Mindanao State University at Naawan

School of Graduate Studies

Naawan, Misamis Oriental

WELNIE S. DETECIO NOVEMBER 23, 2019

MS-MATH I Ma’am Milagros Hambre

Activity 1 Factors Affecting Acquisition Of Knowledge: Language And Memory

1) Identify the three forms to represent knowledge. Give an example for each.
 The three ways are network diagrams, tabular representations, and hypertext. Network diagrams show nodes
connected by arrows. Examples of network diagrams include ladders, concept maps, process maps and state
transition networks. A second type of network diagram is a concept map. This type of diagram shows
concepts as nodes and the relationships between them as labeled arrows. A third important type of network
diagram is a process map. This type of diagram shows the inputs, outputs, resources, roles and decisions
associated with each process or task in a domain. A fourth important type of network diagram is the state
transition network. This type of diagram comprises two elements: (1) nodes that represent the states that a
concept can be in, and (2) arrows between the nodes showing all the events and processes/tasks that can
cause transitions from one state to another. Tabular representations make use of tables or grids. Three
important types are frames, timelines and matrices/grids. Frames are a way of representing knowledge in
which each concept in a domain is described by a group of attributes and values using a matrix
representation. A timeline is a type of tabular representation that shows time along the horizontal axis and
such things as processes, tasks or project phases along the vertical axis. It is very useful for representing
time-based process or role knowledge. A matrix (aka grid) is a type of tabular representation that comprises
a 2-dimensional grid with filled-in grid cells. A more recent form of knowledge model is the use of hypertext
and web pages. Here relationships between concepts, or other types of knowledge, are represented by
hyperlinks. This affords the use of structured text by making use of templates, i.e. generic headings.
Different templates can be created for different knowledge types. For example, the template for a task would
include such headings as description, goal, inputs, outputs, resources and typical problems.
2) What is concept and why does it change through the years? Choose one theory of concept and explain it.
 Concept is an abstract or generic idea generalized from particular instances. One of the theories is
Perception-Based Theories of Concepts. It hold that concepts represent categories exclusively in terms of
perceivable qualities and relations. A concept such as GORILLA, then, would be made up of stored
perceptual images of gorillas and their typical behavior. This view is related to classical empiricist theories
of ideas insofar as it treats concepts as complex sensorimotor representations. On the most radical versions
of this view, even abstract concepts such as TRUTH, ART, or PRIME NUMBER are represented in a
perceptual format. These views also have affinities with embodied theories of cognition that explain higher
cognitive capacities in terms of sensorimotor processes and bodily structures.
3) Show that both language and memory are needed to acquire knowledge.
 Our memory plays perhaps a more important role in the acquisition of knowledge. Our memory shapes our
personal and shared identity. A large amount of second hand knowledge has been passed on through
language to become part of the shared knowledge of knowledge communities. This knowledge is at its turn
stored and passed on through collective memory. Much of what you know is through memory, whether it is
through the collective memory or your own individual memory of past events and experiences. Your
identity, for example, is highly dependent on your memories. Your memory will also influence how you
gather new knowledge and may influence or 'color' your other Ways of Knowing, such as sense perception.
Language is a medium through which we pass on most knowledge. Our daily language is heavily influenced
by the discourse of the most dominant groups, even though we may not always be aware of this. The
language we speak can be used to pass on knowledge and values, but it also creates knowledge as such. New
research reveals how the language we speak may shape the way we think.
4) Distinguish knowledge and understanding. Can one have knowledge without understanding or vice versa?
 Knowledge is something that you accumulate through learning. Understanding is something that you know
because you have lived through it. An example: you can read all about how to drive a car, and even learn all
the road signs, but it is not the same as driving the car yourself. So, learning and gaining knowledge can be
very useful, but the really important experiences are when you actually understand the experience for
yourself by living through it. Books and teachers give you knowledge. Direct experience gives you
understanding. I think, knowledge and understanding are two interdependent variables which must be
present. It is less important if one has knowledge with no understanding, and one cannot have understanding
without knowledge.
5) Explain how each language phraseology below, when applied, improves one’s acquisition of knowledge?
 Deep structure of language - Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation with a number of properties
that need not necessarily go together. Four important properties of deep structure are: major grammatical
relations, such as subject of and object of, are defined at deep structure, all verbal insertion occurs at deep
structure, all transformations occur after deep structure, and semantic interpretation occurs at deep structure.
 Chomsky’s transformational grammar - Transformational grammar which is usually generative grammar
describes a language with the help of transformational rules. It involves logical reasoning to understand fully
the meaning of the selected words. As such transformational grammar goes a step ahead of structural
 grammar which focuses more on the sentence structures used for communication. Apart from the use of
correct sentence structure, transformational grammar analyses the words with reference to its underlying
thoughts. Transformational grammar employs most of the linguistic tools such as syntax and context to
explore the possible meanings of words.
 Vygotsky’s content of language and inner speech - Inner speech is a form of internalized, self-directed
dialogue: talking to oneself in silence. Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech--it is a
function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech
thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words die as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a
large extent thinking in pure meanings. It is a dynamic, shifting, unstable thing, fluttering between word and
thought, the two more or less stable, more or less firmly delineated components of verbal thought.
 Whorf’s linguistic relativity - The hypothesis of linguistic relativity, part of relativism, also known as the
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is a principle claiming that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world
view or cognition, and thus people's perceptions are relative to their spoken language. It refers to the
proposal that the particular language one speaks influences the way one thinks about reality. Linguistic
relativity stands in close relation to semiotic-level concerns with the general relation of language and
