Introduction to Vibration

Professor Mike Brennan

 Introduction to Vibration

• Nature of vibration of mechanical systems

• Free and forced vibrations

• Frequency response functions

 Fundamentals
• For free vibration to occur we need
– mass m

– stiffness k

• The other vibration quantity is damping

c
 Fundamentals -
potential and kinetic energy
Fundamentals - damping
 Fundamental definitions
A

x (t )

x  A sin(t )

T
T   2 f (radians/second)

Period T  2  (seconds)
Frequency f  1 T (cycles/second) (Hz)
 Phase
A

x (t )

t
x  A sin(t )

x  A sin(t   )



Green curve lags the blue curve by  2radians
 Harmonic motion
x(t )
A


angular
displacement

  t   t

One cycle of motion

2π radians
 Complex number representation
+ imaginary
of harmonic motion
b x  a  jb
A x  A cos  jA sin
 x  A  cos   j sin 
- real + real
a
+ imaginary

Euler’s Equation
So x  Ae j phase

e j  cos   j sin magnitude

magnitude x  A a b 2 2
phase   tan1  b a 
Relationship between circular motion in the
complex plane with harmonic motion

Imaginary part – sine wave

Real part – cosine wave

 Free Vibration
• System vibrates at its natural frequency
x (t )

x  A sin(nt )
Natural frequency
 Forced Vibration
• System vibrates at the forcing frequency
x (t )

x (t )
f (t )

x  A sin(f t )
Forcing frequency
 Mechanical Systems
• Systems maybe linear or nonlinear

input excitation output response

system

• Linear Systems
1. Output frequency = Input frequency

2. If the magnitude of the excitation is changed, the

response will change by the same amount

3. Superposition applies
 Mechanical Systems
• Linear system

Linear
system

• Same frequency as input

• Magnitude change
• Phase change
• Output proportional to input
 Mechanical Systems
• Linear system

input excitation
a
output response, y
M
b system

y  Ma  Mb  M(a  b)
 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear system

Nonlinear
system

• output comprises frequencies

other than the input frequency
• output not proportional to input
 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear systems

• Generally system dynamics are a function of frequency

and displacement

• Contain nonlinear springs and dampers

• Do not follow the principle of superposition

 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear systems – example: nonlinear spring

f k
hardening
spring

x linear
force
f softening
For a linear system spring
f  kx

displacement
x
 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear systems – example: nonlinear spring

Peak-to-peak vibration
(approximately linear)
force
f
Peak-to-peak vibration
(nonlinear)

displacement
x f
stiffness 
x
Static displacement
 Degrees of Freedom
• The number of independent coordinates required to
describe the motion is called the degrees-of-freedom
(dof) of the system

• Single-degree-of-freedom systems

Independent
coordinate


 Degrees of Freedom

• Single-degree-of-freedom systems

x
m

Independent k
coordinate
 Idealised Elements
• Spring

f1 k f2

f1  k  x1  x2 
x1 x2
f2  k  x2  x1 

f1  f2
• no mass
• k is the spring constant
with units N/m
 Idealised Elements
• Addition of Spring Elements
1
k1 k2 ktotal 
1 1
Series 
k1 k2
ktotal is smaller than the smallest stiffness
k1

Parallel k2 ktotal  k1  k2

ktotal is larger than the largest stiffness

 Idealised Elements
• Addition of Spring Elements - example
f
kR
x
kT
f
stiffness 
x

• Is kT in parallel or series with kR ? Series!!

 Idealised Elements
• Viscous damper
c
f1 f2

f1  c  x1  x2 

f2  c  x2  x1 
x1 x2

• no mass
• no elasticity
• c is the damping constant
with units Ns/m
f1  f2
Rules for addition of
dampers is as for springs
 Idealised Elements
• Viscous damper

f1 f2
m
f1  f2  mx
f2  mx  f1
x

• rigid
• m is mass with Forces do not pass unattenuated
units of kg through a mass
Free vibration of an undamped
SDOF system

Undeformed System equilibrium

spring position

m
k
k

System vibrates about its equilibrium position

 Free vibration of an undamped
SDOF system
System at Extended position
equilibrium
position mx
m m

m kx
k
k
mx  kx  0

inertia force stiffness force

 Simple harmonic motion
The equation of motion is:

m mx  kx  0
x
k
k x x 0
m
 x  n2 x  0
k
where n  is the natural frequency of the system
m
The motion of the mass is given by x  X o sin nt 
 Simple harmonic motion

Real Notation Complex Notation

m Displacement
x
x  X o sin nt  x  Xe jnt
k
Velocity
x  n X o cos nt  x  jn Xe jnt
Acceleration
x  n2 X o sin nt  x  n2 Xe jnt
 Simple harmonic motion

Imag
x
 x
Real
t
x
 Free vibration effect of damping

m
x
k c

The equation of motion is

mx  cx  kx  0
inertia damping stiffness
force force force
 Free vibration effect of damping

nt
x  Xe

time

d x  Xe nt
sin d t   
2   Damping ratio
Td 
d Td  Damping period
  Phase angle
 Free vibration effect of damping
The underdamped displacement of the mass is given by

x  Xe nt
sin d t   
Exponential decay term Oscillatory term

 = Damping ratio = c  2mn  0    1

n = Undamped natural frequency = k m
d = