a ll y ill ('Iril('d n ri
Color. Colorless in thin sections. c rys l';r1s, wlliell ; 11'(' Silllil;lr I n ,llose or ;Iirlllil e, for ,llese !.\\' O IIli lH'r;r1s 11 1' ( '

Form. Alunite usually shows fine to coarse aggrcga tes. Crystals vary isol11o rplloll s.
from tabular to pseudocubic rhombohcdral (rr' = 90°50'). C ll' UVII~(" l)islllH'1 d( 'I1VIII'.I' II, lilli ' d lrl '('li (l 1l {OOOll .
228 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 229
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. Color. Nearly colorless to neutral in thin sections.
Birefringence. Extreme, nw - no = 0.105. Form. Monazite occurs in euhedral crystals, which are usually very
Extinction. Parallel or symmetrical. Basal sections are dark in all posi- small.
tions. Cleavage. Parting parallel to {Om} is often prominent.
Orientation. Difficult to test on account of the extreme birefringence. Relief. Very high, n > balsam.
Interference Figure. Tabular crystals give a negative uniaxial figure Birefringence. Strong to very strong, ny - n" = 0.049 to 0.051. The
with many rings. maximum interference color is upper third or lower fourth order. Cross
Related Minerals. N atrojarosite, N aFe 3 ( OR) 6 ( S04) 2; ammoniojaro- sections of crystals have very weak birefringence since n il - n" 0.001 =
site NR4Fe3(OR) 6(S04)2; plumbojarosite PbFeG (OR)dS04)4; and to 0.002. The mineral may be metamict with low birefringence.
argentojarosite AgFe3 (OR) G (SO'J) 2 are all very similar to jarosite.
Alteration. Jarosite alters readily to limonite.
Occurrence. Jarosite is a rather common mineral in the lower oxidized
zone of ore deposits. It is occasionally found in volcanic igneous rocks,
perhaps as a late hydrothermal mineral.
.: .
"""'-,

PHOSPHATES

Many phosphate minerals are found in small concentrations in pegma-

tites, in metallic mineral deposits, and as minor rock constituents. The
minerals described constihlte the more abundant species.

MONAZITE

(Ce,L ~~,N cl,Pr)P04 Monoclinic

n~
1.786 to 1.800
ncr
1.788 t o 1.801
L{3 = 76°6'

• I I

n.." = 1.837 to 1.849 ~. ~

217 = 6° to 19° ; Opt . (+) ~

b ex or X, c 1\ l' 0[' Z = - 2° to - tOO F lc. 12-24. ( X 19) Monazite crystals in quartz matrix.

c
Extinction. Longitudinal sections have a small extinction angle (2 lo
z· I, 00\ 10° ). Sections parallel to {001} do not show complete extinction.
Orientation. Crystals are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive wilh :l
small axial angle. The axial plane is normal to {01O}. Disp ersion slroll!-(,
-, ----y l' < v.
l~b = X::= Distinguishing Features. Monazite is more like sphene than any CO tn -
0 ----
~
mon mineral, but its birefringence is not so high , Since it usual ly COII -
tains thor ium it is radioactive and even in thin section will an-ect a scnsi -
live Gei ger countcr.
100
--- Occurrence. Mon:lzile 0('('1Irs in pcg1l1atitcs, granite, :lIlel Ili ay llc fOlllHI
ill veills. It is a de lril :d 111i11( 'l'lil :111(1 IlIlIy hn fOlllld ill all(:ic llt s('dilll('l1 -
IlIl'y sl)':iI ;l ())' ill YOIIII !.!('I' Sl lll(l s,
I" " ,. I ~', !.\: I, ()"" lIl l tli n ll di ngll ltl' of' tll OII II>: il (', S('ct illil p:tr:t1I ,'1 III ( (lIO ).

II,
230 MINERAL DE SCRIPTION S CARBO NATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES 231
APATITE

3Ca 3(P0 4hCaF 2 Hexagonal

(Hexagonal subsystem)
n, = 1.630 to I.G51
nw = ] .G:):) to ] .G55
Opt. (-)

F IG. 12-26. ( X20) Apatite crystals in approximately uniform orientation. ( X nico1s.)

Occurrence. Apatite is a common minor accessory mineral of prac-

tically all igneous rocks. In the opinion of Tolman and Rogers, it is a late
magmatic mineral and not an early one. It also occurs in pegmatites, in
some high-temperature veins, irr metamorphic limestones and is also
prominent in some iron ores.
FIG. 12-25. ( X30) Apatite crystals in igneous rocks.
DAHL LITE
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Apatite is usually found as minute six-sided prismatic crystals. 3Ca3(P0 4) 2. CaC0 3 Hexago na i
It is a common and widely distribu ted mineral but usually occurs in small (Hexagona l 8 11h8Y8 1.1' 1II )

amounts. (See Figure 8-22. ) n, = 1.619 to l.626

Cleavage. Imperfect basal {000l} shown as cross fractures. Larger
crystals may show imperfect cleavage parallel to the length {IOIO}.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Weak, nO) - n , = 0.003 to 0.004. The interference colors
are first-order gray to white. Cross sections are d ark between crossed
nicols .
Extinction. Parallel.
Orientation. The crystals are usually length-fast, but crystals of tabular
habit are length-slow.
Interference Figure. Basal sections are usually too small to give good
interference fi gures.
Distinguishing Features. Apatite is distinctive. The only common min-
eral that closely resembles it is dahllite, which occurs as a secondary
mineral in cavities and seams associated with collophane.
Related Minerals. Wilkeite, a rare mineral of the apatite group with
the sulfate radical; voelckerite or oxy-apatite; fermorite, sb'ontian apatite,
l1nd ell cstadite are similar to apatite in physical properties.
"
n., = l. 623 t o l. 635
Opt . (-)
Color. Colorless to pale brown or gray in thin sections.
Form. Dahllite occurs in minute hexagonal crystals, in crusts wilil
banded subradiating structure, in spherulites, and in fine-grain ed aggn '-
gates forming concretions or sedimentary rocks.
Relief. Moderate, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Weak, nO) - n , = 0.004 to 0.009. Intcrferencc colors ;I re
bluish gray to white of the first order.
Extinction. Parallel. Cross scctions arc dark between crossed ni cois,
but occasionally they may show biaxial sectors.
Orientation. Prismatic crys lals arc lenglh-fasl likc a patile. Th e COllllllliS
of crtl sls ancl flh ers of sp il (' l'I!iil ('s are also len glh -fa st. Scc liolls of Lalll!i :II:
crystals arc le ngth-siow.
Interference Figure. Bllsll i :i \; (: li(),, ~ nro usually loo :-;rnull to givo goou
interferenco flglll'os.
232 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES
233

a a

b
FIG. 12-27 a,b. ( X 60) A crust of dahllite showin g banding and fiber texture. (a i FIG. 12-28 a,b. ( X 20 ) D ahll ite and collophane in phosphate rock. (0 ) Ol'd1 l1 1l1 Y
Ordinary illumination. (b) The same view with X nicols. illumination. (b) D ahllitc (white ) and collophane (black ) in the sa llie Vil'W wil l,
X nicols.

Distinguishing Features. Dahllite is much like apatite, but it is always COLLOl'HANE

a secondary mineral. To make certain of its identity it may be necessary
3C a 3(P0 4) 2.n Ca(C0 3,F 2,0) (II 2 0) x Mi ll( 'rll,loid
to try the solubility of isolated particles of the mineral.
Related Minerals. Francolite is a closely related mineral. n = 1. .')7 Lo 1.(;2
Occurrence. Dahllite occurs as a secondary mineral in phosphorite or
so-called phosphate rock. The usual associate is collophane. The dahlJite AmorphOll S c: i1 c illll1 c: 11'1)( )110phosph :1l0 is I lsll :dly cOlIsic1( 'I'( 'd 10 1)(' II
has probably been form ed by the gra dual crys tallizalion of th c collophan e 1l1:1ss iVQ 1'(11'111 01' :lpa l il (', 1>111 il is dislill cl iv( ' "11(1 sll()(dd 1)(' li skd sq Hl-
and by the mi gration of so me of lh e calcium phosphate. rn l (' ly liS (l 111i1 1('l'lI loid .
234 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES
235
It also occurs as a deh'ital mineral in beach sands of the South Atlantic
states according to J. H. C. Martens.

LAZULITE

AI 2 (M g,Fe; (OII)z (P0 4)z Monoclinic

L{3 = 88°
n" = 1. 603 t o 1. 604
n f3 = 1. 632 t o 1.633
n .., = 1.639 t o 1. 642
2V = ca. 69° ; Op t. (-)
b = {3 or Y , c 1\ a or X = + 9°

F Ic . 12-29. ( X 18) Collophane in oolitic phosp horite. (Both thc matrix and the ooliths
are collophane.)

Color. Usually light to dark brown, yellowish brown, gray, etc. , in thin
sections, but occasionally it is colorless.
Form. Collophane is usually massive but may be oolitic or colloform,
in grains and fragments. It often shows the organic structure of bones,
molluscs , brachiopods, crinoids, bryozoans, or corals.
Cleavage. Absent. Irregular fracture m ay show on ed ges of the slide.
Relief. Moderate, n > b alsam. The index of refraction is variable, but
it is usually 1.60 to 1.61.
Birefringence. Usually isotropic but may show weak form-birefringence
(up to 0.005). Pseudospherulitic stru cture (concentric instead of fibrous
elements) sometimcs shows.
Orientation. Birefrin gent areas may be length-slow or length-fast.
Distinguishing Features. Some specimens of collophane resemble opal,
but the refractive index of th e latter is always less than that of balsam.
Oolitic chamosite resembles oolitic collophane.
Alteration. Collophane is often more or less replaced by calcite. Re-
placement by quartz, chalcedony, or opal is very rare. In some specimens
dahllite seems to b e fannin g at the exp ense of collophane.
Occurrence. In sedimentary phosphatic limestones, in phosphorites or
so-called phosphate rocks as the chi ef constituent, and in phosphate
nodules. It is the dominant mineral of fossil bone, in which the micro-
structure of the original bone is usually preserved. In fossil bone it has
been fonned by phosphatic enrichment. In invertebrate fossils it has b een
formed by enrichment in the case of phosphatic brachiopods such as
Lingula, but in most cases by the replacement of original calcarcous
organisms.
a
FIc . 12-30. Oricntation diagram of lazulitc . Section p arallel to (010) .
Color. Blue to colorless in thin sections. Some sections are p lcochroi c
from blue to colorless. Axial colors : a or X = colorless; f1 or Y = aZil J'('
blue; y or Z = azure blue.
Form. L azulite is occasion ally found in euhedral crys tals of hipy ralll -
idal habit but it usually occurs in anhedra.
Cleavage. Indistinct p arallel to {llO}.
Relief. Fairly high, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n" = 0.036 to 0.038, so th at th c maximllill
interference color is upper second or lower third order.
Extinction. Oblique.
Orientation. The lon g diagonal of th e crystal scctions is th c fa ste r ray ,
Twinning. Polysynth etic twinning is common . Twin -ax is = [00 I I.
Interference Figure. Th e fi gure is biaxial negative with a large :l xi:tl
angle. Th e axial pl anc is {0l0 }. Disp ersion , T < v .
Distinguishing F eatures. Lazulitc is practi cally th c only bIli o plcoc:ilroir.
min eral with strong hirefrin gence.
Occurrence. As i':1l' :IS kiIO W II , b '/. lllile is co nfin ed lo nl c l:lnlol'pld l;
rocks. I t oce llI'S ill q" :lrl '/. il ('<,; :llld ill qll :lrl '/. v(' ill s. 'I'l l(' II SII : ti :lss ()(' i:il ('s
:lro <jll:lrl '!., I'lIlil (" ('O l'llll<illlll, p)' l'() pl,)' lIil< " k),: "til (" II lld II lld;tllls il (\
 SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 237
while tridymite and cristobalite are on occasion widely distributed in
volcanic rocks .
In respect to physical propertics the silica minerals may be placed in
two groups. Quartz and chalcedony have refractive indices near balsam
CHAPTER 13 THE SILICA MINERALS AND MINERALOIDS

Mineral Crystal system Indices of refraction

Silicates: Framework Structures (Tectosilicates)
Quartz .. . Hexagonal nw = 1 . 5442, n, .5533, n, - nw = 0 .009
Chalcedony . Aggregates na = 1.531, n-y .539, n-y - na = 0 . 008
Opal . Mineraloid n = 1. 40- 1.46
FELDSPARS FELDSPA THoms Tridymite. Pseudoh exagonal na 1 .469, n-y 473, n-y - ncr = 0 . 004
SILICA GROUP
L eucite Cristobalite .... .. Pseudoisometric n cr 1 .484, n-y .487, n-y - ncr = 0 . 003
Quartz Alkali Feldspars
Nepheline Lechatelierite. Amorphous n = 1.458- 1 .462
a-Quartz Orthoclase
,B-Quartz Adularia Cancrinite
Sanidine Sodalite and birefringence of about 0.009; the other four have lower indices of
Chalcedony
Microcline Haiiyne refraction and weaker birefringence, which reaches nil in lechatelieritc
Opal
Anorthoclase Melilite and usually in opal.
Tridymite
Plagioclase SCAPOLITE GROUP Chalcedony always occurs in aggregates of some sort, and consequently
Clistobalite
Albite ZEOLITES the optical properties are not completely known.
Lechatelierite
Oligoclase Analcime On h eating quartz there is a sudden change in the properties and
Coesite
Andesine H eulandite crystallization at about 573 a C from the trigonal trapezohedral class to
Labradorite Stilbite the hexagonal trapezohedral class. The low-temp erature form is called
Bytownite Chabazite a-quartz or low quartz and the high-temperature form ,B-quartz or high
Anorthite Natrolite quartz . The quartz of some igneous rocks was ,B-quartz at the time of its
Mesolite formation but on cooling inverted to a-quartz. Similar changes take place
Thompsonite on h eating tridymite and cristobalite. The stability range of the various
Scolecite
Q Q
..., R>
The tectosilicates form the largest and probably the most important of ex-Quartz r:; fJ-Quartz ~
the six-structural divisions among the silicates. The Si0 4 groups of this o
.

(:5'__:!'2·t!f."!.i!!_~o_o _________ J1- Tridymite

0 I -------~ ~
1 "-
: ~
series form a continuous thTee-dimensional framework. Cl It) 1
The silica group is frcquently included among the oxides as listed in ~ -"!!!.~c!!!qj'!.e_ 3- ~ ___ f!.. -J!'/~c!!!l!!i!.!- - - - - - - - - - - - 1~ --/, I
•
i
Chapter 11. However, quartz forms a large molecule in which each sili- ________ _ ____ __ _ ~'l!!£Pf!!~ ____________ l.--- Liquid
con has four single covalent bonds to oxygen. Each oxygen in turn is
attached to two silicons. While the empirical formula is Si0 2 the term -273 0 1000 2000
"silicon dioxide" is really a misnomer. Although quartz is classed struc- Degrees, Centigrade
turally as a tectosilicate, several other members are included with quartz FTC . 13-1. Dia gram to show the relations b etwccn the variu ll s form s uf silica. (Afll'l'
Sosman.)
to avoid separation of the silica group.
silica min erals is shown in th e dia gram or Fi gm c '13-1. Th e inversioll 1( ' 111 -
SILICA GROUl.' peralure of qll~u"lz by careflll IIl('aS III"('III ('lIl \i;I S h('('11 s hO\v lI by '1' 11111(,
(194.9 ) lo vary as nllleJl liS I ,!)()" (: , 1,0\\1('1' ill ve rsiOIl lClll lwraltlr("s ('0 1'-
Silica occms in nahll'C in six distinct min erals and min c:raloi ds as listed
bclow. Thc first thrcc arc co mmon ; lechatcli crile (silica glass) is rare, rolalo wil h higlwr I OIlIP( ' I'II III1' I '~ 01 \,,, 1IllIlioJl.
2:)0
238 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Chalcedony and opal are low-temperature minerals. Quartz has a con-
siderable temperature range. Tridymite and cristobalite also have a rather
large temperature range. The two latter occur almost exclusively in vol-
canic igneous rocks and in all probability h ave b een formed by hot gases
at the close of the magmatic period.
Qualtz crystals measuring several inches across may be grown on small
seed crystals in an autoclave. A solution of sodium carbonate is em-
ployed in a sealed system at about 350° C to b'ansfer silica from frag-
mented quartz in one chamber to the chamber containing seed crystals.
The dissolving chamber is about lOoC high er in temperature.
Hale and Hurlbut (1949) greyv a quartz crystal on a quartz sphere at
temperatures of 376° C (top) and 397° C (bottom) in an autoclave. The
pressure was estimated at 700 atm.
a -QUARTZ
Si0 2 (Low Quartz)
(Rhombohedral subsystem)
nw = 1.5442
n, = 1.5533
Opt. (+)
FIG. 13-2. FIG. 13-3.
FIG. 13-2. ( x 25) Quartz grain s in sandstone. ( X nieols.)
FIG. 13-3. ( X 10) Graphic intergrowth of i3-quartz and feldspar. ( X nicols. )
Color. Colorless in thin sections. It often contains inclusions.
Form. Quartz occurs in euhedral prismatic crystals, in veinlets, dis-
seminated grains, and as replacement anhedra. It may be inter grown
with orthoclase or microcline (graphic granite) and with plagioclase in
vermicular forms ( myrmekite ). It often occurs as a late interstitial
mineral. Qumtz is common as pseudomorphs after other minerals.
Cleavage. Usually absent, but it sometimes shows on the edge of th e
slide. The cleavage is imperfect rhombohedral {lOll}, almost rectangular
in favorable sections since n J = 85°46'.
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES ) 239
Relief. Very low, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak, n e - nw = 0.009; thin sections 0.03 mm
thick show as a maximum, first-order white interference color with a
slight tinge of yellow. Quartz is very useful in determining the thickness
of any slide in which it occurs.
Extinction. Parallel in euhedral crystals and symmetrical to cleavage
traces . Basal sections are dark in all positions. Irregular and wavy extinc-
tion due to strain is common. Vein quartz often shows peculiar structures
such as flamboyant, feathered, lamellar, etc. Secondary enlm"gements of
quartz grains are common in sandstones and quartzites.
Orientation. The position of the slower ray marks the b"ace of the
c-axis. Euhedral crystals are therefore length-
slow.
Twinning. Although twinning is common in
quartz, it rarely shows in thin sections.
Hexagonal Interference Figure. Basal sections of ordi-
nary thickness give a uniaxial positive figure
without any rings. The interference figure of
thick sections (greater than 1 mm) has a
weak or hollow center on account of rotary FIG. 13-4. ( X 10) Quarl;-o
polarization. crystals with graphic 0 11 L-
lin es surrounded by mi cro-
Occasionally quartz gives a biaxial figure cline. ( X nicols).
with 2V as high as 10°.
Distinguishing Features. Quartz is usually easy to determine on ac-
count of its lack of alteration, absence of cleavage except p erh aps on the
edge of the section, and absence of twinning. CordieIite may be mistake n
for it, but cordierite is biaxial. Beryl resembles quartz in thin secliolls
but is length-fast and optically negative. Some varieties of scapolite a Iso
resemble quartz, but they are optically negative, length-fast, and havo
cleavage. Chalcedony has aggregate structure.
. Alteration. Quartz is less affected by alteration than almost any othcl"
mineral, but it sometimes shows slight replacement by sericite, by p)'l"0-
phyllite, and rarely by t alc.
Occurrence. Quartz is a ubiquitous mineral. It is found in man)' rock
types as an essential, accessory, or secondary mineral. It is csp cc i:dly
abundant in sandstones, arkoses, sands, quartzites, granites, rll)'o lil cs,
and gneisses . In many igneous rocks it is a secondary min cral in Sf':lIl1 S
and eavitics. Qu artz is the most com mon of all vein min crals. ft OCCIII'S
as a replacc ment of other minerals and as a rc placc rn cll t of wood lI lId
calcareous ross il s.
Quo.rlzis ono of th o most ('(l lllIII OIl del rilall nill ornk
240 MIN ERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 241
{3-QUARTZ

Si0 2 (High Quartz) Hexagonal

(Hexagonal subsystem )

The quartz appearing as phenocrysts in rhyolites and quartz porphyries

is the high-temperature form known as {3-quartz. It has formed above
573° C.; and the low-temperature form called a-quartz b elow 573°C. On
cooling, the {3-quartz inverts to the a-form, so that all quartz examined
in thin sections is now tt-quar tz. Th e habit of ,a-quartz is usually different
from that of the a-form. A hexagonal dipyramid ( the symmetry is AG. 6A2)
predominates, and the pris m face is subordin ate, whereas in the a-form
the prism predomin ates.
As shown by Dru gman, th e twinnin g laws of {3-quartz are different
from those of a-quartz, but twinnin g rarely shows in thin sections.
a
CHALCEDONY

Si0 2 Aggregates
[Hexagonal (?)]

nw = 1. 53 1
n, = 1.539

F IG. 13-5. F IG. 13-6.

F IG. 13-5. ( X 10) Radial chalcedony showin g a portion of a polarization cross.
( X nicols. )
FIG . 13-6. ( X 8) Banded chalccdony showin g both salt and pcpper structure and
radial layers. ( X nicols.)
Color. Colorless to pale brown in thin sections and often bluish white
by reflected light.
Form. Chalcedony usually occurs as a cavity filling or lining that is
often sph erulitic as a replacement of fossils, as cementin g materi al, and
in massive form.
Relief. Low, n about the same as that of b alsam, eith er slightly lower
or slightly greater.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" = 0.008, practically the same as
that of qu artz. Chalcedony always shows aggregate Sb'll cture b etween
FIG. 13-7 a,b. ( X 20) A p ortion of a vcsicle fill ed with silica : ( a ) ordina ry ill II II "" 11
tion, and (b ) thc same area ( X nicols ) showin g granular rlu <lrtz Slll'I'o llll(l, ." by
chalcedony aggrcga tcs.
crossed nicols. This often takes on a sph erulitic form with the splwl'ldili ('
cross prominent in many cases .
Extinction. Parall el to th e length o[ th e fibers.
Orientation. Th e flhers arc usually lengLlI -fast, Imt in ma ny cas('s 111 (,),
a rc len glh -s·low. Th e fj bel'S of CO J1 CC II t ri c ZOIi CS a 1'(, of len a h en 1;1 t ely slow
and fa st.
Disl ill gllisllillg Feallll'l' .~ . '1'1 1( ' i1 ggrq~; I l< ' SII'lI (' l l lr(' with opt ieal prop( 'r-
ti( 's v( 'ry (·Iose to those' of qll !lll i'. i ~ dislitl('l iv( ' for (·II:ti ccdoll),. ' 1'11 0
242 MINERAL DESCRIPTION S
SILICATES: F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECT OSILICATES)
243
minerals most likely to b e mistaken for chalcedony are probably gibbsite
and dahllite, but in both of these the relief in balsam or clove oil is
distinctly higher.
Occurrence. Chalcedony is a secondaq mineral in the cavities of
igneous rocks and is often associated with quartz, opal, and the zeolites.
It also occurs in sedimentary limestone in nodules and b ands and as a
replacement of calcareous fossils. Chalcedony is the principal constituent
of cherts and jaspers. It occurs in diatomite as a replacement of opal.
The temperature ran ge of chalcedony secms to be lower than that of
quartz .
OPAL

Si0 2 (H 2 0) x Mineraloid
n = 1.40 to 1.46
(usually ca. 1.45)

F I G. 13-9. ( X20 ) Crenulated ban ding in opal.

~ ,.
-•. 1
>fIo,
'" ..~.,
• • : "... f!,,~

FIG. 13-8. ( X 65 ) Collofonn opal with infilled chalcedony.

Like other mineraloids opal is variable in its properties.
Color. Colorless to pale gray or brown in thin sections.
F orm. Opal is often found in colloform crusts, in veinlets, and as a
cavity filling or lining. More often it is massive without any p articular
structure. It often occurs as a replacement of wood ( F igure 8-4 ) and
other organic materials. It is common as a replacement of feldspar and
as the cementing material in sandstone.
Cleavage. Absent, but irregular fractures are found on the cdges of
thin sections.
( X25) Wood replaccmcnt by opal with contortcd bands a lLrib uled III 1111 \
gel-stage.
Relief. Rather high, but n < balsam.
Birefringence. Usually nil, but some varietics, espccially hyalilc, may
show vcry weak birefringc ncc th a t is du c to stra in . Intcr fere ncc colors
callsccl hy cxceedin g ly lhin rilms sh ow in sccli ons of precio us opal, cs p('ci-
ally in rdlecL('cl light.
Dis li ll ~ lIis hin g Fc ulllr('s. Th (. hil-(I, reli c f ;1I 1c! low illd e x o f r( 'fnl('l io ll
un ) d is till o( ivtl. I.v(lllllll ' I/" ri l (. ( sll ic 'i! I-(I:tss) is v(' ry sililil ll r, IIlId i l IlI lIy
 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATE S: F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 245
244
be necessary to try the closed-hlbe test for water in order to distinguish
them.
Occurrence. Opal is a secondary min eraloid in volcanic igneous rocks.
It appears in cavities or seams and as a replacement of feldspars or other
silicates. The more common associates are quartz, chalcedony, and tri-
dymite. It is the principal constituent of diatomite (Figure 8-7) and
geyserite and occasionally occurs as the cementing material in sandstone.
It also occurs as the main constituent of opal shale and opal rock.
Lussatite. A fibrous variety of silica with a low index of refraction
known as lussatite has b een considered to b e a variety of tridymite or
even a distinct silica mineral, but it is probably a mixture of fibrous
chalcedony and opal.
TRIDYMITE

Si0 2 Ort horhombic

(Hexagonal above 117°C) a
na = 1.469
n~ = 1.469
n" = 1.473
2V = 35° ; Opt. (+)

Color. Colorless in thin sections.

Form. Tridymite usually occurs in minute euhedral crystals as a
cavity lining. The crystals are six-sided, thin, tabul ar, and are often
twinned . It also occurs as a porous crystalline aggregate.
Relief. Moderate, but n < balsam.
=
Birefringence. Very w eak, ny - n" 0.004; best seen with a sensitive-
violet test plate.
Twinning. W edge-shap ed h:vins made up of two or three individuals
are characteristic. The h:vin plane is {1016}.
Interference Figure. Because of the small size of the crystals it is very
difficult to obtain interference figures with tridymite.
Distinguishing Features. Tridymite vmy much resembles cristobalite, b
not only in its general appearance but also in its geologic occurrence. FIG. 13-11 a,b. ( X 60) (a) Tridymite surrounding vesicular cavities, and (b) the
same area ( X nicols) showin g small twin crystals.
(In the experience of A. F . Rogers, the tile structure often said to b e
characteristic of this mineral is not at all common.) The twinning of but it is common and widely distributed . A tridymite-feldspar rock
tridymite and the wedge-shap ed sections are charactelistic; in their ab- formed by the action of hot gases upon rhyolitic obsidian h as b een
sence it may b e necessary to determine the refractive index of isolated studied by A. F . Hogcrs in Impcri al Cou nty, California. In T exas
grains . (For h'idymite n < 1.480; for cristobalite n > 1.480.) tridymite occurs in a rhyolitic tuft' (Gu eydan form ation of the south-
Alteration. Paramorphs of cristobalite after tridymite have b een found wes tern C lilf Coas tal Pla in ).
at several localities . ParamOl'phs of quartz after h'idymite (the pseud()- Arlificifll Trid!JIlli/ C. Th e prill cip:iI ('olistit ll (' lI t o( sili ca h r ick is b'j-
tridymite of Mallard) are known from a number of localities. dY ll1il o wi lli n istoh alil\' liS : 111 lI sso(' i:il l'. 'I' l l(' sili (,il hri l'ks 111'(' made hy
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of h-ldymite is in the cavi- h ca lill g g rOlilld -lip (!lllirl /, ilc '~ cd low irOi I ( '01111'111 . 'I' l l(' hest hricks Ill'''
ties of volcanic igneous rocks sll ch a<; ohsidian, rltyolioc, andesite, clc. ~uitl 10 I ii ' III OSI' w illi 111\ \ " C I',~C ';, 1 ' "110" 111 0/ Iritl Ylidl O,
It is (\ lato min01~ll formed h y Itol' gases. Tridymit(l is not vory ahundant,
246 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 247
CRISTOBALITE Cleavage. Cristobalite has a peculiar curved frachlre that is highly
Si0 2 Pseudoisometric characteristic.
(Isometric above 230°C) Relief. Moderate, n < balsam.
n" = 1.484 Birefringence. Very weak, ny - n" = 0.003; best detected with a sensi-
n'Y = 1.487 tive-violet test plate. Between cross ed nicols it often shows a mosaic
structure that is due in part to twinning.
Distinguishing Features. Cristobalite closely resembles tridymite, but
the curved fracture usually distinguish es it. It may b e necessary to de-
termine the refractive index of detached fragments. (For cristobalite
n > 1.480; for tridymite n < 1.480.)
Occurrence. Cristobalite is found in volcanic ign eous rocks such as
obsidian, rhyolite, andesite, auganite, and basalt. The fact that it usu-
ally occurs in cavities is evidence that it has been form ed by hot gascs
at a late stage. Tridymite is a common associate, and at a number of
localities paramorp.hs of cristobalite after tridymite have been noted.
Cristobalite has b een found in some specimens of opal and hence has
been formed at a temperahlre lower th an its stability range.
Artificial Cristobalite. Cristobalite and tridymite are the constituen ts
of silica bricks that are made by heating ground-up quartzites of low iron
content.
a LECHATELIERITE

Si0 2 (Silica Gl ass) Mineraloid

n = 1.458 to 1.462

b
FIG. 13-12 a,b. ( X GO) (a) Cristobalite formin g aggregates of small crystals, and
(b) the same area ( X nicols ) showin g minute anisotropic crystals.
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Cristobalite is found in minute squ are crystals or aggregates in
the cavities of volcanic igneous rocks; it also occurs intergrown with the
feldspar fib ers of spherulites ( see Fj gure 13-12).
Color. Colorless in thin sections . The tend ency toward opacity is clli C
to minute bubbles.
Form. Lechatelierite is amOlvhous silica glass. It is usually vcsi clll nl'
and may also be banded and show flow sb·ucture.
Relief. Low, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Nil. D ark b etween crossed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. From other glasses lechatelierite may he di s-
tinguished by its very low refractive index. It very much resembles o p:d
except in its geologie occurrence. A closcd-hlbe t cs t may b e neccss:lry 10
make certain that the mineral is not opal.
Occurrence. Lcchatelierite is the main constitu ent of fu 1g11rites, w11i('h
are hollow tubes of glass produced by the action of ligh tning lIpOIl
quartzose sand.
An in teres tin g occurrencc of lechate1icri te is that of Me[eor Cra ll'r,
Arizona. H erc a hi ghly V('sicl.!:l r sili ca gla ss h as l)('('n prodll ('('d rrOIl1
sandstone hy [h (' 'w:lI' g('IH 'r:li< 'd :I S :1 r('s lI]1 of' Ih (' ('x p]nsiv( ' in lp:l C'1 or II
11l1gl' nwl ('()rilc Ill' Ilwl( 'oril(' SW:t 1'l1l ( ( :: Iii on I)i :lh]o Il H' l c' ori l (' ).
Art/lido l 1.1'f'iIlII I'IiI ·ri/I ·. SlI kll 1~ 1:' ~s is IIO W IlInd( , Il rli fi(' ili lly Oil II I: "'gn
1'1<'11 ]0 ror YIlI'i ()I1 ~ kiJl(] '1 01 ( ' ] 1(' 11" 1'1 11 " P]l !l I ' I IIII ~, ] ( ' Il ~ C '~. il ll(] w lllelo w ]l1l11( 'H
248 Mll'<ERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES : F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTO SILICATES) 249
Or =fOO
to transmit ultraviolet light. It has a remarkably low coefficient of thermal
expansion.
COESITE

Si0 2 Monoclinic
L(3 = 120
0

na = 1.599
n-y = 1.604
2V = 54 0 ; Opt. C+) G'
~
l:J""< "
.
," ,q}
A dense (Sp. Gr. = 3.01) and extremcly stable phase of silica is pro- ~(, ~ ~ :'
duced in the laboratory at 35,000 atm and 500-800 a C by the reaction of ~,,'-i ~""" ..'
equal parts of dry sodium metasilicate and diammonium phosph ate. It ~
""' I .
forms both as extremely small aggregates and as crystals up to 0.6 mm &
<y-<:!
..........
in length. The material is colorless and transparent, and pseudohexagonal .......
plates yield unsymmebical extinction. 1
(. ;>Albite
-- Plagioclase ~ Anorthite
Normal quartz rather than dense silica forms b elow 35,000 atm in the
y! . Oliqpclase Andeyne Labrqdorite Bytownite
range 500 to 800 a e. Occasionally, near 35,000 atm both phases are ob-
served. Above 800 a C a t 35,000 atm only normal quartz is produced. The 70 90 An
Molecul ar percent An (per cent Ab inferred) =100
conditions required for the formation of coesite, togeth er with its great
a
stability, may provide criteria for more closely estimating the conditions
under which deep-seated rocks are crystallized.

FELDSPARS
The feldspar group (Figure 13-13a,b) approximates a tenary system
and may b e considered in terms of three components : orthoclase, Or =
KAISi 3 0 s; albite, Ah = NaAlSi ~ 08 ; and anorthite, An = CaAI 2 Si 2 0 s. Or
and Ab fonn the alkali feldspar group, with An absent or a minor con-
stituent. Ab and An form the plagioclase group where a range in compo-
sition may occur from 100 per cent Ab to 100 per cent An.
THE FELDSPAR MINERALS

Alkali fe ldspar Plagioclase ..

Monoclinic: Composit ion .
Triclimc: . CamposltIon
Ab An

Orthoclase (KNa) AlSi 30 s 100 0

Sanidine (KNa )AlSi 30 s

Albite {90 10

Oligoclase { 70 30 c ( \1 23 4°
Adularia (KNa)AISi 30 s An
Weight per ce nt
Andesine {50 50 PH,o = 5000 bars
Triclinic :
Labradorite { 30 70 h
Microcline (KNa )AISi 30 8 F Ir: . 13- '1 3. (II ) Th e appro\i lll :II(' <i i\ l ri llillio l l o r Ih,· r,' lcb pars i" Ill(' 1""1 111 )' l,y .\ I,,,"
Bytownite { 10 90 Or- Ah- AII . AIII' y d,...II , 1I,, ·ll s ill<ii, ': II ,' illl ," (': 1 o r ('( )J ll p l .. Ii · 1I!i \(' i J, i lil y ill II II' 0, A"
Anorthoclase (NaK)A1Si 30 8 s" li ," II I II,, · lig lll ,,1'11,(, d (l ll ,'d II"" , ( Mu cli/i!''' [ru lll '/' I'UI:"I', 11).');'. ) (II ) ' J" '''ip " l ll.
An orLhil C' {()-roo l" l'I \~ Ill' rOll ll "li, ,,, i ll II" , ' 1,, "I" III II IY //)'\ 1( ' " 1 01 Ail "" 11 ,0 II I .'),()()() bill S, (Ali I'/'
Yo""'" SII'II '," I, IIIIfI ,.; II lit/, , I l)r(f , )
250 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 251
Among the feldspars, orthoclase, sanidine, and adularia are monoclinic 1400 1
1 ---,--,---,----,--,---,---,---,---,---,
while the other species- including some adularia - are triclinic. Although
two systems of crystallization are represented throughout the feldspars, 1300 f-- PHzO = 5000 bars
the crystal habits are somewhat similar, and the deviations in angular
measurements of clystals are not large. 1200
/'/
Temperature studies of feldspars include the examination of mineral /'/'
1100
associations, synthesis of pure feldspars at measured temperatures, melt- u //
o
ing point determinations, and synthesis in sealed bombs with H 2 0. When il000
./
././
products formed artifiCially are compared with natural feldspars, infor- .2
o ./
mation concerning the temperatures of formation may be inferred. ~ 900 ,.../
//
E
The temperatures which prevail for plagioclase (Figure 13-14a) in ~ ,..."
the system Ab-An-H 2 0 show a higher range than the temperatures which
prevail for the system Ab-Or-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars (Figure 13-14b). In the
800
---_.. -" ----
system Ab-Or-An-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars 1 Yoder, Stewart, and Smith (1957) 700
have shown (Figure 13-13b) that anorthite, orthoclase, and albite will
600
crystallize at 1234°C, 876° C, and 748°C, respectively.
In the series Ab-An-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars a solidus extends from 748°C to 500' r}!('\ .... '"

1234°C (Figure 13-14a). Below the dotted line plagioclase crystals form Ab An
at the composition indicated along the base of the diagram. Above the =100
dotted line crystals and liquid exist together. Complete melting takes
place above the solid line. 1100
In the series Ab-Or-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars a range of feldspars may form.
1000 PHZO = 5000 bars
The minerals in general include adularia, orthoclase, sanidine, microcline,
anorthoclase, and albite. 900 Liquid + qas
876 0
The system Or-Ab-An explains many of the features of the feldspars .
A large miscibility gap (Figure 13-13a) lies between Or and An. Under Feldspar-liquid-qas /'
l?_ 800 /
05 /'
~ 748 0 -\- liquid -\- 9 /'/'
anhydrous conditions clystals are unstable at temperatures in excess of
900°C. In the area of anorthoclase (and Na-sanidine) which borders the '§" 700 ......... .!~ rt: 1UO !,- - -- - --'

'"a. Feldspar //
" ....
............ Feldspar
miscibility gap on the Or-Ab side of the diagram, crystals are stable at E
~ 600 +qas /' " +qas
high temperatures and unstable at low temperatures. /' "-
/ 2 - feldspars ,
The Or-Ab series is continuous at high temperatures, but on cooling / \
500 + qas \
exsolution develops. The homogenous material separates into two solid
feldspar phases: one rich in soda, the other rich in potash. Where the 400
potash-rich phase (microcline) predominates over the soda-riah phase
( albite), the intergrowth is referred to as perthite (Figure 13-15). Where 300
the soda-rich phase predominates, the intergrowth is described as anti- Ab Or
Weight, per cent = 100
perthite (Figure 13-16). (b)
The name perthite is derived from the locality Perth, Quebec, Canada, FIG. 13-14. Projections of th e feldspar ternary systems at 5,000 bars 'I [,0 preSSll r(,.
where unusual examples of this type of exsolution were originally de- (a) The plagioclase system Ab-An-I-J,O, (b) The alkali feldspar syste m A],-Or- II,O.
~Aftel' Yud.e l', Ste wart, and S'm.ith, 1957.)
scribed. Perthitic intergrowth, known as mic1'Operthite, exhibits a charac-
teristic pattern b etween crossed nicols. It develops in the Or-Ab series

1 1 bar = about 14.5 pounds per squ are inch.

252 MINE RAL DESCRIPTIONS
with the fall in temperature b elow 660°C. X-ray study shows that Or-Ab
feldsp ar which may appear b eneath the microscope as a single phase
is often made up of 1:\vo phases. Thjs may b e called Cl'yptopel·thite.
The Ab-An series includes the plagioclase group from albite to anor-
thite. Kohler (1949) has shown that the optical properties of t\vinned
plagioclase may reflect the thermal history of the material. A difference
exists b etween the properties of plagioclase derived from high-tempera-.
ture volcanic rocks and plagioclase from other sources.
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 253
cline (MacKenzie, 1957) . Three forms of albite are b elieved to exist
as shown by internal structure : low temperature up to 450°C, intermedi-
ate temperature from 450°C to lOoooC, and mgh temperature above
1000°C.
Sanidine, albite, and other feldspars as formed ill lavas or under other
near surface conditions are indicative of high temperatures. On the other
hand, orthoclase, albite, and other feldspars formed in well-clystallized

------
Igneous Association. The alkali feldspars are widely distrihuted in
Quartz
igneous rocks, particularly among the granite and syenite clans. PlagiO-
CONTINUOUS REACTION SERIES /
clase occurs in a range of compositions through the igneous rock classi- I r I I I
/
co 0 / 0 :;::
fication from granite wh ere Ab is predominant to peridotite where An '< I 0
c;- I l>
O> I .0 '
I / ~
c · --l

1 ;:;:
J>
0 I ~ I
~
D..
Cl ro 0 /
g ~
'" 0
<"> -0
~
0-

"' 0>
I
D..
Si::;: I
I
'"0> 7I Q.
0 I ro
/
~ a
00
§.. '"
'T1 ro
'"ro I
fTl
ro
ro
I / '"
ro ro
r
(f)

n 1000 0
I :
900 0
: 800 0
I L/
700 0
n~
.- ro
____ ____ _____ ____ ______ ___ MAGMA _____ ___________ __ •• ___
- - -
I" ~ .)
N
(j).
,,~ _n
c.; c
.

I I Gabbro ~ Diorite --+ Gra nite --+ ..