thought, and to discourse-level concerns with how patterns of language use in cultural context can affect
thought. Linguistic relativity is distinguished both from simple linguistic diversity and from strict linguistic
determinism.
6) Distinguish between iconic and metaphoric gestures. Compare Tulving’s episodic and semantic memory.
 Recent research on the neural integration of speech and gesture has examined either gesture in the context of
concrete [iconic (IC) gestures] or abstract sentence content [metaphoric (MP) gestures]. However, there has
not yet been a direct comparison of the processing of both gesture types. This study tested the theory that left
posterior temporal and inferior frontal brain regions are each uniquely involved in the integration of IC and
MP gestures. During fMRI-data acquisition, participants were shown videos of an actor performing IC and
MP gestures and associated sentences. An isolated gesture (G) and isolated sentence condition (S) were
included to separate unimodal from bimodal effects at the neural level. During IC conditions, we found
increased activity in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus and its right hemispheric homologue. The same
regions in addition to the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) were activated during MP conditions in contrast to
the isolated conditions (G&S). These findings support the hypothesis that there are distinct integration
processes for IC and MP gestures. In line with recent claims of the semantic unification theory, there seems
to be a division between perceptual-matching processes within the posterior temporal lobe and higher-order
relational processes within the IFG.
 Tulving makes a distinction between different types of LTM: procedural memory and declarative memory.
Tulving splits declarative memory into two sub-types: Episodic memory is the memory of particular events
and specific information: events, names and dates. It includes memories of things that have happened to you
and information like a person’s address. Semantic memory is the memory of relationships and how things fit
together. It includes the memory that you have brothers or sisters, where things are located and what they do.
7) On the different theories of memory, why is Tulving’s most influential on its application to cognition?
This theory is significant for students in other ways:
 It shows how scientific research proceeds, because Tulving’s distinction is an advance on the Multi Store
Model. It also ties in with Baddeley’s research into semantic encoding in LTM and the case studies of H.M.
It illustrates features of the Cognitive Approach, since it expresses the processes of memory as a diagram or
flowchart, which resembles the sort of information processing used by a computer. It ties in to your Key
Question in Cognitive Psychology, since it helps explain Alzheimer’s. It shows the importance of
neuroscience which combines the Cognitive and Biological approaches, because functions of Semantic LTM
have been located in parts of the brain (eg the Contemporary Study by Schmolck et al.)
8) Write a class situation in your own major field. Choose a year level and the lesson to be discussed and in detail how
do you taught a concept to the class. Choose what principle of learning did you use or apply.
 I was teaching my grade 7-Sampaguita about adding polynomials. First, I let them recall the past lessons
about adding and subtracting of integers. In that way, I made use of their memory of the past lessons. I even
gave concrete experiences in relating to adding of polynomials. By that, students were able to appreciate,
understand and apply the concept of adding polynomials. One of the principles of learning I applied is
“Learning is facilitated by the law of readiness or mind-set. Learning does not occur unless the learner is
ready to act or to learn. When a person is ready to learn, he learns more effectively and with greater
satisfaction than when unprepared. When a person feels ready to act and is prevented from doing so, he feels
annoyed. Mental set is conductive to effective learning.”
Activity 2 Factors affecting Understanding: Intelligence and Abilities
1) Through a matrix, compare and contrast the psychometric theories of Galton, Binet, Gullford, Spearman and
Thurstone and cognitive theories of Piaget, Sternberg, and Gardner of intelligence.
Psychometric Theories
Theory Theorist Summary
Theory of general Charles Factor analysis- statistical
intelligence Spearman procedure to identify
General intelligence; g
factor (g) – predict the
outcomes
Theory of primary L.L. Thurstone 7 factors of intelligence
mental abilities (verbal comprehension,
word fluency, number
facility, associative
memory, perpetual speed
and reasoning)
Binet’s Intelligence Alfred Binet Intelligence was not fixed at
Scale birth and simply a matter of
genetics but was flexible
and could be influenced by
the environment to which
the child was exposed.
Galton Theory of Francis Galton Assign a score to
Intelligence intelligence where the
majority of people fall in
the average range and the
percentage of the
population decrease the
farther from the middle
their score gets.
Guilord’s Structure J.P. Guilford Viewed intelligence as
of Intellect Theory comprising 6 kinds of
operations, 5 kinds of
contents and 6 kinds of
products,
-180 different components
of intelligence
Cognitive Theories of Piaget, Sternberg and Gardner of intelligence
Theory Theorist Summary
Piaget Theory of Jean Piaget Has 4 different stages of
Cognitive mental development, this
Development theory focuses not only on
understanding how
children acquire
knowledge, but also
understanding the nature of
intelligence
Triarchic Theory Robert Sternberg Agree to Gardner about the
of Intelligence theory of multiple
intelligences, but there are
3 of them only not 7 or 9.
Strength/ Evidence Weakness
Scores in one area like Controversial, human
verbal intelligence abilities are really
tends to score in other diverse, one single
areas e.g spatial factor can’t account all
of the abilities.
Accurate because of Scores in one area like
the breakdown (ex. verbal intelligence
Higher in inductive tends to score in other
reasoning while low in areas e.g spatial
verbal comprehension)
Identify students who Plastic nature of
needed special help in intelligence and the
coping with school inherent margin of
curriculum and place error in the test.
them in the appropriate
grade level with proper
instructional help.
Focuses intelligence as It only measures one
a whole and doesn’t type of intelligence
single out certain and people may be
abilities intelligent in many
different ways
Clearly shows that Research and
there are many statistical approach are
different ways in unreliable
which one can -The theory is only
examine an part of a more
individual’s comprehensive
understanding of evaluation strategy.
materials
Strength/Evidence Weakness
Many educational -Research methods
programs are now built -The other children in
upon the belief that Piaget’s small research
children should be sample were all from
taught at the level foe well- educated
which they are professionals on high
developmentally socioeconomic status
prepared. -Difficult to generalize
his findings to a larger
population.
-Real world success Scores in one area like
-Analytical verbal intelligence
intelligence, problem tends to score in other
solving ability, areas e.g spatial
creative and practical -tends to score in the
intelligence other intelligence as
-Reliably measure well
things along this line.

Theory of Multiple Howard Gardner -7-9 independent
Intelligence intelligences, that they
don’t depend on each other
or rely on each other
-Your intelligent on the
other area doesn’t affect
the other intelligence.
-Easy to test
It includes more than -Gardner definition of
just a books smart; it intelligence is too
takes a lot of human broad and that has nine
abilities into accounts different
“intelligences” simply
represents talents,
personality traits and
abilities.
-Lack of supporting
empirical research

2) Compare and contrast Piaget’s Developmental Theory of Intelligence and Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence.
Show the focus of each theories as to what is accepts or rejects.

Theories Accepts Rejects

Piaget’s Developmental Piaget’s focus on qualitative development had
Theory an important impact on education. While did
not specifically apply his theory in this way,
many educational programs are now built
upon the belief that children should be taught
at the level foe which they are
developmentally prepared. In addition to this,
a number of instructional strategies have been
derived from Piaget’s work. These strategies
include providing a supportive environment,
utilizing social interactions and peer teaching,
and helping children see fallacies and
inconsistencies in their thinking.
Gardner’s Theory of -Gardner’s view on intelligence hoes hand in
Multiple Intelligence hand with scholastic performance
-The different intelligences help point out
which areas students need help in
-Helps to explain the variety of individual
differences in different types of mental
performances
-Based in developmental, clinical, case study
and educational evidence.
Piaget’s research methodology is also
problematic due to the fact that he rarely
detailed how his participants were selected.
Most of his work includes very little statistical
detail about how he arrived at his conclusions.
Another issue lies with Piaget’s lack of clear
operationally defined variables. In order to
replicate his observations and objectively
measure how one variable leads to changes in
another, researchers need to have very specific
definitions of each variable. Much of the
terminology related to Piaget’s theory acks
these operational definitions, so it is very
difficult for researchers to accurately replicate
his works.
-Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence are
cognitively based
-Excludes students with particular
performances in only one intelligence area
-It doesn’t explain why some people are more
intelligent than others
-These intelligences are not all essential for
successful adaption.
-Ultimately there is not really much hard
scientific evidence.
Activity 3 Critical Thinking, Cognitive Styles And Problem Solving
1) Thinking is a holistic process while thinking skills are specific operations. Enumerating the eight thinking skills and
explain each.
 Critical thinking skills can be broken down into 8 different categories to include:
Reflection - serious thought or consideration.
Analysis - detailed examination of the elements or structure of something.
Acquisition of Information - refers to the process through which an organization obtains information from
internal and external sources.
Creativity - the use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work.
Structuring arguments - a set of statements of which it is claimed that one of those statements (the
conclusion) is supported by the others (the premises).
Decision making - the action or process of making decisions, especially important ones.
Commitment - the state or quality of being dedicated to a cause or activity.
Debate - is a process that involves formal discussion on a particular topic.
2) Show that crictical thinking and problem-solving are two different skills. Illlustrate how these two work together
effectively.
 Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what to believe. It includes
the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking. Someone with critical thinking skills is able to
do the following : understand the logical connections between ideas. On the other hand, problem-solving
skills referred to the ability to handle difficult or unexpected situations. It help us determine the source of a
problem and find an effective solution. Although problem-solving is often identified as its own separate
skill, there are other related skills that contribute to this ability such as active listening, analysis, research,
creativity, communication, dependability, ecision making, and team-building. Critical thinking and problem
solving skills work together by achieving a certain goal using the rational thinking and the ability solve for
ways.
3) Distinguish critical thinking and creativity.
 Creativity is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. Creativity is characterised by the
ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to make connections between seemingly
unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions. Creativity involves two processes: thinking, then producing.
However, critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what to believe. It
includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.
4) Present a problem faced by a student in science or mathematics class. Narrate and identify how and when critical
thinking and creativity were used to solve that problem.
 In one of my classes in grade 7, I taught them how to solve age problems. At first, they found it difficult but
as we read and comprehend the problem slowly, students got the idea already. These are some of the ways
which students used to show critical thinking and creativity in solving an age problem: they expressed what
we don't know as a variable, they created an equation based on the information provided, students solved for
the unknown variable, and lastly substituted the answer back into the equation to see if the left side of the
equation equals the right side of the equation.
Activity 4 Developmental Theories and Learning Theories
1) Make a table indicating one or two words to associate the following learning theories of Bruner, Piaget, Montessori
and Gagne.
Learning Theories
Learning Theories
Constructivist Theory
Cognitive Development
The Montessori Theory
Conditions of Learning
2) Compare and contrast Bruner vs Gagne, Piaget vs. Montessori by making a matrix using the following: context in
which the investigation was conducted, the subjects of the experiment, if any, and the philosophy of each learning
theory.
Bruner VS. Gagne
Context
In which the investigation is
conducted
Subject of the experiment
Philosophy of learning theories
Montessori VS Piaget
Context
In which the investigation is
conducted
Subject of the experiment
Philosophy of learning theories
Theorist
Jerome Bruner
Jean Piaget
Maria Montessori
Robert Gagne
Jerome Bruner
University of Oxford
He continued his research into questions
of agency in infants and began a series
of explorations of children’s language
-Learning is an active process and
learners construct a new ideas or
concepts based upon existing
knowledge
-Allows the learners to go beyond e
information given
-Curriculum should be organized in a
spiral manner so that the students
continually build upon what they have
learned already.
Maria Montessori
Italy
Child-centered educational approach
based on scientific observations of
children from birth to adulthood. Dr.
Montessori’s Method has been time
tested, with over 100 years of success in
diverse cultures throughout the world.
She believed that education should
prepare a person for all aspects of life.
She designed materials and techniques
that would promote a natural growth of
learning in students. They are common
to all Montessori classrooms. Working
with these materials and techniques
forms a pattern that children carry over
naturally to reading, writing, and
mathematics. Each skill is developed to
interlock with another.
One/Two Words
Schema
Staircase
Independence
Learning hierarchies
Robert Gagne
-Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning
provide a step-by-step checklist that
helps you ensure that you present a
comprehensive and successful learning
experience. Each step is designed to
help your trainees understand and retain
information effectively.
-Gagne's model can be combined
effectively with other training methods,
such as 4MAT and the ARCS model.
These additional methods can help you
better understand your team's needs.
Jean Piaget
University of Neuchâtel
He was inspired by his children.
He also believed that children are not
like "little adults" who may know less;
children just think and speak differently
All children can learn and each child
learns in their own unique way. The
environment that best nurtures this
learning provides concrete, hands-on
experiences so the learner can construct
their own understandings. In addition,
discourse (verbal descriptions) and
reflection are integral components to
enhance the learning process.
Activity 5 Models For Learning Science
1) How does each of these in Bruner’s learning theory contribute to our understanding of the nature of science?
Role of structure The teaching and learning of structure, rather than simply the mastery of facts and techniques, is
at the center of the problem of transfer.
Readiness of learning Our schools may be wasting precious years by postponing the teaching of many important
subjects on the ground that they are too difficult and the foundations of any subject may be taught
to anybody at any age in some form.
Nature of intuition The shrewd guess, the fertile hypothesis, the courageous leap to a tentative conclusion—these are
the most valuable coin of the thinker at work, whatever his line of work.
Motivation Ideally, interest in the material to be learned is the best stimulus to learning, rather than such
external goals as grades or later competitive advantage.