(1)..
OJ ~ ft)
J (:)
Albite 0" n~ ~
0 _'
I I ~ "
:;::
J>
OI; ~ ~ O"ho~ ~ p;", ~ : Tourmaline :
'T1
n
vine Ipyroxene i J>
I n :
I I 3 rn ~tg- ~~~
II 1- __ .1.. Contac t - -
-0
::J
0'
0
ro
'>
§.'
::;:
ro
-----r-+
I
I
I
ro
~
3.
I
I
I
., '"I!' ..
o

=.:
ro
;.J(\)

- I
cu
nJ
. t'

F IG_ 13-15. Perthite. Soda feldspar (al- FIG. 13-16. Antiperthite. Potash feldspar I
Diopside -+ Augite
bite ) crystalli zed in predominant potash (microcline ) crystallized in a predom- Limits range with
DISCONTINUOUS REACTION SERIES- wate r co ntent
feldspar (microcline) groundmass. inant soda fcld spar ( albite) groundm ass.
l I J
predomillates. Microscopic study in which the feldspars play a major
role h as conh-ibuted greatly to knowledge of igneous rocks.
Ch rom
ite I Fe S- I Ilmenite !
melt Ti -Mo gnetite

The normal sequence and association of the feldspars with respect to
the most common min erals derived from a magma was set forth by
V. M. Goldschmidt (1916) . The feldspars and quartz constihlte the
felsic products, while olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and the associated
metallic minerals form on the mafic side. The temperatures decline from
the gabbroic to th e granitic stages, but at the same time a sequence in
the mjnerals form ed is maintained according to th e general outline of
Figure 13-17.
The temperatures of formation 'of the feldspars are considered signifi-
cant in the interpretation of the temperatures of rock crystallization.
High- and low-temperahlre forms of several feldspars are recognized .
Potassium feldspar may crystallize as the high temperature modifica-
tion sanidine. but it may b e mctastable and may invert later to micro·
FIr.. 13-17. The plagioclase sequ cnce in igneous rocks. The approxim ate O.-cll'" 01
l Magnetite
Ilme nite
l Hema tite
J
separation in the normal crystalli zation of a magma series. (M oc/'i/ied 1/'1)/1/ 'I'l'i 'I: // '
and V. M. Goldschmidt.)
plutoniC masses or in pegmatites are formed at lower temperal ll J'( 's.
Adularia is frequently a vein mineral.
Numerous albite and oligoclase sp ecimens (Ana to An 17 ) from peg-
matites and grrutites (Laves, 1954) h ave b een shown to consist of I,\I()
submicroscopically discrete phases. In microscopic study th ese :lppl':l1'
as sin gle phases. Yet X-ray shldi es show disconLinuities in lh e progn 's-
sive ra nge of lattice dim ensions with co mposi ti on (Smith 'In<l Yodl 'l',
J956) . Villil lh es e arc inlerpn'led ill l<' rms of inlerna l sll'll c.:l1ll'o :llld IIIOI'l
prt.'C ise oplical da la are cS la blisll ('d, oplical illformation now :lvlli lll l>h
III li S I Ito III ili zl'd .
254 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Crystallization. The optical properties of the feldspars are ordinarily
oriented with respect to crystallographic directions. Monoclinic feldspar
crystals may be illustrated by orthoclase (Figure 13-18). The signiBcant
interfacial angle (010) 1\ (001) and the angle between the two promi-
nent cleavages is 90°. The angle f3 which measures the inclination of the
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES ) 255
uals. The individuals show differences in birefringence between crossed
nicols when examined in thin section. Several stages of growth in plagiO-
clase may be shown by zonal structure. Complexity in growth at times
may produce such an unusual develop-
ment as a central crystal core of plagiO-

[J
ol

G:J
a-axis is 63°57'. Triclinic members of the alkali feldspar group exhibit clase enclosed in an envelope of ortho- 010
moderate but significant angular differences. The (010) 1\ (001) angle clase.
deviates from 90°. Twinning. Feldspars exhibit at least 010
The triclinic crystals of the plagioclase group may be illustrated by 001
seven types of twinning. Symmetrical
albite (Figure 13-19) . Measurements for the significant angle (010) 1\ displacement is observed so frequently (0) (b)
that twinning is Widely used in study FIG. 13-20. Feldspar cleavage fra g-
c and identification. ments. (a) Cleavage parallel tu
I
Twins are d escribed with reference to (001). (b) Cleavage parallel tu
c (010).
directions in the feldspar crystal. D e-
I / /' scription is given in terms of the axes around which twinning takes plac
and the composition planes along which the twin individuals meet.
-. FELDSPAR TWINS

--h b Type Twin axis Composition plane

Alb ite .L (010) (010)
0 Manebach .L (001) (001)
Baveno .L (021) or (021) (021) or (021) (Right or L oft,)
Carlsbad 11[001] largely (010); partly ( 100)
Actin e (001)
o
/ Pericline
11 [010]
In zone (010); ranges
11 [010]
Ala 11 [100] (001) or (010)
FIG. 13-18. Orthoclase. FIG. 13-19. Albite.
Twin crystals formed by simple repetition are represented by tll C Carls-
(001) range from 900 37~ ' (albite) to 83°54' (anorthite). The angles bad, Baveno, and Manebach twin laws (Figure 13-21) . Carlsbad twillS
between the crystal axes for plagioclase range as follows: are common in orthoclase, while Baveno and Manebach twins arc OCCa-
Sionally observed. Carlsbad twins may also be present in plagioclaso. .111
a(c 1\ b) f3(a 1\ c) 'Y(a 1\ b)
93°- 94°30' 115°- 116°30 87°-91 °30

Both alkali feldspars and plagioclase have good cleavage in two di-
rections parallel to (001) and (010). Cleavage fragments observed with
the microscope often form small flat plates with two sides parallel. The
best cleavage is parallel to (001), but (010) is also good (Figure
13-20) . Fragments 0.1 to 0.4 mm thick and large enough to fill the field
of the microscope yield interference figures which are readily measured.
These are described by Tuttle as excellent mounts for determining the
optic angle with the universal stage.
Feldspar frequcmtly exhibits phase changes in what may appear ex- (0 ) (b ) (el
ternally as a single crystal but actually represents two or more individ- FI r.. l :l. 2 1. Ty p, ,~ or I wi ll (, l y~ l lI l , \ ' 111111 111111 rill' ,,,11.0"' "1'> " . hili 1.1 '>1 ' 1'1)1111.1 (III 0111".(
r, .ld 'p"I ". (/I) IIII VI'"0 , ( II) Mllllnlll,, ·II , ( I' ) Ci llllll llll i.
 SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 257
256 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS

thin section, Carlsbad twins often exhibit two elongate individuals sepa- twinning for the plagioclase under observation. The extinction angles
rated by a single composition plane (Figure 13-22a). The individuals for fragments on (010), also given, may yield more significant angles for
plagioclase at the sodic end of the chart.
differ in extinction b etween crossed nicols . Baveno twins may be sepa-
Michel-Levy Method. Where albite twins are observed in thin sections
rated by a diagonal plane (Figure 13-22b ).
no limitation in orientation prevails as in the case of the examination of
Multiple or polysynthetic twinning is abundant in plagioclase (Figure
13-23a). Albite twinning is wide- fragments. Here Schuster's method is inapplicable. However, in su ch
spread. It is recognized by the instances the statistical method of Michel-Levy has been found useful.
001
parallelism between the composi-
11_ I --L := +2
010 -I --~ - tion planes and the (010) cleavage
010 II'" ' -1 1_ 1- I-I 010 (Figure 13-23b). Fragments show-
001 - I - ing albite twinning are useful in +10
1 III 11 -'1 I ~I-I plagioclase identification.
According to Emmons and Gates
010
( 1943) polysynthetic twinning is o
(0) (b )
formed late in the growth of the
FIG. 13-22 a,b. Section s of twin crystals .
as illu strated by orthocl ase : (a) Carlsbad plagIOclase crystal. A common force -10
and (b) Baveno. leading to polysynthetic twinning is
the mutual interference of growing
crystals. A phenocryst ordinarily suffers little twinning in a fin e-grained -20
groundmass. Donnay (1943) places greater weight on the role of internal
factors in twinning. -30
Schuster's M ethod. In this identification, known as Schuster's Method,
cleavage flakes are mounted on a glass slide. Fragments with slightly
-40

-50
o 10 30 50 70 90 lin 10
Ol igoclase Andesine Labradorite Bytownite
010 FIG. 13-24. Schuster's curves showing the extinction on (001) and (010) clca vlI g" "

(0) (b)
FIG. 13-23 a,b . (a) Polysynthetic twinning of the albite typ e as developed on a
Single plagioclase crystal. (b) A cleavage fragm ent showing albite twinning. Cleavage
parallel to (001).
better cleavage will show composition planes parallel to cleavage edges.
This is indicative of albite twins with composition planes normal to
(001). Schuster's curves show the extinction angles corresponding to the
complete range of plagioclase species (Figure 13-24). Reference to the
curve for extinction on (001) should give the proper value of th e albite
The method is dep endent upon the presence of a satisfactory nil 11'1])"1'
of crystals in a section to provide a sufficiently representative id entif it',, -
tion, Sections of crystals cut normal to (010) are sought. These arc ]'('('og
nized by three factors : ( 1) the sharpness of the composition planes wi lh
a slight change in focus, (2) uniformity of illumination of all la n1('11 n.·
when parallel to the vibration planes of the nicols, and (3) th e cq ll :il il)'
of the extin ction angles for twin sets rotated to the left or ri ght.
A single meas urement .is shown in Fi gure 13-25. At least ('ighl OJ' 1( ' "
different crystals should h e In cas lII'('(l to incli ca lc til e "!:I xillll ll " ,'x lilll' liOIi
an gle ror a parliel" "r pi:r gio('l:i sc. ;\ d if rl' rl'lI ('e or as IIl1ld l as (j " ill I.. 111111
H :lll g ics is :rllo lV:l hl (', h i d til(' ;IV('J':I )!;" is Ils(·d . C l'ys l :rI s('('(iIJIl S ill wlli, '11
t l lo :.11 1'1'11 [( 1(1 / , 111111 II l w ill g l'OllPS silo w .lIlii'.ll'lll ill l llili ll ll li'lli "i " I<I Sli t Is-
258 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES ( TECTOSILICATES ) 259
Left twins Uniform Right twins
extinct illumination extinct

FIG. 13-25. Diagram showing the method of detennining thc extinction angles in
albite twins cut normal to (OlD) for the plagioclase feldspars (the method of
Michel-Levy) .

701 iii I i i iii i i i i i i i i i iii iii i

601 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l ie I

FIG. 13-27. ( x 18) Combined Carlsbad-albite twinning in plagioclase. ( X nicols.)

501 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1:,1"1 I I I I I

401 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1.-r=1 I ! I I ! ! I I I I I I I

301 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L,f4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I 1 I I 1 I 1

20kl I 1 I 1 I i I I 1 I I I I 1 I I 1J.4 I I I I 1 I I I 1 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I I 1 1

101 1111 1'1. 11 1 1 111,(111 11 11 111 1 1111 1 111 1 1 111 1 1 1111 1 1111 I

01 1111 1111 Ni l ll l llll l llll l llll l llll l llll l llll l ll il l

o 10 30 50 70 90 An 100
Oligoclase Andesine Lab radorite Bytownite
FIG. 13-26. Curve showing the maximum extinction angle of albite twins cut normal
to (OlD) for the plagioclase feldspars (Michel-Levis method).

factory angles. In recorrung the extinction angle (Figure 13-26) the di-
rection of the faster ray is used; otherwise no angle greater than 45°
would be obtained. It will be noted that angles of 1912° or less appear
twice on the curve. From Ano to An21 the angle is negative, and for those
above An2l it is positive. In the absence of the (001: 100) edge- and this
is rarely present- positive and negative angles cannot b e distinguished.
260 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA -rES ) 26i
In order to identify plagioclase of \:he Ano-An21 range from plagioclase
+40
of the An21-An38 range, indices of refraction or optical sign may be used. tilti !1 I +t :J*:p
Most of the first group have indices of refraction less than balsam and are ,
optically positive. The others have indices of refraction greater than +30 I' 1 tT ong le -
" c!lOn
ex11n . .
++ 3D , "
balsam and are optically negative. lorge r_ _L
Extinction of Combined Carlsbad-Albite Twins. When Carlsbad and 1+- 20 ......,
+20 v
U"

albite twinning are both present (Figures 13-27, 13-28) , a single crystal 0

section normal to (010) will suffice for the determination. Such sections -.:::::: 0;10
(Figure 13-29) will in general yield four extinction positions for the ,9..-
+10 30 -1 i
crystal Xl, X 2 and YI , Yeo Sections normal to (010) , the composition face
t=::::,?o....: __
for both kinds of twins, may be recognized in the 45° position. H ere the 0
o I
-+- 10 I ,
!~
I 'l:
~;i
I
I -
/0 p-J.~ u>
0 o ~
00."
- 10

-
-20
-
-
-30
o 10 30 50 70 90 An 100
Oligoclose Ande si ne Lobrodorite Bytownite IAnorthite I
FIG.13-30. Curves showing extinction angles of combined Carlsbad-albite twin s
FIG. 13-29. Diagram showing the m ethod of determining the two sets of extinction normal to (010) for the plagioclase feld spars. (After F. E . Wright.)
angles (X and Y) in sections of combined Carlsb ad-albite twins cut normal to (010).

albite twinning disappears, and the crystal appears to be a simple Carls- +3(r "'"
bad twin. In the 0° position both the albite and Carlsbad twinning ()' '" (001)