2) How would you apply Piaget’s stages of development in the learning and teaching concepts in science? Choose a
particular topic in science, for example: work or atom, or at your own choice, to illustrate your point. What would be
some conditions for learning the concept of work in Physics or atoms in chemistry?
 Piaget's theory has had a major impact on the theory and practice of education. It has helped to create a view
where the focus of attention is on the idea of developmentally appropriate education. This refers to an
educational with environments, curriculum, materials and instruction that are consistent with student's
physical and cognitive abilities as well as their social and emotional needs. One of my lessons that Piaget’s
theory was being integrated is solving for the unknown angles in a polygon. There are four main teaching
implications drawn from Piaget's theory: a focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products.
Instead of simply checking for a correct answer, teachers should emphasize the student's understanding and
process they used to get the answer, recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiated, active
involvement in learning activities. In a Piagetian classroom, children are encourage to discover themselves
through spontaneous interaction with the environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made
knowledge, a deemphasize on practices aimed at making children adult like in their thinking. This refers to
what Piaget referred to as the "American question" which is "How can we speed up development?". His
belief is that trying to speed up and accelerate children's process through the stages could be worse than no
teaching at all, and acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts
that children go through all the same developmental stages; however they do so at different rates. Because of
this, we teachers must make special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of
children rather than for the whole class group.
3) How does Gagne’s treatise on Expert-Novice help in teaching and learning science?
 Experts are better problem solvers because of the large amount of domain knowledge and organization of
information that reflects a deep understanding of the subject matter. An expert’s brain organizes their
knowledge around core components that guide thinking. This pattern differs from novices who organize
knowledge as a list of facts, formulas, or heuristics. Thus, novices approach a problem by slowly searching
for a correct formula or heuristic which can slow down the problem-solving process and lead to errors or
omissions. In addition, novice heuristics may lead to bias and inappropriate decision making. When applying
to education or designing instruction, it is important that learners grow their knowledge base while also
learning how to organize information to see relationships and linkages to the material within a course and
across a curriculum. These ties can be made possible through cases encompassing multiple courses,
developing concept maps, experiential education or potentially capstone experiences.
4) How does the Constructivist theory contribute to learning of science? Give a specific example that this theory is more
appropriate than Gagne’s Expert-Novice treatise.
 Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people learn. It
says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things
and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our
previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information
as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions,
explore, and assess what we know. n the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a
number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to
use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to
reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes
sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then
build on them. This theory is far more important because it taught teachers to be constructivist teachers who
encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning
themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners."
This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the
students learn how to learn.
Activity 6 Issues on Research on Cognition and Mathematics

1) Make an outline on the various results of the following researches:

a. Greeno
In the introduction to this chapter I mentioned four general points that are illustrated by aspects of the analyses that I
have discussed. I now return to those points as a framework for presenting some conclusions First, the analyses
illustrate the applicability of methods of analysis developed in cognitive science to school tasks, and show how those
methods can lead to formulation of cognitive objectives of instruction. The analyses summarized by Resnick (this
volume) involving reading, physics, and elementary mathematics, and the investigations reported by Scardamalia and
Bereiter (this volume) involving writing, should leave little doubt as to the feasibility of research into the cognitive
requirements of significant instructional tasks using currently available concepts and methods of cognitive science. Of
course, this should not he interpreted as suggesting that more powerful and valid concepts and methods will not he
developed in the future, but only that significant and useful insights can be obtained with the took that we have at
present. These analyses also provide characterizations of knowledge that can be adopted as definite objectives of
instruction. The analysis of structural understanding given here identifies a specific cognitive structure of general
relationships as the knowledge that constitutes understanding of the structure of a class of geometry problems. The
analysis of understanding of the principle of deductive consequence identifies a cognitive procedure that incorporates
defining features of valid deductive inference. Both these characterizations could provide objectives for instruction
that specific enough to the incorporated into instructional materials, if it is thought that their acquisition would he
valuable.
b. Maurer
What strategy shall we choose for thinking about and selecting among cognitive technologies in mathematics
education? I argue for the need to move beyond the familiar cookbooks of 1,001 things, in near random order that one
can do with a computer. Such lists are usually so vast as to be unusable in guiding the current choice and the future
developments of mathematics educational technologies. Instead, we should seek out high leverage aspects of
information technologies that promote the development of mathematical thinking skills. I thus propose a list of
"transcendent functions" for cognitive technologies in mathematics education. What is the status of such a list of
functions? Incorporating them into a piece of software would certainly not be sufficient to promote mathematical
thinking. The strategy is more probabilistic-other things being equal, more students are likely to think mathematically
more frequently when technologies incorporate these functions. Some few students will become prodigious
mathematical thinkers, whatever obstacles must be overcome in the mathematics education they face.2 others will not
thrive without a richer environment for fostering mathematical thinking. This taxonomy is designed to serve as a
heuristic, or guide. Assessments of whether it is useful will emerge from empirical research programs, not from
intuitive conjecture. Indeed, until tighter connections can be drawn between theory and practice, 3 the list can only
build on what we know from research in the cognitive sciences; it should not be limited by that research.
c. Wenger
As seen in the examples in this paper, Wenger’s social theory of learning is used in different ways in different
studies. Wenger (1998) terms his work a “conceptual framework” (for example, p. 5), a “social theory of learning”
(for example, p. 4) and/or a “perspective” (for example, p. 3). According to Eisenhart (1991), there are three kinds of
research frameworks: theoretical, practical and conceptual. Eisenhart distinguishes these as theoretical frameworks
based on formal logic, practical frameworks based on practitioner knowledge and conceptual frameworks based on
justification. Somehow Wenger’s social theory of learning comprises all three of these features. According to Niss
(2007), theories are stable, coherent and consistent systems of concepts that are organised and linked in hierarchal
networks. Those criteria apply to the content of Wenger’s book. However, when researchers use only some of
Wenger’s concepts the criteria are no longer met. Furthermore, Niss (2007) writes that one purpose of theories “is to
provide a structured set of lenses through which aspects or parts of the world can be approached, observed, studied,
analyzed or interpreted” (p. 100). The diverse uses of Wenger’s social theory of learning presented in this paper show
that the structured set of lenses used in these studies differ substantially.
d. Pea
Roy Pea is David Jacks Professor of Learning Sciences and Education at the Standford Graduate School of
Education. He has extensively published works in the field of the Learning Sciences and on learning technology
design, and made significant contributions since 1981 to the understanding of how people learn with technology.
Process Functions in Cognitive Technology:
 Tools for developing conceptual fluency
 Tools for mathematical exploration
 Tools for integrating different mathematical representations
 Tools for learning how to learn
 Tools for learning problem-solving methods.
“Cognitive Technologies for mathematical education”
 Computer-based technologies are merely the latest in a long string of technologies that affect individual’s
learning and thinking potential. The roles and function that technology base instruction can take.
 2 Types of Functions: Purpose Functions – which may affect whether students choose to think
mathematically and, Purpose Functions – which may support the component mental activities of
mathematical thinking.
 2) Read two action research papers addressing an issue or problem related to Science or Mathematics learning. Quote
the title and the author and the source. Submit a short report for each with the following parts: Purpose of the
investigations, method of the investigations, results and findings and conclusion and recommendations.

“The Role of Manipulatives in the Eighth Grade Mathematics Classroom”