practically disappear.
The extinction angles Xl, X2 and YI , Y2 of the albite twins in each half
of the section (Figure 13-29) are measured. The average of the two
smaller (Y values) is given on the horizontal lines of Figure 13-30, and
the average of the two larger (X values) on the curves. The intersection
of the proper horizontal line with the appropliate curve gives a vertical
line that indicates the relative amount of the anorthite molecule.
At a composition of about An 2 0 Carlsbad twinning cannot be detected
in thin sections, and the method is not readily applicable. In this case the
maximum extinction angle for albite twins in sections normal to (010) is
00 •
Angle of the Rhombic Section. Pericline twinning when observed may
provide useful information (Figure 13-31). It is polysynthetic and re-
sults in lathlike individuals which may resemble albite twins as ob-
served with the microscope. Howevcr, pcriclin e twin planes may h e al-
most normal to the direction of th e albite composition plane. Pcriclin ('
~~~"-------~
0
00
- 17 8
(01 (b)
FIG. 13-31. The inclination of p ericlin e twin planes. (a) One inclination of th u (;1)111 -
position plane projec ted to show the rhombic section. (b) Pcri clin c tw ill pl rlll l's Oil
(010). The angle {j with (001) ranges fronl +37 0 to _17 0 (angle of Lhc rhulllbl C'
section) .
twjns arc recognized by th eir inclination with referen ce to th e (00 l) /\
(010) edge (th e an gle of th e rhombic section). A plag ioclase crys l III
showing the proj ee lion of th e rhombi c seclion and th e cOl'l'es pondi li g
pCl'iCiillc COilipositiol1 p];III(' is sll()w ll ill Fi gure 11-1 10. It is lh e ilidillll -
lioll of Ih o sl'(' lioli 1':1111('1' 111 :1 11 III(' sll:lJw lliul is Siglliri C: IIlt. It l'illl g('S \-vi lh
1110 ('Olliposilioll o\' 1110 pl llgi ()('\II ~ ( ' \'1'1)11 1 II positi ve' II ngl, ' of : ~7 t) \'m IIlhil(
262 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK snmCTURES (TE CT OSILICATES) 263
80
(AnO) to a negative angle of 17° for anorthite ( Anl oo ), At about the in-
termediate composition of andesine (An.Jo ) the angle of inclination is
0° (Figure 13-31b). The range in the angles for the various types of o 60
plagioclase as shown by Schmidt (1919) is given in Figure 13-32.
o
V
Combinations of albite and peri Cline twinning frequently appear in ""
Q)
c::
40 ' i\\0Y
S00\
alkali feldspar- p articularly in microcline. The combination produces
IY
a
Ci.
a distinctive grid pattern b etween crossed nicols. In addition, tongues of u
> i. 20
NO ",,/
HIGH TEMPERATURE
+40
Q)
0> GROUP ""
c::
a 0 ""
¥Cl. ",,/ ""
+30 0 V "" _-
20 /' sonidil!! - ----;;;
I
~/' sonidine' te -- ~
+20 o 40
/' ; thOc lo ~ e
/' An° foperthlfe
cr;ptop ,~ ~
art
hOC

I:~
0
-f
~
A~ ~ -.:.
\~.
Infer-
mediate
l 60 -"- ~icra per S!, _ _
+10 Q)
c::
a
Hi,h
Albife LOW TEMPERATURE
~
rlhOclOS
\~~Maxi-
Ci. GROUP 9. h'f
\',. m~m
o ,gCl. 80 _
L,........
Microc/ine - Perf~!. __ _ -f
0 .
A ntipert!!.!!:... - I- -
-~--- ------
-10
100 - - e-'-":':"
Law
....... Albite
I
120
-20 Ab+An 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
o 10 30 50 70 90 An 100 Or
Weight per cent
1 Albite· 1 Oligoc lase Andesine Lab radorite Bytownite 1 Anorthite 1
FIG. 13-33. The ran ge in optic angles for the alkali feldspars. (Afte r Tut/'/e, ID 5~;
FIG. 13-32. A curve showing the range in angles of inclination of pericline twins from Ma cKenzie and Smith, 1956. )
An. to An,oo. ( Afte r E. Schmidt.)
group. The texture of the higher temperature group is cryptopcrthili <:
albite often penetrate the grid struchll'e at more or less regular intervals. while the lower temperature group is microperthitie.
The intergrowth forms the pattern known as perthite (Figure 13-15).
ORTHOCLASE

Alkali Feldspar Group (K,Na) AISi 3 0 s MOllocli llio

L(3 = (\;1 °;)""
The alkali feldspar of volcanic rocks is frequently sanidine, while ncr = 1.518
plutonic rocks yield orthoclase. Microcline is a common constituent of n~ = 1.524
pegmatites whilc adularia may be a vein mineral. n'Y = 1. 5:26
High- and low-temperatme groups of alkali feldspars have b een dis- 21' = GO° 1,072°; Opt. ( - )
tinguished by MacKenzie and Smith (1956). When correlated with b = 'Y or Z , a /\ ex or X = +5° 1,0 + 12°,
X-ray data and composition, the optic angles for the alkali feldspars c /\ (3 01' Y = - 14.0 (,0 - 2 1°
indicate a high-temperature division (Figure 13-33) containing anorth-
clase, two forms of sanidine and a high-temperature albite. Orthoclase, Color. C olorless in lhin secli ons, hilt 111 :1)' 1)(' ('\o"d), O il :I ('('() 11 lit Ill'

microcline, and low-temperature albite conslihlte a low-te mperalure in cipi cllt· :ll tc l':llioli ill ('()lll rn~ 1 w ill i «(1l nrl'/', wlli c'll is dC 'lI r ,
~64 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 265
c Extinction. On {001} parallel, on {OlO} from 5° to 12°, increasing with
the soda content.
Orientation. Clea vage b'aces on {010} make a small angle with the
faster ray.
Twinning. Twinning according to the Carlsbad law (c-axis or [001] =
~- -b
twin-axis) . These are simple twins consisting of two individuals.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial negative with a
large axial angle. The axial plane is normal to {OlO} . Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Orthoclase is distinguished from its dimorph
sanidine by its large axial angle.
Occurrence. Orthoclase is a widely distributed mineral in persilicic
(0) (b) igneous rocks such as granites and syenites. In spherulites of obsidian
FIG. 13-34 a,b. Orientation diagrams of orthoclase. Sections (a) normal to the a-a.-'ds
and (b) parallel to (010).
and rhyolite it is often intergn wn with cristobalite or quartz. It is also
common in deb'ital deposits and in sandstones and arkoses.
In rocks subjected to hydrothermal alteration orthoclase is ordinarily
more resistant than plagioclase. Kaolinite often forms a weathering prod-
uct at the expense of orthoclase.

ADULARIA

KAISi 3 0 s Monoclini c
c

DID
-++++-~' - b
z
o

a
(0) (b l
FIG. 13-36 a,b. Orientation diagrams of adularia. Sections La) norm al to tho c - !lxl ~
FIG. 13-35. ( X 160) Orthoelase-cristobalite spherulite in volcanic glass. and (b) parallel to (010).

Form. Orthoclase occurs in phenocrysts, in subhedral and anhedral
crystals, and in spherulites.
Cleavage. Perfect cleavage parallel to {001}, less p erfect parallel to
{OlO}, imperfect parallel to {110}.
Relief. Low, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Weak, 11t' - n o< = 0.008; so the interference colors are
gray and white of the first order and the maximum a little lower than that
Qf quartz in the same slide.
Adularia is probably a variety of orthoclasc but is b'catcd separalel y
because of genetic significance.
The optical properties of adul aria corrcspond to those of orthoclaso,
but the crystal h abit is pscudo-orthorhombic with a rhomhic cross soc lioll
(110 1\ 110 = 61° 13'). The (010) face is narrow or abson t.
Adular ia is a rath ~r low-tcrn pCral1'1rC feldspar I'olln d ill veins and re-
pb ccl11 c nt depOS its, and ill SO IlI (J r()(oks oj' I()w-g rad o IIH'Iillllorphisnl , j!; 'I
CS PC(' ill ll y (; IH1I'nl'l (lrisli( ' oj' T( lrliliry ~old 1111d sil vor on 's oj' IllI l 1)()III1I1 '1:1I
 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES ) 267
266
Color. Colorless in thin sections; clear in contrast with orthodase,
which is often cloudy,
Form. Sanidine usually occurs in distinct crystals as phenocrysts.
Cleavage. Perfect p ar allel to {001 }, less p erfect p arallel to {OlO}.
There may also b e pmting parallel to {100}.
Relief. Low, n < b alsam.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - na = 0.007, so the interference colors are
gray and grayish white of the first order.
Extinction. On (001) p arallel, on (010) + 5 0 • Sections normal to an
optic axis remain practically dark since the axial angle is often very
small.
Twinning. Usually according to the C arlsbad law ( c-axis or [001] =
twin-axis). Twins ar e simple twins of two individuals and are rarely
polysynthetic.
Interference Figure. Some sections give a negative biaxial interferenco
figure with a small axial angle, but the angle m ay be so small that the
FIc . 13-37. ( X 20) Vein feldspar, probably adularia. ( X nicols.) figure is almost uniaxial. Dispersion, (1) r < v, (2) r > v .
type. The crystals are commonly minute and can b e identified only with
a r ather high-power obj ective. X-ray study indicates a triclinic phase.

SAN IDINE

(K,N a)AISi 30 s Monoclinic

L(3 = 63°57'
na = 1.517 to 1.520
n f3 = 1.523 to 1.525
n 'Y = 1.524 to 1.526
2V = 0° to 12°; Opt . (-)
Orientation: (1) Ax. pl. {OW}, b = (3 or Y,
a 1\C{ or X = +5° 01' (2) Ax . pI. 1- {OW},

b = 'Y or Z, a 1\ C{ or X = +5°
c c
z
FIC. 13-39. ( X 12) A single crystal of sanid ine which has suffered COJ'l'osion Oil (,IH ·I,
end.
~x
D istinguishing Features. Sanidine is distinguished from orthoclase by
the small axial angle and in som e cas es by a difference of or ie nlali oll .
Orthoclase is often cloudy on account of in cipi ent alter ation ; :;a nid inc, 0 11
the other hand, is clear.
Occurrence. Sanidine ha:; b een generally co nsid ered charae lc risli (' of
volca nic rocks slldl as rh)'o li ll's a llci lrad l), l('s and lil e COI'l'(,SP(lIlciill g
lufl's , bill Mac K( 'llzie alld SlIl ilil ki VU :O>l 'ggt'sl.('d il s O (,C III'I'( ' II ('V ill pili
(0 ) (b ) IOlli(' rocks as w('11.
FIC. 13-38 o.h. Oricnt ati on (li :1gra ms of sa nicl ine. Secl ions p;\ r:1l1 ('l 10 (010) .
268 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 269
MICRO CLINE
Intergrowth. Albite is commonly intergrown with microcline so that
KA1Si 30 s Triclinic the (010) directions are parallel. This intergrowth is known as perthite.
La = 89°53' Interference Figure. On account of the twinning it is usually difficult
L{3 = 64°10' to obtain good interference figures. Dispersion, l' > V.
L-y = 90°51'
n" = 1.518 to 1.522
n~ = 1.522 t o 1.526
n~ = 1.525 to 1.530
2V = 77° t o 84°; Op t . (-) .
Ax. pI. or -y or Z a re nea rly .1. (010 ). Angle
between trace of ax. pI. and edge (001 ): (010) = +5°
c

z.
b

a
FIG. 13-41. ( x 15) A microeline section cut p arallel to (001). ( X nicols. J

(0) (bl
FIG .13-40 a,b. Orien tation diagrams of microeline. Sections (a) norm al to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010).
Color. Colorless in thin sections but may b e cloudy on account of in-
cipient alteration.
Form. Microcline is usually found in subhedral to anhedral crystals.
Euhedral crystals are rarely seen in rock sections.
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to {~Ol} , less perfect parallel to {OlO}, im-
perfect parallel to {llO} and {lID}.
Relief. Low, n < balsam.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - no = 0.007, so interference colors are gray
and white of the first order.
Extinction. Extinction angle on (001) = + 15 0 , on (010) = + 5° .
Orientation. Cleavage traces on (010) are about parallel to ' the faster
ray. FIG. 13-42. ( X 12 ) Anh cdral crystals of microcl in c in random oricnta lion s. ( X lIicoJ:;.)
Twinning. Poly synthetic twinning is almost universal in microcline.
Distinguishing Features. jVIicroclin e is distin guish ed from orthodtSl
The twinning is in two directions, on e according to the albite law
( {OlD} = twin-plane), and th e other according to the p ericlin c law
by polysynth e tie twinning and from orthoclase and albile hy th e ('xlin c-
tion angle of 15° on (001) and by the spi ll cl lc-shapccl lwin Ialll <, II;I('.
(b-axis or [010] = hvin -axis) . This usually gives the so-called gridiron
or quadrille structurc (Figure 13-41) , th e two sets of lam ellae bein g at Occurrence. Mi croclin c OCC Ill'S ill SOlll(' graniles, syclIiles, alld gll( 'iss('s,
In l)(,l'llti l e iti~ lli o pri,, (' ip;d rl'ld spar or gr;I,Ii[ \' P( 'glll;ilil ('s, II is II lso II
right angles. The t'vvin lamellae are usually spindle shaped and th e ('x-
tinction usually wavy. OllllnOIl II iii 1( ' 1'11 I in !'all<i sloll (,S, III'koSI'S, 1'1 (' " II lId is 1'00 1IId liS II tll 'lrll",
Illill( 'l'li l ill Sl lll!ls.
 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 271
270
ANORTHOCLASE

(N a,K)AISi 30 s (Soda Microcline) Triclinic

La = 90°6'
L{3 = 63°42'
L-y = 90°17'
ncr = 1.522 t o 1.536
n~ 1.526 to 1.539
n 'Y l.527 to 1.541
2V = 43° to 54°; Opt. (-).
Ax. pI. nearly -L to {01O I
c

FIG. 13-44. (X 30) A portion of a crystal of anorthoclase showin g cleavage.

I --+--=b Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of anorthoclase is in soda-

rich igneous rocks such as rhomb porphyries. It is sometimes found in
pegmatites. It is a comparatively rare mineral.

Plagioclase Group
The plagioclase minerals constitute an important group for which an
(0) (bl unusual number of optical methods have been developed to aid in study
FIG. 13-43 a,b. Orientation diagram of anorthoclase. Sections (a) normal to the
and identification. These are illustrated in text figures and diagrams. For
c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
convenience the figures relating to the different methods arc listed
below:
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
PLAGIOCLASE METHODS
Form. Anorthoclase occurs in phenocrysts and in anhedral crystals;
also in large cleavage masses. T oxt JIIII H-
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to {001}, less perfect parallel to {0l0}, as in tmUoll t<
the other feldspars. Indices of refraction
Relief. Low, n < balsam. Normal plagioclase (n", n~ and n'Y) ..... . ..... . . . .. . ........ . ...... . l3 - ~fiR
High-tem perature plagioclase (n" , n~ and n'Y)' . ... . . ...... . . .. ... . .. . 1 3-~fi b
Birefringence. Weak, ny - net = 0.005-0.007; the interference colors
Cleavage fragments oriented on (001) or (OlD) . . . ........ .. .... . J3 - ~O
are gray and white of the first order. Plagioclase glass fu sed at l500°C a nd quenched .. . ... . ..... . .. .. . .. . 1:\-/1
Extinction. On (001) =
+l G to +4°, on (010) = +4 0 to +10° . Birefringence
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning in two directions like that of micro- n'Y - ncr for norm a l plagiocl ase. . . . . . . . . . .... .. .. .......... . 13-18
cline, but the lamellae are finer. It may be necessary to have an unusually Extinction angles on twin cryst fLls
Uniform illumin ation of polysy llt het ic twi n ~ ill I hin sec tion (Michel-
thin section to detect the twinning. L evy met hod) . . . . . .. ..... . . I :I- :.W
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a moderate Combin ed Ca rl ~ bad - Albit(' twiIl H... . ............ ... .. .. . .. ", 1:1-:\0
axial angle. Dispersion, r > v. Extinctioll on c1 e ", v a~o rl'll ~ IIl( ' III K (S(' IIII Ht(' I" H 11' (' 11,0.1 ) """" .. " " , 1 : 1-~1

Distinguishing Features. Anorthoclase may be distingUished from Inelinatioll of pPl'i.,li,ll· I.lVillH (i1I'1J;II' "I' I Ii (' I'lio llllli i: HI'I :t i,," ) , '. , , , , ,. , 1:1· :12
Opti u lU' Jl:lr'H
practically all other feldspars by the axial angle of about 50° (sanidine 1:1-/111
AIIJl:l e <I V [0" IIO!'!II I\! pl" v; i'H'I 'I' III
is lower and the others are higher). Thc small extin ction angle on (001) StOl' I)()KI" ~I'Ii !() PI'I. jllllt\ 'HIi I ril l' h lv. ll 1(\1 ,1 i "" " 1,(\,,, 11IId 1101'1111\1 ph lf(i o. )I IUJI) . , 1:1· /iO
distillguishes it from mi croel ine and all tl lo pl:l giodllS{,S (~xeopt albile.
 I
272 MINE RAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: FRAME WORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 273
1.590, /1 1.590 As studies of the group progress, a small but consistent distinction in
optical properties develops between plagioclase of normal-temperature
1.5801 7 / :17 / 1.580 origin and high-temperature types. This is more noticeable in the range
Ano to An35 (albite and oligoclase) . Fundamental optical data on the
1.570rl -1-------t----+---:;;77/Libr/~=-7'7""',c=di:::::::J 1.570 distinction between high- and low-temperature forms have not yet been
established to the extent desirable for routine study. Data on the two
types which may be applied with the universal stage are shown in Figure
1.5601---1 / / 1 7/ // 1.560
13-50. Natural plagioclases have b een converted to the high-temperature
fi fi

1.550
1.590

1.540 , , ,
1.580
~
1.530 -
-
1.570 ...i"

1.520 1.520 fil (001l

0 10 30 50 70 90 An 100 nl (010),
1.560
(0) fi2 (OOi)
fi2 (010)
~
1.590 ,
1.550 ,;'
....
1.5BO
1. 540

k:
1.570
1. 530 .:;:.-

1.560
n 1.520 - I
n o 10 30 50 70 90 An 100
I Albi te I Oligoclase Andesine La bradorite Bytown ite IAnor1I111i' I
FIG .13-46. Curves showin g th e indices of refraction n, and n, of cleavage n:t k(' ~ ill
1.5401 7~ 7 / the plagioclase feldspars. (After T suhoi.)

I ",/ I 11.530 forms and precise indi ces determin ed (Smith, 1957). These arc givc" ill
Figure 13-45b.
1.520 1 I ,. I I .! I '1.520 The determination of th e index of refraction of glass for med 1>y l lli \
o 10 30 50 70 90 100 fusion of plagiocl ase has b een utilized as a method of icl enlifl <.; :r I in"
Ab (b) An
(Foster, 1955 ). Selected pl agioclase fragments as free as possible i'roll'
FIG. 13-45 a,b . (a) Indices of refraction of norm al plagioclase. (Chayes, 1952.) (b)
impurities are placed in platinum foil. Th e material is th en 110:1I Cd I()
Indices of refraction of plagioclase inverted to high-temperature modifications by
heating. (Smith, 1957.) about 1500°C wilh th e oxygen-gas hlowpipe and qu oneh ed in wnln.
The incl cx of' rcfr<r cli on of' lil c gl:lss i'orrtwcl is dele rmin ed hy 11'0 illllll( 'r-
sion IIwll'o(i willt illd('x li(I"id ~ . H, ·i'r:,di v<l illlli c('s for pl:r gioci "s() glass
a m s:g,Ii(i('I IIII ()i' 11' 0 ()dgill irl pl ll gi()( 'llIs(' ( I"igll n : 1:1-1(7).
274 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 275
o 10 30 50 70 90 Anl00 70

1.580 .580 80 . J-./'

V- I--" -
1.570
V
/, .570
90 / ~ /
V
1.560
/ .560
+/ +V
\ "'- -...-/
1.550
7 .550
80
V
1.540 / .540
70
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 An 100
n
1.530 V .530
n FIG. 13-49. The axial angle 2V for norm al plagioclase. (After ReinhanZ, 1931.)

1.520 V .520

1.510
/V 1.510 y

/ An
100 crop
/90
1.500

1.490
V
.500

1.490
- .....
"0 I
I
I 10,

1.480
/ .480
I
I
I
20

30?
Anor- I
Albite Oligoclase Andesine Labradorite Bytownite t hite I
I
FIG. 13-47. Indices of refra ction of plagioclase glass. ( After Foster, 1955.) 1
90 50 I.
0.014 0.014

0.013 0.013

0.012 0.012

a 0.011 0.011 ~
~
'"~
I I
~
0.010 0.010

0;009 0.009

0.008 O.OOB

0.007 0.007 F ,e:. '13-50. 1\ SII'II·ograp ld c.; (1'01,'('111111 or x, Y, il lid 7. II lId III(' Ilpli c """ A II lId IJ
o 10 30 50 70 90 AntOO u li ('111('l 1 lV iii, " " 1,, '('1 III ( 001 ) 11,,,111,, , (' 11\/' 1',)(· hll ll, 1111 11111.1 pl " glll, ·I" ",· ( , ,)lId IInlls )
FIG. 13-48. The bi re frin gence of normal pla g ioclase. (M odified frolll C/l(lyes, 1952. ) lliid " i/~ I, It ''IIPCl III I"' II p lll l'. III( ·III'.1I ( 1" "1,,," lillI") . (AII III' "'"1, , 11)[-,[,. )
276 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
ALBITE
Tl'iclinic
An o- lo
'n a= 1.527 to 1.533
n fJ = 1.531 to 1.537
n.., = 1.538 to 1.542
2V = 77° to 82°; Op t. (+)
Frc. 13-51. ( X 12) Albite showin g curved twin lamellae caused by deformation.
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Albite 2 occurs in plates or lath-shaped sections, rarely in pheno-
crysts. It may be intergrown with microcline.
Cleavage. {001} p erfect, {01O} less p erfect, {1l0} and {lIO} imperfect.
Relief. Low, n < balsam. (For indices of cleavage flakes see Figure
13-46. )
Birefringence. Rather weak, lley - n" = 0.009 to 0.011; interference
colors are pale yellow of the first order, about the same as quartz in the
same section.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albite twins (i.e. , twins
according to the albite law) varies from 12° to 19° . In cleavage flakes
parallel to (001) the extinction angle is 3° to 5°; on those parallel to
(010) , from 15° to 20° .
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning according to the albite law ( {01O} =
twin-plane) is rarely absent. There may also b e twinning according to
the Carlsbad law (c-axis or [001] = twin-axis) either alone or combined
with albite twinning. Pericline twinning (b-axis or [010] = twin-axis) is
sometimes present. The angle of the rhombic section is +15 0 to +37 0 .
, T he word albite may b e used in 3 ways (1) as a min eral name, ( 2 ) as :'. mol ecul e,
and ( 3) to desc ribe polysynthetie tw ililling li to (010).
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES ) 277
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with a
large axial angle. Dispersion, r < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Albite is the only plagioclase with indices of
refraction both equal to and considerably less than balsam. Extinction
angles furnish significant criteria (Figure 13-26).
Occurrence. Albite occurs in some granites, in granite p egmatites, in
veins, and in some metamorphic rocks. It is the only plagioclase that is
at all common as a vein mineral. In some altered subsilicic igneous rocks
Frc. 13-52. ( X30 ) Albite intergrown with microcline in a perthitie tex ture.
(spilites ) it is formed at the exp ense of calcic plagioclase as a dcutcr.ic
mineral.
OLIGOCLASE
An lO- 30 Tri(:lill i('
na 1.533 to 1..'543
=
nil = 1.537 t o 1. 548
n.., = 1. 542 Lo 1.551
2 If = 82° to 00° ; Opt. (+) or ( -)
Color. Colorless in thin section s.
Form. Oligoclase occurs in ellh cd ral, subh edral , and anh edra l crys lals .
The appearance is th e same as for th e other fe ldspars.
Cleavage. {OOJ } p erfec t, {OlO } less p e rrect, {UO} a nd {UO} impe rfecl.
Uelief. Low, I/, e ith e r less Illall , g rea te r lh a ll , or :d)o lll e<llial lo [il:lI' or
b:ds:l1n . (For illdi ccs or d C:lv:!g(' lI :li;:('s sec l'i g 111'<' I :~-/I (-i.)
Bil'j'fl'in ~(' I1 (,(,. YVI'!1k or ral l\( ' I' Wi' : 1k, II)' II " O.()()K I () o.om): il 11 ('1'_
h '1'( 'II ('c' ('o lors 11 1'0 gray or w li ll o cd' III I' ri l'~ 1 u1'( lc 'I',
278 MINERAL DESCRIPTION S
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albite twins (twinning
according to the albite law) varies from 0° to 12° . The extinction angle
on a (001) cleavage Hake varies from 0° to 3° ; on {OlO} Hakes, from 0° to
+ 15° (Figure 13-24).
SILICATES : F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 279
in metamorphic rocks. The composition An50 marks the boundary be-
tween silicic (or acidic) and calcic (or b asic) igneous rock types.
L ABRADORITE

Twinning. As in albite. Anso- 7o Triclini c

Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial, either positive or negative na = 1.554 t o 1.564
with a very large axial angle, or neutral (2V = 90° ) for An 17 • Dispersion, n f3 = 1.558 t o 1.569
r> v weak. ny = 1.562 to 1.573
Distinguishing Features. Indices of refraction are slightly below balsam 2V = 7()0 to 90°; Opt . (+ )
at one extreme, but are generally above. Extinction angles (Figure 13-26)
Color. Colorless in thin sections, often with regularly arrangcd in-
are distinctive. clusions.
Occurrence. Oligoclase is very common in persilicic igneous rocks such
as granites and rhyolites, also in syenites, trachytes, and other igneous
rocks . It is occasionally found in granite pegmatites and also in some
metamorphic rocks.
ANDESINE

An 30-50 Triclinic
na = 1.543 to 1.554
nf3 = 1.548 to 1.558
ny = 1.551 t o 1.562
2V = 76° to 90°; Opt. (+ ) or (-)
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Andesine is found in euhedral to anhedral crystals.
Cleavage. {OOI} pedect, {OlO} less peTfect, {llO} and {lTo} impedect.
Relief. Low, n always greater than balsam. (For indices of cleavage
Hakes see Figure 13-46. )
Birefringence. W eak, ny - na = 0.008 so that the interference colors
-

are gray or white of the first order.
Extinction. Th e maximum extinction angle in albite twins ( twins
according to the albite law) varies from 13° to 27~ 0 . On (001) cleavage
Hakes the extinction angle vades from 0° to -7°; on (010) Hakes, from
0° to -16°.
Twinning. As in albite. The angle of the rhombic section varies from
+3° to _2° in andesine.
Intederence Figure. The figure is biaxial, either positive or negative
with a large axial angle, or neutral (2V = 90° ) for An3s. Dispersion,
r < v.
Distinguishing Features. Andesine is distinguished from other plagio-
clases by maximum extinction angles of twinned crystals and by the
indices of refraction (extinction angles, Figure 13-26).
Occurrence. Andesine is a common and widely distributed mineral
in ignenous roeks especially in diorites and andesites. Andesin e also occurs
FIG. 13-53. ( x 15) Labradorite crystals showing albite twi nnin g. ( X ni l·I) ls. )
Form. Labradorite occurs in euhedral to anh edral crys tals. TIll' 1111 _
hedral crystals are often large as compared with thosc of other pl llg]o.
clases.
Cleavage. {00l} p erfect, {OlO} lcss p crfect, {llO} and {lJ O} ill'lWri'( '(' I,
Relief. Fairly low, n> balsam. (For indiccs of clcavage flakvs S ( ' (I
Figurc 13-46.)
Birefringence. Wcak, 11-)' - n" = 0.008 to 0.009; intcrrere nee co lol's
arc gray or white of the first ord er.
Exl illclion. Th e maximum ex tin ctioll an gle ill alhite twillS ( lw ilillillg
accordillg to th e a lbite la w) va ri es I'rolll 27~ 0 to 39°. Til e (,,\ Iill('(ioll
all glo Oil (001) (kavagv fl akt·s var ivs 1'1'0111 _7° to IG" ; Oil ( ()I() ~
!lakes, fl'(Hl1 lri° 10 2Do.
·I \" lllllill ~. A~ ill 11 11111 ('.
 SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 281
280 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
on (001) cleavage flakes varies from - 16° to - 32°; on {OlO} flakes,
Interference Figure. The figure is usually biaxial positive with a large
from -29° to -36° .
axial angle but is biaxial negative at times and neutral for An68. Dis-
Twinning. As in albite.
persion, r < v.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a very large
Distinguishing Features. LabradOlite is distinguished from the other
axial angle. Dispersion, l' > v .
plagioclases by the maximum extinction angles of albite twins and by
the indices of refraction (Figure 13-26, 13-45a) .
Occurrence. Labradorite is a very common mineral in subsilicic igneous
rocks such as auganites, basalts, gabbros, and olivine gabbros. It is the
principal constituent of most anorthosites. Labradorite also occurs in
metamorphic rocks.
BYTOWNITE

An7 o- 9o Triclinic
n" = 1.564 to 1.573
n~ = 1.569 to 1.579
n ~ = 1.573 to 1.585
2V = 79° to 88°; Opt. (-)

FIG. 13-55. ( x 15) Bytownite showing albite and Carlsb ad twinnin g. ( X ni cols. )

Distinguishing Features. Bytovmite is distinguished from oth er plag io-

clases by extinction angles and refractive indices (Figures 13-26, 13-4511 ).
Occurrence. Bytownite usually occurs in gabbros, anorthosites, or
b asalts, but it is a comparatively rare mineral.

ANORTHITE

An~O- 100 T r i(:iil lio

n" = 1.573 to 1.577
FIG. 13-54. ( X 15) Bytownite showing albite twinning. ( X nicols.)
n il = 1.570 t o 1.585
n ~ = 1.585 La ] .500
Color. Colorless in thin sections . 2V = 77° to 70° ; Opt. ( - )
Form. Bytownite occurs in subhedral to anhedral crystals. Color. Colorless.
Cleavage. {001 } perfect, {OlO} iess perfect, {lIO} and {IIO} imperfect. Form. Anorl hile occurs in anh e clra l to s lI hh c c1ral plates or h ilts.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam. (For indices of cleavage flakes see C leavage. {OOI} p c rrcc t, {OlO} les s p e rfe ct, { IIO } and { IIO } ill'l)( ' rf( ·('1.
Figure 13-46.) H e lie/'. 'Fair, 1/ >
hal satrl . (For illdi ees of ('k:,va g <' f1 :lk( ·s s(·(· Fi g lll'tI
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n O! =
0.009 to 0.012. Interference J :'3-'1 G. )
colors are gray, white, or pale yellow of the first order. Bil'('fl'i ll ~(, II <'T . 1\ :111 1('1' W( ':I" , Il y II " . 0 ,0 12 10 () . ()I :~ ; ilti (' r1( '!'( 'II ('(1
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albi te twins ( twinnin g ('o lill's a l'(' g l'a)" w ll il (" (II ' v(·ll olV or II I(' lirsl ol'ti( 'r.
according to the albite law) varies from 39° to 51° . T he ex tinctiun angle
282 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES ) 283
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albite twins (twinning
according to the albite law) varies from 51° to 70°. The extinction angle
on (001) cleavage Rakes varies from - 32° to -40°; on (010) it is
about -37° .
Twinning. As in albite.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a large axial
angle. Dispersion, 1" > v.
Distinguishing Features. AnOlthite is distinguished from other plagio-
clases by the extinction angles and refractive indices (Figures 13-26,
13-45a ).
Occurrence. Anorthite is rare compared with the other plagioclases.
It is found in a few contact-metamorphic deposits and in a few lavas.

THE FELDSP ATHOIDS

The role of the feldspathoids in some igneous rocks is similar to the

a
role of feldspars. They either occur in place of feldspars or may be found
with them but are comparatively rare. Nepheline may be a prominent
constituent as well as leucite.

THE F ELDSPATHOIDS

Chpm ical Crystal

Mineral Indices of refraction
("om position syste m

Leucite. KAI P scuclo isom etric n cr = 1.508, n"'( = 1.50!)

N e pheline. NaAI Hcx ag;on al n, = 1.527- 1.543, nw = 1.530- 1.547
Cancrinite .. N a AI + C0 3 Hexagonal n, = 1. 4!)6- 1.500, nw = 1.507- 1.524
Socialite . ... N a AI + Cl I sometric n = 1.483- 1.487
Haiiyne .. . . NaAI + S Isometric n = 1.496- 1.510
Meli li te .. . . Ca,Mg,AI T etragonal n, = 1.626- 1.62!), n w = 1.632- 1.634.

LEUCITE

KAl(Si0 3)2 Pseudoisometric b

(Iso metric above 600°C) FIC. 13-56 0,1). ( X I 5) (II) Lell cilc showin g an 1II1 cqllall y dcvcloped lr:Ij.""'I.olll"ci,ul
outlinc. (b) Thc salllc crystal showiJl g lwinning. ( X ni cols.)
na = 1.508
n"'( = 1.509 Helief. Fair, n < halsam.
Birefringence. Very wcak, ny - 11 " = 0.00] ; iLis l)('sl d e l !'e l!'d hy
Color. Colorless in thin sections. u sin g Lh e sensilive-violeL l es t plale. M inille crys Lals Iliay IIoL sll()w lilly
Form. Leucite practically always occurs in euhedral crystals. Th e IJircfl"i Il gC' II CC.
crystal form is the trapezohedron {211}, which shows octagonal sections. Exljll cl jOll. I s ()fl (' II W :IV )'.
It often contains inclusions, and these may be arranged in a regular Twinnin g. /\ (" 11 : 1J"i1( ' I( 'I" i ~ li ( ' 1'1 ': 11111"(' (lr k\l (' i!J ' is III(' ("()fllpli(,I1I( ,(l poly-
manner, either radially or concentrically (Figure 8-12). sy "lll('li l' l \Vi lill ili g ill Sl 'Vt ' n d dill ·('(in ll s. \V lddl 01 1( '11 I'I 'S ( ' III"II 'S 111111 of'
284 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 285
microcline. When heated to about 600°C the twinning disappears, which
proves that KAI( Si0 3)2 is dimorphous.
Distinguishing Features. L eucite resembles analcime. The latter shows
weak birefringence but does not have definite polysynthetic twinning.
Microcline has greater birefringence and lower relief.
Occurrence. L eucite occurs almost exclusively as phenocrysts in lavas
(leucite tephrite, leucitite, leucite basalt, leucite phonolite, etc.) and the
corresponding tuffs. L eucite-bearing rocks are common in Italy but rare
in most other parts of th e world. A promin ent American locality for
leu cite-bearing rocks is the Leucite Hills, Wyoming.

Frc. 13-58. (X 12) Euhedral nepheline in thin section.

FIG. 13-57. ( X 12) Cross twinning in leucite. ( X nicols.)

Leucite is exceedingly rare in grained igneous rocks (fergusite). In

such rocks it usually has been altered to so-called pseudoleucite (ortho-
clase-nepheline mixture).

NEPHELINE
FH: . 13-59. ( X 12: Anh edral and e uh cdral lIcphelille crystals ill thi" M·l·rl" " .
( X nicols.)
eN a,K) (Al,Si ) 20 4 (Eleoli te in pa rt) Hexagonal
(Esse nt ially N aAISiO. (Hexagonal subsystem)
with an excess of SiO.) rectangular and hexagonal sections and sometimcs show zona l stl'l 1('(1 11'1 '
(Figme 8-27).
n , = 1.527 to 1.543
Cleavage. Impcrfect parall e l to {lOlO} , not always appal'en l.
nw = 1.530 to ] .547
Relicf. Very low, n ahout the same as balsam hilt II sll ;rlly s l i ~hll y
Opt. ( -)
high cr.
Color. Colorless to turbid in thin sections. It may show rows of in- Birefringe nce. VVc; lk, II", II , 0.008 to (UlO/I; illtl'l'r( 'l'l'II ('(' ('olms :II'!
clusions. gray o r t h(' fil'st ol'd (' I'.
F orm. Nepheline occurs in short prismatic hexagonal crystals (pheno- Extin("lioll, ]>ul';rll ('1 rol' 1,(,( 'I" " gl" :11' s('('li()I\S, 11:lsnl S{'(' liOliS ,, 1'( ' (lnrk
crysts) in dense rocks and in anhedra in grained rocks. The crystals have hl 'l wel 'II (; t'oss ('d II /vols.
286 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Orientation. The rectangular sections are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a negative tmiaxial figure with-
out any rings.
Distinguishing Features. The mineral most likely to b e mistaken for
nepheline is orthoclase, but the latter has better cleavage and is biaxial.
It also resembles melilite and scapolite; the former h as higher relief and
the latter stronger birefringence.
Alteration. Nepheline alters very readily to zeolites, sodalite, muscovite
( gieseckite ), cancrinjte, or hydronephelite (a vaIiety of natrolite).
Occurrence. Nepheline is conRned to soda-rich igneous rocks such as
nepheline syenites, phonolites, and a few b asaltic rocks. It is not asso-
ciated with original quartz.
CANCRINITE
3N aAISi0 4 .CaC0 3 .H 2 0(?) Hexagonal
n , = 1.496 to 1.500
nw = 1.507 to 1.524
Opt. (-)
Color. Colorless in thin sections to very pale yellow in sections a little
thicker than normal.
Form. Crystals are usually anhedral with a tendency toward elongation
parallel to the c-axis. Euhedral crystals are rare.
Cleavage. Good cleavage parallel to {lOlO}.
Relief. Fair, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Variable from rather weak (0.007) to moderate (0.028);
the interference colors vary from first-order pale yellow up to middle
second order.
Extinction. Parallel to outlines and to the cleavage traces. Some sec-
tions are isotropic.
Orientation. Crystal outlines and cleavage traces are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a negative uniaxial interfer-
ence figure with not more than one or two rings.
Distinguishing Features. Cancrinite is distinguished from similar min-
erals by its stronger birefringence.
Alteration. There is sometimes alteration along cleavage cracks and
fractures.
Related Minerals. Hydronephelite, a zeolitic alteration of n eph eline,
is a closely related mineral.
Occurrence. Cancrinite is a rare, but widely distributed, mineral char-
acteristic of nepheline syenites. It is probably a deuterie mineral since it
often surrounds and apparently replaces feldspars. Its associates ar(,}
plagioclase ( especially albite) , microcline, nepheline, and sodalite.
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TE CTOSILICA TES ) 287
SODALITE
3N aAISi0 4 .N aCI I sometri c
n = 1.483 to 1.487
Color. In thin sections colorless to gray, often with dark borders.
Form. Sodalite occurs in six-sided euhedral crystals (cross sections of
dodecahedra) and in anhedra.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to {1l0}, more likely to show on edges
of the slide.
Relief. Fair, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Nil.
Extinction. D ark behveen crossed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. Sodalite resembles analcime, but thc lattcr is
usually secondary. It may be necessary to make microchemical tests to
confirm the determination of sodalite.
Alteration. Sodalite is readily altered to zeolites.
Related Minerals. N osean ( sometimes called noselite) is a rcla led
mineral containing the sulfate radical in the place of chlorine.
Occurrence. Sodalite is practically confined to soda-rich igneous rocks
such as syenites and trachytes. It is especially prominent in rocks called
sodalite syenites. It is a common associate of nepheline.
HAUYNE
m3N aAISi0 4 • CaS04. (Lazuritc in part) I sorn cl.ri o
n3N aAISi0 4 .N a 2S
n = 1.496 to 1.510
With hauyne, often given in the less euphonious variant haliynile, is ill -
cluded lazurite, here considered to b e simply a sulfide-bearing h:LiiYII( ,.
(The name lazurite is discarded because of its Similarity to lazuliLe. )
Color. Colorless, gray, pale blue, bluish green to deep blu e in L11l11
sections. The color may vary within a single crystal. Transparent to
h'anslucent.
Form. Hauyne usually occurs in cuh edral to anhedral crystals and ill
crystal aggregates. Both octahedrons and dodecahedrons arc comlllOIl
crystal forms.
Cleavage. It may show imperfect cleavage (dodecahedral , as ill
sodalitc ) .
Relief. Bather low, n < hals:1m.
Birefringence, Tlaii )' ll o is Il sll :i1ly isolropi c, hilt o('c:ls'ion :dly it· 11111
show very weak l)ircf'rill gc lI C'(' lip to ~lh()l lt 0.00 /1.
Dislillgllisllillg FCHlI'rcs. Il ilii )' II C l'l'sc'lllhl('s sod :i1ilc', hill il s r( ,rrll( 'llyo
illcl(lx is Ili gllC'l' Il ilcl lIs l'iI 'IIVlI g(\ I( ,ss IlI'olllill( '111 tl llil l tl ll il or sndil lii n. Till
288 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES ) 289
presence of pyrite is characteristic of the sul£de-bearing hauyne of lapis Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
lazuli. Birefringence. W eak, nw - ne = 0.005 to 0.006; interference colors are
Related Minerals. N osean (or noselite) , a mineral of the sodalite first-order gray and often anomalous Berlin blue.
group, is similar to h auyne, but it contains little or no calcium. Extinction. Parallel.
Occurrence. Haiiyne occurs in (1) soda-rich volcanic rocks such as Orientation. 111e rectangular sections are length-slow, since the min era I
phonolite and in (2) the contact-metamorphic limestones or muscovite- is tabular in habit and optically negative.
diopside gneisses known as lapis lazuli. Pyrite is an invariable constitu- Interference Figure. Basal sections give a uniaxial negative figure with -
ent of lapis lazuli. out any rings.
MELlLlTE Distinguishing Features. Elongated sections with w eak bireflinge nce
m(Ca 2A1 2Si0 7). Tetragonal and peg structure are characteristic. It somewhat resembles neph clin(
n(Ca 2MgSi 20 7) but the relief is fairly high instead of low.
n , = 1.626 to 1.629 Related Minerals. Other minerals of the melilite group are gehl cnilo,
nw = 1.632 to 1.634 CazAl, SiO" found in metamorphic limestones and akerman i1:("
Opt. ( -) Ca" MgSi 2 0 7 , found in furnace slags and as a laboratory product.
Alteration. Incipient alteration takes place along lin es normal to th o
length of the crystal. This gives the so-called peg structure. It may also
be altered to calcite and zeolites.
Occurrence. Melilite occurs in subsilicic igneous rocks such as nopll o-
line- and leucite-bearing lavas and in melilite basalts (alnoites ). USllld
associates are augite, olivine, nepheline, leucite, and perovskite. It is a'fso
a prominent constituent of a coarse-grained alkaline igneous rock rolled
uncompahgrite in the San Juan region, Colorado.
Melilite is also found in furnace and in Portland-cement clinkcr sIngs.

SCAPOLITE GROUP

(Wernerite)
m[3NaAISi 30 s.NaCI] = M a T e tI' U~ ()ll l d
n[3CaAI 2 Si 2 0 s.Ca(O,C0 3 ,S0 4)] = Me
n , = 1.540 to 1. 571
nw = 1. 550 to 1. 607
Opt. ( - )
FIG. 13-60. ( x 190) Melilitc (fair relief) in nephelinite .
Scapolite is an isomorphous mixture of the nvo end memhers giv( '"
Melilite, although complex in composition, is essentially an iso · above. The sodium en d member is called 1T/mialil e, and th e ca1cil lill ('lid
morphous mixture of the two end members gehlenite (CaAl) and aker· member, meionite. The name w ernerite is applied to certain inlernwdi:rlo
manite (CaMg), according to Buddington. members.
Color. Colorless to pale yellow in thin sections. It will b e noted th at the ch emical composition is simil ar lo tlr:lt or 1111
Form. The usual forms of melilite are euhcdral crystals of tabular habit pl agioclases hilt with added NaCl,CaCO", olc,
that show as rectangular sections. It often has "peg structure" due to Color. Colorless in thin sec tion s.
lines normal to the length of the sections. Forill. l\/lill c r;ds or tll <: st'; lp()lil (' grO llp IISII ;III y on'lIr ill CO lllllllllll' ag-
Cleavage. Indistinct parallel to {00l}, which often appears as a single g l'q~; II( 'S, (; rys lals ; 11'(' Il sll ;dly 1'1111)( ' 1' Illr!!:(',
crack in the center of the section, H( ,lid. I ,ow to filiI', 1/ - . h:dslIl ll.
290 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES ( TECTOSILICATES) 291
Cleavage. Distinct parallel to {100} , less distinct parallel to {llO}. In especially basalts. Although variable in optical properties, they all have
most sections the cleavage traces are parallel to the length; in cross sec- low indices of refraction and rather weak birefringence. The last four
tions the cleavage shows in two directions at right angles. in the list are fibrous or columnar, but there are also other fibrous zeolites
Birefringence. Rather weak to rather strong, n", - n. = 0.010 to 0.036. such as ptilolite, mordenite, and laumontite. A few rare zeolites such as
The maximum interference color varies from yellow of the first order up harmotome and brewsterite contain barium.
to second-order violet, depending upon the chemical composition. The
birefringence increases with calcium or meionite content. ANALCIME
Extinction. Parallel in most sections . Basal sections remain dark be-
tween crossed nicols. N aAI (Si0 3) 2.H 20 (Analcite) Isometric
Orientation. The cleavage b'aces and main crystal outlines are parallel n = l. 487
to the faster ray.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a uniaxial negative figure with
a few rings. Longitudinal sections give a "Rash figurc. "
Distinguishing Features. Scapolite is similar to plagioclase but lacks
twinning, has parallel extinction, and usually has stronger birefringence.
Varieties with w eaker birefringence resemble cordierite, which is biaxial,
or quartz, which is optically positive. Without chemical analyses it is
t
t
difficult to determine the various kinds of scapolite, but the birefringence
increases with the calcium content. \
Alteration. Scapolite is often altered to muscovite and to ill-defined
fibrous aggregates. *
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of scapolite is contact-meta-
morphic limestones where it is often associatcd with idocrase, diopside,
gamet, etc. It also occurs in certain gneisses and in some gabbros as a
high-temperature alteration of plagioclase.

THE ZEOLITES FIG. 13-61. ( X I5) Euhedral analcime with rongh trap ezohcclral oulli ne.
The zeolites are hydrous sodium calcium aluminum silicates that com-
monly occur as secondary minerals in cavities of subsilicic volcanic rocks, Color. Colorless in thin sections .
Form. Analcime occurs in equant crystals of trapezohedral hahil 111;ll
Z E OLITES are octagonal to rounded in sections (Figure 8-25). It may also (lce ll), ill
the groundmass in irregular masses.
Chemi cal Cleavage. Imperfect cub ie, which in sections often appears as Iwo sf'ls
Crystal
Mineral compo- n" n~ ny
sition
syst em of lines at light angles.
Relief. Moderate, n < balsam.
Analcime .. . . Na Isometric n = l.487 Birefringence. Analcime is cither dark hctwecn crossed ni cols 0 )' sll() WS
Heulandite ... Ca Mono clinic 1 .496-1 .499 1. 497- 1.501 1.501- 1.505 very w eak birefringence (not ovcr 0.002). Use th e scnsitive-violel pl:ll o
Stilbite . . . . Ca,Na Mono clinic 1 .494-1.500 1 .498- 1.504 1 .500- 1 .508 to de tect th e donblc refraction.
Chaba zite . . Ca,Na Mono clini c n" = 1. 478- 1 .485, n y = 1 .480- 1 .4 90
Distinguishing Featu res. Lell cite very m il c h 1'('.o; (' lIlhl l'S ;l1l:I!c illll ' hili
Natrolite . Na Orthorhomhi r 1 .473- 1.480 1 476- 1. 482 1. 485- 1. 19:1
Mesolite . N a ,Ca Mono clinic 1 .50.5 1 505 1 .50G h:ls a sli ghll y grC;llcr rdr:ll'I ivo ill dex ( I .SOB ;IS :lg;liIiSI I .tIS7) .
Thomsonite. Na,Ca Orthorhombic l. 512- l. 530 1 . 513- 1 . 5 ~l 2 J .51 8- 1 .542 OcclIrrclice. ;\ II ;r1 cillll' is :1 S('l 'o lld :lry rnil l('r:r1 ill (,:lvi l i( 's il lid SI'II IIIS Ill'
Scolecite . Ca Mono clinic 1 .512 1 .519 1 .519 igll( 'oIiS rocks, usua lly IIss()(' i:I!( 'd will i 01 11111" zf'oli[ (·s 1111(1 (·; r1vi!( '. III S Pill( '
- ---
292 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES ; FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES ) 293
igneous rocks, such as teschenites and analcime basalts, it occurs in the
Occurrence. Heulandite is a secondary mineral in the seams and
groundmass as a deuteric mineral. In several western localities it occurs
cavities of igneous rocks, esp ecially basalts. Stilbite is a common associate.
in lake beds.
HEULANDITE STILBlTE

H 4CaAI 2(Si0 3 ) 6.3H 20 Monoclinic H4(Ca,N a 2)AI 2(SiO a) 6.4H 20 Monoclinic

= 88°34'
L.{3 L.{3 = 51 °
ncr = 1.494 to 1.500
ncr = 1.496 to 1.499
n f3 = 1.498 to 1.504
n f3 = 1.497 to 1.501
n~ = 1. 500 to 1. 508
n~ = 1.501 to 1.505
2V = 33° ± ; Opt. ( -)
2 V = 0° t o 48°; Opt. (+)
b = {3 or Y, a 1\ Q' or X = +5°
b = l' or Z, c 1\ {3 or Y = - 6°

201

a ~ . ------,=-

FIG. 13-62. Orientation diagram of heulandite. Section parallel to (010) .

Color. Colorless in thin sections. FIG. 13-63. ( X 12) Tap ercd crystal s of stilbite in radial arrangc mc nt. ( X lIi (;() I ~. )
Form. Heulandite usually occurs in distinct crystals that are tabular
parallel to {OlO}.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OlO}.
Relief. Rather low, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Weak, ny - n" = 0.007; the interference colors range
up to white of the first order. Sections parallel to {OlO} that include
cleavage flakes have very weak birefringence since n(3 - n" = 0.001.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage traces.
Orientation. Cleavage traces are parallel to the faster ray.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderate
axial angle. The axial plane is normal to {OlO}. Dispersion, r < v.
Distinguishing Features. H eulandite resembles stilbite but has b etter
cleavage and is optically positive, whereas stilbite is optically negative.
The side pinaeoid {OlO} sections of heulandite are unsymmetrical and
the corresponding sections of stilbite symmetrical on account of twinning.
I' I(). I:) (H . ( X 12 ) SllIllil tlw ill" 'III" .d"d 11 111 lill i ''; I" /I I; " illllllil 1,111 1,11\1 11, /1 ',.,. ( X ,ilI '"I ,. )
294 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 295
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Interference Figure. The figure is either uniaxial or biaxial with a
Form. Stilbite usually occms in sheaf-like aggregates. small axial angle. The optical character is positive.
Cleavage. Good in one direction {0l0}. Distinguishing Features. Chabazite may be mistaken for other zeolites,
Relief. Rather low, n < balsam. espeCially analcime. The birefringence of chabazite is a little higher than
Birefringence. Weak, 'Ilry - n" = 0.006 to 0.008; interference colors are that of analcime.
gray and white of the first order. Related Minerals. Gmelinite is a zeolite very similar to chabazite in
Extinction. Extinction of sections showing the best cleavage is parallel. properties, but with slightly lower indices of refraction.
The extinction angle of sections with the highest interference colors is Occurrence. Chabazite is a secondmy mineral in cavities and seams of
about 5°. The extinction is usually wavy and not uniform. igneous rocks, especially basalts. It is often associated with calcite,
Orientation. The cleavage traces prehnite, and other zeolites.
c
are p arallel either to the slow ray
or to the fast ray. NATROLITE
Twinning. Twins with {001 } as N a2A12SiaOlo.2H20 Orthorhombic
twin-plane are common. ncr = 1.473 to 1.480
Interference Figure. The figure n~ = 1.476 to 1.482
is biaxial negative with a moderate noy = 1.485 to 1.493
axial angle. The axial plane is 2V = 60° to 63°; Opt. (+)
{010}. Dispersion, l' < v. a =
I
a or X, b = f3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
Distinguishing Features. Heu-
landite is similar to stilbite, but it c
I
has b etter cleavage and is optically
FIG. 13-65. Orientation diagram of positive instead of negative. 001

I~"o
twinned stilbJite. Section parallel to Occurrence. Stilbite is a sec-
(OlD) ; twin-plane = (001).
ondary mineral in cavities and
seams of igneous rocks . Usual associates are calcite, heulandite, and other
zeolites. It has been found as a hot-spring mineral in the interstices of
y
sandstone. ·-b

CHABAZITE

(Ca,N a2)Ab(SiO ah.6H 2 0 Monoclinic

(Pseudorhombohedral )
n" =
1.478 to 1.485
noy 1.480 to 1.490
= .Z
2V = 0° to 32°; Op t. (+) 1
FIG. 13-66. Orientation diagram of natrolite. Section parallel to ( 100 ).
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Chabazite is usually found in euhedral rhombohedral crystals Color. Colorless in thin sections.
that approach the cube (1011: 1101 = 85° 14' ). Form. Natrolite usually occurs in lon g prismati c crysta Is 01' nhro ll s
Cleavage. Imperfect rhombohedral, hence almost rectangular. aggrcgates tha t arc often more or lcss radi a ting. Cross seclions of cl'ys tll ls
Relief. Moderate, n < balsam. are nearly squarc (110 1\ 110 = ca. 89° ).
Birefringence. Very weak to weak, n y - n" = 0.002 to 0.010; inter- Clcavagc. Parallel lo th e length of lll(' crys la Is { 110) .
ference colors are first-order gray. Rclicf. Modcl'ate, 'It < halsam.
Extinction. The extinction is symmetrical to crystal outlines and cleav- 13ircfl'illgclI(': c. Halll('1' w(~nk , lI y II " 0.01 2 10 (J.()I :> ; L1 w IlI ilXi llllilU
age traces. il llul'rorom.:o color is y~\ II() w Of 1II' II II gO ()f lho Ul'~ l ord( II',
296 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 297
parallel extinction but is length-slow in some sections and length-fast in
others.
Occurrence. Natrolite is a secondary mineral found in cavities of
igneous rocks, especially basalt. The associates are other zeolites and
calcite.

(l

FIG. 13-68. ( X 15) Clu sters of natrolitc crystals. ( X nicols. )

MESOLITE

Na 2Ca2Al 6(Si30IO) 3.8H20 M ono<:lil lit:

na 1.505
n fJ l.505
n'Y l.506
2V = ca. 80°; OpL. (+)
c 1\ (3 or Y = 2° Lo 5°
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
b Form. Mcsolite usually occurs in fibrous aggregates.
FIG. 13-67 a,b. ( X 15) (a) Natrolite showing a radial acicular group. (b) Thc same Cleavage. Perfect in two directions (nO) and (fiO).
view between crossed nicols.
Relief. Moderate, n < balsam.
Extinction. Parallel in longitudinal sections, symmeh'ical in cross sec- Birefringence. Very weak, 'Ilry - n" = 0.001; the maxirrmm intcrkr('IIt'(·
tions . color is first-ord er gray.
Orientation. The crystals are always length-slow. Extinction. Th e maximrrm ex Lin ction an gle inlon giLlldin <11 sceliolls is
Interference Figure. A good figurc is difficult to obtain on account of vcry small, from 2° La 5°.
the small size of most of the crystals. Orienlalion. The ril)('rs :rro ill p:11'1 I('" g th -slow :lIld ill P:lrt 1(' lI g tll -fil s!.
Distinguishing Features. Scolecite resembles natrolite but is length- Twinllillg. Twills w illi, IOOl il S Iwi ll -pl :lI1\' ;11'( ' 11 II iv(' rs: rl , hili 1111 ' twill -
fast instead of length-slow and has oblique extinction. Thomsonite has nin g is lI () t ('()II spi( 'll(iIiS
298 MINERAL DESCRIPT IONS SILICATES : F RAME WORK ST RUCTURE S (TECTOSILICATES) 299
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a very large
axial angle. The figure lies across the fibers. Dispersion, l' > v sb·ong.
Distinguishing Features. Mesolite very much resembles the other
fibrous zeolites. In common with thomsonite the fibers are in part length-
slow and in part length-fast. From thomsonite it may b e distinguished
by the maximum extinction angle of 2° to 5° and by its larger axial angle.
Occurrence. The occurrence of meso lite is the same as that of other
zeolites, in the cavities of basalts and related rocks.

THOMSONITE

N aCa 2Ah (Si0 4) 5. 6H 20 Orthorhombic

na = 1.512 to 1.530
nfJ = 1.513 to 1.532
n.., = 1.518 to 1.542
2V = 44° to 55°; Opt. ( + ) FIG. 13-70. ( x 12) Radial thomsonite crystals forming a group. ( X nicols.)
a = a or X, b = 'Y or Z, c = {3 or Y SCOLECITE
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
CaA12Si30 1o.3H20 Monoclilli e
Form. Thomsonite usually occurs in fibrous or columnar aggregates.
L.{3= 89° 18'
Euhedral crystals are very rare. na - 1.512
c
Cleavage. In one direction {OlO}.
! Relief. Rather low, n < balsam.
nfJ = 1.519
n.., = 1.519
Birefringence. Rather w eak, n-y - n" = 0.006 to 2V = 36 0 ; Op t. ( - )
0.012; maximum interference colors range from b = 'Y or Z, c /\ a or X - 15 0 t o - 18°
first-ord er white up to low second-order blue in
different specimens. Cross sections of fibers show Color. Colorless in thin sections.
0 -' the highest interference color for a given thick- Form. Scolecite occurs in crystal aggrega tes with
ness. a columnar to fibrous structurc.
Extinction. Parallel. Cleavage. Distinct in two directions {nO} at
Orientation. Some of the fibers are length-slow angles of ca. 88°.
and some length-fast since c = Y. Relief. Low, n < b als am.
.y Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial posi- Birefringence. W eak, ny - n" = 0.007; 'S o the in-
I tive with rather large axial angle. The figure lies terference colors are gray and white of the first order.
F.rG. 13-69. Orientat~on across the fibers since the axial plane is {001}. Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in lon-
ch ag~am of thomsomte. Dispersion l' > V strong. gitudinal sections is - 15° to - 18°.
SectIOn parallel to ' Orientation. The crystals are always length-fas t.
(OlD). Distinguishing Features. Thomsonite is much
like the other fibrous zeolites in general appear- Twinning. Twinning is common. Th c c-ax is [001]
ance and optical properties . Natrolite is length-slow and scolecite length- is the twin-axis and (100) the composition facc. F Ir.. 13-7 1. Oli"1I1 11-