Michaela Ann Goracke
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/mathmidactionresearch/71
Purpose of the Investigations
The purpose of my study was to see if manipulatives really work in a middle school setting. From the
previous research, it was shown that manipulatives are a preferred practice of learning by middle school students
because of the socialization involved, but my concern was whether students could take away quality connections from
the lessons. Specifically, I wanted to know what happens to the level of student understanding after a greater use of
manipulatives was included in instruction. In the course of looking for student understanding, I also looked for
changes in student attitude about mathematics. I was looking to see if a connection could be made between attitude
and success.
Method of the Investigations
I collected data for this study in the Spring Semester of 2009, from my eighth grade pre-algebra class.
Several different forms of data were collected throughout the course of my study. First, I started with a pre-
intervention survey (see Appendix A for a copy of the pre/post survey). I used this survey as a baseline measure of
student attitude about success in the math classroom. From this survey I was also able to get an idea of what each
student perceived as the purpose of manipulatives and if the activities were useful in their understanding of math
concepts. This survey also gave insight into whether the student felt that they achieved mastery in a specific skill with
the use of manipulatives. I collected a total of eight weekly journals from students. The journals were usually written
on Fridays following two to three lessons involving manipulatives of some kind. There were many different kinds of
manipulatives used. We practiced graphing using pegboards, we used chips when working with integers, algebra tiles
when solving equations and we also used protractors and compasses when Geometry was introduced. Before each
lesson, students were taught how to use the tool or what each tile meant, hoping to alleviate confusion, so they could
concentrate on meaning. In the journals the students were asked to reflect on their understanding, and also to express
how they were feeling about math that week. These opinions and comments were organized and lumped together to
gain information about the group instead of individual students.As a final piece of the data collection puzzle, I used a
post-intervention survey which was identical to the pre-intervention survey. I used this as my ending point on student
attitude on April 17. It was also looked at to see if students had changed their opinions about their success in
mathematics as well as their beliefs of mastery of mathematical concepts.
Results and Findings
What happens to the level of student understanding after I implement greater manipulative use in the
mathematics classroom? My findings suggest that students tend to understand mathematics concepts better when they
draw pictures. The evidence that supports this claim is that several students have commented in their journals that
drawing pictures is helpful to them. One student specifically states “drawing pictures makes it real and it was helpful
because we could compare it with something . . . it showed you were more organized” (Student Journal, March 20,
2009). This sentiment seemed to be the consensus of the class. Finally, the last piece of evidence that supports my
claim of drawing increasing student understanding is attempts made by students on tests and daily work to draw
pictures to help them organize information. One student on a test drew a picture of a tree and labeled its height and
then drew out the shadow the tree created and labeled it as well as the house and ladder for another problem. Another
student drew pictures to explain his reasoning to a bonus question instead of using a complete written expression. It is
evident to me, that through the course of using manipulatives in my classroom, student attitudes about mathematics
have increased and they are excited to come to math class. Student understanding has increased due to the use of
manipulatives in content instruction and my teaching has changed to be more student-centered.
Conclusions
As a teacher I find that these results lead me to look for more ways to incorporate manipulatives into my
lessons. Students on a whole enjoyed math class more or began to enjoy math more as a result of using manipulatives.
Some of the enjoyment came from the socialization with their peers, while more importantly some enjoyment came
from understanding. Moyer (2001) noted several times that teachers referred to “fun” as a means of measuring
success of math class. In my journals I saw the word “fun” written many times. I think that I need to be careful when
including manipulatives into my classroom that “fun” does not overshadow the concepts of mathematics that are
being presented. I do not want my students to associate non-manipulative-instructed concepts as “real math” and
manipulative-driven concepts as “fun math” as Moyer (2001) pointed out in her study.
Recommendations
The outcome of my study leads me to believe that the regular use of manipulatives will increase student
understanding. As a result, greater understanding will increase confidence and attitude toward mathematics. What this
means for me as a teacher is that I need to find ways to introduce manipulatives into instruction, either directly
teaching or indirectly teaching. It is apparent that students not only gain valuable experiences from using the
manipulatives, but also it allows them to create their own understandings and affords them the socialization that
middle school students desire.
 "Meaningful Independent Practice in Mathematics"
Michelle Looky
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/mathmidactionresearch/57
Purpose of the Investigations
The purpose of this study was to create a deeper understanding of math concepts through student writing and
personal explanation of their understanding. For this research I started by changing homework from repetitive
practice to having students complete fewer problems but explain their solutions in complete sentences. The following
day when turning in their work, students then would present their work to the class. This allowed for not only
incorporating written explanations but oral explanations as well. The purpose was to find out if explaining their work
through writing, especially the practice of complete proper sentences, would have an impact on the students’
achievement in assessing those concepts of the mathematics. In addition I was seeking to find if the verbal
presentations of how a student solved a problem would improve the individual student’s or surrounding students’
achievement of the current mathematics material. Finally, the overall purpose was to investigate if the change
affected student learning.
Method of the Investigations
To find the answer to these questions I used various research strategies. I collected data from February 14,
2009, to March 17, 2009, in my seventh grade math class. The data included recording classroom data, including
formative and summative assessments, formative assignments, and grading practices. I also gathered input from the
students; this was done through student surveys and student interviews. Finally, I recorded my thoughts in a journal
so that I would be able to track the progress in my mind throughout the project. Data gathered in the classroom
consisted mainly of the students’ independent practice, or formative assignments. During this research the majority of
the assignments required at least a portion to be completed in complete sentences. Students also received three
formative assessments and 19 summative assessments during this time. The original plan was to have a quiz each
week but with explaining the new homework format, practicing as a class, presenting in class, and allowing more
time in class to ask homework questions during the transition period, the formative assessments just did not seem to
be feasible each week. Also, the objectives during this research period were some of the most difficult objectives of
the year. This would mean the data would not be a true picture of the changes’ effects on their assessments. So while
there was data on the students’ homework, formative, and summative assessments the true picture of this research
would come from their opinions.
Results and Finding
My intention was to see what would happen to student achievement when students explained their learning
in writing, and I found the majority of students who completed their work in complete sentences improved or
maintained a high objective assessment average. I only had five of my students who completed the work on a
consistent basis, which I considered completing 70% or more of the assignments. I kept track of their assessments
from first semester, second semester before the research, the assessment average during the research, the students’
average at the completion of the research, and finally for the end of the year.
Three of the students’ grades are listed in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Spreadsheet of students’ scores who completed 70% or more of their homework during the research.
Conclusions
Looking back at the past 10 weeks the changes in the classroom atmosphere were greater than the changes
shown in the data. I witnessed the comfort of students rise in the study of math. This was seen through their writing,
presenting, discussions, and interviews. The homework completion was not affected, so it was hard to see if the
sentences really affected the learning, all the students were still involved in the presentations and class discussions,
where I believe one would see the greatest outcome. Overall, the students embraced the change. While they may not
have completed their work, they seemed to allow themselves to engage in mathematical discussions for verification.
They were no longer dependent on a rule but would look for cues and for definitions and their thought process to help
lead their way.
Recommendations
In the future I will find the middle ground; the project seemed to be a complete success but yet somewhat
overkill. Trying to having plenty of data, the students were writing sentences for every homework assignment, when
these strategies truly fit best in some areas better than others. Next year the plan is to include these all throughout the
year, but in more purposeful spots of the curriculum, rather than for every assignment as I did for my research. I also
plan to continue the presentations to help students express their understanding, view new methods and be proud of
their mathematical ability. Assessments will change in some areas to ask more of the students, probe their thinking,
and expect their true knowledge, not rote memory. The discussions of the concepts, the vocabulary, and the skills will
continue to help the students better understand the current skills.
(ADDITIONAL ACTIVITY) (1 ABSENCE ONLY)