fast, whereas some of the fib ers of thomsonite are length-slow a nd some Interference Figure. Th c fi gurc is biaxial nega livc lioll di a g l':1J1l llf s('III

length-fast. The same is true of mesolite, but in mesolite the maximum
extinction angle c /\ (3 or Y is about 3° . The axial angle of mesolite is
much larger than that of thomsonite.
Occurrence. Thomsonite occurs as a cavity filling in subsilicic volcanic
rocks such as amygdaloidal b asalts.
with a mou.cratc ax.ial a nglc. Th c ax ial "bllc is lIor- (I'Clil '" (Sl'Cli')' " 1>111 11 1
(' In ()IO .
mal lo {OIO} . Dispcrsioll, J' < V slrong.
])isliJl g lli shin~ Fealures. S('o lcc il( ' is IIIII dl lik( , 1I :!lrolil n :llId 0 111 ('1' rnr( '
fihroll s 'l.(loli l c's. Tli t ) ohliqll( ' (', lill (' li o ll 01' :i1I() "l 17" il lid Iwi lillili g 11 1'(
111 0 11I()s l d f~ lill ( ' l lv( ' l'i 'il lllI " ' ~ (II 'wlll( '('II(1,
300
MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Occurrence. Scolecite is a secondary mineral found in cavities of
igneous rocks, especially basalts.
REFERENCES
Silica
Brown, C. S., et al.: The Growth and Properties of Large Crystals of Synthetic
Quartz, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 29 , pp. 858-874, 1952.
Coes, L. J., Jr.: A New Dense Crystalline Silica, Science, vol. 118, pp. 131-
132, 1953.
Eitel, W .: "The Physical Chemistry of the Silicates," pp. 620-629 , University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1954.
Hale, D. R: The Properties of Synthetic Quartz Crystals and Their Growin g
Technique, Brush Strokes, Brush Development Company, Cleveland,
1952.
_ __ : The Laboratory Growing of Quartz, Science, no. 2781 , pp. 393-394,
1948.
Kerr, P. F. , and E. Armstrong: Recorded Experiments in the Production of
Quartz, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 54, suppl. 1, pp. 1-34, 1943.
Ramsdell , L. S.: The Crystallography of "Coesite," Am. Mi.n eralogist, vol. 40 ,
pp. 975-982 , 1955.
Tuttle, O. F.: The Variable Inversion Temperature of Quartz as a possible
GeologiC Thermometer, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 34, pp. 723-730, 1949.
Feldspars
Baskin, Y.: A Study of Authigenic Feldspars, ]. Ceol. , vol. 64 , pp. 132-155,
1956.
Bowen, N. L. , and O. F. Tuttle : The System NaAISi,0 ,-KAISi30 s-H,O, ].
C eol., vol. 58, pp. 489-511 , 1950.
Bradley, 0 .: An Investigation of High-Temperature Optics in Some Naturally
Occurring Plagioclases, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 30, pp. 227-245 , 1953.
Calkins, F. C.: A Decimal Grouping of the Plagioclases, ]. C eol., vol. 25, pp.
157-159,1917.
Chayes, F.: Relations between Composition and Indices of Refraction in
Natural Plagioclase, Am. ]. Sci., Bowen Volume, pp . 85-105, 1952.
Chudoba, K.: "The Determination of the F eldspars in Thin Section" (trans.
by W. Q. Kennedy) , pp. 1-61, Thomas Murby & Co. , London, 1933.
D ay, A. L. , E. T. Allen , and J. P. Iddings: The Isomorphism and Thermal
Properties of the Feldspars, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 31, pp. 1-95,
1902.
Donnay, J. D. H .: Plagioclase Twinning, Bull. C eol. Soc. Am., vol. 54, pp.
1645-1652, 1943.
Emmons, R C. , and R. M. Gates: Plagioclase TwinJaing, Bull. Ceoi. Soc. Am.,
vol. 54, pp. 287-304, 1943.
Foster, W . R: Simple Method for the D etermination of the Plagioclase F eld-
spars , Am. Min eralogist, vol. 40, pp. 179-185, 1955.
C ay, P ., and J. V. Smith: Phase Relations in the Plagioclase Feldspars: Com-
position Range Ano-An2o, Acta. Cryst. , vol. 8, pp. 64-65 , 1955.
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES) 301
Grunner, J. W. , and G. A. Thiel: The Occurrence of Fine Grained Authigenic
F eldspar in Shales and Silts, Am. Minemlogist, vol. 22, pp. 842-846, 1937.
Kennedy, G. C.: Charts for Correlation of Optical Properties with Chemical
Composition of Some Common Rock-forming Minerals, Am. Minemlogist,
vol. 32, pp. 561-574, 1947.
Kohler, A.: Recent Results of Investigations on the F eldspars , ]. Ceol., vol. 57,
pp. 592-599 , 1949.
Laves, F.: Artificial Preparation of Microcline, ]. Ceoz., vol. 59, pp. 511-512,
1951.
- -: Phase Relations of the Alkali Feldspars , ]. Ceol., vol. 60, pp. 436-450,
1952.
Mackenzie, W. S.: The Effect of Temperature on the Symmetry of High-
Temperature Soda-Rich Feldspars, Am. ]. Sci., Bowen Volume, pp. 319-
342, 1952.
- - - and J. V. Smith: Orthoclase Microperthites, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40,
pp. 707-732, 1955.
- -- and - - -: The Alkali Feldspats (3 papers ) , Am. Mineralogist, vol.
40, pp. 707-732, 733-747, 1955; and vol. 41 , pp. 405-427, 1956.
Muir, I. D .: Transitional Optics of Some Andesines and Labradorites, Mineral.
Mag., vol. 30, pp. 545-568, 1955.
Reinhard, M.: "Universaldrehtischmethoden," W epf & Cie., Basel, 1931.
Schmidt, E.: Die Winkel der kristallographischen Achsen der Plagioklase,
Chem . Erde, vol. 1, pp. 351-406, 1919.
Smith, J. R., and H. S. Yoder: Variations in X-ray Powder Diffraction Patterns
of Plagioclase F eldspars, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 41, pp. 632-647, 1956.
Smith, J. V. , and W. S. Mackenzie : The Alkali Feldspars- A Simple X-ray
Technique, Am . Min emlogist, vol. 40, pp. 733-747, 1955.
Trager, W . E.: Optische Eigenschaften und Bestirnmung der Wichtigstcn
Gesteinbildenden Minerale (Feldspate) (H. Freund, ed.) , "Handbuch
der Mikroskopie in der Tecknik," 1st ed. , vol. 4, pp. 79-119, Umschall
Verlag, Frankfurt, 1955.
Turner, F. J.: Determination of Plagioclase with the Four-Axis Universal Stagc,
Am. Min emlogist, vol. 32, pp. 389-410, 1947.
Tuttle, O. F .: Optical Studies on Alkali Feldspars, Am. ]. Sci. , Bowen Volum e,
pp. 553-567, 1952.
Yoder, H . S. , D. B. Stewart, and J. H. Smith: Feldspars, Annual Report of the
Director, Geophys. Lab. , Carnegie Inst. Wash ., no. 1277, pp. 206- 2] 7,
1957.
 SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 303
PYROXENES
Orthopyroxenes Clinopyroxenes
Aegirine - augite
A
Enstatite
8
C I 0
Clino enstatite DIOPS ID E I Jadeite
MgSi0 3 MgSi0 3- - - - - - - (Co, Mg)(Si03)2 : Na Al (Si03)2
CHAPTER 14
I
Hypersthene I AUGITE
Co (Mg, Fe)(Si03)2
I
I
I
II I I
I
I

(Mg,Fe) Si03 I [(Al Fe)203] x I I S~0dumene

Silicates: Chain St1'uctUl'es (Inosilicates) I
!
I
Clinohyper sthene
' I
:
I
:
LiAl (Si0 3)2
I
I
!
(Mg,Fe) Si0 3 PIGEONITE: I
I
Ferrohypersthene
(Fe, Mg) Si03
m(Ca,Mg)(Si0 3)21'
n (Mg, Fe) Si0 3
I
I
PYROXENE GROUP AMPHIBOLE GROUP EPIDOTE GROUP FeSi0 3 FeSi0 3 - - - --- - (Co, Fe) (S i0 3)2 Na Fe (Si0 3 )2
Orthopyroxenes Orthoamphiboles Orthorhombic Ferrosi lite Clinoferrosilite Hedenbergite Aegirine
Enstatite Anthophyllite Zoisite
Hypersthene Clinoamphibol es Monoclinic FIG. 14-1. A diagram showing the approximate chemical relations of the metasilicatcs
that comprise the pyroxene group. A: Enstatite-Ferrosilite series; B: Clinoenstatitc-
Clinopyroxenes Cummingtonite Clinozoisite Clinoferrosilite series; C: Diopside-Hedenbergite series; D: Jadeite-Aegirine series.
Diopside Grunerite Epidote Augite and pigeonite are intermediate in composition. Spodumene represents a species
Augite Tremolitc- Picdmontite on the border of the pyroxene group . Aegirine-augite is intem1ediate.
Pigeonite Actinolite Allanite
Hedenbergite Hornblende
Aegirine-augite Lamprobolite Aegirine
Aegirine Riebeckite
Spodumene
C/I X { ;;;g;;;;;;;-ougite 6°
Jadeite Glaucophane 127"
Jodeite <j,o C
Spodumene
Pioeon/te
The ina silicates contain a number of minerals important in igneous C/I Z ') Oiopside
and metamorphic rocks. In tllis structural division SiO.! groups may form Hedenbergite
a continuous chain (Si0 3 ) n. After the tectosilicates, the ina silicates con- Augite
stitute one of the most important assemblages of rock-forming minerals.

PYROXENE GROUP
The pyroxenes are metasilicates wllich frequently form original rock
constituents (Figure 14-1). A considerable range in chenlical composition
and corresponding optical properties prevails throughout the group. I _-----
Crystals exhibit significant cross sections (Figures 8-30, 8-33). Cleavage .______---r-
is parallel to {110} and the angle (110:110) is about 93° . At times part-
ing occurs parallel to {001} or {lOO} . Twinning with {100} as twin-plane .
FIG .
0-----
14-2. Clinopyroxene extinction angles on (010).
is rather common. The minerals are all bia;'(ial with rather large axial
angles. The axial plane of the optic axes is (010).
Individual members of the group are often identifIed by usc of th e
maximum extinction ::U1gles in longitudinal scctions ( Figure 14-1 ancl
14-2).
.'10.C)
304 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: CHAI N STRUCTURES (INOSILICA TES ) 305
Augite and pigeonite are by far the most common minerals of the Intergrowth. The intergrowth of enstatite with a monodinic pyroxene
group. Jadeite and aegirine are known as soda pyroxenes. is rather common. They have their coaxes in common and at first glance
resemble polysynthetic twins .

• @~o,,~~
Distinguishing Features. Enstatite is distinguished from hypersthene
by lack of pleochroism and from the monoclinic pyroxenes by parallel
extinction.
Alteration. It is common to find enstatite more or less altered to anti-
100 gorite. Pseudomorphs of antigorite after enstatite are known as bastite.
FIG. 14-3. Cross sections of minerals of the pyroxene group showing cleavage. Occurrence. Enstatite is a characteristic mineral of subsilicic igneous
rocks and derived serp entites. It is also found in meteorites.
The Orthopyroxenes
HYPE RSTHENE
ENSTATITE
(Mg,Fe) Si0 3 OrthOl'hom biro
MgSi0 3 (inc. Bronzite) Orthorhombic
n" 1.67:3 to 1.715
n" = 1.650 to 1.665 nil = 1.678 to 1.728
nil = 1.653 to 1.670 n -y = 1.683 to 1.731
n-y = 1.658 to 1.674 2 V = 63° to 90°; Opt. (-)
2V = 58° to 80°; Opt. ( +) a = C{ or X, b = {3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
a = C{ or X, b = {3 or Y; c = 'Y or Z
Color. Colorless to neutral in thin sections. Bronzite has faint pleo- Color. Neutral to p ale green or pale red in thin sections. Plcochroie
from greenish to pale reddish. Inclusions are common and proclu (;c
chroism.
schiller structure (Figure 8-15) .
Form. Enstatite is found in prismatic crystals with the characteristic
pyroxene cross section. Inclusions are Form. Hypersthene usually occurs in sull-
c common and produce what is known as c hedral crystals of prismatic habit. The CJ'O.~S
! sections are nearly square.
! schiller structure in the ferroan variety
Cleavage. Parallel to {llO}; sometimes par.
known as bronzite. 001
allel to {OlO} and {100} .

1~lmo
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at
Relief. High, n > balsam.
nearly right angles (88° and 92° ). Cleav-
age or parting parallel to {OlO} is also
sometimes present. In longitudinal sec-
- - -b tions the cleavage traces are in one direc- y---t--t o= X~'-b
tion parallel to the outlines. I
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" =
0.008 to 0.009; the maximum interference
z color is pale yellow of the first order. z
FIG. 14-4. Orientation diagram of Extinction. Parallel in most sections.
enstatite. Section parallel to Twinning. Rarely present. F IG. 14-5. Orientation dia- F I(:. 11-6. ( X 9) Ilypclslhene ( grny) ill nor ile- . T Ill'
( 100). Orientation. The crystals and cleavage gra m of hypersth cnc. Sce tion lig ht mineral is plagIOclase and thc black ono mil l('
para llel lo (LOO) . lIelitc.
traces are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderate to Bil'cr.-ingcncc. H:ltlier w(': lk , l 'y 11 " - 0.0'10 I n O.Olfi; Ih e In ax ll1ll1l1l
very large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO} . D isperSion, l' < v weak. illl('1'f(' r (' II ('(' co lor is y ell !)\\! 10 n ·d o r III(' firsl md l·I·.
306 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICA TES ) 307
Diopside Hedenbergife Pigeonite Aegirine Augite Augite Jadeile
Extinction. Parallel in most sections. 1.851 iii i I I i I I
1.85
Orientation. The cleavage traces are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is {OlO }. Dispersion, 1" > v weak. 1.80 1.80

1.7 5 n
nT" ,\ ,,,
\
,\ ,
" \\ \ n,. 1.70
" \\
\ -- '-
nfX-- ::~:: -
1.65 1 ! " I , , ! , I ' ! , ,I r" "
° , I ! , "I
25 50
(Ca.Mg)( Si O,), ... (Co, Fe) {SiO~,
I ! , ,
30 40 50 60
Fe SiO ,
I
° 50
No Fe (SiO,), -
100 °
Co (Mg , Fe) {SiO,1,
I ! ;- ;-=J3lL 65
50
-+-
100
NO,AI (SiO, ),
[{AI, Fe ),O ,].
FIG.14-8. Indices of refraction of commol\ clinopyroxenes. Molecular constituents lin'
shown in per ccn t from left to right. (S ee Hess and Poldewaat.)

FIG. 14-7. ( X80) Hypersthene showing cleavage. An included crystal of feldspar

is shown.
010
Distinguishing Features. The pleochroism is the most distinctive fea- y )(,7 I . - b
ture of hypersthene. It resembles some varieties of andalusite, but the a
latter mineral is length-fast, whereas hypersthene is length-slow.
Occurrence. Hypersthene is found in a number of igneous rocks but
is especially characteristic of norite, hypersthene gabbro, some andesite, i
and a p eculiar hypersthene granite known as charnockite. a

(0 ) (b)
The Clinopyroxenes FIG.14-9 a,b. Orientation diagram s of diopside. Sections (a) norm al to Ih,· (', ,,I,
and (b) parallcl to ( 010).
DIOPSIDF.

Ca(Mg,Fe) (Si0 3) 2 M onoclinic Cleavage. Parallel to {llO} and so in two directions at angles or tj'1 o
L(3 = 74°10' and 93° . Parting parallel to {Ool} is sometin1es developed.
Relief. Fairly ,h igh , 11, > b alsam.
na = 1.650 t o 1.698 Birefringence. Rather stron g, 1'lry - 11,,, = 0.029 to 0.031; th e ln aXilllll l1l
n~ = 1.657 to 1.706
inted erence color is about upper second order.
n-y = 1.681 to 1.727
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in sections CIII par:tlld 10
2V = 58° t o 60°; Opt (+)
the c-axis var ies from - 37° to - 44° . In cross scclio ns lh o ('x lill ('lioll is
b = (3 or Y , c A 'Y or Z = -37° to -44°
sym melri ca l lo th e cleavage lraces.
Color. Colorless, neutral, pale green to bright green in thin sections. Orientation. T ho ex lin Cli on clirecli on lh at makes th e slll:tli er all glo willi
Form. Diopside usually occurs in subhcdral crystals of short prisma ti c th o clc'av:l go lr:l C('s in lon g illiclin ,d s('cli oll s is lill' slow(w ra y.
habit. Cross sections are four- or eight-sided. Tw ilillilig. TwillS wi lli ( 100 ) llS lwi ll -pl ll lll ' ilro 1'11 111 (\1' ('OllllllOIi . Poly-
308 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 309
synthetic twinning with {OOl} as twin-plane is common as secondary extinction, but sections cut parallel to {01O} give the large extinction
twinning. angles characteristic of diopside. The parting flakes give an uncentered
Interference Figure. Diopside gives a biaxial positive figure with a optic-axis interference figure that serves to distinguish it from the ortho-
rather large axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r < v weak. pyroxenes. Diallage is especially characteristic of coarse-grained gabbros.
Flakes parallel to the {001} parting
AUGITE
give a good optic-axis figure.
Distinguishing Features. Diopside Ca(Mg,Fe) (Si0 3h[ (AI, Fe) 20 a]x Monoclini c
is distinguished from hedenbergite by L{3= 74°10'
lower refractive indices. From tremo- = 1.688 to 1.712
na
lite it is distinguished by larger ex- = 1.701 to 1.717
n~
tinction angle. Augite has a little nor = 1.713 to 1.737
higher extinction angle (c /\ y 01' Z) 2V = 58° to 62°; Opt. (+ )
and is usually a darker color. Pigeonite b = {3 or y, c /\ 'Y or Z = - 45 ° t o - 54°
has a smaller axial angle.
Alteration. Diopside is sometimes
FIG. 14-10. ( x36) Diopside from
contact metamorphic zone. more or less altered to tremolite-
actinolite.
Related Minerals. Chrome diopside and omphacite are similar to cli-
opside. 010
Occurrence. Diopside is especially characteristic of contact-meta- y ,.-: J~ .. ·-b
morphic zones. It occurs with garnet, wollastonite, idocrase, and other

100

I
o
(oj (b)
1"1G. 14-12 a,b. Orientation diagrams of augite. Sections (a) normal to 1h(' C-lI xl,
and (b) parallel to (010 ) .

Color. Almost colorless, neutral, pale greenish, or pale purplish hrowli

FIG. 14-11. (X20) Diopside showing cleavage parallel to (110). The two directions
are almost at right angles.
silicates. It is found in some gneisses and schists and in some igneous
rocks.
Diallage. This name is used for a variety of ferro an cliopside with
prominent parting parallel to {too}. It is scratched by a knife blade and
has a pearly, more or less metalloidal luster. Patting fl akes have parallel
in thin sections. Zonal structure is sometimes present. PleoclU'oisrn ahs(\l1l
to weak; it is best shown in (100) sections.
Form. Augite usually occurs in short prismatic crystals wilh ro1ll'- 01'
eight-sided cross sections.
C leavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of 87° and 93° . C ka vag( 1
traces are in one direction in longitudinal sections. Diallagc ha s prolld .
nent parting parallel to {lOO}.
Relief. High, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, n'( - n" =
0.021 to 0.025. Th o ma xilllllill 111-
terference color is abo ut rniddle sccond order. Scctions parallel lo (I ()() I
have low first-order oolors.
Extinction. Tho m:di lll.lllil ox lin etioll :lng lo of 1()II ~it"di":l1 s('ctioli S
val' i~ 1'1'0111 36° lo 'I!)') . Th(·s(' so(:l iOIl $ Ili wo lho 1IIIlX illlllili illl( Ir/'( ll'OlI('(
colors for lho slido. SO/lHl vU l lolll 's hllVO It Iwe lili ll l' (;() IH.! Olllrl (' Wttvy (lX -
tinOtlOIl known liS lho h()tll'(: /II ,v1l s ll'\1('[\1l'o . Cf( /SS s III ' l lo ll s IIIIV!) pUl'ullol
310 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATE S: CHAIN STRUCTURE S (INOSILICATES ) 311
or symmetrical extinction dep ending upon whether {100} and {OlO} or PIGEON ITE
{lID} predominates.
Orientation. The extinction direction that makes the smaller angle with mCaMg(Si0 3h (Enstatite-au gite) Monocl ini c
the cleavage traces is the faster ray. n(Mg,Fe)Si0 3 LfJ = (?)
n" = 1.680 t o 1.718
n~ = 1.698 t o 1.725
n" = 1.719 to 1.744
211 = 00 to 40 0; Opt. (+)
b = (3, c 1\ 'Y at' Z = - 220 to -45
0

y
.c x 'xl ) -- b
010

(0)
FIG.14-14 a,b. Orientation diagrams of pigeon ite. Sections (a) normal [0 th e c- :I\I ,
and (b) parallel to (010).
Pigeonite (named by A. N. Winchell from Pigeon Point, Minn .) is :111
I -.u.:..Aa»> .- (

FIG. 14-13. ( X 24) Augitc (high relief) with plagioclase in basalt.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as nvin-plane are common ; these often
appear as twin seams. Polysynthetic twins with {~Ol} as twin-plane are
occasionally found. Combined {100} twins with {OOl} polysynthetic
wins give what is known as herringbone structure.
Interference Figure. The figurc is biaxial positive with a rather large
axial angle. The axial plane is {OlD}. Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Augite is often difficult to distinguish from
diopside. The extinction angle c 1\ y or Z is a little smaller and the color
lighter in diopside.
Alteration. There are nvo common alteration products of augite: (1)
hornblende formed at a late magmatic stage and in p arallel position on
the augite; (2) uralite or secondary tremolite-actinolite formed by hydro-
thermal alteration.
Occurrence. Augite is a very common mineral in subsilicic igneous
rocks such as auganites, gabbros, basalts, olivine gabbros, limburgites,
and peridotites. Locally it is found in gneisses and granulites.
Augite is also a common debital min eral.
isomorphous mixture of diopside and clinoenstatite, a monoclinic pyrox-
ene found in meteorites and also produced in the laboratory.
Color. Colorless or neutral in thin sections. It may show failll pleo-
chroism.
Form. Pigeonite usually occurs in anhedral crystals.
Cleavage. In two directions {lID} at angles of about 87° and 93
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, n')' - n" = 0.021 to 0.033; so the max illlllill
interference color varies from lower to upper second order.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle varies from a b Oll t 22° III
45° . It increases with increase of the clinoenstatite content.
Orientation. The extinction directi.on that makes the smaller a nglo wi lli
the cleavage traces in longi.tudin al section s is the slower ray.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinrling with (100 ) as the lwin -plnllO is
characteristic of pi geonite.
Interference Figure. T il e interfere nce ng lll'(' of pigconi l(' is hia xial posl.
Live with a I'nll1 ('1' srn:dl 10 vCl'y small axia l all g k . T il l' axial pliill( ' is
" slI :i11y ( ()IO ), hili ill v:l ri (' li( 's willi v('I'Y low {': i1 {'i llill {'()I II 1\ 111 III(' lIx i,i1
pl llll( ' is 11()l'Illld In (010 ) . For II ('('fillill ('n 'llp n ~ l li()l1 pig( '()Ilil( ' sil( )lild
312 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 313

have 2V = 0° ; a uniaxial pigeonite from Mull has been described by Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections is
Hallimond. about 42° (c 1\ a -:>r X) .
Distinguishing Features. The only mineral that is likely to be mistaken Orientation. The extinction direction that makes the smaller angle
for pigeonite is augite, from which it may be distinguished by its small with the cleavage traces is th~ faster ray.
axial angle. Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a rather large
Related Minerals. Clinoenstatite, the calcium-free end member of the axial angle. The axial plane is {010}. Dispersion, r > v weak.
pigeonite series, is a well-known laboratory product (the Geophysical Distinguishing Features. Hedenbergite is distinguished from diopside
Laboratory) , but as a mineral it is known only in meteorites. and augite by higher indices of refraction.
Occurrence. According to Barth, pigeonite is the most abundant mem- Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of hedenbergite is in con-
ber of the pyroxene group in volcanic rocks. It occurs in basalts, dolerites, tact-metamorphic zones. It is often associated with iron ores as a sk;un
and diabases. It is largely confined to the groundmass and is rarely mineral.
AEGIRINE-AUGITE
found in phenocrysts.
HEDENBERGITE
Intermediate between Monoclini n
aegirine and augite
Ca(Fe,Mg) (SiO a) 2 Monoclinic in chemical composition
= 74°30'
L(3
na = 1.680 t o 1.745
na = 1. 732 to 1.739 n{3 = 1.687 to 1.770
n {3 = 1.737 to 1.745
n "( = 1. 709 to 1. 782
n "( = 1.751 to 1. 757 2V = ca. 60°; Opt. (+) or ( - )
2V = 60° ; Opt. (+) b = (3 or Y, c 1\ a or X = -15° to - 38°
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 48°
c
c

y -A ",,) /. /v,7 , ) ·1 b
010
010
yO; ps",)( "K ; X, d > - b
a

(0) (b)
FIG. 14-15 a,b. Orientation diagrams of hedenbergite. Sections (a) nonnal to the
e-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
Color. Neutl"al to greenish in thin sections.
Form. Hedenbergite usually occurs in columnar aggregates.
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of 87° and 93° (like the
other pyroxenes).
Relief. Very high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n" = 0.018 to 0.019; the maximum in-
terference color is about first-order violet.
(0) (b)
FIG. 14-16 a,b. Orientation diagrams of aegirine-augite. Sections ((/) 1101'111 :11 10 Ii".
e-axis and (b) parallel to (010) .
Color. Green in thin sections. Pleochroic from yellow-green ((J or )/ )
to greenish (a or X, yOI' Z) .
Form. Aegirine-augite usually occurs in ouhecU'al cry~tals of sll()I'1
prismatic habit with {lOO} as th c dominant form .
Cleavage. In two direction s {I J O} at an gles of 87° and 93°.
Relief. High, "/I > hal s:llll.
nirefl'ill~cnct" l\ u l.li( '1' Sll'oll g , lIoy II " O.02D 10 O.O:J7; illil'l'f( ' I'(III('(
'olol's I'UII ~tl llp 10 lli n IIliddl ... 01,11( 1 s, ·t·olld "nit,l'.
314 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 315
Extinction. The maximum extinction in longitudinal sections varies Cleavage. {1l0} in two directions at angles of 87° and 93°.
from -15° to -38°. Relief. High, 11, > balsam.
Orientation. In sections with the maximum extinction angle the ex- Birefringence. Strong to very strong, n-y - n ", = 0.037 to 0.059; the in -
tinction direction nearest the c-axis is the faster ray. terference colors should be third or fourth order but may be difficult to
Twinning. Twins with {lOO} as twin-plane are common. determine because the color of the mineral may mask the interfercn"
Interference Figure. Is biaxial positive with a rather large axial angle. colors.
The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r > v. Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections i ~
Distinguishing Features. Aegirine-augite resembles aegirine but may very small (from 2° to 10° ) .
be distinguished by the larger extinction angles. It is most easily dis- Orientation. The crystals are always length-fast.
tinguished from the green varieties of hornblende by pyroxene cross sec- Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a rathe r hr ~(I
tions and cleavage. axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r > v.
Occurrence. Aegirine-augite occurs in soda-rich igneous rocks such as Distinguishing Features. Aegirine resembles some of the amphihol( ·s
syenites, trachytes, nepheline, syenites, phonolites, etc. but is distinguished by the small maximum extinction angle and k ll ~ i11
fast character. All the other monoclinic pyroxenes have larger ex lill el iO Il
AEGIRINE
M~es. I
NaFe(Si0 3)2 Monoclinic Related Minerals. Aemite is a pyroxene closely related to aegiri ll l:. "
L{3 = 73°9' differs from the latter in its brown color.
na = 1.745 to 1.777 Occurrence. Aegirine, although a rather rare mineral , is charac te risl i(
= 1.770 to 1.823
nil of soda-rich igneous rocks such as nepheline syenite, phonolite, sY<',lit(',
n-y = 1.782 to 1.836 trachyte, soda granite, soda aplite, etc. In these rocks it often occurs li S
2V = 60° to 66°; Opt. (- ) an overgrowth on aegirine-augite crystals.
b = (3 or Y , c 1\ IX or X = - 2 to _10°
JADEITE

N aAl(Si0 3) 2 (Jade in part) M'ollo(:lilli n

L{3 = 7 ~o' I · 1 1 :l '

na = 1. 655 to 1. 6GG
= 1.659 to 1.674
n il

/' 1'>/ /L x.. /'1 ) --b n-y = 1.667 to 1.688

o 2V = 70° to 75°; Opt. (+ )
b = {3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = -30° to _ %0

Color. Colorless to green in thin sections. Somc of th e dcepl y co lort 'd

(0 ) (b)
FIG .14-17 a,b. Orientation diagrams of aegirine. Sections (a) normal to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010).
Color. Green in thin sections. Strongly pleochroic. Axial colors: IX or
X, dark green; (3 or Y, light green; y or Z, yellow.
Form. Aegirine is usually found in long prismatic crystals, often
bladed, with the typical four- to €light-sided cross section of the py-
roxenes but with {lOO} frequently b e tter developed than {01O}.
varieties are pleochroic.
Form. Jadeite usually appears in granular to colllmn ar or SO III m ·YI III I
fibrous aggregates. The texture varies from fin c-grain ed to coars('-grIlJII( .d .
Euhedral crystals are excecdingly rare.
Cleavage. {llO} in two diTcctions at anglcs of aholll 87° :lnd m o.
Relief. Bather high, 11, > balsam .
Birefringence. Mod erale, l'I' -- n,, = 0.()1 2 lo 0.02:1; Ill u IIll1 Xilllllll1
inte rkroncc colors II ro socond mdt' r.
F.xlinc liOH . TIl(' 11I1I \ illllllll (IX lill (,lion I III ~ I(· ill IOIl !-(illidill :d s l'(' l i(lIl ~
Vllrios rJ'()1I1 :100 10 /1/1".
316 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 317
Orientation. The extinction direction near est the c-axis is the slower jade," a massive green grossularite; "Oregon jade," also a variety of
ray. grossularite; "Styrian jad e," a kind of pseudophite, a compact chlorite; as
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are occasion ally found. well as sillimanite, pectolite, and wollastonite.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, l' < v . SPODUMENE
Distinguishing Features. J adaite is distinguished from nephrite (vari- LiAl(Si0 3) 2 Monocl ini(\
ety of tremolite-actinolite) by larger extinction angle and higher refrac- Lf3 = 69°10'
tive indices. From diopside it is distinguished by smaller maximum ex- na = 1.651 t o 1.668
tinction angles and columnar habit. n~ = 1.665 to 1.675
n-y = 1.677 to 1.681
2TT = 54° to 69°; Opt. (+)
b = f3 or Y, c /\ l' or Z = - 23° to - 27°
x

y
.-- ~
x

la
-r, ~o"
. '-' (a)
100
110

(a ) (b)
FIG. 14-18 a,b. Orientation diagrams of jadeite. Sections (a) normal to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010) .
Related Minerals. Chloromelanite is an iron-bearing greenish black
jadeite that is strongly pleochroic in thin sections.
Alteration. Jadeite is sometimes found more or less altered to tremo-
lite-actinolite.
Occurrence. Jadeite occurs exclusively in jadeite rock (jadeitite) , a
monomineralic metamorphic rock formed according to Grubenmann in
the deep zone of metamorphism. Albite is mentioned as one of the char-
acteristic associates. The origin of jadeitite is obscure; it is found in only
a few localities in Upper Burma, eastern Turkestan, northern Italy, and
Guatemala.
Jade. The name fade (Chinese, Yii) is a general term for two distinct
minerals: (1) nephrite, a tough, compact variety of tremolite-actinolite
and (2) jadeite, an independent member of the pyroxene group, includ,
ing its iron-bearing variety, chIoromelanite.
The jadelike minerals or pseudojades include bowenite, a hard tough
serpentine; californite, a compact variety of idocrase; "South African
FIG.14-19 a,b. Orientation diagram of spodum ene. Sections ({/.) nonna l 10 II,, · (. ,," ,
and (b) parallel to (OlD).
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Some varieties show color (: 1111 0 111 ),
stine for kunzite, greenish for hiddenite) in thick sections a lld ill'( '
pleochroic.
Form. Spodumene usually occurs in euhedral crystals tahular plIrnll( '1
to {100} and elongated in the direction of [001] . Crystals as a 1'111 0 111'(1
inclined to be large but are sometimes on the order of scvcral lI1illilll('l (' I'S,
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to {110} (110 /\ 110) = 93° . Pa.rtill g pllr: d
leI to {laO}, which is often more prominent than the clcavago.
Relief. F airly high , n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, 'I~ - n" = 0.013 to 0.027; ti le IIlll xi ll II II II
interference color varies from upper Rrst order Lo mjcldle second ordnl'.
Extinction. Th e maximum ex tin ction angle in l.oll gitrrclillllI S('e[iOll8
varies rro m 23° to 27° . Tn cross secLions lh(, ex tinction is p:1J'ldl oJ or Sy ill o
nwtrieal . Or ienled scclions elll parall(·1 10 tho (100) pu rlill g I",vo 1'11 1'11 1101
ex ti llclion .
OriuIItnliull. Tho oxU lleLlolI dlroe\.lon that makes lito Sll1ulI (lj' i lll ~ 11
wit'h. I'ho dllil V\lgO Il'ut"us Is till' slowol' my.
318 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 3] 0
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are knO\Vll. With the exception of crossite, in all the amphiboles the plane of tll(l
Interference F igure. Spodumene gives a positive biaxial interference
Rgure with a rather large axial angle. The a.xial plane is (010). Disper-
sion, r < v.
optic axes is {OlO}.
A J"'IPHIBOLE Gnoup
".
Distinguishing Features. Spondumene resembles diopside in general
appearance, from which it may be distinguished by smaller extinction
angle (c 1\ y = ca. 25° ) and frequently by very conspicuous (100) parting.
Alteration. Spodumene is sometimes altered to a mixtme of albite and
muscovite known as cymatolite. The muscovite here is an alteration of
eucryptite (hexagonal LiAISiO,j ).
S 1l§ {A nthOp1y
~
0.-s
IlI'
.
Mmeral

lte .
Chemical

M F
r g e
't'
compOSI IOn

I. G39
na

{1.598
1.652
n/3
----------
1.615
1.6G2
¥F
n..,

1.623} 170900
1.676 -
2V c: 'Y or y,

() O
,

Cummingtonite. . 1F cMg 1. G45 1, ' GG4} I G8- 87° I I Ii :LO"

Kunzite is known to be altered to cookeite, a lithium ahuninum silicate { 1.G57 1. 669 1. 686
I. G57 1.684 I.G99} 17.9_8G O I 10 1.1"
related to lepidolite. Grunerite . . .. I F e { 1.663 1. 697 1. 717
Occurrence. The typical occmrence of spodumene is the lithium 1.600 1.625} 1 79- 850 I III ~Il "
granite pegmatites where it is associated with albite, lepidolite, elbaite,
and rare lithium minerals.
'8
~
~Tre.molite_act.inolite
(me. nephnte)
CaMgFc { 1 . 628
I. 614
, 1.613
1 . 6L1 4 1. 655
g Hornblende .. . CaMgFeAl {
1.675
1.618
1.691
1.633} 1 52- 85° I 12 :\0"
1.701
The Pyroxenoids. Berman has suggested the term pyroxenoid for a ° 1 .670 1. 683 1. 693} G4 800 () Ill"
number of pyroxene-like meta silicates that are not isomorphous with any ::g Lamprobolite . CaMgFeAl {
1.692 1 730 1. 760
of the pyroxenes. Pyroxenoids include rhodonite, bustamite, pectolite, Riebeckite . . .. NaFe 1 . 693 1 : 695 1 . 697 Lf\l'~(, RIi '
and wollastonite. Of these, only wollastonite is important as a rock-form- 1.621 1.638 I.G39} 450 II 0"
Glaucophane. NaAIFe
ing mineral. { 1.655 1. 664 11. G68
AMPHIBOLE GROUP The amphibole group is more or less parallel to the pyroxono gnllip .
The amphiboles may b e considered in terms of Rve series (1) antho- Corresponding members of the t",ro groups, however, are not dimOl'pll(lIl s.
phyllite, (2) cummingtonite-grunerite, (3) tremolite-actinolite, (4) Hornblende is by far the most common mineral of the group. Clllllillillg-
aluminous amphibole, and (5) soda amphibole. tonite is a pale brown monoclinic amphibole with the composilioll or 1111
thophyllite. It is rare. Basaltic hornblende is considered a d is[i Iwilv il
mineral under the name lamprobolite. Riebeckite, glaucophalll', IIl1d /I

• . . .",e'
few rarer minerals are known as soda mnphiboles .
The amphibole group is one of the most complex of alll11ill('l'nl gl'( l1'1)'~'
There are many amphiboles that cannot b e placed und ol' lilly or tho
minerals listed here.
FIG. 14-20. Cross sections of minerals of the amphibole group showin g cleavage. Orthoamphiboles

ANTHOPHYLLITE
The anthophyllite series is orthorhombic while the others are mono-
clinic. The composition RSi0 3 is fundamental to the group with (Mg,Fe)7(OH) 2(Si 'IOll) 2 OI'I.IIC)I'II()IIII)i C1

R=Ca,Mg,Fe. The anthophyllite, cummingtonite-grunerite and tremolite-

n" = 1.508 1.0 1.()52
actinolite series consist essentially of a range in RSi0 3 compositions,
n~ = I.G 15 Lo I.GG2
while the aluminous and soda amphiboles contain Al and Na in addition
to the fundamental composition. The general chemical relationships are
11 .., = I.m:) 1.0 1.07(; ,
If = 70° 1.0 !jO° i Op!.. ( -\- )
outlined below. (~ 0 I' .'\ , Ii (J OJ ' l' , t·
(I, 'Y or %
The amphiboles have rhombic to pseudohexagonal cross sections and
Color. Colllrl( ' ~ s (II' )llI lc · ('c) lol'( 'd ill 111i1i s ( ·( ' l iil ll ~ . SC IIII( ' III III( ' (,(dlll'l·d
perfect cleavage parallel to {110} at angles of about 56° and 124°, as
shown in Figure 14-20. Twinning parallel to {100} is fairly common. VIII'I( ' UI'S sllo\'v pl( '()('ilillblil .
320 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICA TES ) 321
c
! Clinoamphiboles
MONOCLINIC AMPHIBOLES

(Kupffer itel TREMOLITE Glaucophane

ox M9 7 (OH)2 (5i4 0 11 12 Ca2( Mg ,Fe15 (OH12(5 i 4 0 ll lz
I
Naz M9 3 Al z (OH1 2 {Si 40n)2

ACTI NOLITE HORNBLENDE

I Caz(Fe, Mg15 (O H}z.{Si 4 0 Il 1l Caz(Mg, Fe,ALl5iOHiz [lSi ,Al)4 011]z

y
;; Xv ') ) ·_lJ 0-'
I I,
I

NEPHRITE ,
Ca2{Mg,Fe)5 {OHl z {S i4 0Il)2

~ Cummingtonite
{Fe,Mg1 7 (OHlz {Si 4 0 u12
I,
I
LAMPROBOLITE
Ca2 Fe';; Fe';; Oz(Si 4 01l 12
I

! I
zt Grunerlte
i . {Ferrot remolitel \ Ri ebeck it e
(a) (b) Fe7 (OH 12 {Si 4 0 nll CalFe5 {OH)z (Si 4 Ollll NaFe"' ISi0 3 12 ' Fe" SI0 3

FIG. 14-21 a,b. Orientation diagrams of anthophyllite. Sections (a) normal to the
c-axis and (b) parallel to (OlO). FIG. 14-22. Major groups among the monoclinic amphiboles.
Form. Long prismatic crystals and columnar to fibrous aggregates are
characteristic of anthophyllite. It is sometimes asbestiform. CUMMINGTONITE

Cleavage. In two directions {1l0} at angles of 54 0 and 126 0 • Cross (Fe,Mg) 7(OH) 2(Si 4 0 11) 2 MOllo<:/illio
fractures are common.
Relief. High, n > balsam. 1.639 to 1.657
na =

Birefringence. Moderate, n-y - n" = 0.016 to 0.025; interference colors 1.645 to 1.669
nf3 =

range up to low second order. n-y = 1.664 to 1.686

Extinction. Parallel in longitudinal sections, in cross sections sym- 2T1 = 68° t o 87°; Opt. ( +)
metrical to outline or cleavage. b = {3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = -15° to - 20°
Orientation. Length-slow.
Twinning. Absent.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a large axial
angle, or neutral (2V =
90 0 ). The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion,
r> v orr < v.
Distinguishing Features. Anthophyllite resembles tremolite-actinolite
and also cummingtonite but may be distinguished from these minerals by
~
its parallel extinction. Y(~~Ol~ '_ b
Related Minerals. Gedrite is an aluminous variety of anthophyllite. It
is optically negative instead of positive.
Alteration. Anthophyllite is often altered to talc. The partially altered
a
mineral was formerly called hydrous anthophyllite.
Occurrence. Anthophyllite is characteristic of metamorphic rocks. It
is the main constituent of anthophyllite schist and is also a secondary (01 (b)
mineral in peridotites and dunites.
Fit :, 1t1 - 2:_~ fl.lJ , ()dj llll :tl llI li d lllg l lltH "l 0 1 ( ' IIIIIIldll g I Oli l l tl , S c ' ( ' lfllll ~ ( II ) IIClIIII III I n I III'
Anthophyllite is the principal constituent of mass-fiber asbestos. li-lI xll! II II.! (1/ ) 11I 1I Idl,oI III ( 0 10 ) ,
322 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Color. Colorless to neutral in thin sections. It may show slight pleo-
chroism.
Form. Cummingtonite usually occurs in parallel to subradiating ag-
1 I
gregates of prismatic crystals. The crystals are sometimes cmved.
Cleavage. Cleavage in two directions at angles of about 56° and 124°
as in the other amphiboles.
Relief. Moderately high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather strong, ny - n" = 0.025 to 0.029.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections
varies from about 15° to 20° ; the angle increases with increase of mag-
nesium content.
Orientation. Elongate sections are length-slow.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as a twin-plane are highly characteristic
of cumrningtonite. The twinning is polysynthetic, and the twin-lamellae
are usually very narrow.
Interference Figures. The figure is biaxial positive with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is (010). Dispersion, r < v .
Distinguishing Features. Cummingtonite has a larger extinction angle
and lower indices of refraction than grunerite. Cummingtonite is optically
positive, and gnmerite is negative. From b'emolite, cummingtonite is
distinguished by higher indices of refraction. Anthophyllite is very simi-
lar to cummingtonite but may be distinguished by its parallel extinction
and absence of l:\Ivinning.
Occurrence. Cummingtonite, as far as known, is confined to meta-
morphic rocks. It is a characteristic mineral in schists at the Homestake
Mine in South Dakota. It is a characteristic mineral of hornfels at several
localities in California.
CRUNERITE
FC7(OH)2(Si 4011) 2 Monoclinic
na = 1.657 to 1.663
n il = 1.684 to 1.697
n." = 1.699 to 1.717
211 = 79° to 86°; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = _ 10° to -14°
Grunerite (not griinelite) is the name used for the minerals of the
cummingtonite-grunerite series in which iron greatly predominates over
magnesium.
Color. Neutral in thin sections.
Form. Grunerite usually occurs in fibrous to columnar aggregates. It
is sometimes asbestiform. Cross sections are rhomhic as in other amphi-
boles.
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 323
c
Y
< ~OI0) --b
i
o
(0) (b)
FIG. 14-24 a,b. Orientation diagrams of gruneritc. Sections (a) normal to thc c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010).
Cleavage. Cleavage is in two directions at angles of about 56° and
124° as in the other amphiboles. Cross fractures are common.
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n" = 0.042 to 0.054; the interference colors
range up to upper second order or low third order. Sections with parallel
extinction show low first-order colors .
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal scct ioliS
varies from 10° up to about 15° . The variation in maximum cxtinctioll
angle is due to variation in chemical composition. The replacemc" l of'
some of the iron by magnesium brings about an increase in the ox lill c-
tion angle.
Orientation. Elongate sections are length-slow.
Twinning. A characteristic feature of grunerite is the polysynthol it"
twinning with (100) as the twin-plane. The twin-lamellae are of ton v('ry
narrow.
Interference Figure. Interference figures arc often difficult to obtllill ,
but when found they are biaxial negative with a large axial an gle. TIll"
axial plane is (010). Dispersion, l' > v, weak.
Distinguishing Features. Grunerite has a smallcr maximum extin ctioll
angle and high er indices of refraction than ellmmin gton itc. 1(' is opticnll y
negative and eummin gtonite positive. Th e indi ces or rcfr[lcliOIl 01
grunerite arc also hi gh cr tkln those of' tr('JI) 0 Iite-:l ctino lit('. (\ntllOp l, )t1liln,
similar in III<lny ways, h<l s p<lr<lII (· 1 ('x lfli cli oJ) IIl ld nev('r sl lows 1111 )'
twjllnill g.
OCCIII"I"(· II(."I·. (;I"IIII\ 'rill ' i ~ :I Pl"oti I1("1 IIi" 1ll("l lllIlllrpllislll . II 1l( ·( · III".~ III
111011l1l1ol'pldl ' J"( H'ks like ' II,e ' 11I !t '1 1 s dd ~ I ': III ( :Illloill'/(\ J"( 'S, I )( 'PIIIIIIII ,"1 01
324 MINERAL DESCRIPTION:\' SILICATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES ( INOSILICATES) 325
Var, France (the original locality) , also as an alteration product in the Birefringence. Moderate to rather strong, n y - n" = 0.022 to 0.027; so
eulysite of Tunaberg, Sweden, and is very prominent in some of the iron the interference colors range up to low or middle second order. Narrow
ores of the Lake Superior region, notably the magnetite ores of the longitudinal sections show the highest colors. Cross sections have white
Upper Peninsula of Michigan. to yellow interference colors.
Extinction. The maximum extinction in longitudinal sections varies
TRE MOLITE-ACTIN OLITE
from 10° to 20°. A few longitudinal sections have parallel or nearly
Ca2(Mg,Fe) 5(OH) 2(Si 4 0 11) 2 Monoclinic p arallel extinction. Cross sections have symmetrical extinction.
= 74°48'
L(3 Orientation. Elongate sections are length-slow. In cross sections the
long diagonal is the slower ray.
na = 1. 600 t o 1. 628 Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are frequent. Fine poly-
n~ = 1.613 to 1.644 synthetic twinning with {Ool } as twin-plane is occasionally encountered.
n "'( = 1. 625 to 1. 655
211 = 79° t o 85° ; Opt. (-)
b= (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = _10° to - 20°

it E' (0 s< C )' , K7 <:00 >" --b

o

I
o FlG . 14-26. (x50 ) Tremolite in metamoqJhic dolomitic limeslone.

(b )
(0 )
FIG. 14-25 a,b. Orientation di agrams of tremolite-actinolite. Sections (a) n0l111al to
the c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
Color. Colorless to pale green in thin sections. The green varieties
show faint pleochroism. Green ferriferous tremolite is known as actino-
lite.
Form. Tremolite-actinolite occurs in long prismatic crystals and co-
lumnar to fibrous aggregates. Asbestiform varieties are common. The typi-
cal cross section is rhombic with (UO 1\ 110) = 56° .
Cleavage. {UO} in two directions at angles of about 56° and 124°.
Longitudinal sections show cleavage traces p arallel to the length. There
may be parting parallel to ( 100 ).
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Interference Figure. Tremolite-actinolite gives a biaxial ncga livo fi gllro
with very large axial angle. The axial plane is { 01O } . Disp ersion, ,. ....... t)
weak. Broad elongate sections with low interference colors g ive lil e I)('sl
figure.
Distinguishing Features. The extin ction angle and amphibole cross
sections are characteristic. Wollastonite has the same general appOal"llll ("i
as tremolite, but the trace of the optic ax ial plane is norma l 10 1111
cleavage instead of p arallel to it as in tremolile.
Relatcd Mincrals. A colorless amphibol e, edenite, greatly resOI nhl(ls
tremolite but h as larger extinction an gles.
Altcration. Trc rnolite-ac tin olile is som elim es r()IIml al(('red to Lnlc:.
OcclIrrcncc. Trc molile-aclill olil c oCC ll rs in COIiLacl -lIlC'lan1orphi (· (k-
pos its, in sc hi sls alld g ll (' iss('s, II lId ill 1I H' llIllIorp lli (' iill H'slolll's. It Is II I ~ o
LOlilid li S II 1'\\p lll(,(,1I1( 11l1 or P), I'il\( '11I" ill iglll '(lIIS l"O('k s.
326 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (IN OSILICATES ) 327
NEPHRITE worn p ebbles and boulders. It is doubtless a product of metamorphism,
(.Jade in part) but its origin is not well understood.
Nepru-ite is a Widely distributed mineral much valued by the natives
Ca2(Mg,Fe) 5(OH) 2(Si 40 11 ) 2 Monoclinic of many countries as material for both weapons and ornaments.
n" = 1. 600 to 1. 628 HORN BLENDE
/ n f3 = 1.613 to 1.644
n)' = 1. 625 to 1. 655 C a 2(Mg,Fe,Al) 5(OH) 2[ (Si,Al) 40]lJ 2 Monoclinic
211 = 79° to 85°; Opt. (-) L(3 = 75°2'
b = (3 or Y; c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 10° to - 20° n" = 1.614 t o 1.675
n f3 = 1.618 to 1.691
Nephrite is really a tough compact variety of tremolite-actinolite, but
n)' = 1.633 t o 1. 701
for emphasis it is treated separately.
211 = 52° to 85°; Opt_ ( -)
Color. Colorless to gray in thin sections.
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 12° t o - 30°
Form. Nephrite usually occurs in fibrous to fibro-lamellar aggregates of
imperfect prismatic crystals. c
Cleavage. Is like that of tremolite-actinolite but is rarely distinct on
account of interfelted fib ers.
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n" = 0.022 to 0.027; so the interference
colors range from first-order gray up to bright colors of the middle sec-
ond order.
:>- -
:)(;:>.J 010 -0
Extinction. Vari es from parallel to a maximum of about 100 to 20 0 • y
A few of the broader longitudinal sections may have p arall el extinction.
o
The extinction of nephrite is often wavy and indistinct.
Orientation. Most sections are length-slow.
Twinning. With {100} as twin-plane is occasionally found but does not io
seem to be common.
Interference Figure. Nephrite does not usually give a good interference
(0 ) (b )
figure on account of the aggregate structure. The figure when obtained is
FIG. 14-27 a,b. Orientation diagrams of hornblende. Sections (a ) norll1ni 10 110 11
biaxial negative with a large axial angle. The axial plane is {0l0} as in c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
the other amphiboles.
R-elated Minerals. There is no very shalp distinction b etween nephrite Color. Green or brown of Val-ious tones in thin sections. PlcochroiSlll
as follows:
and other varieties of tremolite-actinolite. The term seminephrite has
been used by F. J. Turner for an amphibole intermediate b etvveen '" orX (3 o r Y 'YOI' Z
nephrite and less compact, more coarsely crystalline tremolite-actinolite. Y cllow g r cc n Olivc g rcc n Dark J; rcr ll
Distinguishing Features. Nephrite is distinguished from jadeite, the P a le green Gl'ccn Dark ~ r(' c n
other jade mineral, by its smaller maximum extinction angle and its P a le brown Gl'cr ni s h Da r k ~ 1' l)(' 11
lower indices of refraction and also by its lower specific gravity. From Y cll ow g l'CCIl Y(' ll olV Ihowli
GI'('r lli ~ I, b rowli n .('dd iHio brown H,('d hrowll
other varieties of tremolite-actinolite it is distinguished by its greater
compactness, which is due to interfelted crystalline aggregates. AbHorpl ion s(:I, (' Il ,I' : 'Y I II ' /, > (j 01' ) ' >" or X .
Alteration. Nepru-ite is sometimes altered to talc. fonll. C l ys l u ls ar(, p ris illilli (' ill Il il hil wi lli PSI'II<i o il (')'lIg<)II :d ( ' ro~s
Occurrence. Nephrite usually occurs in ass ocia tion with serpentin~ as sO<: li () ll ~ ( 110 1\ ITo r);;". I!)' ). (;1 )'S I Il I ~ 111'1' 1'I 1I1 ' l v ",,,II I tllli i/ ll n ll 'lI
''kidneys'' with more or less schistose sb-u cturc and in d erived w ater- ( Fig"rl' Ii ~~ I ) .
 SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 329
328 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections
varies from about 12° to about 30° . In cross sections the extinction is
symmetrical to the outlines or to cleavage traces.
Twinning. Twins with {l00} as the twin-plane are rather common.
Twimling is often manifest as twin seams.
Interference Figure. The ngme is biaxial negative with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, r < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Hornblende differs from augite in cleavage,
pleochroism, and maximum extinction angle. Brown hornblende re-
sembles biotite, but the latter has better cleavage (in one direction only)
and parallel or almost parallel extinction. Lamprobolite has a smaller ex-
tinction angle, higher indices of refraction, and sb'onger birefringence.
Occurrence. Hornblende is a very common and widely distTibuted
mineral in many types of ign eous rocks. It also occurs in schists, gneisses,
, and amphibolites.
FIG. 14-28. ( X60) Hornblende in a l'Ounded crystal showing faint cleavage. It is a prominent constituent of many deb'ital sediments.

LAMPROBOLITE 1

(Basaltic Hornblende)
Ca,Mg,Fe,AI silicate Monoclinio
L(J = 73°58'
= 1.670 t o 1.692
n"
= 1. 683 t o 1. 730
nf3
ny = 1.693 to 1.760
2 V = 64 to 80°; Opt. ( -)
b = (J or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = 0 t o - 12 0

I' X
.--......
010
> C",,1 )0 -- b . ~X
y

FIG. 14-29. ( X 22) Late magmatic hornblende (dark) formed at the expense of
pyroxene. 10
(0 ) Ib)
Cleavage. {1l0} in two directions at angles of about 56° and 124° .
FJ(';. 14-30 11,/1. O "i c lIlll l iOIl d ia gr; llIls of' IlIl1Ip l'oiln lil ,·. S, ... I iOll s ( 1/ ) 1I0rl 1111 I lo tlu)
Relief. Rather high, n > balsam. c-I Lxi s alld (/1 ) pal'rtlkl lo ( 1I () ).
Birefringence. Moderate, 1'/,y - n ", = 0.019 to 0.026. The maximum in.
terference colors are about middle second order, but in many varieti~ ' Th,) 1I \1I1\( ) II/'II/ I/'() IIIIIII, ' W I" 1''''1" )''' '.1 I,y 1\ . I'. 1t,,1:'. "' " I Alii . M III, II'I'/0I:IIII, ~ ,
the color of the mineral modifies or even ma.sks the interference colors. H2(1 H2H ( 11l11O ) I '" II,,, ,"1,,","1 1I',(l loIl y " " II" d 1' llI ldl /i ' !l/llllht"IIt/I ',
330 MINERAL DE SCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES ( INOSILICATES ) 331
Color. Yellow to brown, often with opaque borders. Pleochroism
rather sh-ong: IX or X, light yellow; f3 or Y, brown ; y or Z, dark red-
brown.
Form. Lamprobolite occurs almost invariably in euhedral crystals with
the pseudohexagonal cross section of the amphiboles . The habit is
usually short prismatic.
y z~
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of 56° and 124° as in the ) -- b
xx:..:q 010
-' ,

other amphiboles.
0-
Relief. High, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Rather strong to very sh-ong, 11,y - na = 0.026 to 0.072.
The interference colors should be high order, but they are usually I
o
masked by the color of the mineral.
Extinction. The m aximum extinction angle is very small, from zero up
(0) (b)
to as much as 12° in some varieties.
F!G. 14-31 a.,17. Orientation diagram of ri ebeckite. Sections (a.) normal to thc c-axis
Orientation. The crystals are length-slow. Cross sections have sym- and (b) parallel to (010). \
meh-ical extinction.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are found but are not con-
spicuous on account of the small size of the extinction angle. Color. D ark blue in thin sections. Pleochroism strong: IX or X, dccp
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative ,"lith a large axial blue; f3 or Y, lighter blue; y or Z, greenish. Absorption: IX or X > f3 or
angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' < v. Y > y or Z.
Distinguishing Features. Lamprobolite is distinguished from ordinary Form. Rieb eckite occurs in subhedral prismatic crystals and in Rbrol ls
brown hornblende by the smaller extinction angle and the sh'onger bire- and asbestiform aggregates. According to recent investigations, croeid o-
fringence. Biotite shows no cleavage in six-sided sections. lite is a fibrous variety of riebeckite.
Related Minerals. Kaersutite is a titanian amphibole related to lam- Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of about 56° and 124°.
probolite. Relief. High, n > b alsam.
Occurrence. Lamprobolite occurs in volcanic rocks such as andesites, Birefringence. Very weak, 11,y - n O! = 0.004; the interference colors aro
auganites, basalts, basanites, tephrites , and the corresponding tuffs. masked by the deep color of the miner al.
It is also fairly common as a detrital mineral. Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in elongate scctions is
It seems likely that lamprobolite h as b een produced from ordinary about 5°, but the fibrous variety, croci do lite, h as p arallel extin ction .
hornblende by the oxidation of the iron, probably by hot gases at the Orientation. The crystals are length-fast.
end of the magmatic stage. Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a large :IXilil
RIEBECKITE angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' > V strong.
Distinguishing Features. The color, pleochroism, and sma ll ex t inet i()11
(inc. Crocidolite) angle are distinctive.
N aFe Ill (Si0 3) 2.Fell Si0 3 Monoclinic Alteration. Crocidolite is often altered to an iron -s tain cd flhnHl s qll:l!'t'l.
= 76°10'
L(3 known as "tiger's eye."
Occurrence. Ri eb eckite is characteristic of soda-rich granites, nli (' I' )-
na = 1.693
granites, gra nite aplites, granite pcgmalitos, syenites, neph elin e syc llil\'s,
n{3 = 1.695
and trachytes. 1n th ese rocks it is of' tC'n associa ted with ;lcg ir iIl O. C!'o-
n-y = 1.697
.j(lo.litc is f'ollnd ill ('('rt:lill "i ~ ld )' sili t:('o ll s IIwlall10rpli ic rocks Slldl UN
2V large; Opt. (-)
t il(: "iro nstolll'S" of Criql lid:111l1 VVc 's l , S() IIIII Africa ,