Activity 7 On Motivation And Analysis

1) Think of a classroom situation in a science or mathematics class and discuss the differences between behavioristic
and cognitive views of motivation in terms of the situation you have chosen.
 Behavioral approaches view learning as a behavior. The behavior is observable and can be measured.
Cognitive approaches explain learning as the acquisition of knowledge and the processing of information. I
can still remember how I integrated both behavior and cognitive approaches. Behavioral theories stress the
importance of the environment in encouraging learning. Behaviorists speak a great deal about stimulus
response. The stimulus comes from the environment and the individual responds. Behaviorists see learning
as an experience in reinforcement. Individual difference is not a major concern as everyone should act in a
similar manner when facing similar stimuli. Cognitivist agrees with the influence of the environment in
learning but downplay its role. For them, learning is about how students’ encode, store, and or transfer
learning within their mind. The learner’s thoughts play an important role in their learning. Reflection and
asking questions all play a part in the learning of students. The goal is not to lift up one approach over the
other. In reality, we teachers should use a combination of the two approaches when appropriate to help our
students. It is left to us teachers to know what will work and when as we try to help students to learn.
2) Explain the factors that influence motivation, in particular, elaborating the following: role of uncertainty, conceptual
conflict, and causal attributions and success expectations in analysing motivation.
 Motivation is the state that can maintain students’ attention and behavior as well as provides with more
energy to needed to lead tasks to completion. Thus, it can help sustain activities over a period of time. In
education, motivation can have a variety of effects on students’ behavior, preferences, and results. For
instance, motivation can help us direct our attention toward tasks that need to be done, allow us to do these
tasks in shorter periods of time as well as maintain attention during a longer time, minimize distractions and
resist them better, affect how much information we retain and store, and influence the perception of how
easy or difficult tasks can appear. Factors that influence students' motivation in education are class and
curriculum structure, teacher behavior and personality, teaching methods, parental habits and involvement,
family issues and instability, peer relationships, learning environment and assessment.