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ a or X = +5°
332 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATI.S: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 333
GLAUCOPHANE
Related Minerals. Crossite is a soda amphibole intermediate between
N a 2MgaAb(OH) 2(Si.O ll ) 2 Monoclinic glaucophane and riebeckite, but the axial plane of crossite is normal to
L{3 = 77°
(010 ). Gastaldite is a soda amphibole related to glaucophane but paler
na = 1.621 to 1.655 blue in color because of lower iron content.
= 1. 638 to 1. 664
nil Occurrence. Glaucophane is found in certain schists and gneisses.
noy = 1.639 to 1.668 The usual associates are muscovite, quartz, garnet, sphene, lawsonite,
2V = 0° to 68°; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y; c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 4° to - 6°

I
'x

__y " I '" ,C,> <:

r b>< '" '> v ,/ 1)0
DID --b .-:.-- II I I-X

FIc. 14-33. ( X50) Glaucophane forming a felted crystalline mass in sc hisl.

and clinozoisite. Glaucophane schists are abundant in the Coast Rall g(!s
(01 (b) of California and are also found in Syra (Greece), Italy, and Japan, bill
FIG. 14-32 a,b. Orientation diagrams of glaucophane. Sections (a) normal to the are rare, taken the world over.
c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).

Color. Blue to violet in thin sections. Pleochroism: a or X, neutral; EPIDOTE GROUP

f3 or Y, violet; y or Z, blue.
Form. Glaucophane occurs in prismatic crystals or columnar aggre- The epidote group consists of silicates of calcium and aluminum ,"vith
gates. The cross sections are pseudohexagonal or rhombic. occasional addition or substitution of iron, manganese, or cerium . (;a l.
Cleavage. {1l0} in two directions at angles of 56° and 124°. cium aluminum silicate may occur as zoisite (orthorhombic) Or di llo
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam. zoisite (monoclinic) . Other members of the group are monoclinic.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n", =
0.013 to 0.018; the maximum in-
Orthorhombic
terference color is about sensitive violet, but the color of the mineral may
modify or even mask the interference colors. ZOISITE

Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections is Ca2(Al,Fe) 3(OH) (Si0 4 ) 3 OrLhorhOlill,il'
very small (4° to 6° ). Cross sections have symmetrical extinction.
n", 1.G06 to 1.700
Orientation. The crystals are length-slow.
n~ 1. GOG Lo I. 70:)
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a small to
'/l oy = 1.7021,0 1.7 18
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r < v strong.
2 If :10° 1.0 00°; Opl.. (+ )
Distinguishing Features. The axial colors, together with the small ex-
' !' \VO ol ' jnlllllliullf'C
tinction angle and amphibole cross section and cleavage, distinguish
glaucophan e from all other min erals except cross ile and gI as tald ito. ( I) /I
01 ' :0, " /1 III' \ ', {' (V tI l' X
(~~) /I 01' /', Ii IV (no .\' , I' /1 III' \
334 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 335
C C
I I
i

010

-- b --~ a=Z
" '~"O" I II() --b
y I I I -" - I I I X

,x ,r
I I
FIG. 14-34. Orientation diagrams of zois- FIG . 14-35. Ot'ientation (2).
ite . Sections parallel to (100) . Orienta-
tion (1) .

There are two varieties of zoisite: a non-ferrian variety with orienta-

tion (1) and anomalous interference colors, and a fenian variety with
orientation (2) and normal interference colors.
Color. Usually colorless in thin sections, but manganian zoisite (thu-
lite) is pink and pleochroic.
Form. Zoisite usually occurs in columnar aggregates, but euhedral
crystals are not uncommon.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OlO}.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. W eak to moderate, 11ry - n" = 0.006 to 0.018; th e inter-
ference colors in one variety (2) are normal; in the other variety (1 )
they are anomalous (deep blue) .
Extinction. Parallel in most sections.
Orientation. In some specimens (1) the crystals are length-fast; in
others (2) either length-fast or length-slow. FIG. 14-36 (/,b. ( X 20) Bladed zoisite crystals in a q uartz matrix. (a) O ,dlli '"
illumination an d (b) X nicols.
Twinning. Polysynthetic n vinning may be present.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with a Monoclinic
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is either (1) {01O} or (2) {001 }.
CLINOZOISITE
Dispersion, (1) T < v distinct or (2) l' > v distinct.
Distinguishing Features. F enian zoisite (orientation 2) is distin- Ca 2Ah(OH) (Si0 4) 3 (Iron-free Epidote) MO II ()(' lill it:
guished from clinozoisite by normal interference colors. Non-fenian (J (j'lo:\(),
zoisite (orientation 1) is distinguished from clinozoisite by a smaller rI " = I. 7 10 Lo I. 7n
'/I ~ I. 7 l !i 1.0 I .78n
axial angle and by deep blue anomalous interference color.
Occurrence. Zoisite is a rather rare mineral found in some metamor- II ~ I .7 I!) 1.0 I .7:{11
Q
phic rocks . Clinozoisite is much more common than zoisite. V (iV' 1.0 !JO ; Op t.. ( I )
fJ " (J 01' 1', I: 1\ IV 01 ' X 0" 1.(1 I I '2 u
336 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAI N STRUCTURES ( INOSILICATES ) 337

y OIO __ b z_ 1<"':::

(0)
FIG. 14-37 a,b. Orientation d iagrams of clinozoisite. Sections (a) normal to the
c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).

Color. Colorless and non-pleochroic in thin sections.

Form. Clinozoisite, an iron-free or iron-poor epidote, usually occurs
in elongated crystals or columnar aggregates. Cross sections are six-sided,
with (100 1\ (01) = 64Yz° .
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {001}.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Weak to rather weak, ny - n" = 0.005 to 0.011; inter-
ference colors are middle first order but anomalous. TIle gray is some-
what blue, white is absent, and the yellow is greenish yellow. Upper
first-order colors of thicker sections are normal.
Extinction. In most sections the extinction is parallel since the crystals
are nearly always elongated in the direction of the b-axis.
Orientation. Some sections are length-slow and some length-fast since
b = f3 or Y.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning with {100} as twin-plane may be
found in some specimens.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with
large to very large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, b
r < v strong. FIG. 14-38 a,b. ( X 20 ) E lon ga ted crystals of clinozoisite sc t in q uartz. (1/ ) 0 1'<11 11 111
Distinguishing Features. Clinozoisite is distinguished from epidote by illumination and (b) X nicols.
weaker birefringence, lack of pleochroism, and optically positive sign; EPIDOT E
from zoisite by the distinctive yellow-green interference color of the first
(PisLacitc)
order and larger axial angle. Ca2 (Al,Fe)a(OTJ) (S i0 4) 3 Mnll()(:iilli o
Occurrence. The occurrence of clinozoisite is practically the same as
(:J - (;tl°:r"
that of epidote. It is a rather common and widely distributed mineral and n" - \. 720 1,0 \. 7~H-
has often been identified as zoisite. It is usually a deuteric mineral in 11 ~ 1.72 tl 1,0 1 . 7n;~
igneous rocks. Clinozoisite is also found as a product of dynamic meta- II ,\, 1.7;\tl 1,0 1.77!)
morphism in such rocks as amphibolites, hornblende schists, and glauco- '21' (;0 0 I (I HDO; Op\' . (
phane schists. " (I OI'I',I' I\ I.I II· .\' \ 1(l ],o\ li()
338 MIN ERAL DESCRIPTION S SILI CATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILI CATES ) 339

y·1 I 9: 100
0

-
b z~

0/
fC,....:
/ /

(0) (b)
F IG. 14-39 a,b. Orientati on diagrams of epidote. Sections ( a ) nomlal to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010 ).

Color. In thin sections it is colorless to yellowish green, not usually ~ .....

uniform. The mineral is somewhat pleochroic. F!C . 14-40. ( X 20 ) Crystals of CiJid ute d istributed throu gh q uartz.
Form. Epidote occurs in granular to columnar aggregates and in more PJEDM ON TlTE
or less distinct crystals that are elongated in the direction of the b-axis
and have a pseudohexagonal cross section with the forms {OOl}, {lOO}, (Manganese E pidote)
and {lOll . (100 1\ 001) = 64°37'. Ca2(Al,Fe,Mn) ~ (OH ) (Si0 4) 3 Monociilli(;
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OOl }. = (;llo:lD'
.t.(3
Relief. High, n > b alsam. na = 1.745 t o 1. 758
Birefringence. Moderate to strong, n:y - n" = 0.014 to 0.045, increas- n f3 = 1.764 t o 1.789
ing with increase in iron content. The maximum interference colors range n'Y = 1. 806 t o 1. 832
from low second-order to upper third-order colors. The middle first-order 217 = 56° t o 86°; Opt. (+ )
colors are a];lOmalous like those of clinozoisite. b = (3 or Y , c 1\ a or X = _ 5° t o _ 7°
Extinction. Parallel in elongate sections since epidote, unlike most
monoclinic crystals, is elongated in the direction of the b-axis.
Orientation. Since b = f3 or Y, some longitudinal sections are length-
slow and some length-fast.

'l~e::O-h
Twinning. Twins with {lOO} as twin-plane are not uncommon.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial negative with z~

a large axial angle. Cleavage flakes give an optic-axis figure since one of 0 ./
the optic axes is almost normal to {OOI}. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dis- 100
persion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Epidote is distinguish ed from clinozoisite (0 )

and zoisite by stronger birefringence and from diopside and augit e by F IG. 14-41a,h. O rient ati on d iagra m of p ied illo ntit e . Sect io ns (II) 11 01'11," 1 In II" , (. ,,, '"
~ n d (7)) p 3ra liel to ( 010 ) .
parallel extinction.
Occurrence. Epidote is a commmon and Widely distributed mineral in Color. Vivid characteristic ax ial co lors: ye ll ow, o r;lll gc, n'd , v lt .1, '1.
many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks. In igneous rocks it is Pleoch roi c : (I' or X, ),e1 low to o r a ll ge; (:l 01' Y, a lll c lli),s L lo vio lel; y 0 1' Z ,
usually a d euteric or late magmatic mineral . It is the dominant min eral ~a rnlill C In d('('p n'd .
in epidosite, a metamorphic epidote-quartz rock. F orm. I I I forlll pi t 'd lll !) 111 il (' i ~ V(' I')' 1I11 1dl l ikl' t 'p id Oi(' .
Epidote is rather common as a detrital mineral. C lc uvu ~t' . III O LI O d in T I !o ll ()O l l .
340 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 341
Orientation. The direction of the faster or slo"ver ray is (1
determine.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a Llrge axia l
angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' > V strong.
Distinguishing Features. The color and pleochroism at piedmol1tite arc
so distinctive that there is little chance of mistaking it for any other
mineral.
Occurrence. Piedmontite occurs for the most part in schists and
gneisses, also in altered quartz porphyries, as at South Mountain, Pa.

ALLANITE

(O: t hite)
II III
(Ca,Fe ) 2(AI,Ce,Fe ) 3(OH) (Si0 4 ) 3 Monoclilli (;
L {3 = 6!i°
(a)
na = 1.64 to1.77
n f3 = 1.65 to 1.77
n.., = 1.66 t o 1.80
2V = large ; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y , c 1\ a or X = +360

~ c

'\~ l ):~--.
()

100

o (0)
FIG. 14-43 a,b . Orientation diagra ms of allan ite. Sections ((/) normal to tl,, · (' I I\I ~
and (b) parallel to (010).

Color. Brown and pleochroic from pale brown to dark browil in thill
(b) sections.
FIG. 14-42 a,b. ( X 20) Piedmontite associated with quartz. (a) Ordinary illumination Form. In form al lanite is similar to epidote, of which il is a cori'lln -
and (b) X nicols.
bearing varie ty. It often occurs in pa rall cl position as an overgrowtll 011
epidote.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Very strong, ~ - n a = 0.061 to 0.082. The interference Relief. Hi gh , 11 > b a lsa lll.
colors are high order but are more or less masked by the color of the Cleavage. Impe rfect parallcllO {OOI} .
Birefringence. Hallwr slron g , lI y 1/ " 0.01 10 0.0:1; lht' illl( 'rf(lJ'(' II ('o
mineral.
Extinction. Parallel in elongate sections since the crystals, like those co lors a rc Il sll :dly IIla skcd hy II I(' ilrowli co lor of 111 0 IIlill( lrli l.
of epidote, are elongated in the direction of the b-axis. ExliliClioll. US \l Hll y p" rl ll( .I, li ke, o LlI t'1' IIH 'lltlH 'rs of 111 0 (\l?idul o gJ'OII l,"
OrionlIII iUII . Dlflkldll.o ()hlll!H,
342 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES) 343
Alteration. Allanite is often altered or inverted to an amorphous sub-
Q stance with about the same chemical composition as allanite. This m eta-
• mict min eraloid is produced by the breakdown of the space lattice by
radioactive emanations.
Occurrence. Allanite is found in granites, syenites, granite pegmatitcs,
and gneisses.
REFERENCES
Pyroxenes
Hess, H. H.: Pyroxenes of Common Mafic Magmas, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 26 ,
pp . 515-535, 1941.
- - -: Chemical Composition and Optical Properties of Common Clili oPY-
roxenes, Part I, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 34, pp. 621-666, 1949.
- - -, R. J. Smith, and G. Dengo: Antigorite from the Vicinity of Ca ra cas,
Venezuela, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 37, pp . 68-75 , 1952.
Poldervaart, A.: Correlation of Physical Properties and Chemical Composi lioll
~ in the Plagioclase, Olivine, and Orthopyroxene Series, Am. Min em logisl ,
# vol. 35, pp. 1067-1079, 1950.
- - -: The Relationship of Orthopyroxene to Pigeonite, Mineml. Mag ., vol.
28,pp. 164-172, 1947.
FIG. 14-44. ( X 40) Allanite in granite. - -- and H. H. Hess: Pyroxenes in the Crystallization of Basaltic Magl ll ll,
]. Geol., vol. 59, pp. 472-489, 1951.
Trager, E.: Dber den Fassait und libel' die Einteilung del' Klinopyrox('II(',
Neues Jahl'b. Mi11 eral. Monatschefte, no. 6, pp. 132-139, 1951.
- - -: "Tabellen zur optischen Bistimmung del' gesteinbildcn Min cralC' ," p.
149, Verlag Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, 1952.
vVincheIl , A. N .: Mineralogical anel Petrographic Study of the Gabbroid 1I()('ks
of Minnesota, and More Particularly, of the Plagioclasytes, A lii. C colog/Sf,
vol. 26, pp . 197-245, 1900.

FIG. 14-45. ( X 20) Allanite crystals in a y'uartz matrix.

T w inning. It is like that of epidote.

Distinguishing Features. Allanite is distinguished from brown horn-
blende by parallel extinction and cleavage in one direction instead of two.
Related Minerals. Magnesium orthite is a rare magnesium variety of
allanite.
 SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING S1O. STRUCTURES 345
considered to be a member of the group. Its crystal system is ortho-
rhombic. Larnite, with the composition Ca 2 SiO., is not a member of the
olivine group since it is monoclinic.
THE OLIVINE GROU P

CHAPTER 15 Chemical
Mineral na nil ny 2V
composit ion
--
Silicates: Single, Multiple, and Ring Si04 Structures 1. 651
Forsterite (Fo) . . .. . .. . . Mg 2SiO . { 1. 635 1. 670 } 85- 00 0
1.640 1 .660 1.680
{ 1. 651 1.670 1 .689 }
Olivine (FomF a n) . .. ... . (Mg,Fe),SiO , 70- 90 0
1. 681 1.706 1. 718
SINGLE sio. STRUCTURES (NESOSILICATES) { 1.805 1.838 1. 847 }
F ayalite (Fa). ..... . . Fe,SiO, 'J.7- li'l°
1.835 1 877 1.886
Olivine Group Garnet Group Sillimanite Family { 1. 641 1 646 1. 655 }
Monticellite ...... . . . CaMgSiO, 75- 80°
Forsterite Stamolite Andalusite 1. 651 1 .662 1.669
Olivine Sphene Sillimanite
Fayalite Idocrase K yanite Minerals of the olivine group are characterized by rather high refra c-
Monticellite Zircon Mullite tive indices and strong birefringence. The axial plane is (001) , and tht
Humite Group Axinite Dumortierite axial angle is usually very large.
Chondrodite Iddingsite Topaz Olivine is exceedingly abundant as a rock-forming mineral in subsilicie
igneous rocks. Forsterite is practically limited to metamorphic limcsto ll ('S
MULTIPLE sio. STRUCTURES (SOROSILICATES) or contact metamorphic zones . Fayalite is found in granite p egmatitcs, ill
lithophysae of rhyolitic obsidians , and in some ores, but it is rathcr )':11'(' .
Lawsonite
FORSTERITE
6- UNIT RING STRUCTURES (CYCLOSILICA TES )
Mg 2Si0 4 OrLhol'hOilli ,io
Beryl na = 1.635 to 1.640
Tourmaline nf3 = 1.651 t o 1.660
Cordierite ny = 1.670 to 1.680
Wollastonite 2V = 85° t o 90°; Opt. (+)
a = 'Y or Z, b = a or X, c = {3 01' Y
The minerals of Chapter 15 represent three divisions of silicate struc-
ture, nesosilicates, sorosilicates, and cyclosilicates. Minerals with single c
tetrahedral groups are more numerous and include a number of im- I
portant species. Only one multiple group silicate is included (lawsonite)
and four ring-group silicates (beryl, tourmaline, cordierite, and wol-
lastonite) .
SINGLE SiO. STRUCTURES
The Olivine Group
x ,
The olivine group consists of the two end members, forsterite and
fayalite, and the intermediate isomorphous mixtme, olivine. The rare
mineral tephroite, Mn 2 SiO" also belongs to the olivine group. The double
salt, monticellite, (CaMgSi0 1 ) , is closely related to olivine and is often FlO. Iii 1. ()",,"I I,II ,", ci l" !,,' " I1' ,,1' I'W ',IIIIII; I, SII" Ii O'1 p ili 10 11 ,,1 III ( 100 ).
344
346 MI NERAL DESCRIPTION S SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING SI 0 4 STRUCTURES 347
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Forsterite usually occurs in euhech al to subhedral crystals. Form. Olivine occurs in anhedra with polygonal outlines and in pheno-
Relief. Fairly high, 11 > balsa m. The indices increase with increasing crysts with the characteristic outline of Figurc 8-28, which is a section
iron content. parallel to {100}.
Cleavage. {OlO} imperfect. Irregular fractures common. Cleavage. Imperfect p arallel to {OlO}, irregular fractures common.
Birefringence. Strong, n y - lla = 0.035 to 0.040. Th e maximum inter- Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
ference color is upper second order. Birefringence. Strong, lly - 110: = 0.037 to 0.041; the maximum intcr-
Extinction. Parall el to crystal outlines and cleavage traces. ference color is upper second order.
Orientation. Crystals showing cleavage are length-slow. Extinction. Parallel to crystal outlines and cleavage traces.
Interference Figure. The interference fi gure is bi axial p ositive with a
very large axial angle. The axial p lane is {00l }. Dispersion, 1" < v .
Distinguishing Features. Forsterite is an iron-free olivine and so re-
sembles ordinary olivine b u t has somewh at lower indices of refraction.
Alteration. Forstelite is often altered to antigorite, but the secondary
magnetite so common with altered olivine is absent.
Occurrence. Forsteritc occurs for the most part in metamorphic lime-
stones as a product of dedolomitization . Phlogopite is a common asso-
ciate. Forsterite also occurs in contact-metamorphic zones, where it is
often associated with magnetite.

OLIVINE

(Mg, F c) 2Si0 4 (Chrysolite) Ort horhombic

n" = 1.651 t o 1.681
n {3 = 1.670 t o 1.706

n'"( = 1.689 to 1.718

211 = 70 0 t o 90 0 ; Opt . (+ ), also ( -)
a = 'Y or Z , b = a or X , c = {3 or Y
c
I FIG. 15-3. ( X 12) Twinned olivine in dun ite. ( X ni culs.)

Orientation. Crystals showing cleavage are lcngth-slow.

Twinning. Somctimes found, but thc lamcllae are broad and nol w( ,11
III III", '" denned. The tvvinnin g is probably vici nal.

" lll·I~ --'

Interference Figure. Thc intcrfcrc nce fi gure is usually bi,'Lxial posiliv( '
with a large axial angle, but olivin e hi gh in iron is optically n egal iv( '.
X Olivine often shows a va ri a ti on in the size of the axial a ngle wiLilil1 II
single crys tal, th e an gle dcc reasin g Lowa rd th e exterior of th e crysl:iI .
I I Accordin g to Tomkeicfr, Lhis is cvicie ll ce or zO llill g, L1l c ouLer ZO ll l'S hvi'l g
/ ric he r in rayalile. Tile axial plan e is (001 } . Dispe rsioll , l ' < V.
,Y
Dislin guishin g Fealures. 'I'll( ' IlIilll 'n il Iliosl :Ipl 1(1 ho IIlislnk CIi lo r
I oli vill e is di opsid c\ hili di o p ~ id, ' II II S h, 'III 'I' ('ll'nv:lgc" ohlil(" 1J /,x lill('lioli
FIr:. 15-2. Orientation d iagram of oli vine. Secti on pnrnl1cl to ( '100 ). alill SO Ii1 (lWII Il I wl'lIk( lr Ilil"l , r d ll '~I I II ( ' I \,
348 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RIN G SIO. STRUCTURES 349
monomineralic rock dunite it is the dominant mineral. It is a relict
mineral in many serpentines.
Locally, olivine may be important as a detrital mineral.

FAYALITE

(Fe,Mg) 2Si0 4 (Iron Olivine) Orthorhombic

na = 1.805 t o 1.835
nfJ = 1.838 t o 1.877
n-y = 1.847 t o 1.886
2V = 47° t o 54°; Opt . (-)
a = l' or Z, b = a or X, c = (3 or Y

Color. Colorless to yellowish or neutral in thin sections; it may show

faint pleochroism.
Form. In cavities fayalite is euhedral, but as a rule it occurs in an-
Ca )
hedral crystals.
c
Cleavage. Imperfect in one direc- I,
tion {OlO}.
Relief. Very high, 11 > balsam .
Birefringence. Strong, 11y - 11., =
0.042 to 0.051.
Extinction. Parallel to cleavage
traces.
010
Orientation. Cleavage traces and
crystals showing cleavage are length- I I ) .- b
x
slow.
Twinning. Vicinal twinning with
broad lamellae seems to be character-
istic of fayalite as well as of olivine.
Interference Figure. The interfer-
ence figure is biaxi al negative with a
y
(b) moderate axial angle. The axial plane is
FIG. 15-4 a,b. ( X20) Interlocking anhedral crystals of olivine in dunite. (a) Ordi- {00l} as in olivine. Disp ersion, T > v .
nary illumination and (b) X nicols. Distinguishing Features. Fayalite FIG. 15-5 .. Orientation diagram of foy -
alltc. SectIOn parall el to ( 100 ) .
resembles olivine in its prop erties
Related Minerals. Olivine fairly rich in iron with about 50 per cent of but may b e distinguish ed by small cr axial anglc, higher indices of rofrn c-
Fe2 SiO. is known as hyalosiderite. The indices of refraction and the bi- tion, and optically ncgat ivc charactcr.
refringence are higher than those of olivine proper. Alteration. Faya lite is somctim es foun d w ith gnll1 crite as an altoration
Alteration. Olivine commonly shows alteration to antigorite and sec- p rodu ct.
ondary magnetite along irregular fractures (see Figure 16-38, page 417) . Related Mine mls. K ndw lile, a m all ga nian faya lit e, ;1I1d horl'oll olil o
In basaltic rocks the alteration of the outer iron-rich rims of olivine to ( F c ,Mg,l'vln ) "Si O, lin' illl ('l'IIl('<iill t(, 1I11 'llIlw rs of tho oli v in o gr Ollp lind
brownish-red iddingsite is fairly common. Ilro simil ar lo fll )'n li l\'. ill opt i('1 1i p rop(' rl ins.
Occurrence. Olivine is an exceedingly common mine ral in subsilicic T oph roj lo , M H ~ Si ( ) " II (,I II 11' 11 ('f (ll'i Nti c' tni Hom l of tho Fl'llll klill Fll rt '"(;(,)
i&n eous rocks such as b asalts, olivine gabbros, and p erid otites. In the l,"U I J~ H ghllll 01'1) d o p()S l i ~ . I', ul"" NhldlllX lo fllYll l llo,
350 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Occurrence. Fayalite is a rather rare mineral. It is an associate of iron
ores. Manganian fayalite, a low-grade iron ore in Tunaberg, Sweden,
occurs in a rock called eulysite, the origin of which is in doubt. It is also
found in abundance in high-temperature deposits in Santa Eulalia, Chi-
huahua, Mexico, according to Basil Prescott.
It is a widely distributed mineral in lithophysae of rhyolitic obsidian
accompanying cristobalite.
Fayalite is one of the most characteristic constituents of furnace slags.
MONTICELLITE
CaMgSi0 4 Orthorhombic
n" = 1.641 t o 1.651
n~ = 1. 646 to l. 662
n-y = 1.655 to l.G69
2V = 75° t o 80°; Op t. (-)
a = 'Y or Z, b = a or X, c = (3 or Y
Monticellite is usually considered to be a member of the olivine group,
but, strictly speaking, it is a double salt.
c Color. Colorless in thin sections.
I
I Form. Usually in granular aggregates
of anhedral to subhedral crystals, but it
may also occur in euhedral prismatic
crystals. In some igneous rocks it is
found in rims around olivine crystals.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to {OlO}.
Relief. Rather high, n > balsam.
x II I.. b Birefringence. Moderate, ny - nO! =
0.014 to 0.018; so the maximum inter-
ference color is first-order red.
Extinction. Parallel to cleavage traces
and to the main crystal outlines.
Orientation. Crystals showing cleav-
Y age are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The interference
FIG. 15-6. Orientation diagram of
monticellite. Section parallel to
figure is biaxial with a large axial angle.
( 100). The axial plane is (001) as in olivine.
Dispersion, l' > v.
Distinguishing Features. Monticellite is a rather difficult mineral to
recognize since it has no very distinctive properties. It resembles forsterite
and olivine but has weaker birefringence than either of these. It may also
be distinguished from forsterite and from most olivines by its negative
optical sign.
Alteration. Some of the Cresllnore monticellite is replaced by idoen\SQ.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING S1O. STRUCTURES 351
Occurrence. j\lIonticellite is a contact-metamorphic mineral usually
found in limestones and dolomites. Large masses of monticellite consti-
tuting a veritable monticellite rock occur at Crestmore, the famous
mineral locality in Riverside County, California.
Monticellite is occasionally found in igneous rocks such as alnoite
(Bowen), polzenite (Scheumann), and nepheline basalt. In these rocks
it occurs as overgrowths or rims in parallel position on olivine.
Humite Group
Representatives of this group include humite, chondrodite, clinohumitc,
ilvaite, ardennite, and langb anite.
CHONDRODITE
2Mg 2Si0 4 .Mg(OH,F) 2 Monocli lli(:
L(3 = ao o
n" = 1.592 'to 1.643
n~ = 1. 602 to 1. G55
n -y = l.G21 t o 1.670
211 = 70° to 90°; Opt . (+)
b= 'Y or Z, a ;\ a or X = - 26 to - 31 °
Y.
0--
.r
f
FTG. 15-7. Orientation di agram of chondrodite . T win crystal with (00 I ) as I Wio, .
plane. Section parallel to (010) .
Color. Colorless to yellowish or brownish . Thc deep er colored varidius
arc pl eochroic from nculral lo hrown or pal e hrown lo red-hrown , ell,;.
Ft)rm . C lt onclrodiLc is com nlolIi y /'olilld ill sllhll cdra l c:r)'s w ls, which
arc O/'L (' II 1II000e or less rOli llci ('cI ;lll d ill 1;lrg<' lI lIll edl'lI . Allilo ll gh tho
rnint'l'nl is Ill ol1oclilli (', lill' 1 /1 iJulw('('1l til l) N· 1111( 1 r; IIXCS is Out) (Ol'lhc)-
l'iloliliJi(' S)' lI gOlly) ,
 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING S104 STRUCTURES 353
352
Orientation. The extinction direction nearest the trace of the twin-
plane is the faster ray.
Twinning. Twinning, which may appear as simple twins, twin seams,
or polysynthetic twins, is rather common. The twin-plane is tOOl}. With-
out twinning it is very difficult to orient chondrodite. There may also be
twinning parallel to {105} and {305}.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is normal to {OlO}. Dispersion, r > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. The pleochroism usually distinguishes chon-
drodite from olivine.
Related Minerals. Three other minerals of the chondrodite group, viz .,
norbergite, humite, and clinohumite, are similar to chondrodite. The di s-

c/ tinction is based upon extinction angles and refractive indices.

Alleghanyite, the manganese analogue of chondrodite, is much lik"
chondrodite, but it is optically negative.
(a ) Occurrence. Chondrodite is one of the characteristic minerals of metu-
morphic limestone. It is often associated with phlogopite and spinel.
Garnet Group
P Yrope Mg 3Ab(Si0 4) 3 n = 1.741 to 1.7(10
Almandite Fe3AI 2(Si04) 3 n = 1.778 to J,8Hi
{
Spessartite M n 3Ah(Si0 4)3 n = 1.792 to 1.820
uvarovite Ca3Cr 2(Si0 4) 3 n = 1.838 to 1.870
Grossularite Ca3AI 2(Si0 4) 3 n = 1.736 to 1.7U:1
{Andradite Ca3Fc 2(Si0 4) 3 n = 1.857 Lo 1.88

(b)
FIGS. 15-8 a,b . ( X60) A portion of a fractured crystal of chondrodite. (a) Ordinary
illumination and (b) X nicols showing twinning.

Cleavage. There is often parting parallel to (001) which is due to

twinning.
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather strong, n-y - no: = 0.027 to 0.035; the maximum
interference color varies from green to red of the second order for dif-
F Ir: . I !}-Dc ( X 2!) ) l)() ci lTlI it vd n ii ('I'y, l lii s "r gi ll 111'1.
ferent varieties.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle measurcd from the trace T ho s ix Illill (' r:d s or 111(, g: II'II( '1 )!;i'O IlJl 11('1'( ' li sl(·d 11111)' he ' dll ss ilinl ill
of the twin-pl ane {00l } vari c~ from - 26 0 to - 310. tW() S llh ~ r() lIp s : III( ' PYI'CIJlI · " 11I1 1111d ill ' S I W S~ 1I 11 1 11 ' s('1'ii 's ( /'11 111 -" 1)!lI'/,[sp/! /'
354 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
(a)
(b)
FIG. 15-10. ( X20) Anhedral garnct crystals in a quartz-plagioclase matrix. (a)
Ordinary illumination and (b) X nicols showin g isotropic character.
by Winchell) and the uvarovite-grossularite-andradite series (called
ugrandite by Winchell). It is rare to find a garnet that corresponds to
anyone of the formulae given. They are isomorphous mixtures of these
end members in varying amount. The name is assigned according to the
dominant end member present.
Color. Colorless, pale reddish, pale to dark brown, greenish gray, etc.,
in thin sections. Crystals are often zoned.
Form. Euhedral dodecahedral crystals in six-sided sections and trape-
zohedral crystals in eight-sided sections are common. Garnet also occurs
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING S10. STRUCTURES 355
in polygonal grains, aggregates, and masses. Inclusions are frequent.
Cleavage. Absent, but it may have parting parallel to {llO}. Irregular
fractures are characteristic.
Relief. Very high, surface rough; n > balsam.
Birefringence. Most varieties are dark b etween crossed nicols but some
have weak or very weak birefringence. The birefringent areas are oftcn
arranged in zones or sectors (see Figure 8-26).
FIG. IS-H. ( X20) Anomalous garnet crystals from a contact JIl clamorp ili c / .11"1 ',
D arwin, California. (Cotll'tesy of Prof. Vince nt Kelle y.)
Distinguishing Features. Garnet resembles spincl, but th e la u cr O(,(' llrs
in octahedra. The different kinds of garnet may bc detennin cd by indi ('I'S
of refraction combined with the d etermination of the spccific gravi ly.
Alteration. The most common alteration product of garnct is cllioril('.
Occurrence. Garnet is esp ecially characteristic of metamorpl,i c 1'0( ' \; 1' .
It is also a very common detrital mineral. Almandite is the COIIIIIIOII
garnet of schists and gneisses. Pyrope is practically confincd to pcridol il t'S
and derived serpcntines. Grossularite and andradite arc com mOil ill ( ' 0 11
tact-mctamorphic zon cs . .Mclanitc, a dccp brown var icly of alldr;iClilt "
occurs in soda-rich igncous rocks sllch as ncphelin e sycn iles, pllOliolill'S,
ctc.
Spcssarlite is found in pegmalitcs, scl li sls, and qll ;ll'lzilcs.
Uvarovit.c, th e rnn's l of Ill e g; II"IICI S, is 1'01111<1 as ;1 s('('o ll d:lry IlIill('1'1I 1
in ('hroll1itt , all<l abo ill SOIlI( ' ('Ollll1 (' I-III(' ll1 ll1 () rplli (' '/ ,Oi Il 'S ,
(:i1rlli'l i~ ('I lilllllllil II~ i1 tidl ilill 1I1i11( 'rll l. Till ' grll ill s III', ' Oi'U'1i I'r()()v"d
(II' pi ll (,d.
356 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES 357
STAUROLITE

2AbSi0 5 .Fe(OHh Orthorhombic

n" = 1.736 to 1.747
n fJ = 1.741 to 1.754
n-y = 1.746 to 1.762
2V = 80° to 88° ; Opt. (+ )
a = (3 or Y, b = a or X, c = l' or Z

I' y

(a)

i
Q
FIG. 15-12. Orientation diagram of staurolite. Section parallel to (OOl).

FIGS. 15-14 a,b. ( X 20) Coarse staurolite crystals in schist. (a) Ordinary illllmillul itH,
and (~) X nicols shOWing lineation in quartz grains of the m atrix.

Relief. High, n > balsam.

FIG. 15-13. ( X 20) A crystal of staurolite showin g qu artz inclusions.
Color. Pale yellow in thin sections. Pleochroism distinct from nearly
colorless to yellow-brown. Absorption: y or Z > f3 or Y > a or X . .
Form. Staurolite usually occurs in euhedral crystals of short prismatic
habit and six-sided cross section with the form {nO} and {010}.
(110 /\ flO) = 51°.
111e crystal s are usually a centim eter or more lon g.
Cleavage. Inconspicuous parallel to (010).
Inclusions. Irregularly arranged inclusions of quartz are nearly always
prominent (Figure 8-29).
Birefringence. Bather weak, 11ry - n" = 0.010 to 0.015; the maximUIll
interference color is first-order yellow to red.
Extinction. Parallel in most section s, symmetrical in cross sections.
Orientation. The crystals are le ngth -slow.
Twinning. Penetrati on Lwin s willi {02,'3 } or {232} :I S Iwill -pl :lIl('s UI'( '
common, hilt polysy"lhetic lwills UI'( ' IlIlkllown. T w ilillilig is I'lIl'dy lIol/ 'd
ill Ihill s('el ions,
358 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with a
very large axi~l angle. The axial plane is {100}. Dispersion, r > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. The color, pleochroism, and quartz inclusions
are distinctive.
Occurrence. Staurolite is found as metacrysts in metamorphic rocks
such as schists, phyllites, and gneisses. Common associates are garnet,
kyanite, and sillimanite in addition to quartz.
The prescnce of staurolite proves that the original rock was a sedi-
mentary one.
It is also a common detrital mineral.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SIO. STRUCTURES 359
Birefringence. Extreme, ny - n O! = 0.092 to 0.141; the interference
colors are high-order white but are usually obscured by total reflection.
Extinction. On account of strong dispersion sphene does not always
show complete extinction. Rhombic sections have symmetrical extinction.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are sometimes present
(Figure 8-18) . Polysynthetic twinning parallel to (221) may also be
present.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderale
axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. The acute bisectrix is almost norma1
to (102). Dispersion, r > v strong.

SPHENE

CaTiSiO s (Titanite) Monoclinic

= 60°17'
L.{3
n" 1.887 to 1.913
=
= 1.894 to 1.921
n{3

n')' = 1.979 to 2.054

2V = 23° to 50°; Opt. ( +)
b = (3 or Y, c /\ a or X = +33° to 43°

I'z

y
( .:0 =:::. . . _Q. FIG. 15-16. ( >( 20) Euhedral sphene crystals showin g high relief, ang ula .... I,o"d,;"
sections, and prominent parting.
111

Distinguishing Features. Monazite is somewhat like sphen e hili 11 : I S

lower birefringence and weaker dispersion. Th e acute rhombi.c cross
sections of sphene are very characteristic.
Occurrence. Sphene is a widely distributed accessory (probahly dCll -
(0) (b) teric) mineral in grained rocks and in such metamorphic rocks as g n (' i ss ( '.~
FIG. 15-15 a,b. Orientation diagrams of sphene.
and schists. It has probably formed at a late stage in ign eous focks .
Color. Almost colorless to neutral in thin sections. Some varieties are It is not very common as a detrital min eral execpt locally, :IS ()1I UI
pleochroic in thick sections. Axial colors: a or X, nearly colorless; f3 or Y, southern shore of Lake Tahoe, wh ere it is cl criveu from granodiorile:i.
pale yellow to pale greenish; y or Z, yellow to red-brown.
mOC IlAsE
Form. Sphene usually occurs in euhedral crystals that have an acute
rhombic cross section or in irregular grains. Ca ~A1 2 (O IT,F)Si 20 7 (V ('1'i 11 v iall i 1.<:) T nLI'Hg()lI a\
Cleavage. Sphene often has prominent parting (parallel to 221) . These 'I I , ' 1.70 I 1.0 I ,n ()
parting directions are not parallel to the crystal outlines. /I", I. 70fi L() I . 7:1~
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. Opl,. (
360 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI01 STRUCTURES 361
Color. Colorless to neutral in thin sections. It may be pleochroic in stronger birefringence and higher relief. It may be separated from
thick sections. crushed rocks with bromoform or other heavy liquids.
Form. Idocrase occurs in euhedral crystals, in columnar aggregates, in Related Minerals. Malacon is the metamict alteration product of
anhedra with polygonal outlines, and in fine aggregates. zircon. It is an amorphous mineraloid.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to {HO}. Occurrence. Zircon is a widely distributed mineral in granite and other
Relief. High, n > balsam. grained igneous rocks. In some syenites it is prominent enough to furnish
Birefringence. Very w eak to weak, nw - ne = 0.004 to 0.006; inter- the name zircon syenite. Zircon also occurs in certain metamorphic rocks.
ference colors are low first-order gray, sometimes normal. sometimes
anomalous gray-green, purple, or deep blue.
Extinction. Parallel.
Orientation. Length-fast in columnar aggregates.
Interference Figure. The figure is usually uniaxial n egative but may
be biaxial with a small axial angle.
Distinguishing Features. Anomalous idocrase resembles zoisite and
clinozoisite and is often difficult to distinguish from them.
Alteration. Rarely observed.
Occurrence. The principal occurrence of idocrase is in contact-meta-
morphic zones. Associated minerals are gamet, diopside, wollastonite,
epidote, and calcite. Idocrase is also found in association with serpentine
as a kind of pseudojade (califomite).

zmCON

ZrSiO. Tetragonal
nw = 1.925 to 1.931
n , = 1. 985 to 1. 993
Opt. (+)
~
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
I
0.5
Color. Colorless to pale colors in thin sections. Scale in mm
Form. Zircon usually occurs in minute crystals of short prismatic habit. FIc. 15-17. Sketches of zircon crystals separated from south ern Afr icall gl'll ll it('~
They are often found as inclusions and may be sun-ounded by pleochroic ( Cou1tesy of Prof. A1'ie Poldervamt).
haloes.
Cleavage. Absent. It is one of the most widespread and abundant deb'ital mineral s lw ill g
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. unusually resistant to destruction during erosion and d epos iti on . '1'11( \
Birefringence. Very strong, ne - nw = 0.060 to 0.062; the maximum forms of zircon crystals observed in sandstones have been SlImmnri'l.(·d
interference colors are usually pale tints of the fourth order, but minute by Poldervaart (1955) .
crystals show lower interference colors. Zircon (ZrSiO.) and thorite (ThSiO.) appear to fonTI a strll ('t 111'11 1
Extinction. Parallel. series. Zi.rcon also alters chemically with the add ition ofU , T h, Ph, II l1d
Orientation. Crystals are length-slow. H 2 0 accompanied by a loss in sili ca. Altcred zircon may consist of llailTO-
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial but may b e eryst.'llline aggregates whi ch h ecomo isotTopi e :lnd opa qll e. Mi llill
difficult to obtain on account of the small size of the crystals. zircon crystals includ ed ill hiol il t! are oft ('11 S IIJ'1'Olllld e d by pkodll'olu
Distinguishing Features. Zircon is distinguished from apatite by halos.
362
AXINITE
H(Fe,Mn)Ca 2AhB (Si0 4)4
na = 1.678 to l.684
n~ = l. 685 t o 1. 692
n., = l.688 to l.696
2V = 70° to 75°; Opt. (-)
IX or X almost J.. to (011)
MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING SI01 STRUCTURES 363
tact-metamorphic rock known as limurite it forms more than 50 per cent
Triclinic of the rock.
IDDINGSITE
MgO.Fe20 3. 3Si0 2.4H 20
Orthorhombic
na = l.674 to l.730
n~ = l. 715 to l. 763
n., = 1.718 to l.768
2V = 25° t o 60°; Opt. ( + ) or (-)
a = IX or X, b = (3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z

""".'~'?iff.

FIC. 15-18. ( X 20) Crystals of axinite forming a cluster in a matrix of calcite.

Color. Colorless to pale violet in thin sections. It may show pleochro-

ism in thick sections.
Form. Axinite usually occurs in anhedral crystals with acute-angled
sections. Inclusions are frcqucnt.
Cleavage. Imperfect in several directions.
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" = 0.010 to 0.012, a little higher
than that of quartz.
Extinction. Oblique to outlines and to cleavage traces.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a large axial
angle. Dispersion, r < v or r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Axinite has no very distinctive features and is
rather difficult to recognize in thin sections. Its birefringence is like that
of quartz, but its refractive indices are considerably higher. It is biaxial,
whereas quartz is uniaxial.
Occurrence. Axinite occurs in the calcareous rocks of contact-meta-
morphic zones. The more common associates are in addition to quartz
and calcite, garnet and hedenbergite. Axinite is also found in granites
and granite pcgmatites. It is a comparatively rare mineral, but in a con-
FIC. 15-19. ( X 20) Iclclingsite under ordin ary illumination.
Color. Brown in thin sections. Pleochroism slight to distinct. Absorp.
tion: yOI' Z > f3 or Y > (]' or X.
Form. Iddingsite, as far as known, always occurs as partial Or corn.
plete pseudomorphs after olivine. It shows a lamellar structurc.
Cleavage. In three directions {100} , {00l}, {0l0} at right an gles. or
these {100} has the most perfect cleavage.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence.' Strong, ny - ncr = 0.038 to 0.044; th e maXil1llll1l illll 'l'-
ference color should be in the third order, but the color of the II Ii 1I1 'I'iII
modifies or masks the interference color.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavagc traces.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial, eith er positivc ol'lll'gal ivo,
with a moderate axi al an glc. The ax ial plane is {() IO} . /)isp(' I'sioll,
r > v or'/' < V sll'on g.
Distinguishing Features. '1'11(' ("( 'ddi sh ])I'OWII ('o lor ;llld IlIlll('111I1' SII' II( '.
tnl'C Logc lll ('1' wilh 1110 IIIUdl ' or 111 '1'111'1'( '11 ('\1 ill', ' di sl ill('l iv( ' 1'01' iddi"gsll o.
364 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPL E, A N D RING SIO. STRUCTURES 365
Alteration. Iddingsite is sometimes found more or less altered to Extinction. Parallel in most sections. Cross sections have symmetrical
limonite or indefinite hydrous iron oxides. extinction.
Occurrence. Iddingsite is found in basalts and basalt porphyries as an Orientation. Crystals of columnar aggregates are length-fast.
alteration product of olivine. According to Ross and Shannon, it is a Interference Figure. Cross sections of crystals give a negative biaxial
deuteric or hydrothermal mineral and is not formed by weathering. figure with a very large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion,
l' > v, weak.
Sillimanite Family Distinguishing Features. Andalusite is distinguished from sillimanite
It is useful to consider certain anhydrous aluminum silicates and by its length-fast character, weaker birefringence, and large axial angl e.
similar compounds containing fluorine or boron in a group. These are The colored pleochroic variety resembles hypersthene, but the latter j!j
essentially anhydrous minerals which invert to mullite, 3A1 2 0 3 .2Si0 2 at length-slow instead of length-fast.
high temperatures. Sillimanite, andalusite, and kyanite are polymorphous Related Minerals. Viridine is a manganian andalusite with higher in-
forms of A1 2 0 3 .si0 2 with an alumina:silica ratio of 1: 1. Sillimanite is one dices of refraction and stronger birefringence than those recorded here.
of the most widely distributed minerals of the group although kyanite, Alteration. Andalusite is often found altered to sillimanite, The varicly
andalusite, and topaz are common. chiastolite is usually more or less altered to sericite along the lines of in -
cluded carbonaceous matter.
ANDALUSITE
Occurrence. Andalusite occurs in granite pegmatites and in high -
AbSi0 5 (inc. Chiastolite) Orthorhombic temperature veins. In the form of chiastolite it is a characteristic contacl-
(Al z0 3.8iO z) metamorphic mineral in schists, phyllites, and slates. It is a rather com-
mon and Widely distributed mineral.
n" = 1. 629 to 1. 640
n~ = 1. 633 to 1. 644 SILLIMANITE
n-y = 1.639 to 1.647
A1 2Si0 5 Orthorhombio
2V = ca. 84°; Opt. (-)
(Alz0 3 .Si0 2)
a = 'Y or Z, b = (3 or Y, c = IX or X
Color. Usually colorless, more rarely reddish. The colored variety is n" = 1.657 t o 1.661
pleochroic from rose-red ((t or X) to n~ = 1.658 t o 1.670
I
·z pale green ((3 or Y) and (y or Z). n-y = 1.677 to 1.684
Form. Andalusite usually occurs in 2V = 20° to 30°; Opt. ( + )
euhedral crystals or coarse columnar a = IX or X, b = f3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
aggregates. Cross sections are nearly
I
square (110 :110 = 89 0 12' ). Dark in- 'X
y
"" / ' ') :> --b clusions of carbonaceous matter are
often present and arranged sym-
metrically to form a kind of cross.
This variety is known as chiastolite
(Figure 8-24) . I') ) ·- b
y
, Cleavage. Distinct parallel to
b {110}. In cross sections the cleavage
FIG. 15-20. Orientation diagram of an- traces are in two directions at ap-
dalusite. Section parallel to (001). proximately light angles.
Relief. Fairly high , n > halsam .
=
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" 0.007 to 0.011, ncar th at of
quartz. Interference colors range up to first-order yellow. II " " If) ~ I , O ,f""1 1I 1111 11 d llll'. " "" " I' " IIII !l IIII II I,', S"" I I"" 1' 11 1Ii 11,,1 III ( 001 ) ,
366 MINERAL DESClUPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND lUNG SIO. STRUCTURES 367
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n" = 0.020 to 0.023; so th e interference
colors range up to second-order blue. Cross sections show very low first-
"---.. order colors since n il - n O! = 0.001 to 0.009.
Extinction. Parallel in longitudinal sections and symmetrical in cross
sections.
Orientation. Th e crystals or fibers are length-slow.
Interference Figure. On account of th e small size of the crystals, good
figures are rarely obtained. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' > 'V
strong.
Distinguishing Features. Sillimanite is distinguished from andalusilc
by its length-slow character, stronger birefringence, and smaller axial
angle. It is even more like mullite, but the latter has higher dispersioll
of birefringence. At times it resembles apatite, but the latter is lcngtll-
fast and has weaker b irefringence.
Occurrence. Sillimanite is found in gneisses, schists, slates, hornfclst's,
and other metamorphic rocks. The more common associates arc cor-
undum, andalusite, kyanite, dumortierite, and cordierite.

KYANITE

AlzSiO s Trit:lilli'i
(Alz0 3 .Si0 2 ) La = ao°.') 1-/
L(3 = 101 °2 '
L'Y = 10.')°,1.11 ~ '
na = 1.712
n~ = 1.720
n-y = 1.728
2V = ca. 82°; Opt. ( - )
Ax. pI. almost ..L {100} ; c 1\ 'Y or Z - 30° ±
c
C olor. Colorless to p ale blu e. It may b e pleo-
chroic in thick sections.
(b) Form. The characteristic sections of h)'anite
FIG. 15-22 a,b. ( X 60) Sillimanite in elongated crystals in schist . (a) Ordinary il- (Figure 8-17) are broad elon gate platcs tahllJar y
lumination showing dark patches of biotite and (b) X nicols. parallel to (100) and n arrow sections p arallel to
C olor. Colorless in thin sections. (010). Crystals are often b ent.
Form. Sillimanite usually occurs in small, often minute, slender pris- Cleavage. Perfect parallel Lo {lOO}, lcss p crfect
matic crystals and in a felted mass of fib ers (Figure 8-6). The crystals p arallel to {01O }, also cross partin g {OOl} a t
are often more or less bent. angles of 85° with thc lcngth of th e crystal s.
The crystals are nearly square in cross section with (llO 1\ 110) = Relief. Hi gh , n> balsa m.
88 ° 15~ . Birefringence. IVr ocl C'r:11 C , 'II)' - Il " 0.0 I (i ; 11< ' 11 ('('
Cleavage. Parallel to {010} but not always noticed in sections. Trans- intcrfe rell ce ('() I()rs 1':111 "'; <' li p I n firsl-on ln n 'd . 1"( :. I!) 2:1. Odllll tuttiltl
t ~l llg,ll l1ll "I kYII IIII Il.
ExtinClion. All gl(' O il 11001 is ,tI'(i 1i1 :10 0 lVi lll
verse fractures are common. S. '(' lli ll' plll ltll nl til
llio Ivllgl " ()f 1110 ( ' l yS I : " ~ , III o lh"I' S ('dltlll ~ JlI(ndl(, 1
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam. ( 1(0 ) ,
~68 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING SIO. STRUCTURES 369
biaxial interference figure obtained from the broad sections is distinctive
for kyanite.
Occurrence. Kyanite OCCurs in schists and gneisses associated with
quartz, muscovite, garnet, staurolite, and rutile. It never occurs in
igneous rocks. It is also found as a dctrital mineral.

MULLITE

3A1 0 .2Si0
2 3 2 OrthOl'hombi l:
na = 1.642
n {3 = 1.644
ny = 1.G54
211 = 20° ; Opt. C+)
a = a or X, b = (3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
, __ 1.
FIG. 15-24. ( X20) A portion of a bladed crystal of kyanite. I
'X

y
. I' I ') ) · -b

o
i
Flc. 15-26. Orientation diagram of mullite. Section par;:dl cI to (00 I ).

FIG. 15-25. ( X 60) Kyanite in a matrix of quartz and muscovite. ( X nicols.)
to the c-axis the extinction angle is small, sometimes practically zero.
In cross sections the extinction is parallel or almost parallel.
Orientation. The extinction direction nearest the c-axis is the slow ray.
Twinning. Twinning is frequent; there are two common twin-laws : (1)
{lOO} = twin-plane, (2) {00l} = twin-plane.
Interference Figure. Sections cut parallel to {100} or cleavage flakes
give a negative biaxial figure with a large axial angle. The axial plane
makes an angle of 30° with the trace of the c-axis. Dispersion, l' > v,
weak.
Distinguishing Features. The extinction angle of 30° together with the
The optical constants here givcn are for th e artifi cial m in cral ; tIlt' ill
dices, birefringence, and optic angle are all a littlc high cr for tIl t' lIallll':1I
mineral.
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Mullite Occurs in crystals of long prismatic hahit witll 11('111'1
square cross section. 110 1\ 110 = 89°13'.
Cleavage. {OlO}, distinct.
Relief. Rather high, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Bathcr wcak, '1'Iry - 11" = 0.012; th e l11:1 xillllllll illlt 'r
ference color is about first-ord cr ycllow. Cross scct ions have dark grll )'
interferen ce colors sin ce nO - '/'I " = 0.002.
Extinction. Parallel in long itlldinal section s and sY "II1<'1ric'nl ill t 'I'()S~
sections.
OrientatiOIl. TIl( ) crys ta ls an ' It 'n~ lll - s l ()w.
Il'Itcd'cl'('lI ct..' Figw'(" Th,. fi gl'l'(' is hiax ial posili vl' wi lh II Iliod/II'HI<'
axilil HIl Klo. 'I'll" I L~ll1 l pl ll lll' is 1010 1. I H~ p " I'.~ i()II , ,. . Il.
370 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RIN G sm., STRUCTURES 371
for automobiles. Mullite is also found in ordinary porcelain as minute
prismatic crystals.
DUMORTIERITE

HBAl sSi 30 20 Orthorhombic

na1.659 to 1.678
=
n fJ = 1.684 to 1.691
n'Y = 1. 686 to 1. 692
2V = 20° t o 40° ; Opt. (-)
a = 'Y or Z , b = (3 or Y, C = a or X

Color. Colorless to blue, lavender, pink, or reddish . Pleochroic from

colorless to blue or colorless to reddish with the greatest absorption when
the length of the crystal is p arallel to the vibra-
,_ _ ~ A _ _ _ ~ "~~' _ _ . _. _ _ _ __ _ _. _ _

tion plane of the lower nico!. Minute crystals

FIG. 15-27. ( X 25) A radiating cluster of mullite crystals ( artificial) .
may not show pleochrOism.
Form. Dumortierite OCcurs in prismatic to
acicular crys tals, which often form a felt of
fib ers. Cross sections are pseudohexagonal on
account of twinnin g.
Cleavage. Imperfect p arallel to the length.
There are also cross fractures. 0--

Relief. High, n > balsam.

Birefringence. Rather weak to moderate,
ny - n ", =
0.011 to 0.020; so the maximum inter-
ference color varies from orange of the first
order up to blue of the secon d order.
Extinction. Parallel in most sections.
FIG. 15-29. OricnlaliOIl
Orientation. The crystals are length-fast.
diagram of dumorlicr.ilc.
Twinning. Cross sections are sometimes pene- Sectio n parallel to (0 I0).
tration trillings with {1l0} as th e twin-plane.
"
FIG . 15-28. ( X20) Bladed crystals of mullite (artificial X nicols). Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial negative willi a
moderate axial angle, but on account of the small size of th e crysta ls il
Distinguishing Features. Mullite is so much like sillimanite in its prop- may b e difficult to obtain. The axial plane is {OlO}. DisperSion, l' < I)
erties that it was not recognized as a distinct mineral until about two dec- or l' > v.
ades ago . The refractive indices of sillimanite are a little higher than Distinguishing Features. Dumortierite resembles some varieli es 01
those of mullite. tourmaline, but the grea ter absorption .is man ifest wh en th e cryslals arc
Occurrence. Mullite occurs in fused argillaceous sediments found as parallel to the vibra tion plane of th e lower nicol instead of normal lo lhal
inclusions (xenoliths) in igneous intrusions. Mullite is a very rare mineral direction. Non-pleochroic dumorticri te resembl es sillimanite, but lbn
found on the island of Mull off the west coast of Scotland. latter is length-slow.
Artificial Mullile. Artificial mullite is the substance formed by heating Alteration . D l1l11orlicrite is somel im es mOre 0 1' less :i1I (' rcd to scricile'.
sillimanite, andalusite, or kyanite to a high temperature. It is used in the OCCIII'I'Clice. DIIIII()rl i(' l'il (' O( '(' II I'S ill g l':llIil (' p eglll :! 1il ('s, Scili sl s,
manufacture of high-grade porcelains such as those used in spark plugs g n cisses, il lld o ll J('!, 111( 'I II IIIOll)IIi (' !'ock s, 'I'll(' ( '(111 11111111 :l ss ()(' i :iI ('S lI r o
 MINERAL DESClUPTIONS
37:i. SILICATr.s : SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES 373
I
'X

y '\..
c=Z /i?c .. -- b

~"o
120

I
FIe:. 1.5-32. Orientation diagra m of topaz. Section parallel to (001) .

FIG. 15-30. ( X50) Crystals of uumorticritc in a matrix of sericite .

• 1
l

1 ,

,
. -
,t .
J • •••
. f\
..
..:-.- ~
j
FIr.. 15-33 . (X20 ) An hed ral crystals of topaz. ( X nicols. )

Color. Colorless in thin sections .

l _ ..., ?- .. , . ' n

FIG. 15-31. ( X 25) Euhedral crystals of clull1orticritc. Form. Topaz appears in euhedral crystals of short prismatic habit, in
anhedral grains, and in columnar aggregates. Negative crystals wilh
quartz, muscovite, tourmaline, andalusite, sillimanite, topaz, and Auid inclusions and gas bubbles are not uncommon.
rutile. Cleavage. Pedect in one direction parallel to {001}.
Relief. Fairly high , 11. > balsam.
TOPAZ
Birefringence. Rather weak, 11.-y - 11." = o.om to 0.010, about th e sa m
Ah(F, nH) ,Si0 4 Orthorhombic as that of CJuartz. Interference col ors arc gray, white, or straw yel low oJ
na = 1.607 to ] .52\) the Rrst order. Cleavage fl akes show vcry weak hirefrin genee sin ce
n~ = 1.610 t o ] .531 n{3 - 11 " -= 0.003.
n~ = 1.517 to 1.5:i8 Extin ctioll. Parall el in lon gilll d in al seclions and sy mm elri cal in basa l
2fT = 4'3 Lo 5S o ; Opt. ( + )
0
sec I ions.
a = a or X, /) = (3 or Y, c = ' y or Z Oriellialion . C h ' :l v: I!!(' lr:I('('S : 11'( ' p :lr:t1 I(' ll o li t(' r: I ~ I( ' r r:l y .
374 MINE RAL DESCRIPTIONS
Interference Figure. Cleavage flakes and basal sections give a oiaxial
positive figure with a rather large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO} .
Dispersion, l' > v distinct.
Distinguishing Features. Topaz resembles quartz but has higher re-
lief, is biaxial, and has perfect cleavage.
Alteration. To muscovite or sericite is not uncommon.
Occurrence. Topaz occurs in high-temperature veins, in granite peg-
matites, and occasionally in rhyolites. Associated minerals are tourmaline,
fluorite, cassiterite (wood tin in the rhyolite occurrences) , and muscovite.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SIO., STRUCTURES 375
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning with {HO} as twin-plane is rather
common. The lamellae are usually thin, may be in cither one or two di-
rections, and are sometimes curved.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a very large
axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, l' > V strong.

MULTIPLE SiO. STRUCTURES-SOROSILICATES

LAWSONITE

H 4 CaAhSi 20 1o Orthorhombic
na = 1.665
n{3 = 1.674

n'Y = 1.684
211 = 84°; Opt. (+)
a = a or X, b = (3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z

!x FIG.
~.,

15-35. ( X20) A melacryst or porphyroblast of lawsonite in chlorite.

Distinguishing Features. Clinozoisite somewhat resembles lawsonile,

but the anomalous interfcrcnce colors distinguish it. Prehnite may al so he
y
I'vi<l 'bO ~ '- b mistaken for lawsonite, but its birefringcncc is higher.
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrcnce of lawsonite is in m cla -
morphic rocks such as glaucophane schists. It is also found in gahhr()s
and diorites as the result of incipient metamorphism. Th e type locality is
i Tiburon Peninsula on San Francisco Bay, California, but it has also b O(' 11
a found in Italy, Corsica, and New Caledonia. The usual associatcs or
FIG. 15-34. Orientation diagram of lawsonite. Section parallel to (001).
lawsonite are muscovite, glaucophane, garnet, and sphene.
Color. Colorless in thin sections. It may be pleochroic in very thick
sections. 6-UNIT RING STnUCTURES-CYCLOSILICATES
Form. Lawsonite occurs in euhedral crystals of varying habit. Sections
BERYL
are usually rhombic (nO 1\ 110 = 67° ) or rectangular.
Cleavage. Good parallel to {OlO} and {001}, fair parallel to {HO}. Be3Ah(Si0 3) 6 n cx :\,g() II nl
Relief. Rather high, n > balsam. (lIcxagonnl SUl li;.\'Ii I,.,," )
Birefringence. Moderate, n-y - na = 0.019; so the interference colors n, = 1. 564 to 1.590
range up to second-order blue. nw = 1. 568 to 1. 5D8
Extinction. Parallel or symmetrical. Opt. ( - )
Orientation. The long diagonal of rhombi c sections is parall el to the Color. Colorl ess in lliin section s. In thi ck ()r i(' lIl('(l s('cti olls ('olor('(l
slowcr my. varic li ('s SII (' II as ( ' 111( ' 1'111<1 III'( ' SOIlI ('wll :il pl ('o(' l,roi( "
 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: SIN GLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES 377
376
Orientation. Crystal sections are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a negative uniaxial figure
without any rings. The cross may show a sli ght opening in certain areas.
Distinguishing Features. Beryl resembles apatite, but the latter has
higher indices of refraction . From quartz it is distinguished by its length-
fast character and optical sign.
Alteration. It is sometimes altered to kaolin.
Occurrence. The principal occurrcnce of b eryl is in granite p egmatites.
It is also found in mica schists and in veins in limcstone associated with
albite.
Tourmaline Group
Three minerals are prominent in t he tourm aline group :
Sehorlite (Iron T ourmaline)
N aFe3B 3AhCOH) 4(AhSiG0 27) Hexagonal
FIG. 15-36. Beryl crystals showing hexagonal outlines accentuatcd by in-
Dravite (Magnesium Tourm aline) (Rhombohedral subsys tem)
elusions.
NaM gaB 3Ala(OH) 4(A bSiG0 27)
Elbaite (Alkali Tourmalin e)
Na2LbB GAI9(OII) s(AlaSiG0 27) 2
Schorli te D ravite Elbaite
n , = 1. 628 t o 1. 658 n , = 1. 61 3 to 1.628 n, = 1.615 to 1.62!J
nw = 1.652 to 1.608 nw = 1.632 to 1.655 nw = 1.635 to 1.65 <":
Opt. (-) Opt . ( -) Opt. ( - )

FIG. 15-37. (X20 ) A granular aggrega te of beryl and top az. ( X nicols.)

Form. Beryl usually occurs in rather large crystals of prismatic habit,

occasionally in small, slender prisms, and also in massive form. Liquid
inclusions with gas bubbles in six-sided negative crystals are common in
oriented sections.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to (0001) , not usually seen in thin sec-
tions. FIG. 15-38. ( x 50) Secti ons ac ross and lengthwise cut th rou gh elonga tc l Olll'lllofill (l
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam . crystals in a qu artz m atri x.
Birefringence. vVeak, nw - ne = 0.004 to 0.008; interfcrcnce colors
Color. Schorlitc is m'lllral gray, slalc hltIC, hillr, oli ve, elc. Pko('ll roi slll
are gray, white, or sh'aw yellow of the first ordcr.
is lI sll ally ma rked '" > {. Zon a l Stl'll ctlll'( ' is ( 'O Jll I I IOIl ill ('ross scc tion s.
Extinction. Lon gitudinal sce Lion s have parall el ex tin cti on. Basal sec
Drav i[c is c'o lorl l'ss 10 P:"( ' v(·II o", i ll Illill s('(' tiom 111111 S() llIt '1V 1111[ plt '()
lions arc cbrkin all positions.
378 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS

chroic with absorption: w > L Elbaite is colorless, but thick sections

may show pleochroism: €, colorless; w, pink, pale green, or pale blue.
Form. Schorlite occurs in prismatic crystals and may form columnar or
fibrous radiating aggregates. Spherulitic aggrcgates of elbaite known as
tourmaline suns characterize luxullianite, a tourmalinized granite from
Cornwall ( Figure 8-14). Cross sections of tourmaline crystals may be
triangular with curved convex sides, or hexagonal. Dravite crystals are
generally large.
Cleavage. Absent but irregular fractures are common.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SIO, STRUCTURES 379
blende. Both of these have p erfect cleavage, which is lacking in tour-
maline. Elongate habit, p arallel extinction, strong absorption, and tri-
angular or hexagonal cross sections are significant.
Occurrence. Schorlite reachcs its maximum developmcnt in granite
pegmatites. It is also found in tourmalinized granites, in greisen, and in
high-temperature veins, wh ere it is often associated with cassiterite. It is
also characteristic of celtain schists and gneisses and is frequently found
in hornfelses. It is a widely distributed detrital mineral, both in fragmen-
tary prisms and well-rounded grains.
D ravite usually occurs in metamorphic limestones. It is also found in
some schists.
Elbaite occurs in granite p egmatites. The usual associates are lepido-
lite, albite, and quartz.
CORDIERITE

Mg2Al 4Si 5018 (Iolite) Orthorhombic

(Pse udohexagonaI)
na = 1.532 to 1.552
n~ = 1.536 to 1.562
n'Y = 1.539 to 1.570
2V = 40° to 80°; Opt . (-) or (+)
a = (3 or Y, b = l' or Z, C = a or X
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Very thick sections are pleoclu·oic.
a or X, yellow; f3 or Y, dark violet or blue; y or Z, pale blue or violet.
FIG. 15-39. (X20) A section of a single tourmaline crystal in a matrix of quartz and
feldspar. ( X nicols.)
Absorption : f3 or Y> y or Z> a
or X.
Relief. High, n > balsam. Form. The characteristic form of
Birefringence. Mod erate to strong (schorlite) or modcrate (dravitc cordierite is in ps eudoh exagonal
and elbaite). Cross sections show no birefringence. Schorlite nw - n" = crystals of short prismatic habit. 01 0
0.022 to 0.040, usually about 0.025. Dravite nw - 11e = 0.019 to 0.025. These crystals are p enetration twins.
Elbaite nw - n" = 0.015 to 0.023. Cordierite also occurs in anhedra OJ 1 .. 1) 1 -- - - -b
Extinction. Parallel in most sections. Cross sections remain dark on and anhedral aggregates.
rotation. Inclusions. Common; these are
Orientation. Crystals are length-fast. Interference colors in sch orlite often surrounded by pleochrOic
halos. 0 10
may be masked by natural color.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a n egative uniaxial figure with Cleavage. Imperfect p arallel to
FIG. 15-40. Orientation diagrn l11 of eo r-
an e or two rings. (010) , but it may not show in sec- di erite. Section of twin -erystn l pnrall el to
Distinguishing Features. Among the members of the tourmaline group tions. Parting parallel to {001} that (001) . The twin-plane is {100}.
schorlite shows ' the strongest absorption normal to the plane of the is clu c to alteration.
polarizer. Dravite is ordinarily colorless to pale yellow. Elbaite may b e nelicf. Low, n e ith er a lilll e less Or a li ttl e g reater than balsa m.
colorless, pink, pale green, or p ale blu e. Birefringence. HallIC.: r weak, lI y - '1/ " - 0.007 lo 0,0 11 , aho ll t th e samo
Of the more common min crals schorlite rcscmbles biotite and horn - as l!t al or q ll arl :!,; 11 ('11('<: Il la x illllllll ill!< ,r!'('I'\' II ('(' co lors 11 1'(' II sll :tlly aboul
slra w y ('lI ow of II I(' nrsl or<i<'l'.
 MINERAL DESCRIPTION !5 SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES 381
380
Extinction. Parallel to crystal outlines.
Twinning. The pseudohexagonal crystals are penetration twins with
{HO} as twin-plane. Twin-lamellae are also often present.
z
Interference Figure. The figure is usually biaxial negative with a vari-
able axial angle. Optically positive cordierite has been described from
several localities. The axial plane is {100}. Dispersion, l' < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Cordierite is one of the few minerals that is
easily mistaken for quartz. It is biaxial with a moderate to large axial
angle and often shows twinning (either penetration or polysynthetic) .

FIG. 15-42. Orientation diagram of wollastonite. Section parallel to (010) .

Color. Colorless in thin sections.

Form. Wollastonite usually appears in columnar or fibrous aggrcgnks.
The cross sections are nearly rectangular.
Cleavage. In several directions in the zone [010]; perfect parall(,1 !o
(100), less perfect (001) and (102) and imperfect (101) and (TO!) .
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - na = 0.014; the maximum intl'l'
ference color is about orange of the first order. Longitudinal SO(·! iOll s
show gray or white interference colors.
Extinction. Parallel or almost parallel in longitudinal sections, oh liqll( '
in cross sections.
FIG . 15-41. ( x 20) Cordierite showing twinnin g. ( X ni cols. )
Orientation. Longitudinal sections are either length -slow Or 1( 'lI glll
Alteration. Cordierite is usually more or less altered to sericite (pinite) , fast since the elongation is in the direction of the b-axis and b = fJ or ) .
chlorite, talc, or indefinite silicates. Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are known.
Occurrence. Cordierite is a typical metamorphic mineral. It is found Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a modl 'nil( '
in gneisses and schists, often at the contact with persilicic igneous rocks . axial angle. Since the axial plane is almost parallel to {OlO}, tk fi glll'(
Sillimanite is a common associate. It is a characteristic mineral of horn- lies normal to the length of the crystals. Dispersion, l' > v w cak.
fels. Rarely is it found in igneous rocks as an endomorphic mineral. Distinguishing Features. Tremolite greatly resembles wolb slorlill '
not only in hand specimens but in thin sections as well. Trcmolil o, how
WOLLASTONITE
ever, has oblique extinction and the typical amphibole cross scc! iOIl IIlId
CaSi0 3 Triclinic cleavage. In tremolite the interference figure lies along the lcn£!lh of 1111
crystal; in wollastonite it lies almost normal to the length.
La = 90°0'
Related Minerals. CaSi0 3 is trimorphous. In addition !o (1'Ieiilll<:
L{3 = 95°16'
wollastonite, there are also parawollastonite (Pcacock) , whi ch is mOllO-
L 'Y = 103°22' ~
clinic, and the high-temperature modJication \;all cd p scliclowollas(olll(I '
n" = 1.620
(Rankin and Wright) . The uniaxia 1 pse lldowollastonit~! hil S 1>('(' 11 (\( ' .
n f3 = 1.632
scribed as a natural min eral in Pcrsia : McLintock ) .
n . ,. = 1.634
Pcctolite [JINaCa. (SiOu) u] is much like woll ustollilc in sorno of li s
2V = ca. 39°; Opt. ( - )
properties.
b a lmost II to (3 or Y, c 1\ a or X +:320
382 ML'<ERAL DESCRIPTIONS

CHAPTER 16

Silicates: Sheet StTuctUl'es and MineTaloids

MICA GROUP CLAY MINERAL GROUP

Muscovite Kaolinite
Lepidolite Dickite
Phlogopite Halloysite
FIG . 15-43. ( X20) \'Vollastonitc showing elongatcu crystals in a aggregate. Biotite :M ontmorillonite
(X nicols.)
CHLOlUTE GROUP Hydromuscovite
Occurrence. Wollastonite occurs in contact-mctamorphic zones, in Proehlorite Palygorskite
some schists and gneisses, and in limestone inclusions in volcanic rocks Clinochlore Sepiolite
(para wollastonite) . Penninite SEHPENTINE CHOUP
Chamosite Antigorite
REFERENCES BRITTLE ]VIICA GROUP Chrysotile
Olivine Group Stilpnomelane PREI-INITE
Chloritoid GLAUCONITE
Bowen, N. L., and J. F. Schairer: The Svstem, MgO-FeO-SiO" Am. ]. Sci. , vol. TALC
29, p. 197, 1935. PYHOPIIYLLITE
D eer, W. A. , and L. R. W age r: Olivines from the Skaergaard Intrusion. Kan-
gerdlugssuak, E ast Grcenlan d, Am. Mine'/'alogist, vol. 24, pp . 18-25, 1939.
MINEHALOIDS
Zircon Volcanic Glass
Frondel, C.: Hydroxyl Substitution in Thorite and Zircon, Am. Min eralogist, Palagonitc
vol. 38, pp. 1007-1018, 1953.
Poldervaa rt, A.: Zircons in rocks, Am. ]. Sci., vol. 253, pp. 433-461 , 1955.
SHEET STRUCTURES (PHYLLOSILICATES)

Minerals with sheet structures range from thc largc clcavahl( ' s ll('( \ I.~
of muscovite to the nne flaky crystals of clay mincrals fr('CjII( 'lIll y " ,
vealed only with the electron microscope. Scveral min('r:ds II lid sllow
tubular structure with th e elecLron mi croscop e and a rc no! fOlllid I"
single crystals suitable for X-ray mcasurcl11cnt may no t hcloll g ill :1 g,'olll'
of phyllosilicates. On the other hanel , sli ch mineral s :IS p:dygorsk il\- II lId
sepiolite show an association w iLh clay nlilwrals alld for lilis I"( lil SOIl III '"
inclmled in lhis g roup .
Two exam ples or mincr:doid s ~ II'\' g iv( '11 :11 III(' ('lId of C I':lpll 'l' 1(1, vo l
Clin ic gln ss IIl1d pnl ngo ll il(', Ilo!11 111'\' S(l lll\ \wllli l illdl'fillil( ' ill ('olllp()~1 1 lOll
a od show II I'II11g< ' ill Pl'op"II I, 's,
:111:1
384 MINERAL DESCRIPTIO NS SILICATES : SHEET STRUCTURES AND M I NERALOIDS 385

The Mica GrQup The 20 and 6H polymorphs have not been found in nature, but others
have b een identified as constituents of clay aggregates or zones of
The micas constitute a well-defined group of silicates of aluminum
argillic alteration.
together with the alkalies, magnesium, and ferrous iron. They ar€) char-
Through mineral synthesis and X-ray study it has b een shown (Yoder
acterized by perfect cleavage in one direction {00l } and by strong bire-
and Eugster, 1955) that muscovite is restricted in conditions of formation
fringence. The extinction angles of sections cut nonnal to the cleavage
below a range of 625° to 715°C and 5,000 to 30,000 pounds per sq~arc
are small or practically zero. They may b e divided into two classes de- inch pressure. Thus the mineral is absent in rocks formed at higher tem-
pending upon whether the optic axial plane is (1) normal to or (2) par-
peratures.
allel to {OlO} ( see Figures 16-1 and 16-2 ). Muscovite and lepidolite be-
Lepidomelane is the name given to iron-rich biotite. Fuchsite and
long to the first class, and phlogopite and biotite to the second. All the mariposite are green chromium-bearing varieties of muscovite. Sericile
micas are optically negative. is a secondary muscovite found in minute shreds and aggregates and

'
formed by hydrothermal alteration.

I ,
I THE MICA GROUP

~
I
I
I ~ ,, ~
Mineral
Chemical
2V
,, ~
~
~

composition
n", nil ny

')"" "l.,""( .............

, ~
,,;
...... "" ....... .... . . . ,

*
-","I ..........
~ I ,
1 . 587
......
... "'" I
I
...........
........ ",,/ ~ " ......... Muscovite ... . . . . . . . . . . KAI { 1. 556 1.593 } 30' - 10"
~ I 1.570 1.607 1.611
I
I I
I I
I
Hydromuscovit.e ..... . .. . KAI { I 535 ... .. 1 565 } smnli
1 570 .. .. . 1 605
FIG. 16-1. FIG. 16-2.
Lepidolite ... . ..... .. . . . . K LiAI 1 . 560 1 . 598 1 . 605 110 0
FIG. 16-1. Mica of the first class. The dotted lines rep resent the "perCUSSion figure."
FIG. 16-2. Mica of the second class.
{ 1. 551 1 . 598 1 .598
Phlogop ite . . . . .. ... . .. .. KMgAI 0 0 Ion
1.562 1.606 1 . 606
The micas are pseudohexagonal monoclinic. Structural studies show
that the sheetlike arrangement of the atoms in mica p ermits intervals of {1. 541 1.574 1 . 574 } 0 ° :.!lio
Biotite . ..... . . . .. . .. ..... KMg,FeAI
rotation of 60° in the basal plane. This allows stacking of adjacent 1 .579 1 . 638 1 .638
(AISiaO lO ) tetrahedral sheets in a fixed series of alternative positions,
MUSCOVITE
summarized by Smith and Yoder (1956) as follows:
KA1 2 (OH) 2(AISi 30 1o) (inc. Sericite) Mono<;lilli<;
MICA POLYMORPHS
(3 = H!) Olitl
Structural Rotation on
nom enclature * basal plane Space group = 1.556 to 1.570
n ",

1M O' = 1.587 to 1.607

nil
C' /m
20 180' Ccm2 t ny = 1.593 to 1.61 1
3T 120 0 or 240 0 P3 t 12 or P 3.12 2V = 30 0 to 40 0 ; Opt. ( - )
(Mirror images) b = 'Y or Z, a A (3 or Y, = +] to 0 +~o
2M t 120 0 or 240 0 C' / e
(Alternating) Color. Co lorle ss lo palc g ree n in Lilin secli olls. SOIlH ' vur i(·t lt·s Hl'c
6H 60 0 or 300 0 P6 t 22 or P6 5 22 p leoch roi C"
"
(Mirror images)
Form. !\1l lsl'ovi ll ' " slI :dl y O('('III'S ill tli ill tll hlli ar I'r)'S I II IS or III S(,1l I
2M . 60 0 or 300 0 C'/ e a gg rq~lIt\·s or sllI·(,(\s. T llc ' IlIi llll".ly (' I'ys tnltill o VIlI'i('( is l 'l dl l ,t! .W·l'Id( I ' ,
* M, 0, T, and H represent , respectively , monoclinic, orthorhom'bw, tr igonal, and
hexago na l. CI(mvHt-:0' III Oli n d ln 'I 'IIIHI (001 1 VC'I ), P( II r(·( ·l.
386 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES; SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 387
I
'y
c

,°-3° -+--
E""= . _ ===:d
00'
-;/ I c =X I .. - - b
y

x
10
(0) (b)
FIG. 16-3 a,17. Orientation diagrams of muscovite. Sections (a) parallel to (001 )
and (b) parallel to (010) .

FIG. 16-5. (X30) Muscovite crystals showing alignment in a quartz-mica scllis!.

( X nicols.)

,..

FIG .16-4. ( X 30) A portion of a muscovite crystal. The crystal is slightly distorted
as shown by the curved cleavage. (X nicols.)

Relief. Not marked, n > balsam. On rotation there is some change of

relief, fair when the cleavage traces are parallel to the vibration plane of
the lower nicol and low in a position at right angles to this.
Birefringence. Strong, n y - n il! = 0.037 to 0.041; h ence the highes t in-
terference colors are upper second order. Sections parallel to the cleavage
give first-order colors since ny - n il = 0.004 to 0.006.
Extinction. The extinction is as a rule practically parallel to the cleav-
age traces, but it is often possible to find angles as high as 2° or 3° .
Orientation. The direction of th e cleavage traces is always the slower
ray.
Twinning. Twinning according to th e mica law [tWin-plane = {UO}
and composition face = (001)] is fairly common. It may b e detected by
slight differences in interference colors as well as by extinction angles.
FIG. 16-6. ( X IO) Sericite in a Rne aggregate surroulluin g Cj ll a rl z . ( X lIi('ok)
Interference Figure. Sections parallcl to {001} or cleavage li lll-, 'S g ivo
a biaxial negative figure with a modera te axial angle. Disp e rsioll, I' ~ . I)
weak. The axial plane is normal to {Olo} .
Distinguishing Features. Tal c is so similar lo rnll scovilc and pyl'op llyl-
lite in its optical properties lhat it is dislingllis ll ('(i willr diffi c,dt y. 'I'll!·
axial an gle of lalc .is smaller. Il may h e n (,c(,ss~lry to IlIal-, ' : 1 IIli (, ro(' lll'lId
cal lcs l for IlIa gncs iutn (IIS(' N: I"(;O,, i'II SiOII ) ill !)rd,'r 10 cliff('n' llll ll le l
t·h em.
H(llnled Millt'l'lIls. Il ydl'olllll s('()vile ' is \wry sllldl ll!' II) 111 1) sor1dl o VlIl'le;l\,
or 1l1lIS(·OV/to.
388 :!-.1:INERAL DESCRIPTION~ SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 389
._- --- - - - - - -- _.. -
I
'r
c

I _ t,o_,o '" I
y
Z )
C=X
t ) --b a -E' --Ej b =Z

ItX
io
(0) ( b)
FIG. 16-8 a,b. Orientation diagrams of lepidolite. Sections (a) p arallel to (00 I )
and (b) parallel to (OlD ) .
FIG. 16-7. ( X 10) A network of sericite veinlcts cutting quartz. ( X nicols. )

Occurrence. Muscovite is very common in metamorphic rocks such as

phyllites, schists, and gneisses. It is found in some granites and reaches
its maximum development in granite pegmatites. It is common as a
detrital mineral, especially in arkoses.
Sericite. Sericite occurs in minute shreds and is a secondary mineral
formed by hydrothermal alteration of silicates, especially the feldspars.
In the opinion of A. F. Rogers, it is in all probability a late hydro-
thermal mineral. Sericite also occurs as a constituent of schists, phyllites,
and slates.
Hydromuscovite. For a description of hydromuscovite, see page 413.
LEPIDOLITE

LiKAb(OH,F)2(Si 20 6) 2 Monoclinic
n" = 1.560
n~ = 1.598
FIG. 16-9. (X20) L epidolite cut parallel to cleavage in a pl ag ioclase IIl lI llh . (X
n-y = 1.605 nicols. )
2V = 40° ± ; Opt . (-)
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Extinction. The e;,,'tinction angle measured against the d c.wa g(· 11'11 ( ' ( ':;
Form. Lepidolite usually occurs in thick tabular or short prismatic varies from zero up to a maximum of 6° or 7° .
pseudohexagonal crystals. Orientation. The direction of the cleavage trace is alwa ys Ill(' slow('r
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {001}. ray.
Relief. Fair, n > balsam. Twinning. Twinnin g is common accordin g to til e lI1i (';I law Il will
Birefringence. Strong, 1Iry - n" = 0.045; hence interference colors plane = {llO} ], th e composition fa ce h ein g {OOI) . SOlll('lillJ('S [1i"I '( ' 111'0
i'ange up to the middle of the third order. Sections parallel to the cleav- p enetration twin s.
age (including cleavage flakes) h ave weak double refraction 1Iry - n fj = Interference Figure. T he figlll'c is bi ax i.ul nega livo w ill i U ul()(.lornlo
0.007). axial angle, usually a bout 4()0. Disr ol'sion , l' > v woak.
390 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 391
Distinguishing Features. Lepidolite is very similar to muscovite in its
optical properties but has a larger extinction angle. It may be necessary
to use some non-optical test to distinguish them. (Lepidolite is easily
fusible and gives a lithium flame. )
Related Minerals. Zinnwaldite is a lithium-iron mica also found in tin-
stone veins and granite pegmatites.
Occurrence. Lepidolite occurs in granite pegmatites, in some hign-
temperature veins, and occasionally in granites. The usual associates are
tourmaline (especially elbaite), albite, topaz, beryl, spodumene, and
quartz.
PHLOGOPITE

KMg 3AI(OH)Si 4 0 1o Monoclinic

L.(3 = 90 0 ±
net = l.551 t o l.562 FIG.16-11. ( X30) Elongated sections of phlogopite cut through tabular CI'VSlllh,.
n il = l.598 to l.606 (X nicols.)
n'Y = l.598 to l.606
211 = 0 0 to 10 0 ; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y
I
'2
c
!

y --c=X I ) --b 0-- ( ~--:= b~. ~ ~)Z

.X
I

10 (0) (b)
FIG. 16-10 a,b. Orientation diagrams of phlogopite.
Color. Pale brown to colorless in thin sections. Slightly pleochroic.
Form. Phlogopite is found in six-sided thick tabular to short prismatic
crystals.
Cleavage. In one direction {00l} as with the other micas.
Relief. Fair, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n" = 0.044 to 0.047; the maximum inter-
ference color is about the middle of the third order. Sections parallel to
{OOl}, which include cleavage flakes, have very weak birefringence since
ny - nil is very small (0.000x).
Extinction. Extinction is usually parallel to the cleavage, but some-
times the extincti.on angle is as much as 50.
FIG. 16-12. ( X lO) Scattered crystals of phlogopilC in limCSlonc. ( X lI i('(,k)
Orientation. The cleavage traces are parallel to th e slower ray .
Twinning. Though often prescnt, is not consp icllollS. Il Iliay IH ' 1'(,(,0 1',
nized by differences in interference colors of adjacG"l parls or II l'I' VSIIl I
as well as by extinction angles.
Interfercnce Figmc. Basal sections, wld ch also inclilcl o CI(';IVllgl' 11 11\-" \ ,
give a negative interference RglII'e that is e illt er hia xi;d wi lit II V( 'I'Y ~ lIl l dl
anglo or pra cli cally IlIlia xial. Dispcl'sioll , '/' > I/, w(·ak.
Dislillgllishillg FClllmcs. Pldog() pil( ' is di slill g'lisll! 'ci fro II I Il lolll" hy
li ghlvr l'o lo l' IllId \v(':d, ('I' Ilbsol'p li()lI . Co l orl('s~ I'ldogo l'il n Is 11\\1( ,11 111((1
IIIII HC() Vlt ll lHIII!! IIY btl d isli!l I'. ldslll'd Ily ll.~ SIII IIII !'!' II Xlll l ll llg lil. _
392 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 393

Occurrence. The characteristic OCCUTI"ence of phlogopite is in meta-

morphic limestones. The common associates are chondrodite, spinel, and
forsterite. It is also found in a few igneous rocks such as peridotites, de-
rived from serpentines, and leucite-bearing rocks.

BIOTITE

K 2(Mg,Fe) 2(OH) 2(AlSi 30 1o) Monoclinic

L{3 = 90°
na = 1.541 to 1.579
n~ = 1.574 to 1.638
n"( = 1.574 to 1.038
2V = 0° to 25°; Op t. (-)
b = {3 or Y, c 1\ a or X = 3° ± ;

'Z FIG. 16-14. ( X30) Biotite in positions of illumination (gray crystal showing clc avll ~t) )
c and absorp tion (black) associated with zircon (high relief).
1

DID
1 001

y 1
c =X
I . ·-b 0 -- (
b- b/ :::::::::::=l Z

x.
I

to (0) (b)
FIG.16-13 a,b. Orientation diagrams of biotite. Sections (a) parallel to (001) and
(b) parallel to (OlD).

Color. Brown, yellowish brown, reddish brown, olive green, or green

in thin sections. Pleochroic. The absorption is stronger when the cleavage
traces are parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol.
Form. Common in euhedral six-sided crystals that are usually tabular
in habit; also in lamellar aggregates. The plates are sometimes bent. FIG. 16-15. ( x30 ) Biotitc showin g halos around minute radioacliw CO,, " .

Inclusions. Inclusions of such Ininerals as zircon surrounded by pleo-

chroic halos are fairly common in biotite.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {Ool}. Sections cut parallel to {001}
do not show any cleavage. In schistose rocks these sections predominate.
Relief. Fair, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - na = 0.033 to 0.059; interference colors
range up to second-order red, but the color of the mineral may mask the
interference color. The birefringence of sections parallel to {001} is prac-
tically nil since ny - n i3 = 0.000x.
Extinction. Usually parallel to the cleavage traccs, but the oxtin ction
angle may b e as mu ch as 3° in ~omc ~cc tion s. Bell t plates ha vo wavy ('X
tinction. Near the extinction position a peculiar crinkl y appl"ilnIIlVl ' Is
usually noticed in biotite.
Orientation. Th e direction of th c cl eavage tra cc~ i ~ a lwa ys till" slow('1"
ray.
Twinning. Twillning acco l"dill g 10 the mi ca \:tw Ilwill -]> I:III(' 111011
mily he prese lll·.
III(('rl"('I"('II(;C l i· i ~ III"(· . S('l"Iio ll s pill":III (' 1 II I IO() II , ill (' lll<lill l!: (·II ·IIV IIj..(1'
Ibk( ·s, l!: iv<I iI 1I0gil li v,' hi il\ i:iI li g ll l'(' w illi :I vl'I'y SllI il lI :"illl IIl1 g l(" 'I'll<'
/lxilll ]>11111(' is 11,\ ll lI lI y fl llI'l d"" to 10101 , IIiIt Is 11()1I11 11 1 til j(HOI 111 11111 \
\1111'10 1" (1I 1111111 11( \) . 1) /0. ]1"1 ·, 1.)11 . I' • II Ill' " il w('l iI<.
394 MINERAL DESCRIPTION S SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 395
Distinguishing Features. Biotite is distinguished from phlogopite by chromian chlorite by D. L. Lapham (1957) suggest a generalized funda-
its darker color and stronger absorption. From ordinary brown horn- mental division of the chlorite group as follows:
blende it is distinguished by the smaller extinction angle and difference
CHLORITE G ROUP"
in cleavage. L amprobolite also has the typical amphibole cleavage. Tour-
maline has strong absorption when elongation of the crystals is normal Corundophilite Mg 5.3 AI1(Si2.3A II.7 )O!O(OH)8
Prochlorite Mg 5.1 All(Si 2.6AI1.4)O!O(OH).
to the vibration plane of the lower nicol.
Clinochlore Mg 5.0 All(Si3.oAll. o) Ol o(OHls
Penninite Mg 4.9 AI 1(Si3.2Al o.s)O!O(OH)s
* F e-chlorite (substitution > 4 per cent FeO or Fe 203 for Mg)
Cr-chlorite (substitution < 2 per cent Cr ,0 3 for Mg or AI)
Kotschubeite (Tetrahedral Cr > 2 per cent Cr,0 3)
Kammercrite (Octahedral Cr > 2 per cent Cr,0 3)

FIG. 16-16. ( X30 ) Halos in biotite caused by alpha-particle bombardment from small
zircon crystals containing radioactive impurities.

Related Minerals. Lepidomelane resembles biotite but has higher in-

dices and larger axial angle. Manganophyll is a manganian biotite found FIG. 16-17. ( X30) Chlorite form ecl along the border of a quarlz mass.
in metamorphic dolomite at L 'mgban, Sweden.
Alteration. Biotite is often more or less altered to chlorite. It may also
alter to vermiculite. In the opinion of E. W. Galliher, detrital biotite is
the source of practically all glauconite.
Occurrence. Biotite is a Widely disb'ibuted and common mineral. It
occurs in igneous rocks of nearly all types. It is also a prominent con-
stituent of schists and gneisses and may be found in contact-metamorphic
zones. Biotite is common in detrital sediments. It is often bleached or
otherwise altered.
Chlorite Group
The micaceous mineral group, chloTite, covers a range of chemical 6
modifications with corresponding optical variation. This form of mica
occurs most frequently in Rake-like crystals with anomalous birefringence
and greenish pleochroism. H ey (1954) in a survey of the literature indi-
cates 24 chlorite species with varying degrees of validity. Studics of
(0" ( :. 10 IH. ( :10 ) All "1',1',11 '1',11 1(1 IIf (,111 111111 , " ' ),'.111 1,. 11 ,\", ... 111 1,,01 lVI II, "'1'1""", 1,("
396 MINERAL DESCRIPTIOl\S SILICATES : SHEET STRUCTUHES AND :MINEHALOIDS 397
angle, often practically uniaxial. The axial plane is parallel to {010}. Dis-
persion, l' < v.
Distinguishing Features. Pro chlorite is distinguished from clinoehlore
and p ennine by high er indices of refraction.
Occurrence. Prochlorite is th e principal constituent of some chlorite
schists often accompanied by magnetite. It also is found as an alteration
product of other silicates. A characteristic occurrence of pro chlorite is in
quartz veins with adulmia, albite, sphene, etc.

CLINOCHLOHE

Mgs(AI,Fe) (OH)g(AI,Si) 40 10 Monoclinic;

L(3= 89°40'

net = 1.571 t o 1.588

n~ = 1.571 to 1.588
ny = 1.576 t o 1.597
FIG. 16-19. ( X30) Flaky chlorite crystals in interlocking aggregate. ( X nicols. ) 2V = 0° to 50°; Opt . (+)
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = 2° to 9°
In terms of occurrence four representative chlorites are considered,
prochlorite, clinochlore, penninite, and the Fe-chlorite widely known as
chamosite. All are probably monoclinic and exhibit distinct cleavage
parallel to (001) . Although green prevails, lavender, pink, or purple may
predominate for higher chromian chlOlites.
001
The term orthochlorite has been applied to the group of chlorites low
in iron and leptochlorite to the high iron group.
010 x
PROCHLORITE

(Ripidoli tc) Monocli nic

yE I ;0 '- b
--
0 -'

110
net = 1.588 to 1.658
n~ = 1.589 to 1.667
ny = 1.599 t o 1.667 io
2V = 0° to 30°; Op t. (+) (0) ( b)
F1G.16-20 a,b. Orientation diagram of cIinochlorc. Sections «(l) parallel to «()O I ) II l1d
Color. Green or greenish in thin sections. Pleochroism weak. (b) p arallel to (010) .
Form. Prochlorite usually occurs in scaly masses. It is also frequently
found in vermicular crystals with hexagonal cross sections and in fan- Color. Colorless to green in thin sections. Pleochroic with ahsorpl iOll :
shaped crystal aggregates. a or X and f1 or Y > y or Z .
Cleavage. In one direction parallel to {00l} as in the other chlorites. Form. Th e crystal habit varies from thin to thick tabular wiLh p solld o-
Relief. Fair to moderately high, n > balsam. h exagonal outlines . Crys tals are often b ent.
Birefringence. Usually weak but varies from very weak to rather w eak, Cleavage. Perfcctin on e cliroc Lion p arall el Lo fOOl).
=
ny - na 0.001 to 0.011. Relief. Fair, 'II, > h alsam.
Extinction. Parallel to almost parallel. 13irefrill~enee.vV ('nk to ratll('r \V( 'a k, I' oy 1/ " 0.00 /1 to 0.011 .
Orientation. Cleavage traces are parallel to the faster ray. Ex lillclioll. TIl(' Ill l l\ill llll il ( 'x lill (' lioll 111l ,l~ I I' 1ll( 'Ii) III'( ,d I'rOlll ( ' I (,l1VII~1
Interference Figure. The interference figure is usually diffi cIIlt II) b 'IiI 'I 'S \llIri l 'S 1'1'tl1l1 ~" 10 0". I\ II ~ II I s (,I ' l lo ll ~ 111'<1 Ili li( ' I I( 'l dl y isoll'Opi( '.
obtain. Whe n found , it is lI snally biax ial QosiLivc wilh a wrv Slilall ,lxiaJ O l'i t' III11liol1 . ( :1" . ,1,, 1'1 . :I i 11 \\1 1I I!,. /'11 " 1\1111',( \ 11 11 1 l/ 'oI lli ll y 11 1111'.1111',1,) 1.
398 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES : SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINE RALOIDS 399
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning is common, according to the mica Birefringence. Very weak, ny - no = 0.001 to 0.004; the interference
law. color is often an anomalous "Berlin blue," a color not found on the inter-
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with a ference color chart.
variable axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO} . Dispersion, r < v. Extinction. Parallel or almost parallel to cleavage traces and to crysta l
Distinguishing Features. Clinochlore is distinguished from other outlines.
chlorites by the oblique extinction and from p ennine by greater bire- Orientation. The cleavage traces are parallel to either the faster or
fringence and distinctly biaxial character. slower ray.
Related Minerals. Leuchtenbergite is an iron-free chlorite that is celor- Twinning. Twinning parallel to {OOl} with (001) as the composition
less in thin sections. Kotschubeite is a chromian clinochlore frequently face is so characteristic that this mode of twinning is known as (,11('
associated with chromite. pennine law. Since the extinction is practically parallel this twinning is
Occurrence. Clinochlore occurs in chlorite schists and in other meta- not easily recognized in thin sections.
morphic rocks. Common associates are talc, antigorite, chondrodite, and Interference Figure. ::me interference figure is biaxial with such a smull
phlogopite. It is also an alteration product of other silicates. axial angle that it appears to b e uniaxial. The optical sign is usually posi.
tive, but sometimes it is negative. The axial plane is usually parall ol ( 0
PENNINITE (PENNINE)
{OlO} .
Mg 6 (AI,Fe) (OR) s(AI,Si) 40 10 Monoclinic Distinguishing Features. Penninite is distinguished from most of (h o
other chlorites by parallel extinction, very small axial angle, and ::mom-
ncr1.575 t o 1.582
1.576 t o 1.582
n f3 =
alous interference colors. The indices of refraction are lower than lhoslI
n '"( = 1.576 t o 1.583
of prochlorite.
2 V = 0° to 20°; Op t. ( + ) or ( - ) Related Minerals. Kammererite is a chromian penninite very simibr 10
kotschubeite. Pseudophite is a compact tough varie ty of p enninitc. II' is
'x one of the pseudojades known as "Styrian jade."
Occurrence. Penninite usually occurs as an alteration prodllct or olltl -r
c silicates such as galnet. The most typical sp ecimens are found ill S ( 'il llI ~
I, and cavities.

L.g ,:y "; 'x

CHAMOSITE
010
Fe~l A12Si 2010.3R20 MOIIOI 'lillil' (?)
b
II C=Z ----1.1~-
n ca. = 1.635
2V small ; Opt. ( - )
,Z Color. Green, greenish gray, gray, pale brown to almosi' co l ()rl, '~~ III
110 1
thin sections. Some sections show slight pleochroism.
Form. Usually oolitic ,,\lith p seudosph eruliti c stru ctmc ( C OII( ' ( ' I II ri l' III
, stead of fibrous clements ). Subhcdral crystals of thi ck la lllJl:ir 1':Jilil li n '
(a) (b)
la occasionally found. The ooliths often have a portion of :1. cllJlJlloslln
FIG. 16-21 a,b, Qrientation diagrams of pcnninite. Sections (a) normal to the c-axis crystal as a nucleus. Chamosite is some timcs m ass ivo w ilh i1 ggn '~Jl t (\
and (b) parallel to (OlD).
structure.
Color. Green or greenish in thin sections. Pleochroic from green to Cleavage. In on e dircction , hut nol as p erfcct as in (III' II I iC"i1 s. '1'111
~
nearly colorless: occasionally from green to brownish red. ooliths often show con centric partillg.
Form. Penninite usually occurs in six-sided crystals of thick tabular Helicf. Mod er:!( 0 , rI > h a I S; I Ill . '1'1 I, ' i"dl'\' or J'( ,rr;ld iOIl is ill (Il(" liP/ Kit
habit. horl,o()(l of 1,0:1:'.
Cleavage, Perfect in one direction p arallel to tOOl} . TIirdrillg(·III·(l. N il III \\l('lI k , lip III 1I 11I) 'Il O.O(l7 III (l,(H)/-! , I "f<orf" I" 'IH Ii '
Relief. Fair, n > balsam. (:Illors Il l'll Jlllt Jl ppl'('( 'ill lli y 1I II1 I I\\ l d ll l\ 'j ,
400 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILH";ATES: SHEET STHUCTUHE S AND MIN ERALOIDS 401
Orientation. Both cleavage traces and the concenhic layers of ooliths Twinning. Polysynthetic twins after the mica law.
are length-slow. Interference Figure. Flakelike crystals are r eported to give a uniaxial
Distinguishing Features. Chamosite is distinguished from the other negative figure.
chlorites by higher index of refraction and from glauconite by lower bire- Distinguishing Features. The min eral resembles biotite and may b
fringence. Chamosite often resembles oolitic collophane, but the presence overlooked in fi eld examination. The p seudo-uniaxial interference figuro
of chamosite crystals and the slightly higher index of refraction will and higher index of refraction are distinctive. Pleochroism is ordinarily
usually distinguish it. more colorful than pleoclu'oism of biotite.
Related Minerals. The chlorites, delessite and thuringite, are similar Related Minerals. Stilpnomelane is related to the other m embers of
to chamosite, but the former occurs in true spherulites in amygdaloidal the brittle mica group.
rocks and the latter in schists. Greenalite, an iron silicate occurring in Occurrence. Stilpnomelane has been found in quartz-adularia peg-
amorphous granules in cherts of the Lake Superior region, also resembles matite veins, in nepheline-syenite p egmatites, and probably occurs as all
chamosite. introduced mineral formed as a hydrothermal alteration product.
Occurrence. Chamosite is a prominent constituent of oolitic sedi-
CHLORITOID
mentary iron ores that are prominent in the Jurassic of England, where
they are usually known as ironstones and are commercially important H 2(Fe,Mg,Mn)AbSi07 (Ottrelite) Monoclillio
low-grade ores. According to Hallimond, they are for the most part of n a = 1. 715 t o 1. 724
marine origin, but some are probably fresh water. The usual associates n fJ = 1.719 to 1.726
of chamosite are siderite, calcite, collophane, pyrite, and various detrital n -y = 1.731 t o 1.737
minerals. 2V = 36° t o 63°; Opt. (+)
These chamositic ores are also found in Scotland, Lorraine, southern b = (3 or Y, c /\ 'Y or Z = +3° to +21°
Sweden, Bohemia, and Newfoundland.
Brittle Mica Group
Micaceous minerals without the flexibility of chlorite, lacking the x 3°-21°
alkali content of biotite, and frequently containing calcium in place of DID
magnesium constitute the blittle mica group. The minerals stilpnomelane, ,/ ) .-.l!
clintonite, margarite, chloritoid, and ottrelite b elong to this group. Stilp- y '0 -=-=-- · - b = y-==-
nomelane and chloritoid are common minerals.
2V= 36~ 6 0 0
STILPNOMELANE

H 2 (Mg,Fe)AhSi0 7 Monoclinic?
nO! = 1.612 to 1.634
nfJ = n-y = 1.700 t o 1.745
01 (0 ) (b )
2V = ca . 0° FIG.16-22 a,h. Orientation di agra ms of chloritoid. Sec liol1s (1/) norm nl 10 II" . ,. ,,<i ~
Color. Brown and yellow to green. Pleochroic with Y and Z > X. and (b) p nrallcl to (010 ) .
Form. Often found in micaceous masses, but it may occur in isolated Color. Grecn, grecnish gray to colorlcss. Us ually morc or loss pll \{ )
crystals. ch1'oic.
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to (001). Form. Chloritoid, on e or: th e g rollp known as 7JJ'i ff/ e //Ii n / .\', ('() IIIIII Olll y
Relief. Moderate to high, n > balsam. OCClll"S in p,~ c " cioh exago ll al lahldar crys lal s. IlI clll siolis ; 11'0 orici l pn,solll "
Birefringence. Moderate to strong, try - n" = 0.030 to 0. 119, Basal It o[len sh ows a kind or " Il ol irg lass" slnl Clllre.
plates are almost isotropic. Cleavage. I\ ,rrcl'l i ll 0111' dir\' diOIl tOO l J IIl1d illl»l'rfI T I pnrull ()1 lo
Extinction. Almost parallel. { II 0) .
Orientation. The angle between X and c is small Hdid'. 111 ): 11, 1/ ~ . h Il IHI IIII .
402 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STHUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 403
Birefringence. Weak to moderate, n)' - 11" = 0.013 to 0.016. Basal I
'y
plates are practically isotropic.
Extinction. Almost parallel up to ca. 20° . c
I
Orientation. The crystals are length-fast.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twins after the mica law are very common. tOOl

an~~.~
010
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderate to
• _.J!. y
rather large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Disp ersion, r> v or z ) C=x
. \ I
r < v.
110

r
oi (0) (b)
FIG. 16-24 a,b. Orientation diagrams of talc. Sections parallel to (a) (001) alld (II)
(010 ).

FIG. 16-23. ( x 10 ) Chloritoid forming a metacryst in phyllite. ( X nicols.)

Distinguishing Features. Chloritoid somewhat resembles some of the
chlorites, but the relief is much higher and the cleavage less p erfect.
Related Minerals. Ottrelite, usually treated as a variety of chloritoid,
is considered by Melon to b e a distinctive mineral.
Occurrence. Chloritoid occurs in metamorphic rocks such as mica
schists and phyllites as metacrysts. FIG. 16-25. ( X 10) A scc tion cut throu gh a fo liatcd mass o[ talc crysta ls. ( X Id ('ok)

TALC
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OOl }.
Mg 3 (OHMSi 20 5 h Monoclinic Relief. Fair, n > balsam.
L{3 = (?) Birefringence. Very strong, n )' - 11" = 0.030 to 0.050; tll (' 111:I\ illlllill
n" = 1.538 to 1.545 interference colors are upper third order. Sections parall el to 111(' e1( ': 1ViI);1l
n(3 = 1.575 to 1.590 give very low first-order gray colors since 1ly - 11 (3 is almost lIil ( O.()O().I') .
n')' = 1.575 t o 1.590 ExtincLion. T he ex Lin ction is para ll el to the cleavage trac('s i" 1IIIlSI
2V = 6° to 30°; Opt. (-) section s; in a Few sec Lion s th (' (" tin ction is 2° Or .'3 ° ; 11 (' 11 ('(' la l(· i ~ prn h
a = (3 or Y, b = 'Y or Z, c = ex or X ably mono(' lilliC'.
Color. Colorless in thin sections. OrienLation. C k :lv:l,l!t Ir: I ('('~ a lld s ll r< 'd ~ :11'( ' 1('II glll slow :IS i,l 11111 \
Form. Talc occurs in coarse to fine platy or fibrou s aggregates that covit('.
often have a more or less parallel arrangement. Shreds and plates are IlIl nf"l'c lI ('\' Io'iglll'l" ( :11': 1" :1 1',1' 11 : l k( '~ g ivi' II hi:l\ i:d 111'gll li vl' II !~ I II 'I \ 11'1 111
often bent. Euhedral crystals of talc are unknown . II SIII HII II\ i:i1 III' I',II " I ) lo. p ",. ·, IIII I, " /l dl ~ lilli'l ,
404 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES~ SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 405
Distinguishing Features. Talc greatly resembles muscovite and py-
rophyllite, but may often be distinguished by the smaller axial angle
provided an interference Rgme can be obtained.
It may be necessary to make a chemical or microchemical test in order
to prove the identity of talc. The association with other magnesium min-
erals indicates the presence of talc rather than muscovite or sericite.
Occurrence. Talc is the principal constituent of talc schists and soap-
stones. It is often a hydrothermal mineral formed at the expense of an-
tigorite and tremolite in shear zones of serpentines. Dolomite and
magnesite are frequent associates.
PYROPHYLLITE

AI 2(OH) 2Si 40 1o Monoclinic( ?)

na = 1.552
n~ = 1.588
n'Y = 1.000
2V = 53° to 60°; Opt. (-)
a = 'Y or Z, b = f3 or Y, c = ex or X
Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Pyrophyllite occurs in subhedral crystals that are tabular parallel
to {OlO} and much elongated. The
c to make chemical or microchemical tests.
I crystals are usually curved and dis-
torted. A radial structure is com-
mon. It also occurs in Rne aggre-
gates.
O--..EE-+-----
Cleavage. Perfect in one direc-
z tion {001}.
Relief. Rather low to moderate,
n> balsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - niX =
0.048; the maximum interference
FIG. ~6-26. ~rientation diagram of pyro- color is upper third order. Sections
phylhte. SectlOn parallel to (010). II I hI'
para e to t e c eavage gIve gray
or Rrst-order colors since ny - n il = 0.012.
Extinction. Parallel or almost parallel to cleavage traces and parallel
to the elongate sections.
Orientation. Cleavage traces are parallel to the slower ray. Elongate
sections not showing cleavage are length-slow.
Twinning. Twinning like that found in the micas is present but is not
well defined.
Interference Figure. Sections parallel to {001} or cleavage flakes give
a biaxial negative Rgme with a rather large axial angle. The cLxial angle
is parallel to {OlO} or the length of the crystals.
FIG. 16-27. (X 10) A radial aggregate of pyrophyllite crystals. (X nicols.)
Distinguishing Features. Pyrophyllite usually has a peculiar elongnlo
tabular habit. Muscovite and talc greatly resemble pyrophyllite. Talchns
a much smaller axial angle. Microcrystalline pyrophyllite is very dj(fi c1I11
to distinguish from sericite or talc by optical means; it may be neco.~s!l l'y
Occurrence. Pyrophyllite occms in metamorphic rocks and IlllS ofloll
developed as a hydrothermal alteration product. Common assoein les ur(
andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, lazulite, and alunite.
The Clay Minerals
These minerals are widely distributed in sedim entary rocks, IIlI ly hn
found in veins, and ocem as alteration products of igneo us :l lld IIH 'III
morphie rocks. The most common clay minerals belong to tho kllOll ll ,
montmorillonite, palygorskite, and hydromica groups_ All Hl'O rilll,.I),
crystalline or meta colloidal and occur in flakelike or dense aggl'('gll l\ \~
of varying types.
The kaolin group includes the minerals kaolinite, anauxi lo, dick ite "
nacrite, halloysite, hych-ohalloysite, and allophane. Of th eso, k:r()lillit O,
dickite, and nacrite have tlle same composition (AI ~ O!l _2SiO " .2 n ,.O) hili
differ optically and also in internal sh-llcture, as shown by X-ray dirl'rll('-
tion. Anauxite (Al"O".3SiO".2H"O) clirr('rs slightly frolll l<llo lillil o I)()III
structurally and op ti ca ll),. Tlalloysile (;\ I ~ O :,.2SiO " _2 TT " O) nile! hyd l'll l c·d
,
halloysite (AI " O ~ .2S iO ,. -'ITI " O ) din'cr SO ll ltlw lt at opl icu lly IIn(l nlso slrl w-
tlll'ally_ AlIoplllin o is II. soliclific 'd gel (Al ~ O Il .x SiO ,..IIIU)) willi 1111 111I1c 'X
of rcrrnc lioll low('r IIt a II II!C . illcli('('s of 1110 oille 'r IIl illC'l·: tI ~ of lit" g l·()lIp.
K(loli llil n, 111(1 IIlml ("IIII IIIH IIi kllOl1 l1 , 1)( ' I ' lIr,~ ill 1 1I1'}~n qllllllllll" ~, 1101 11
406 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND lvIINERALOIDS 407
residual and as a transported mineral in the white clays of the south-
eastern United States. It is frequently formed by th e decomposition in
situ of rocks containing fcldspars. Dickite, although less common, is
better crystallized and may occur in pseudohexagonal plates. It is com-
monly formed by hydrothermal solutions in veins or dikes and occasion-
ally occurs associated with sulfides in are deposits. Halloysite is found
as a porcelain-like mass or fIne white powder in shales and sandstones
and as a replaccment of limestone. It may occur independently but is
frequently associated with kaolinite, alunite, and various forms of hydrous
aluminum oxides.
Montmorillonite is a widely cUsh'ibuted clay mineral. It occurs as an
alteration product of volcanic ash and tuff. The rock bentonite, common
in the western United States, is composed largely of montmorillonite.
Montmorillonite is also found in minor amounts as an alteration product
in pegmatite dikes . The montmorillonite group consists of montmorillonite
[( Mg,Ca) O.AtO".5Si0 2 .nH"O] , nontronite [( Al,Fe) 20 , .3Si0 2 .nH 2 0],
and saponite (2MgO.3Si0 2 .nH 2 0) .
Palygorskite, a clay mineral from a mining district in the Ural Moun-
tains, Russia, "vas named by Ssaftschenkow in 1862. Fersman later de-
fIn ed the palygorskite minerals. The minerals in this group now recog-
nized include pilolite, lassallite, and attaplllgite. Attapulgite, common in
Florida and southern Georgia and found at Mormiron, France, is the
essential constituent of most fullers earth. Sepiolite yields a tubular struc-
ture in electron micrographs and in dehydration resembles attapulgite
(Martin-Vivaldi and Cano-Ruiz, 1955).
Hydromica (or illite) represents a poorly defIned group intermediate (d )

between muscovite and montmorillonite. It is likely to occur in shale or

other argillaceous b eds where it may be associated with kaolinite or
montmorillonite and mixed with fIne detrital fragments of other minerals.
The general formula (OH) ,Ky(A1.J Fe ,Mg.,Mgn ) (Sis yAly)02o(Y = 1 to
1.5) suggested by Grim1 indicates the complex chemical character of
hydromica.
The signillcant optical properties of the clay minerals may be con-
veniently outlined for the four groups from the standpOint of microscopic
observation : (1) The kaolin group is characterized by w eak birefringence
and indices of refraction approximating those of quartz. (2) The mont-
morillonite group has a comparatively high birefringence but indices of
refraction for the most part lower than Canada balsam. (3) Palygorskitc
(e ) (f)
resembles montmorillonite in thin section but has a higher index of rc-
FIC. 16-28. ( X Ifi,OOO) 1':1 (;(;[1'011 '"i (' '')g ' : '1 ) I , ~ "I' (' I:,), ," ill' ·' :.I , , I'"IVi l g 1, ,; ,111,, 00, 111>1
fraction and shows more abundant mass extinction. (4) The hydromica discl osed al' Ill :lg "iri c:llio ns po " i!>I, · IV ill, II I(' POllllil' ili g l" i' ·I O" ·lIP' ·. (tI'II/ ·/ tr ·1I 1I / " '/111
'The name illite has been applied to thi s group, but it is possible that l'ydl'O- ielllll IIISJi/II/ !': 11"/"/'1'111'(' ClllY "'/III '/lIk ) (1/) /\ll opl ,oI"' o , llll lVill l~ ' 1,1",.1, .: .1 1'"111",
muscovite, as described by A. Johnston e [Q ua/'. J. Ceoi. Soc. LOlldon, 15: .363 (I) llllllll lll' rllll" ~ (II' IlI dlo)" ilt ·; ( I' ) P'", "dlll" ' \ II I',OIIl I 1'1 11 110, 01 " ,'1111,,11 11 ; ( " )
( 1889) 1 m erits priority. ( X Il,OOO) "I)"IIII ~ .. r !ii(.I"I; '; (, ,) "" I iii" , 111111" . ill IIII 'ljllIl l ',IIIl; (J) ,,"I ,. IlIliI 1IIIIIdil l
f()I'''I ~ of' " '1'1.. 11111.
408 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 409
t- o
~ g '"
M
o
C'l
o group is characterized by a comparatively high birefringence with indices
~ tC e.or..o~ ..... C'l'"
o 000 C'l M M O o
I
M
C'l o of refraction above Canada balsam.
I o 000 000 1 o 0 I
,.. o 000 ooog
C'l
o
M 0 '"
...... Potash-bearing clay, probably hydromica, is frequently found as nn
~ o
o o o alteration product of old volcanic ash, particularly in the Ordovician of
the eastern United States, or at times as a gouge day in ore deposits.
~I
t-
C'l '"
C'l
A strong artificial illumination is advisable in determining the b ir('-
,.. '" "'M M"'''' '"-.::t'I ..... .-1 1 M '"......I
I ......~'". o'"'"
.-I
'" '" '"
~
'"
...... "''''
...... ...... "''''''' .....I
1""""11""""1 f"""4.-1 '"'"
I I fringence of the clay minerals . A summary of the optical properties of
the more important clay minerals based upon determinations either hy
..... C'l '"..... C. S. Ross or R. E. Grim is given in the foregoing tabulation .
~ --- '" ~
Q) l.Ql.Q0')

'a ~I '"
C'l The most important clay minerals exhibit distinguishing featuros ill
lC ..... C"I C"l
~]~~~~r!.
'I"""'f
I
oo::t4
.-I
'"..... thin sections. In general, however, these minerals present problems ill
""
~

'"
~ ...... "''''~
.....
s'" identification best solved by coordinated optical, X-ray, th ermal , alld
'" chemical methods. Electron micrographs of some clay minerals are also
!----~- ~
~ ~ ~ o significant.
'"
~
t- '"
o
..... 0 t- C'lt-o '" '" KAOLINITE
o e:>
l~ '"
l.C '"
LC
Q:l .-I 00
~"'''' I
.-I
"I I~ ......
~
............ '"t- '"
M '" 6 AI 20 3 .2Si0 2 .2H 2 0 Trielilli o
~
'" '"
~
n" = 1.561
nf3 = 1.5G5
.~ .~ ~ ~ ~ C) C) 0 0 <> <>
'"..:....l '3 E '2 'a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 :5 :5 :§ :§ :§'"' :§ :§ n-y = 1.566
g1 ~~ '0'000 "2l
~
I>l
rtJ
>."'"'
....
'"
rtJ
~
._.....
oo~~6bbbO
0 0 Q) Q) ~ o 0 0 0
0: <= 0: <=
o
0: "o "
o
0:
o
0:
2V variable ; Opt. (-)
or Z, C /\ a or X = 10 to 372"0
Z \.) ·C ·C S o 0 0 0 o o
0 0 OIl OIl
b l'
~ E-<E-<::E::E~~~ ::E::E::E::E ::E ::E """"
~ o I
'Y
U
....l
o
0:
00
i.:
:~ ii o ::x::
o
io
lfl
o
Ui .£
p. +1 +1 S
~
E
o
'"'
.§'"'
OC'lOOC'l~O
ic5 ii c5c5 i
C'l ._ C'l C'l ._ ._
.NUl
9+199+1+1 9
.;. c.,CflW
~
.;.
o~o oo
~
~
~ ::x::::x:: ~

0 000
<:"I

.:. ~. . ~
c-I ('I

Uil
~
000
iii
~~"
000
UiUiUi z< )
ow
I ) · -b
111--1
o~ . ~ 6=Z~ ·- - i
00'

~~~~ S
rn rnrn rn eX
\.)
'"
..c: ~~~'1~'1 ~ ...
\.)
...0 ~ <')
S?- oM . ' ". M .
~
0 0
.
q, q, q, q, q, q, q, ~q,q,0Il
~

«««< "-;-:l"'''''
~ --. ~~
<
~
::E...':~
OIl

C'l~""
C'l
110

P.

"'
~
::l
o.... P.
::l
P.
::l
o....
io (0) (b)
"'gt::.
P. OIl o
03
::l .... FIC. 16-29. Orie nta tion diagrams uf kaolinite . SCC tiOIlS (fI) Ilonna] lo lh .. ( ·- I ..\i~ 111111
·a"''""'
"0 OIl
o.... 0: OIl
.25 (b) parallcl to (010).
B
a
I:,j) ol
.§'"' :.g
.S
.~rtJ '" "''""' Color. Colorless to pale yellow.
rtJ
ool .... :';:; o.... .:;: ....
o o
>. E § .. "0 o OIl o.i~ Form. Kaol inile occuIsin fino mosai cllk(' ma ss(\~ of crystals, ill v!'i llh \ l ~
~ >.
~ 0
"'o<="' aa;-.s.C) >.
'"'::l"' "; "'"' "'"'
:';;;·biJ
Q)Q)
~ .~ .-$::::::0)~ ~ 8::=: .s .~....
E ~ '2o.~
::x::
E ~ "'~ replacing feld spars a nd otlier IllinN:ti s, ;lIld ill sCillcliko illdivld ll :il" 0('_
'a
..... >< ~ .8 0~
;:::::1._._ -§~ ~0. ::E
~~!;§B o....
....
~ ~~
::l '"
cas ionlllly slllal! plut('s sll( )w 1I( '('ordioll lilw olil lill( IS .
o~~a;::::~o §.@ § ft ~ "0 ~:::; .9
ol <.~ ol ol >. 8 >. ol ~ P. CIcIlVII~{·. PNrl 'I't jll 0111 ' dill '('llo ll PIII'II II I ,11 1l (()()] I.
~,-"QZ~~ .... ~eZrn~ ~ ~ ~Jl
Holiof. ] .ow, It • hlll ~ lI ll1 .
410 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SllJCATES: S U E ET STRUCTURES AND J\ II N I': II III ,() II)S
Birefringence. W eak, ny - net = 0.005. In normal sections kaolinite 411
gives gray and white interference colors.
Relief. / AlW, 11 > balsam.
Extinction. Thc angle of extinction on (010) against the base is 1° Birefrin ~cnce. vVeak, n y - 11" O,( )()(j ; th e maximum interference
colors are II,ie/dIc first order.
to 3Y2°.
Orientation. The cleavage traces and cqstals are length-slow. Exl inc t ion. Angle of extin ctio ll O il 10 f() J again st base varics from 15"
to 20°.
Twinning. Minute crystals of kaolinite do not appear to show twinning.
Interference Figure. Kaolinite is ordinaTily too fine-grained to give an Orienlation. The cleavage tra c('s ; 11 I( I crys lals are length-slow.
f winning. No apparen t twi 1111 ill g.
interference figure. The axial plane is normal to {OlO} and nearly parallel
Interfel'(~ncc F igure. Ordi nary II, i II s('cli ons
to {lOO} .

"l,i
yield poor interference fi g ures or II (J II (. a t all.
Distinguishing Features. It is distinguished by low relief and weak
The axial plane is normal to {O/() J. /)i sp crsion,
birefringence. From dickite it is distinguished largely by its smaller ex-
tinction angle.
l' < v.
Distinguishing Featlll'cs. /)iekit (, is distin-
''l ~ • .,
Occurrence. Kaolinite is found as a weatheling product of igneous and
g uished from kaolinite by slig /,lIy higher bi-
metamorphic rocks produced particularly by thc decomposition of feld-
spars. It is a prominent clay rnineral in sedimentaq beds. At times it
refrin gence, larger crys la l.~) :lIld a Jarger ex- fill
may be a product of hydTothennal alteration associated with mineral tin ction angle. FIC . 16-31. ( X 30) Sca ll \'r\'d

depOSits. Occurrence. Th e m incral is commonly found dickite ~rystaJs on n ,"jero

. d Wlt1
aSSOCIate . I mela..// IC
. ll1lJ)
. c]'a ls 111
' ore d e- Scope slIde. ( X meuls. )
DICKITE
posits. It is usually prod uced by hydrothermal action and may oce ll I' II ~
Ab0 3.2Si0 2 .2H 20 Monoclinic a replacement of qllartz in quartzi te.
na = 1.560
n~ = 1.562 HALLOYSITE
n ,. = 1.566 A1 20 3.2Si 0 2.2H 20
2V = 52° to 80° ; Opt. (+) t\ P.V;"1 'p,1I I I'/~
( 'i,\"II,, 1 MI ,i1 ,,",
b = Z, c 1\ X = 15° to 20° II II I" '" 1\ II I
n = I ..')I/ !) 1.0 I. r;o I

y
0 10

ZE I )0 '-b
0-'

ia
(0) (b )
FIC. 16-30. Orientation diagrams of di ckite. Sections (a) nonnal lo ll'e C-axIS and
(b) parallel to (OlD).

Color. Colorless to pale yellow.

Form. Dickite occur~ in small pseuclol1C'xagonal fl ake li ko crystals.
Cleavage. Perfect in on e dir('cti OIl pantll( ·1 to {OOI} . FIll /" 'I ' ( X I.')) r""" glll,II' "'" "" ' ' 1 " I li ll I/II) ·, 1111 ( ",II 'Y) /1 "',0('/11 1, '" wI lli '''1,"11 11 ( hllir
and J"l il", " ' \ 111" 11) . ( X 11 1('01'1. \
412 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND JVIINERALOIDS 41:3
Color. Colorless. Color. Pale pink, greenish, or colorless.
Form. Halloysite occurs in extremely nn e-grained or colloform masses Form. Massive, claylike microcrystalline aggregates in the shape oJ'
and commonly shows shatter cracks. shards. Nearly always in extremely nne scalelike crystals. Crystals or lilis
Relief. Low, n slightly> balsam. type have b een described by E. T. Wherry as a one-dimensional colloid
Birefringence. Very weak, almost isotropic. since they are usually so thin.
Distinguishing Features. H alloysite is distinguished by extremely weak Relief. Rather low, n < b alsam.
birefringence, an index of refraction almost equal to b alsam and shatter Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n Il = 0.021. Although the birefrin g<" H'('
cracks. It is commonly associated with other clay minerals. is moderate, the crystals are usu ally so thin that intetference colors ill
Occurrence. The mineral occurs in altered areas in limestone associ- thin sections seldom go above the second order.
ated with diaspore, alunite, or gibbsite; in elay b eds associated with Interference Figure. Individual crystals are usually so small anti Ildll
kaolinite; and probably in extremely weathered portions of some shales. that ngures cannot b e obtained.
Hydrohalloysite . X-ray study shows that two forms of halloysite exist: Distinguishing Features. The most characteIistic feature of monlll llll'lI
a more hydrous form, AI 2 0 3 .2Si0 2 .4H 2 0, known as endellite or hydro- lonite is microcrystalline aggregates in the shape of shards.
halloysite; a less hydrous type, AI 2 0 o.2Si0 2 .2I-I 2 0 , which is halloysite. The Occurrence. Montmorillonite is the chief constituent of b c nlollill \
more hydrous form is found in mine workings under the influence of which is altered volcanic ash. It is a common constituent of shale W Il( ' I'"
groundwater. It changes to the less hychous form on standing in dry it may be associated with hydromuscovite. Occasionally it occm s :IS 1111
atmosphere. alteration material in p egmatite dikes. Montmorillonite is one or litl '
MONTMORILLONITE early alteration minerals formed in w all rock bordering min eral clcpoH iI ,~.
(Mg,Ca). AI2 0 3 .5Si0 2 .nI-I 2 0 Monoclinic
HYDROMUSCOVITE
n" = 1.492
n{3 = n-y = 1.513 (I-Iydromica)
2V = 10° to 25°; Opt. (-) (Illite)
KAI 2 (OH) 2[AISi 3 (O,OH)1O] MOl )()(;I i II io( 't)
n" = 1.535 to 1 ..,)70
n-y = 1.565 to Ui05
2V sm all; Opt. ( -)
IX or X = 1- plane of a a nd c.

~ ~,
@ ~
12:50/" =.I ~
1<-
70/" - '
FIG. 16-34. Kaolinite prisms with intergrown hydrolllll scuvile pi :II('S, (A! /I'I' S. ( :.
Galpin, 1912.)

Color. Colorless to yellowish brown.

FIG. 16-33. ( X 15) Montmorillonite, more or less altered glass sha rd s, and felcl spar
frag ments i ll bentonile. ( X llicols.)
Form. I-Iydromuscovitc is fo und in ilTcglll ar ma lled f1 ak('s 111 :11 111 11)' ), 0
intercala ted with Hakcs of montmori ll onite or kaolillil(',
Relief. Low, n > h alsam.
Birefringence. Rather slron g, lI y 11 1\ (UnO to (un!), 1)111 III ,' ~ lI l1 dl .
thin crystals m ay not yic-lcl co lors ahov( ' I It o S('C'()II( l ord, ' I',
Distinguishin g Fea tures, Il ydrolllll s('(lvil(' (H'(' II I'S ill 1111111( '" ~ 1I11I11 Il lIk."
r esembl in g kao lillil o Hlld Ill ollllllOl'il1011il (l 1)111 I ~ ,11 ~ ll lI h l d s ll (\" frO l1l \1\,"11
414 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
morillonite by higher indices of refraction an d from kaolinite by a high er
birefringence. It is distinguish ed from muscovite by a lower axial angle.
Various polymorphs of mica an d interlayer mixtures of hydromuscovite
and montmorillonite require X-ray identification.
Occurrence. Hydromuscovite is a widcspread constituent of shale or
soil. It forms during the alteration of feldspathic minerals, biotite, musco-
vite, and other constituents.
PALYGORSKITE
SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 1 1.')
Occurrence. Found in a contact metamorphic veinlike mass assoc i<ll( 'd
with inh'usives in Yavapi County, Arizona. Considered by some to bo, ill
times, a constituent of clay.
Serpentine Group
Serpentinite is a rock type of widespread occurrence in whi ch hyc1l'(lIlS
magnesian silicate minerals belonging to the serpentine group ~ue <1111111 '
dant. The usage which considers serpentinite as a rock name follows Ilit l
p attern by which rock names such as quartzite, pyroxenite, and <llIlplli o

2MgO.3Si0 2.4H 20 M onoclinic( ?) bolite are derived.

to The serpentine mineral group consists of the two minerals alili gm il o
Ah0 3.5Si0 2 .QH 2 0 and cluysotile wh ich occur independently or as natural mixllll'('S III
na = 1.510 various proportions (Nagy and Faust, 1956). The general f01'1I II dn
n" = l.533 Mg uSi ,OlO ( OH )8 applies to both; however, Mg may b e replaced by I"",

Color. Colorless to pale yellow or green.

Form. Found in compact fine aggregates.
Relief. Low, n < b alsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - na = 0.023.
Extinction. Matted aggregates often tend to show a more or less uni-
form mass extinction in thin section.
Distinguishing Features. Resembles montmorillonite in thin section.
Electron micrographs exhibit a striking rodlike structme.
Occurrence. Widespread in full ers earth deposits of Georgia and
Florida, wh ere the name attapulgite has been used. Originally found in
the Ural Mountains of Russia. Found in France, Scotland, and Australia.
It is also reported to form by hydrothermal action in "mountain leather."
(0) (b )

SEPIOLITE F 1C. 16-35. ( X 16,000 ) Electron micrographs of serp entin e. (({) F laky II LLI ig()ll hl II lld
fibrou s chrysotile an d (b) tubular chrysotile and fl aky antigorite (A/II Grit'flll ) '('/1 11 /1'"11 1
2MgO.3Si0 2.nH 20 Monoclinic Institute: Reference Clay Min erals ).

na = 1.490 t o 1.506 Ni, or Mn to form terro, nickel, or manganese chrysolile, i\ nd by Silldl il i'
n" = 1.505 to l.526 replacement t erra , nickel, or manganese anJigo rite may be fOl'lIll'd .
2V = 40° t o 60°; Opt . (-) The name serpophite was proposed by Lodochnikow ( 1D:3:3) liS II
combination of serp and ophite to apply to a co mpac l 1I(';l rly isolfo plll
Color. Colorless to gray. mineraloid of the serpentine group. It corresponds in pal'l lo S('l' lh' lIllt I( 'I
Form. Frequently fibrous and in aggregates. used as a mineral name by Selfrid ge. The lizarcliLe of W ltill llk\'I' II l1d
Relief. Low, n < b alsam. Zu ssman, if the conclu sions of Nagy and Faust apply, is probllhly nlso III
Birefringence. Rather stron g, 11y - n" = 0.015 to 0.020. p ar t this submicroscopic ma terial. ~

Extinction. Approximately parallel with positive elon gation (length- The members of th e se l'pclIlin e gro up OCC III' for II I(' 1I1()~ l PilI'[ III
slow). crys tallin e IInils so small lh al di scr('[e fo rms a 1'( \ 11 0 1 oI!S(' l'v( 'd ",1 1110111
Distinguishing Features. Occurs in fibrous aggregates with curved and Lh e clcclroll Illicl'os('o pc. C llrys() lil (' is h('s l ddilll'd II IHI (H'(' III'S III IOli l'
matted fiber groups. fl nxi hl o llibld lll' ()J' l·o(lI ik,· r(I I'III S. A II li),!:or iI " I'x lti/l ils II li ll i , II lIky, 0 1' TII III
 SILICA rES ~ SHEET STR UCTUHES AND MINERALOIDS 417
416 MINERAL PESCRIPTJ<"\N S

like habit. Patterns of serp entine minerals observed with the polarizing
microscope are aggregate effects due to crystals which range in dimen-
sions within a fraction of one micron.

ANTIGORITE

H 4 Mg 3Si 20 9 Orthorhombic
na = ] .555 to 1.564
n f3 = 1.562 to 1.573
n~ = l. 562 to 1.573
2V = 200 to 90 0 ; Opt. ( - )
a = {3 or~Y , b = ex. or X, c = 'Y or Z

FIG. 16-38. ( X 30) Olivine cut and surrounded by serpentin e. ( X ni cols.)

FIG . 16-36. F IG. 16-37.

FIG. 16-36. Orientation diagram of antigorite. Section parallel to (010).
FIG. 16-37. ( X 15) Antigorite in serpentine. ( X nicols. )

Color. Colorless to pale green in thin sections.

Form. Antigorite occurs in anhedral crystals or aggregates of fibro-
lamellar sh·ucture. It often occurs as p seudomorphs after pyroxene
(bastite ), olivine, etc.
Relief. Rather low, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - n" = 0.007 to 0.009; the maximum inter-
ference color is first-order yellow. This yellow is slightly anomalous since FIG. 16-39. ( X 30) Texture in serpentine accentuated hy .illt(' ..r('I"C'II ("I' ('o l n , ~, ( X
nicols.)
it has a greenish tin ge.
Extinction. Parallel. hydrothermal alteration . Common associates arc chrysolilc, 1:" ('. 11 1:\1 ', 111'
Orientation. The crystals are leng th-slow. tite, chromite, and picotitc.
Interference Figure. The figure is bia;d al negative with variable axial CIIHYSOTIL E
angle. The axial plane is {100}. Disp ersion, l' > v w eak.
I-I ~Mg 3Si 2 0~ Orililll'lill il il, i o
Distinguishing Features. Chrysotile is distinguished from its dimorph 17 " = I. !f!) ;~ 1,01.!i 1(i
antigorite by the fine fibrous structure. Antigorite usually shows ag- /I ll 1.!iOI In 1.!i!i0
gregate sh'ucture and is in practically all cases an alteration product of 11) I .!i I 7 I n I .!)!)
some other silicate mineral. Serpophite h as lower birefringerlC ethan 2 1' 00 I II :10 0 ; () p I.. ( I )
antigorite and shows little or no form or structure.
Occurrence. Antigorite is the main constitucnt of serpentine, a m et a- C olor. Co lo r\ ('ss ill ,ll i ll S I'I ' l i(lIl ~.
morphic rock. It has been form cd from olivin e, enstatitc, a ugit('), etc., by 1"01"111. C III'yS OI III ' (I( 'I ' III'S ' " I ' I' I ":~ 11111 ' 1' v I ' h,f, ' I '; ( 1"'1'. '1'" H 1:1) .
418 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS 419
Relief. Low, n slightly greater than balsam. Twinning. Fine polysynthetic twinning in two directions at right angle.~
Birefringence. Moderate, 1lry - ncr =
O.Oll to 0.014; the maximum inter- is found in some sections.
ference color is bright yellow of the first order. Interference Figure. Prehnite gives a positive biaxial figure, but tho
Extinction. Parallel. a,xial angle is varia hIe even in the same specimen. The a,xial plane is
Orientation. The fibers are length-slow. {OlO}. Dispersion, T > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. The other forms of asbestos (tremolite, Distinguishing Features. Lawsonite in some occurrences is like prehn -
anthophyllite, and crocidolite) all have higher indices of refraction than ite, but the birefringence of lawsonite is consid erably lower and th "
chrysotile. Tremolite has oblique extinction. indices of refraction somewhat higher.
Occurrence. Chrysotile occurs in veinlets in serpentinite. Occurrence. Prehnite is a secondary mineral in cavities and seams o f
various igneous rocks. It is a prOIninent mineral in amygdaloidal rock~
PREHNITE
of the Lake Superior copper ores. It is sometimes found in veins. Asso-
H 2 C a 2 Alz(Si0 4)a Ort.horhombic ciated minerals are quartz, calcite, datolite, and zeolites.
na = 1.615 to 1.635 GLAUCONITE
n f3 = 1.621 to 1.642
KMg(Fc,Al) (Si0 3) 6.3H 2 0 Monoclilli(:('t)
nl' = 1.645 to 1.665
2 V variable; Opt. ( +) na 1.590 to 1.612
a = a or X, b = (3 or Y , c = l' or Z n f3 1.609 to 1.643
n l' 1.610 to 1.644
2V = 16° to 30°; Opt. (-)
c
a or X ca . ..1 {OOll
I
oat Color. Green, yellow-green, or olive-green in thin scctions. Pleocllroll'
010 from yellow to green.
~ o :"x I ) -- b Form. Glauconite occurs in grains or pellets that are in part agg l'('gl il( 'S
of minute crystals and in part single
crystals. Euhedral crystals have not
been observed. The grains are often
FIG. 16-40. FIG. 16-41. casts of foraminiferal tcsts.
FIG. 16-40. Orientation diagram of prchnite. Section parallel to (l00). Cleavage. Perfect in one direction
FIG. 16-41. (X 12) Prehnite showing " bow-tie" structure. {001}.
Relief. Moderate, n > b als am.
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Birefringence. Modcrate to rather
Form. Prehnite usually occurs in aggregates that are often sheaflike strong, 1lry - n" = 0.020 to 0.032; thc
and approach spherulites. What may be called bow-tie structure is char- highest interference colors arc second-
acteristic (Figure 16-41). Crystals are mostly tabular parallel to {001}. order colors, but thcy arc ma skcd by
Cleavage. Good in one direction {001}. the color of the min cral. !vla ny spec i-
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam. mens show aggrcga te polariz<1tio ll.
Birefringence. Moderate to rather strong, 1lry - n" = 0.020 to 0.033; Extinction. The cxtillclion with 1"(' 1'('1'(' 11 (,(' 10 CI(';IV;lgl' Ir;II '('S is pnl(' ll
the maximum interference color varies from low to upper second order. cally parallel, hut an g les 01' 2° or 3° 11 ;lv( ' 1)('( '11 I"( ·(·ord('d .
Anomalous interference colors are found in some varieties. Oriental ion. Th e ci('a vag(' Ira( '('S 111"(' 1(,ll g lll slow : I ~ ill III(" IId( ·I I ~.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage. The extinction is often wavy on Tlllcrf(~ J'('I\( 'C II'iglll'l..'. (; 1( '1Ivil~(' flllk( 's giv(' I I l li ll \ ild II<'gl ll ! VI I ")'.111'1\ wil li
account of the structure. a slllldl IIXili1 11 11 [( 1. " hili 111( ' 1i )', III( ' i ~ dill l( '1I11 Iii 1IIII Iilil 1111 " , '('1111111 III \llll
Orientation. The cleavage b'aces are parallel to the fast ray. Sillidl s i'l.(\ III III •• ( ' 1 y\ I III ~ . 1) "' 111 11.',1111 1. '" II .
420 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTUR ES AND MINERALOlDS 421
D istinguishing Features. Glauconite much resembles some of the lepto-
chlorites such as chamosite, but the latter has a highcr index of refraction
and weaker birefringence. Chamosite usually has an oolitic structure
lacking in glauconite.
Alteration. Glauconite is sometimes altered to limonite.
Occurrence. Glauconite occurs in sands, sandston es, and limestones. It
is espeCially abundant in the loosely consolidated sandstone known as
greensand, which is prominent in the Cretaceous of New Jersey. A com-
mon associate is collophane.
Origin. Glauconite is the product of interstitial scdimentation. Glauco-
nite may be the res ult of the alteration of detrital biotite. The addition
of iron to a clay mineral in a marine environment is also possible.

MINERALOIDS

The term mineraloid is given to the mineral-like constituents of rocks a

that are too indefinite in chemical composition or in physical properti es
to be included in the list of minerals. The most common and abundant
mineraloid is naturally occurring glass or volcanic glass, which is wide-
spread and often of geological impOltance. Obsidian, perlite, pitchstone,
pumice; etc., are p etrographic terms, but glass as a whole may b e treated
as a mineraloid.
Palagonite, an alteration product of fragm ental basaltic glass formerly
classed as a mineral, is probably a mineraloid.
Hydrocarbons also may be treated as mineraloids.
Certain minerals shown by X-ray studies to yield diffraction lines, but
at the same time optically isotropic, such as cliachite, collophane, or opal,
are included in this group.

VOLCANIC GLASS

Si0 2 ,Al 20 3,Fe 20 3, FeO, MgO, Amorphous

CaO,Na 20,K 20,H 20, etc. (Minaraloid)
n = 1.48 to 1.61
Color. Colorless to gray or reddish in thin sections.
Form, 'Usually massive, sometimes vesicular, perlitic, etc. Often con-
tains spherulites of orthoclase, microlites, crystallites, microphenocrysts .
and phenocrysts.
Cleavage. Absent, but it may show p erlitic parting.
Relief. Low to moderate, n usually less than b alsam but sometimes
greater. The index of refraction increases as the silica decreases.
Birefringence. Usually nil, but some varieties show weak birefringence
that is due to strain.
b
FIG. 16-43. Volcanic glass and associated features as show n in thin seclion, ( X to ) .
(a) Banding caused by flowa ge; (b) acicular erystalli tcs in g las, ; ((. ) t'( ·ld ', pllI
spherulites ( X nicols); (d) extin ction crosses in spherulites ( X lIi culs) ; ((' ) p' " JIl l, '
texture and crystallites; (f) perlitie tex ture.
Distinguishing Features. Opal m ay he mi slaken for g la ss, l)[iI lili l 1'( ' .
fractive indcx of opal is distinctly lowe r.
Alteration. Vol cani c gl:1 ss is oftC'1I mOn' or I('ss (i<-vill'ifi( '" (s('(' " 'lglIl'O
16-43). The allcra lio ll prodll('l s III'( ' 1I ~ II : dl )' I'II IIH 'I' illddlllil(" hili 8 (11111'
tim es feld s pllr.~ , ll'id Ylllil(', ('I'i ~ l () b l t1il( ' l Or IlIlIIIIIIIOI'iliollil {1 11 1'0 llt( 1 I" \~ IIII
422 MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS SILICA~;ES : SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOID5 1,2:3

c
e

d f

to basalt dikes. This variety is known as In ch!Jl!Jl e. G lass is :t pl'olllill('liI

of devitrification. Palagonite is always the res ult of alteration of glass
constituent of vitrophyro ;l llcl O CC III'S ill th e gl'() III Hlll lass or 111 ; 111 ), vo l( 'l lI iI(J
fragments.
rocks.
Occurrence. Glass often occurs as an independent igneous rock sueh
Si lica gb ss ti l lS 1)('(' 11 d('s(' l'il )('t\ 1111(1 ( , 1' 111 ( ' 11 11 111 ( ' /( .,.1/(/11'111'1' /1( ' (~ ( '( \ P IlI',11
as obsidian, pumice, p erlite, or pitchstone. Most volcanic glass corre- 2/[7 ) .
sponds to rhyolite in composition. Glass is also found us a narrow selvag'
424 }'·l1NERAL DESCHIPTI0NS
PALAGONITE
Si0 2 ,Alz0 3 ,Fei) 3FeO, M~O, Amorphous
e a O,H 2 0 (Mineraloid)
(Altered Glass)
n = 1.47 to 1.63
Color. Usually yellow to yellowish brown but also brown and greenish
in thin sections.
Form. P alagonite is found as a rim or zone around glass fragments or
in massive form. It often shows an apparent oolitic structure tha t is due
to the filling of microvesicles.
Relief. Low to medium, n either less or great er than b alsam.
Birefringence. Nil to very w eak. Palagonite is a hydrogel, and the weak
birefringence sometimes noted is probably due to strain.
Distinguishing Features. Palagonite resembles opal, collophane, and
volcanic glass. The index of refraction is too high for opal and nearly
always too low for collophane. It is distinguished from glass by the high
water content.
Alteration. The palagonite formed from b asaltic breccia fragme nts at
Roseburg, Ore., h as, according to A. C. \ iVaters, b een altered to chlOlite.
Occurrence. Palagonite is found in palagonite tuffs and palagonite
rock. It is formed by the hydration of fragmental b asaltic glass. The glass
fragments are in whole or in part converted into the palagonite. Asso-
ciates besides glass are calcite, zeolites, chlorite, pyroxene, olivine, and
plagioclase (the last three are relict minerals from the original glass) .
REFERENCES
Mica Group
Foster, M. D.: Correlation of dioctahedral potassium micas on the b asis of
their charge relations, U.S . Geol. Survey Bull. 1036-D, pp . 57-67, 1956.
Heinrich, E. W. , and A. A. Levinson: Studies in the Mica Group; Poly-
morphism among the High-Silica Sericites, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40, pp.
983-995, 1955.
Levinson, A. A.: Studies in the Mica Group; Polymorphism among Illites and
Hydrous Micas, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40, pp. 41-49, 1955.
Smith, J. V., and H. S. Yoder: Experimental and Theoretical Studies of the
Mica Polymorphs, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 31 , pp. 209-235, 1956.
Yoder, H. S.: SynthetiC and Natural Muscovites, Geochim. et Cosmochim.
Acta, vol. 8, pp. 225-280, 1955.
Chlorite Group
Brindley, G. W., K. Robinson: The Chlorite Minerals. X-ray Identification and
Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralog. Soc ., London , pp. 173-198, 1951.
Hey, Max H.: A New Heview of the Chlorites, Min eral. Mag., vol. 30, pp
277-292 , 1954.
~ILICATES: SHEET STTIUCrURES A N D M INERALOIDS 425
Lapham , Davis M.: Structural and Chemical Variation in Chromium Chlori l(.,
Am. Min eralogist, vol. 43, pp. 921-956 , 1958.
Winchell, A. N. : Chlorite as a Polycomponent System, Am. ]. Sci., vol. 2, pp ,
283- 300, 1926.
- - : A Third Study of Chlorite. Am, Mineralogist, vol. 21 , pp . 642- 65 1,
1936.
- -- : Additional Notes on Chlorite. Am. Min eralogist, vol. 13, pp. 161- 170,
1928.
Clay Mineral Group
Brindley, G. W.: X-ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Mill('mls,
Clay Minerals Group , Mineralog. Soc., London, 1951.
Committee on Clay Minerals: Clays and clay minerals, Conferences 2, 3, lI lId
4, Nat. Research Council, W ashington , D .C., 1954, 1955, 1956.
Correns, C. W. , and H. Piller: Mikroskopie der feinkornigen Silikalllli ll (·I·I!1( .,
Part 1: Mikroskopie der Gesteine; "Handbuch der Mikroskopio ill d"I'
Technik," vol. 4, Umschau Verlag, Frankfurt, 1955.
Grim, H.. E.: "Clay Mineralogy," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., No'" Y(I ' k,
1953.
Keller, W. D .: "The Principles of Chemical Weathering," Lll cas IIrolll, ., s
Publishers, Columbia, Mo. , 1955.
Kerr, P. F. et a1.: H.eference Clay Minerals, Am. Petrol. In st . Res. Proj. 110 , Nil'"
York, 1950.
Serpentine Group
Gruner, J. W.: Notes on the Structure of Serpentines, A m. Mil/ em /ilgis/, vol.
22, p . 103, 1937.
Kalousek, G. L. , and L. E. Muttart: Studies on the Chr)'sotilo ;l l1 d AIIl i~~o l lin
Components of Serpentin e, Am. Min eralogist, vol. 42, pp. 1- 22, 10:'7.
Lodochnikov, Vl. N.: Serpentines and Serpentinites and th e Pel rologi( ·: .1 1" '(11 ,
lems Connected with them, Problems Soviet Geo!. , vol. 2, pp . 111:' - 1:'0,
1933.
Nagy, B. , and G. T. Faust : Serpentines : Natural Mixttlrcs o[ CII I'),so l/i" "".I
Antigorite, Am. Min eralogist, vol. 41, pp. 817-838, 1956.
Selfridge, G. C.: An X-ray and Optical Invcs ti gation of Lho Scrp(' III i ll ll ~ II"
erals, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 21, pp . 463-503, 1936.
Whittaker, E. J. W. , and J. Zussman: The Ch aracteriza tion or SCI'J WI1I Ill, ' Mill
erals by X-ray Diffraction , Min eral. Mag., vol. 31, pp. I07- 12Ci, 1<):'0.
Zussman, J., and G. W . Brindle),: El cctron DifTraclion Stlldi('s of Iii " f-, (" p( '"
tine Minerals, Am. Min eral. , vol. 42, pp . 133- 153, 1957.
•
 Index

Abbe refractometer, 54, 55 Akermanite, 289

Abbreviations, xiii Ala twins, 255
Abrasives, 5 Albite, 276
alundum, 7 crystallization of, 254
carborundum, 6 Albite molecule, 248
emery, 6 Albite twins, extinction on, 258
Absolute indices, 48 Alkali feldspars, 262-271
Absorption, 124 optic angles, 263
Absorption fonnul a, 125 Allanite, 341-343
Accessories, 26 Alleghanyite, 199, 353
gypsum plate, 26, 28 Allen, E. T. , 300
mica plate, 26, 28 Allen, R. M. , 36
quartz wedge, 26, 28 Allophane, 405, 408
Achromatic objective, 21 AllotriomOlvhi c form , :I 32
Acicular crystals, 158 Almandite, 353
Adine twins, 255 Alnoite, 289, 351
Acmite, 315 Alundum, 7
Actinolite, 324, 325 Alunite, 226, 227, 4'1:1
Acute bisectrLx, 95 American Op tical Coltlpnny 11l it- 1I "' ·" I"'.
figures, 88, 95, 99 14
Adjustment of microscope, centering Ameri can Pctrol ellrn In, titltfto, dO'( , ;j II,
stage, 34 Amici, C. B., 36
crosshairs (natrolite ), 35 Amici-Bertrand Icns, 12, 25
fin e (vertical ), 26, 27 Ammoniojarositc, 228
polarizer (biotite or tourmaline), 36 Amorphous min cral s, 12()
Adularia, 265-266 Amphibole group, 3 18-.1:1:1
Aegirine, 314, 315 chcmica! relatio ns, 3 19, :32 1
Aegirine-augite, 313 elcavagc, 3 18
Aggregate structure, 127 monocli ni c spC'cil" , :)2 1
Aggrega tcs, acicular, 159 Amphibolitc, 329, :3:30
cemcnted, 159 Ampli tud e of \\I:tw'S, t1 0
fibrous, 159 An alcimc, 291, 292
foliated , 159 cuh cdral, 1.33
granul ar, 159 An alyzC'r, 21
graphic intcrgrowt'hs, 159 Ann tns(', I\)7
incipient crystals, "159 AIIIlU ~ il C', t1 05 ' ' IIlH
Int'hliko, 1.'5 U AII(\ ll lu , illl. ~l (l 'I . :10:,
Sph"lIdlt le, \.'\0 (·11'11 vll l ~' ·. 1:1
AltrcIII 'I, C. D .. 7 1, H:, l I H ' III ~, f~I II ~1 111 1 1 ~ \ J l I : ~!~
1''''111.
Alt rnJl~ 12 ..( I "II II ICI II I I ( 'i'( III 'l, l :l~
AIr, In(\"11 of, 41i Alld" ''' " Il, ~>;(H . ~\11)
H\'(
428 INDEX
INDEX '129
Andradite, 353 Attapulgite, 406, 408, 414
Biaxial fi gure, 94 Calcite, twinning, 131
Angle, axial, 95 Auganite, 310, 330
negative, 99 Calcite group , 209-216
axial 2E, 102 Augite, 309, 310
positive, 99 Californite, 316, 360
axial 2V, 102 fragments, 147
Biaxial mincral tables, 171 Calkins, F. C. , 300
( See also Axial angles ) Automorphic form, 132
Biaxial ray surface, 98 Camera, 32
critical, 50 Axes, of ellipsoid, 100
sections of, 100 Canada balsam, 6
of extinction, 82-84 optic, 95, 101
Biaxial sign, 104, 105 Cancrinite, 286
of incidence, 47 Axial angles, in air, 2E, 103
Binocular microscope, 11 , 144 Cano-Ruiz, J., 406
of inclination pericline twins, 262 comparison of, 103
Binormals, 101 Carbonaceous matter, 186, 364
of minimum deviation, 54, 56 in crystal, 2V, 103
Biotite, 392-394 Carbonates, 209-21 8
of op tic axes 2V, 98 Mallard's equation of, 103
adjustment with, 36 aragonite group, 216-218
of refraction, 47 range, of biaxial negative, 176
halos, 130 calcite group, 209-216
of rhombic section, 260 of biaxial pOSitive, 177
Biradials, 101 Carborundum, 6
of total reflection, 50 2V, 95
Bird, Paul H., 6 Care of microscope, 29
Anhedral, 132 Axinne, 362, 363
Birefrin gcnce, 66 Cargille, R. P., 148
Anhydrite, 189, 22 1-223
with orientation, 72 Carlsbad twins, 255, 281
cleavage, 137
tables, 167, 168 Carnallite, 189
fragments, 147 Baddeleyite, 197
Bisectrix, acute, 95 Cassiterite, 197, 198
Anisotropic minerals (tables ), 167 Bakelite cement, 57
obtuse, 95 twililling, 131
Anisotropism, 51 Balsam, Canada, 6
Bladed crystals, 129 Cedar oil, 22
caused by strain, 84 Barite, 218-220
Boehmite, 204, 205 Celestite, 220, 221
in mineral plate, 71 orientation, 139
Bone structure, 127 Cellular opal, 126
Ankerite, 213 Barrett, C. S., 123
Borax, 189 Cements, Canad a balsam, 6
Annular diaphragms, 30 Barth, T. F . W. , 312
Borgstrom, L. H., 149, 151 Lakeside "70," 6, 8
Anomalous interference, 84 Basalt, 310, 312, 330, 348
Bosazza, V. L., 10 lucite, 4
clinozoisite, 336 Basaltic hornblende, 329
Bouasse, H ., 85 Centering pins, 28
garnet, 355 (See also L amprobolite )
"Bow-tie" structure, 418 Centering stagc, 34
idocrase, 360 Basanite, 330
Bowen, N. L. , 300, 382 Central illuminati on, 58
penninite, 399 Baskin, Y., 300
Bowenite, 316 Chabazite, 294
prehnite, 418 Bassett, William, vii
Bradley, 0., 300 Chain stru chlrcs, 182, 302-311 3
zoisite, 334 Bausch and Lomb microscope, 12
Bragg, W . L., 183 Chalcedony, 240-242
Anomite, 393 Bauxite, 204
Brewster, D., 64 mosaic, 128
Anorthite, 281 , 282 Baveno twins, 255
Brewsterite, 291 radial, 127
Anorthite mol eculc, 248 Beam, 40
Bright contrast, 32 Chalcopyrite, 188
Anorthoclase, 270, 271 Beck, C., 36
Brindley, G. W ., 424 Chamosite, 399, 400
Anthophyllite, 319 Becke, F., 59, 63
Brittle mica group, 400-402 Chamot, E. M., 37
hydrous, 320 Becke line, 59
Bronzite, 304 Chamockitc, 306
Antigorite, 416, 417 Beidellite, 408
Brookite, 115 Chayes, F., 272, 274, 3()O
Antiperthite, 250, 252 Bell, James F., 4, 9
Brown, C . S., 300 Chiastolitc, 364
Apatite, 230, 231 Belling, J., 36
Brucite, 203, 204 Chlorite group, 39'1-'1 00
euhedral, 132 Bennett, Alva H., 30, 36
Buchwald, E. , 109 Chloritoid , 401 , 402
Apochromatic objective, 23 Bentonite, 413
Buddington, A. F. , 288 Chl oro mclallitc, 3J6
Aragonite, 189, 216-218 Berek, M., 36, 78, 85, 123
Burri, C., 37, 109 Choncl roclitc, 351, 353
Aragonite group , 216-218 Berek compensator, 27, 29, 78, 79
Bustamite, 318 Ch rome cl iopsili c, 308
Ardennite, 351 Berlin blue, 399
Bytownite, 280, 281 Chrom itc, 200, 20 I
Argentojarosite, 228 Berman, H ., 14 1, 142, 184, 318
Armstrong, E., 300 Berthier, Pierre, 204 C hrysolite (n li vill c), ::J II(j
Asbestiform, 324 Bertrand, E. , 36 hrysotilc, 1:10, 11 17, II III
Calcite, ] 89, 210 flbrolls, 130
Asbestos, chrysotile, 4 18 Bertrand, L. , 36
fra gll1 cn ts, 1117 Cla" t10 i>1I , K. , IIl:l, :lOO
grunerite, 322 Bertrand lens, 86
IIli c ro ro s~ il s In, 128 <:1" ',,1 11 1' M'i 'I IIl" '_ 100
tremolite, 320, 324 Beryl, 375-377
n ul lll l, 128 Cl"v ,, 1I"(\ lld-I, dOl, .Jj I to
430 I NDEX INDEX 11:3 1
Cleavage, one direction, 135 Contraction cracks, 207 Diallage, 308 Eleolite (nepheline ), 284
two direction s, 136 Convergent light, 86 Diamon d, Cullinan, 84 Ellestadite, 230
three directions, 136 Cookeite, 318 Diamond disp ersion, 49 E llipsoid , index, 98-100
four direction s, 138 Cordierite, 379, 380 Diamond indices, 49 Elongation, negative, 84
six directions, 138 Corpuscular theory, 38 Diamond saw , 8 positive, 84
relation to fonn, 147 Corundophilite, 395 Diaphragm, annular, 30 Emery, 6
tables, 161 , 162 Corundum, 193, 195 double-method , 62 Emmons, R. C ., Ill , 113, 123,300
Cleavage examples, and alusite, 137 skeleton crystals, 132 iris, 58 Emmons five-axis stage, 113
anhydrite, 137 twinn ing, 131 substage, 15 Endellite, 408, 412
fluorite, 137 Cover glass, 28 Diaspore, 201 , 202 Enstatite, 304, 305
hornbl ende, 136 Crest of wave, 40 Diatomite, 244 E nstatite-augite, 311
muscovite, 137 Crew, H., 44 D iatom s, 128 Epidote, 337-339
pyroxene, 137 Cristobalite, 237, 246, 247 Dichroic, 124 Epidote group, 333, 343
top az, 136 artifi cial, 247 Dickite, 405, 408, 410, 411 crystal fOnTI , 134
Cliachite, 126, 206, 207 Critical angle, 50 Diopside, 306, 309 Epsilon (.) , 68
Clinoamphiboles, 321 Crocidolite, 330 Disp ersion , 108, 109 E quant grain s, 158
Clinochlore, 395, 397, 398 Crookes, W., 84 bia.xial fi gures, 107, 108 Ethyl propionate, 149
Clinoenstatite, 312 Crossed dispersion, 108, 109 crossed, 108, 109 Eueryptite, 318
Clinohumite, 351 , 353 Crossed nicols, 34 diamond, 49 Eugster, H. P. , 385
Clinopyroxenes, 306-318 Crossh airs, 25, 34 flUOrite, 49 Euhedral, 131, 132
indices of refraction, 307 adjustment, 35 horizontal, 108, 109 Euhedral crystals, 158
Clinozoisite, 335-337 Crossite, 319, 332, 333 inclined , 108, 109 Evan s, J. W. , 109
anomalous, 336 Cmshed fragmen ts, 142-151 Dolerite, 312 Evaporites, 188, 189
deuteric, 336 Cryptoperthite, 252 Dolomite, 189, 2 13, 214 E xley, C. S., 4, 9
Clintonite, 400 Crystal angles, phi amI rho , 115 cleavage, 137 E xtinction, inclined, 82
Coes, L. J., 300 Crystallites, 421 twinning, 137 p arallel, 82
Coesite, 248 Crystallization, incipient, 126 Donnay, J. D. H., 62, 300 oblique, 82
Coker, E. G., 44 C rystals, 131 Double-diaphragm method, 62 symm etri cal, 83, 84
Colemanite, 189 anhedral, 132 Double images, 67 E xtraordin ary ray, 90
Collofornl opal, 242 euhedral, 132 Double refraction , 67, 78 velocity of, 91
Collophane, 233-235 hexagonal, 133 variation with thickness, 78
replacement by, 127 isometric, 132 Dravite, 377
Color, 181 monoclinic, 134 Drew, E. R. , 45 F arwell , II. W ., 45
application of, 77 orthorhombic, 134 Drude, P. , 85 F aust, G. T. , 1.15
chart in color (opposite 168) t(ltragonal, 133 Dmgman, J. L. E. , 240 Fayalite, 349, 350
of min erals, 124 triclinie, 135 Dumortierite, 371 , 372 Feldspars, 248-282
and vibration a.xes, 124 Cullinan diamond, interference of, 84 crystal fOnll , 134 cleavage, 255
Color b ands in fi gures, 95 Cummingtonite, 321, 322 Dunite, 320, 349 crystalli za ti on, 251
Color relations, 76 Cyanite (kyanite ), 367 Dunn, F . L., 57 minerals, 248
Colored minerals, 156, 157 Cyclosilieates, 182, 375-382 tempera lures, 2/19
Columnar crystals, 158 Cymatolite, 318 tern ary syslem, 2/10
Compensator, Berek, 29 E ccentric biax ial figures, 96 F eldspar [winnin g, Acli ne', 2:':'
mica, 29 Edenite, 325 Ala, 255
Condenser, 25 D ahllite, 231-233 Edser, E. , 44 Al bite, 257-260
circle, 16 D ark contrast, 32 Ehringhaus, A., 37 Baveno, 255
front lens, 86 D atolite, 419 E instein, A., 39 Ca rl sbad, 255, 26 1
lens, 26 D ay, A. L. , 300 E itel, W ., 300 Ma neiJac il , 25:'
Cone of light, 22 Deer, W. A ., 382 E lasti city axes, 96 'tJerielille, 26 1, 2M.
Conoscopic observations, 15, 17, 18 DeJessite, 400 E lbll ile, 377 fo'e'ldsPlI liloitis, 2112-211!)
Contact metamorphic occurrence, 308, Dengo, G. , 343 E lect ro n ll1i "rc)gm plt ~, 107 1"," """ il l " 2:)0
346, 351, 355, 366 Diabase, 312 E l o n \(l l\t ~, I HI) l'\'lsnll lll , A.• 1100
432
Fibrous aggregates, 119
Field, image, 15
source, 15
Filon, L . N. G., 44
Fine adjustment, 26
Fletcher, L., 109
Fluorite, 190, 191
cleavage, 138
dispersion, 49
fragments, 147
indices, 49
objective, 21
Focal length, 21
Foraminifera, 128, 212, 419
Forsterite, 345, 346
Foster, 'M. D., 424
Foster, W. R., 273, 274, 300
Fragments, 142
acicular, 147
form s, 146
immersion, 143
mounting, 142, 143
octahedral, 147
prismatic, 147
size, 144
temporary mounts, 143
Framework complexes, 182
Framework structures, 236-301
Francolite, 232
Franklinite, 198
Freund, H. , 183
Frondel, C., 382
Front lens, 26
Fuchsite, 385
Fulgurite, 247
Gabbro, 309, 310
Gage, S. H ., 37
Galmite, 198
Galaxite, 198, 199
Galliher, K W., 394
Galpin, S. G., 413
Garnet, anomalous, 133
subhedral, 131
Gamet group, 353-355
Gastaldite, 332, 333
Gates, R. M., 300
Gay, P. , 300
Gedrite, 319
Gehlenite, 289
I NDEX INDEX 113:1
Geophysical L aboratory, 312 Halides, 188 Hurlbut, C. S., Jr., 238
Geyserite, 244 Halite, ] 89, 100 Huygenian ocular, 19
Gibbsite, 126, 205, 206 Hallimond , A. I,'. , :17, :112, 400 Huygens, Christian, 38, 45
and cliachite, 126 Halloysitc, 11()5, IIOIl, 11 1 I, 11 12 Huygens construction, 46
twinning, 131 Halos, 129, 1:30 H yaHte, 243
Gieseckite, 286 in biotite, 393, 3901 H yalosiderite, 348
Gilbelt, C. M., 141, 184 Halowax on, Itl H, 1/19 H ydrargillite ( gibbsite), 205
Glass, J. J. , 151 H am ilton, P. K., viii Hydrocarbons, 420
Glass, crystallites in, 421 Hardy, A. C., 45 Hydrohalloysite, 405, 408, 412
flowage, 421 Harker, A. , 1011 (S ee also Endellite)
lechatelierite, 247 Harmonic curve, 42 Hydromagnesite, 204
in leu cite, 128 H armoni c motioll , 11 2 H ydromica, 413
shards, 412 Harmotome, 29 1 H ydromica group, 406, 408
spherulites in, 422 Hartshorn e, N . J I. , 37, 85 I-Iydromuscovite, 387, 413, 414,
volcanic, 420-423 Hatch, F. II. , 183 (S ee also Illite )
Glass prism, hollow, 56, 57 H aiiync, 287, 288 HydronepheHte, 286
Glauconite, 419, 420 H eetorite, 408 Hydroxides, 201-208
Glaucophane, 332, 333 H edenbergitc, 312, 313 Hypersthene, 305
Gmelinite, 295 extin ction illustration, 83 gabbro, 306
Goethite, 207 H einrich, K W ., 141, 424 Schiller structure, 130
Goldsclm1idt, V. M. , 252, 253 Hematite, 195
Government oil, 149 Henderson, E. P., 189, 208
Graduated circles, 112 Herapath, W . B., 65, 66 Iceland spar, 67
Graham, G. W. , 63 H erapathite, 64, 65 Iddings, J. P., 183, 300
Granite, tourmalinized, 378 Hercynite, 198, 199 Iddingsite, 363, 364
Granulite, 310 Herringbone structure, 310 Identification, key, 152
GraphiC intergrowth, 238, 239 Hertz, I-I. R , 38 outline, 154
Graphite, 186 H ess, H ., 307, 343 tables, 152-177
Grazing incidence, 53 Heulandite, 292, 293 Idiomorphic form , :1 32
Greenalite, 400 H exagonal crystals, 133 Idocrase, 359, 360
Greensand, 420 H ey, Max H., 394, 424 anom alous, 360
Greisen, 379 Heyl, P. R , 45 Igneous association, 252
Gridiron structure, 268 Hiddenite, 317 Illite, 413
Griffith, H. D. , 37 High-index liquids, 149 Illumination, 19
Grim, R K, 406, 409 Holmes, Ralph J., viii sodium, .57, 58
Grinding holders, 6 Horizontal dispersion , 108, 109 Illuminators, 30
Grinding powder, 6 Hornblende, 327-329 Ilmenite, 195, 1.96
Grossularite, 353 anhedral, 131 I1vaite, 351
Groth, P., 85, 109 euhedral, 132 Image Held , 15, '19
Grout, F. F., 141 extinction illustration , 83 Imlilersion, cn l'e of li'lllids, IGO
Grubenmann, U., 316 , fragments, 147 medin, ] 48, 1/19
Gruner, J. W ., 301 orientation , 140 methud, 1/13, Ill tl
Grunerite, 322-324 Hornfels, 322 preparatiun of liqllids, I fi O, I II I
Gypsum, 189, 223-225 IIortonolite, 349 slandardi za ti on, 150
Gypsum plate, 26, 28, 94 lIot platc, 6 Impn.:gll atioll, 4
uniaxial application, 94 [Jotehkiss, W.O., 59, 60, 63 fn c; ir\"lIee, a llgl(' of, 11
JTollrglass sll'lIclllre, 309 g l'il zillg, 5:3
ehlorilnid , 11 0 I 11('l pil '"1 t' l y~ l il lll i'lI l lo ll , I ~~; ,
Habit, 125 1111('11( ', n. VUII , 01 111 (·11111 '.1 dl ' I,,,,,III I1 , lOll, 1(1)
H afF, J. C ., 123 I Itllllll " 1:1111'1" :lr. I· :lfi: 1 111(,1",1" " " I ~J, H , I ~I)
Hale, D.1\., 238, 300 1\11111 , W . 1"., 1'11 IlId" " d ,,11 1I 11I 11I 1I 1Ii 111 /1, 1/10
I
434 INDEX INDEX 435
Index of refraction, 57 Kaiser, E. P., 151 Leuchtenbergite, 398 Malcon,361
tables, 163-165 Kammererite , 395, 399 Leucite, 282-284 Mallard, M. E. , 244
Index ellipsoid, 98-100 Kaolin group, 405, 408 cross 'twinning, 284 Mallard's equation, 103
Index liquids, 145 Kaolinite, 405, 408-410 pseudoleucite, 284 Manebach twin law, 255
Indicatrix, biaxial, 68 Kelley, Vincent, 355 Leucoxenc, 196, 197 Manganese antigorite, 415
uniaxial, 68 Kennedy, G. C., 9, 184, 301 Levinson , A. A. , 424 Manganese chr),sotile, 415
Indices, range of, biaxial minerals, 174, Kernite, 189 Light, 38 Manganophyll, 394
175 Kerosene, 148, 149 color, 42 Margarite, 400
isotropic minerals, 172 Kerr, P. F., 300 frequ ency, 40 Marialite, 289
uniaxial minerals, 173 Key to tables, 152 monochromatic, 40 Mariposite, 385
Ingcrson, E. , 123, 183 Keyes, M. G. , 9 polarized, 64 Marshall, C. R. , 37
Inosilicates, 182, 302-343 Kieserite, 189 convergent, 86 Martens, J. H . C. , 235
Interference, anomalous, 84 Knebelite, 349 red, 43 Martin-Vivaldi, J. L., 406
Berlin blue, 85 Knopf, E. B., 123 resolution, 71 Maschke, 0. , 142
caused by strain, 84 Kohler, A., 252, 301 sodium, 57, 58 Mason, B., viii
color chart, 168 Kotschubeite, 395, 398, 399 sp eed, 4 1 Mason, C. W., 37
colors, 75 Kraus, E. H ., 141 theories, 38 Maxwell, James Clerk, 38, 42
first-order, 75 Kunzite, 317, 318 vector, 41 Meionite, 289
in monochromatic light, 76 Kyanite, 367-369 violet, 44 Melanite, 355
with quartz wedge, 75 bladed crystals, 130 Lignite, 127 Melatope, 95
second-order, 75 fragments, 147 Limburgite, 310 Melilite, 288, 289
Interference figure, biaxial, 88 Limonite, 207 p eg structurc, 289
fonnation of, 87 Liquids, care of, 150 Melon, 402
isochromatic curves, 95 Labradorite, 279, 280 high-index, 149 Melts, immersion , 149
isogyres, 95 Lakeside "70" cement, 6, 8 mixing, 150 . Merwin , H. E., 57, 142, 151
uniaxial, 87, 88 Lamp, low-voltage, 31 standardization , 150 Mesitylene, 149
Interlayer mixture, 414 sodium, 58 Lithophysae, 345 Mesolite, 297, 298
Iodocinchonidine-sulfate, 65 substage, 30 Lizarclitc, 415 Metacryst, 358 , 375, 402
Iolite, 379 Lamprobolite, 329, 330 Lodochnikov, V. W. N ., 415 Metamict, 229, 343, 361
Iris diaphragm , 26 Langbanite, 351 Low-voltagc lamp , 31 Metamorphism, dyn a mi (;, 338
Ironstone, 331, 400 Langbeinite, 189 Lucite mounting, 4 Mcteor crater, 247
Isachsen, Y. W ., 8, 9 Lapham, D . L., viii, 395 Luquer, L. M. , 141 Methyl meth ac rylatc mOl 1111 ill g. II
Isoamyl isovalerate, 149 Lapis lazuli, 288 Lussatite, 244 Methylenc iodide, 53, '14 H, I/If)
Isochromatic curves, 95 Laps for grinding, 7 Luster, adamantine, 49 Meyer, C., 8
Isogyres, emergence, point of, 95 Larnite, 345 vih'eous, 49 Meyrowitz, R. , 150, :I 5 1
Isometric crystals, 132 Larsen, E. S. , 57, 141, 142, 150, 151, 184 Luxullianite, 129, 130, 374 Mica, compcnsa tor, 29
Isomorphism, 183 Lassallite, 406 of first class, 384
Isotropic minerals, 126, 166 Laterite, 204 platc, 26, 28, 93
Isotropism, 51 Lathlike crystals, 158 MacCullagh, J., 85 polymOll)hs, 384
Laumontite, 291 MacKenzie, W. S. , 253, 262, 263, 267, of second cl ass, 384
Laves, F ., 253, 301 301 Mi ca group , 381- 391
Jade, 316 Lawsonite, 374, 375 McLintock, W. F. P. , 381 Mi ch cl, K ., 37
nephrite, 326 Lazulite, 235 Magma, basaltic, 343 Mi chel-Levy mClhod , 2.'57, 2:;11, 2'( 1
Jadeite, 315-317 Lazurite, 287 matic, 343 Mi cro amorpholl s, 1.26
Jarosite, 227, 228 Lechatelierite, artificial, 247 Magnesioferritc, 198 Mi croclinc, 268
Johannsen, A., 37, 85, 109 141, 184 Leitz microscope, 13, 15 Magncsite, 214, 215 Microgra nitc , 33 1
Johnstone, A., 406 Length-fast, 84 Magncsium orthil'C, 242 Mi crolil cs, 125
L ength-slow, 84 Magnc ti c vcctor, 41 M icromcler, Ilil:ll', 20
Lepidolite , 388-390 Mag nt'lil l', 200 gm l in g. 20
Kaersutite, 330 L epidomelanc, 385, 394 Mag nific:lli,," , ('lllpl )" 2:) ()(' Ili li l'. 20
Kainite, 189 Lcptochlol;tc, 396 illili ul, 22 foi 1ng n, 2 1
436
Microperthite, 250
Microscope, 57
accessories, 26
adjustment, 34
American Optical, 14
Bausch and Lomb, 12
binocular, 11
care of, 29
centering, 34
illumination, 19
lamps, 30
Leitz, 13
magnification, 23
phase, 11
polarizing, 11
precautions in use, 28
reHecting, 11
sectional view, 14, 16
stage, 34
Zeiss, 16, 17
Miers, H. A. , 85
Milner, H. B., 184
Mineral chip, 5
Mineral descriptions, 181
Mineral groups, 182
Mineral plate, 71
Mineral preparations, 3
Mineral saw, 5
Mineral tables, 152-177
axial angles, 176, 177
biaxial indices, 174, 175
birefringence, 167, 168
cleavage, 161, 162
color chart, 168
colored, 156, 157
form, 158-160
isotropic, 166, 172
key to, 152
negative (biaxial) , 171
opaque, 155
positive (biaxial) , 170
refractive indices, 163-165
structures, 160
uniaxial, 169, 173
Mineraloids, 420-424
Minimum deviation angle, 54
Mirror, 26
Molloy, M. , viii
Mon azite, 228, 229
a-Monobromn apthalene, 149
Monochlomapthalene, 149
l ",DEX
I NDEX ·137
Monochromatic light, green, 85
Objecti vo, 11( ·1" ' ''"111 1, ', ~). I Orthoamphiboles, 319
Monoclinic crystals, 134
apochrolll il l k , ~:, Orthoehlorite, 396
Monticellite, 344, 350, 35 1
flu orilc, 2 1 Orthoclase, 263
Montmorillonite, 406, 408, 412, 413
light CO Il t' , 22 crystallization, 254
Montmorillonite group , 408
nUlllel'i C'1I 1 li lli' '' 11 11 '. ~~ fragme nts, 147
Mordenite, 291
oil-irnll l(' rsio // , 2 1, 22 molecule, 248
Morey, G. W. , 85
Obliqlle illlllllillll i iOll , (j I twinning, 255
Mosaic structure, 127
Mountain leather, 414 Obsidian , 420 Orthopyroxenes, 304--306
Mounting fragments, 142 Obtusc bis('clrl." or; Orthorhombic crystals, 134
Muir, I. D., 275, 301 Ocular, 18 Olt hoseopic observation , 13, 18
Hu ygclliall , I() Ottrelite, 400, 401
Mullite, 369-371
artificial, 370 negative, ID Oxides, 191- 198
positi vc, I D
porcelain, 370
Ramsde n, 19
Multiple oxides, 198-201
Multiple SiO, structures, 374, 375 Oligoclnse, 277, 278 Palagonite, 424
Olivinc, 346-349 Palygorskite, 406, 408, 414
Multiple tetra11edral groups, 182
euhed ral, 134 Para woll astonite, 381
Muscovite, 385-388
Olivinc gabbro, 348 Parrish, W., 151
cleavage, 137
Olivine group, 344--351 Parting, 135
Myrmekite, 238
Omcga ( w ), 68 Parts of microscope, 18
Omphacite, 308 Peacock, M. A., 381
Ooliths, 399 Pectolite, 318, 381
Nacrite, 405, 408
Oolitic calcite, 211 Peeled films, 8
Nagy, B. , 4 15
Oolitic phosphorite, 234 Peg structure, 289
Natroalunite, 227
Opal, 242- 244 Pen nine, 398
Natrojarosite, 228
amorphous character, 126 Pennine law, 399
Natrolite, 35, 295-297
cellular structure, 126 Penninite, 395, 398
fragments, 147
Opaque minerals, 152, 155, 185 Percussion figure, 384
radial, 296
table, 155 Periclase, artificial, 192
Needlelike crystals, 129
Optic axes, biaxial, 101 Pericline twilmin g, 260, 261
Nepheline (nephelite ), 284-·286
emergence, 95 inclination of, 262
euhedral, 134
plane, 95 Peri cline twins, 255
Nephrite, 326
primary (binormals ), 101 Peridotite, 310
Nesosilicates, 182
secondary (biradials ), 101 Perlite, 420
Newton, Sir Isaac, 38, 45 Optic axis figure, 96, 106 Perovskite, 201
Nicholson, J. W ., 85 biaxial, 106, 107 Perrin, F. H. , 45
Nicol prism, 69, 70 with quartz wed ge, 107 Perthite, 250, 252, 269, 277
Nicols, adjustment, 35 Optic norm al, 95, 96 Peh'oleum di still atcs, 149
crossed, 34 Optic sign, biaXial, 104, 105 Petrotome, 8
Nomenclature, 276 uniax ial, 93 Phase differcncc, 73
Nontronite, 406, 408 Optical indi catrix, biaxial, 68, 99, 100 Phase microph otographs, 33
Norbergite, 353 uniax ial, 68 Phase mi croscope, 1 I
Norite, 306 Optical system, 13 P hase mi croscopy, 30
Nosean, 287 Ordinary ray, 67, 90 P h:1se shift, 31
Noselite, 287 Orcgo n jade, 317 P henyldiodoa rsin <" 149
Numerical aperture, 22 Organi c malerial s, 126 l'hlogop itc, 3DO- .'3 D2
Orgallisl, D. M., 4 I'IHlI lI)lill ', .'3 1/1., .'3 15
Ori('"ll1l i,," , I:)H, IHI 1'1 ""Jlli a l('S, 200, 22H 2:1;;
Ob ject field , 15, 19 hili illl (''' "II pll'' 1:\0 1'1" " 1'1 ,, " Ilo. 2:l2. 2:1"
Objcct slide, 27 hi" IIhlt "" I" 1'\l II II pll" I 10 l ' II () I IIIIIi" I () I~ " ll'l dl' ,"11111 "" , :H
O "l dlll. :'01 I 111 11 ,IIl ill ie '11)1'\1" 1II 1111 : , ~~
438 INDEX I NDEX 439
Phyllite, 358 Prehnite, 418 Ray, of light, 40 Sandstone, 238
Phyllosilicates, 183, 383-420 Prescott, Basil, 350 ordinary, 67, 68 Sanidin e, 266, 267
Picotite, 198, 199 Principal plane of ray surface, 91 surface, 96 Saponite, 406 , 408
Piedmontite , 339-341 Principal sections of ellipsoid, 100, 101 biaxial, 98 Saund ers, F. A. , 45
Pigeonite, 311, 312 Prism method, 54, 56 Reaction series, 253 Savchenkov, T. V., 406
Piller, H., 33, 37 Prisms, Ahrens, 70, 71 Reference clay minerals, 407 Saylor, C. P., 62, 63
Pilolite, 406 nicol, 69, 70 Reflectin g microscope, 11 Scapolite group, 289- 290
Pinite, 380 Thompson , 70 Reflection of light, polarization by, 64 Schairer, J. F ., 382
Piperine, 149 Proehlorite, 395, 396 total, 50 Schaller, W. T. , 189, 208
Pisolitic bau xite, 126 Pseudoj ade, 316, 360, 399 Refraction, 46 Schiller structure, 129, 130, 304
Pisolitic structure, 206 bowenite, 316 angle of, 48 Schist, 333, 336, 358
Pistacite, 337 ealifomite, 316 double, 51 glaucophane, 333, 336
Pitchstone, 420 grossul arite, 317 index of, 51 hornblende, 336
Plagioclase, birefringence, 274 pseudophite ( chlorite), 317 of light, 49 staurolite, 358
cleavage, 273 Pseudoleucite, 284 Refractive index, 40 Schmidt, E. , 262, 301
decimal grouping, 300 Pseudophite, 317, 399 absolute, 48 Sehorlite, 377
extinction on, 257 Pseudoh'idymite, 244 Refractometer, 51 Schroeder VaI1 der Kolk, J. L. C. , 1/12,
glass, 274 Pseudowollastonite, 381 Abbe, 54, 55 151
high temperature, 272, 275 Ptilolite, 291 hemispherical, 52 Schuster, A., 85
methods, 271 Pumice, 422 prism , 54, 56 Schuster's method, 256, 257, 27 1
normal, 272 Pyralspite, 353 Reinhm'd, M., 123, 275, 301 Scolecite, 299, 300
2V, 275 Pyrite, 187 Relief, 62, 63, 181 Secondary optic axes, 101
twins, 259, 260 Pyrope, 353 Resolution, 24 Sectional view, 14, 16
Plagioclase group , 271-282 Pyrophyllite, 404, 405 in analyzer, 72, 73 Sections, thin, 4-9
Planck, M. , 39 Pyroxene, euhedral, 135 Retardation, 72, 73 Selenium melts, 149
Pleochroism , 124 Pyroxene group , 302-333 equation of, 72 Selfridge, G. c. , 415
Pleonaste, 198, 199 chemical relation s, 303 full wavelength, 74 Seminephrite, 326
Plumbojarosite, 228 extinction angles, 303 half wavelength, 74 Sensitive violet, 77
Plumose barite, 220 soda, 304 Rev, George, 4 Sepiolite, 406, 408, 414 , 41 5
Pockels, F., 45 Pyroxenoids, 318 Rhodoclu'osite, 209, 210 Sericite, 385, 387, 388
Polariscope, 64 Pyrrhotite, 187 Rhodonite, 318 Serpentine group, 415
Polarization, 64 Rhombic section, 260 Serpentinite, 418
by abso,ption, 65 Rhombohedral carbonates, 209 Serpophite, 416
by reflection, 64 Quadrille structure, 268 Riebeckite, 330 Shannon, E. V. , 364
by refra ction, 66, 67 Quanta, 39 Rin g groups, 182 Shatter cracks, 125, 160
by toum1aline, 65 Quartz, alpha, 237, 238 Ring structures, 375-382 Sheet structures, 183, 383 .1120
Polarized light, 64 beta, 237, 240 Ripidolite, 396 Siderite, 215, 216
convergent, 86 synthetic, 238, 300 Robelts, Fred , 4 Sign, biaxial fi gurc, lOti , 105
Polarizer, 25 Quartz sphere, 67 Robinson, K. , 424 uniax ial fi gure, 93
Polarizing microscope, 11 Quartz wedge, 26, 28 Rock salt (halite ), 190 Silica brick, 245, 247
Polarizing plates, 12 Rock slice, 7 Silica group , 236-2 /18
Polaroid, 12, 64, 66 Rogers, A. F. , vii, 141, 142, 151, 231, min erals of, 237
Polder va art, A. , viii, 307, 343, 361 , 382 Ra az, F. , 37 241, 244, 245, 329, 388 Silicate gro llps, 182, 3t11- .'3H2
Polished surfaces, 3 Radial aggregate, 127 Rosenbusch , H., 184 Sillimanite, 365-367
Polyhalite, 189, 225, 226 Radiol aria, 126 Rosenthal, P., 34 I1 a mboY::lIlt, 127
Polymorphism, 183 Ram sdell, L. S., 141, 300 Ross, C. S. , 57, 142,364,409 frag mcnts, 117
Polymorphs, 384 Ramsden ocular, 19 ROllballlt, M. , 36 II ccdlc like, 128
Polysynthetic twinning, 255, 257, 260, Rankama, K., 9 Rowland, E. 0 ., viii, 8, 9 Silliln :l llil c fa nlil y, 36 /1 :l7tl
261 Rankin , G. A. , 381 Howlall d saw, 8 Singl!' SiO" 3t1tl- 37 /1
Polzenite, 351 Hay, 40 Hulil p, 10 ~l ll g l ( . l< 'lrn J.I'ti nd g' () lIp.\ IH
Porphyroblast, 375 eX h'aordin ary, 67, 68 l'l ood lnlillll, 12\ ) SIIIII" , :11:3

. I
I
440 INDEX INDEX 4-11
Skeleton crystals, 131 Stmctures, herringbone, 310 Thin section, prep aration of, 3 Uniaxial figure, negative, 93, 94
Slow ray, 81 hourglass, 309 qu artzitc illustration , 80 ordinary ray in, 90
Smith, J. R., 249, 250, 251 , 253, 301 , 343 lithophysae, 160 thickn ess determi nation , 80 positive, 93, 94
Smith, J. V. , 262, 263, 267, 272, 273, microfossil, 126, 127 Thompsun, S. P., 45, 85 sign, 93
:300, 301, 384, 424 mosaic, 127 Thomsonite, 298, 299 strong doubl e refraction, 90
Smithsonite, 209 oolitic, 160 Thorite, 361 vibration directions, 92
Snell's law, 46, 48 organic, 160 Thulite, 334 weak double refraction , 90
Soda amphiboles, 319 peg, 289 Thuringite, 400 Unia-xial mineral tables, 169
Soda aplite, 315 p erlitic cracks, 160 Tickel!, F. G. , 184 Uniaxial ray surface, 91
Soda granit6, 315 pisolitic, 160 Tiger's eye, 331 Universal stage, III
Soda microcline, 270 quadrille, 268 Tihonravov, Alexander, 4 adjusbnent, 116
Soda pyroxenes, 304 radial, 127, 128 Titanite ( sphene ), 358 assembly, ] 11, 112
Soda-lime feldspars (plagioclase ), 271 Schiller, 129, 130, 304 Tolman, C. F. , 231 axes, 112
Sodalite, 287 shards, 160 Tomkeieff, S. I., 347 axis location, 117
Sodium light, 57, 58 shatter cracks, 160 Topaz, 372-374 with biaxial crystals, 119
Sorosilicates, 182, 374, 375 sphemlitic, 159 Total reflection , 50, 52 circles, 112
Sosman, R. B., 237 Stuart, A., 37, 85 Tourmaline, absorption , 65 crystal orientation, 116
South African jade, 316 Styrian jade, 317, 399 microscope ad justment, 36 exercises, 120, 121
Spectrum, electromagnetic, 44 pseudo-ophite (penninite ), 399 radial, 130 illumination, 116
visible, 43, 44 Subhedral, 132 Tourmaline group, 377-379 illustrative mounts, 119, :I 20
Speed of light, 41, 42 Substage assembly, 25 Tourmaline suns, 378 stereographic net, 122, 123
Spessartite, 353 Sulfates, 209, 218-228 Tremolite,324, 325 Utility clamp, 31
Sphalerite, 186 Sulfides, 186 Trichites, 125 Uvarovite, 353
Sphene, 358, 359 Sulfur melts, 149 Trichroic, 124
twin crystals, 129, 130 Syenite, 314, 315, 331 Triclinic crystals, 135
Spheroid, oblate, 68 Sylvite, 189 Tridymite, 237, 244, 245 Variation with directioll , fasl my, HI
prolate, 68 Syngony, 351 artificial, 245 slow ray, 81
Sphemlites, 422 Troger, W . E., 249, 253, 301 , 343 Vector, electric, 41
Spilites, 277 Tsuboi, S., 273 light, 41
Spinel, 198, 199 Tables (mineral) , 152-177 Tube length, 22 magnetic, 41
Spinel group, 198-201 birefrin gent minerals, 167, 168 Tunnell, G., 85, 102 Vermicular growth s, ] 29
Spitta, E. J., 37 isotropic minerals, 166 Turner, F . J., 123, 141, 184, 326, 327 Vesuvianite, 359
Spodumene, 317, 318 key to, 152 Tuttle, O. F., 254, 263, 300, 301 Vibration, direc tion , :m
Stage, centering, 34 optical character, 169-171 Tutton, A. E. H. , 85, 109 fast and slow rays, 8 1
micrometer, 21 transparent minerals, 153, 156-177 Twinning, Carlsbad-albite, 259, 260 planes, 35
universal, 111 Tachylyte, 314, 315, 423 Violet, se nsitive, 77, 7H
of feld spars, 255
Staurolite, 356-358 T alc, 402-404 Viridine, 365
periclin e, 259
euhedral, 135 T echnicians, 4 Voelckcrite, 230
polysynthetic, 131
Stereographic projection, 114, 115 T ectosilicates, 182, 236-301 Volca ni c g lass, 42C}-/12:'
Stewart, D. B. , 189, 208, 249-251, 301 T ephrite, 330
Von lIucne, Hmlolph, 4
Stewart, F. H. , 189 T ephroite, 344, 349 Ugrandi te, 354
Stilbite, 293, 294 Tertsch, H., 37 Ulexite, 189
Stilpnomelane, 400, 401 Tetragonal crystals, 133 Ultramarinc, 287 Wage r, L. It , 382
Strontian apatite, 230 Thenardite, 189 Un compahgritc, 289 ' '''ahlstrom, E. E. , :37 , 110, I !.!:l , I IVI
Stmctures, banded, 160 Theories of light, corpuscular, 38 Unconsolidated materials, I hin svc[ iuIIS Walers, A. C ., 42"
bone, 127 electromagnetic, 38 of, 4 Wa ve crcsl, "0
bow-tie, 418 Thiel, G. A., 301 Uniaxial crystal s, IIcgal iv\.!, 91 Wavo displ lll'(' III(' IIt , :\\)
cellular, 126 Thin section, covering, I:s !)osit ivc, 9 1 "VIIV(' 1'1 t'qII ll llC)', 110 , II
colloform, 160 cross section of, 7 Ullia xill l nglll c, 1l7, HH WIiV" III (l llo ll , /12
flow with phenocrysts, 160 large-Size, 9 l'cn'IIl, it', HI) "V ,IVll IH llil/ \II (,I'i1 l1l1', :111
grid, 268 polished, 9 xtrllordhl lll Y I llY III , UO W ,IV" ",,,,,"d, :11), (II)
(
l
442 INDEX

W ave period, 40 Wright, F. E. , 60, 63, 66, 85, 1l0, 151,

'Nave phase, 40, 43 261, 381
W ave trough , 40 Wright arcs, 112, 113
\Vave velocity, 69
Wavefront, 40
Wavelength, 39 Xenomorphic form, 132
Xylol, 8
W eatherhead, A. V., 10
W ebster, D. L. , 45
W einschenk, E., 85, 141, 184 Yoder, H. S. , Jr., 249, 250, 251 , 253,
Wells, A. K., 185 301 ,384,385,424
W ern erite, 289
W est, C. D. , 151
Weymouth, A. A., 10 Zeiss microscope, 16, 17
Zeiss refractometer, 54, 55
Wheny, E. T., 413
Zeolites, 290-300
Wh.ittaker, E. T. , 45, 415
Zernike, F., 37
Wilkeite, 230
Zinnwaldite, 390
Williams, H., 141, 184 Zircon, 360, 361
Wilson, D . A. P. , 10 Zoisite, 333--335
Winchell, A. N., 85, 110, 141, 184, 311, ferrian, 334
343,354 manganian, 334
Wollastonite, 318, 380-382 non-fenian, 334
Wood tin, 374 Zussman, 415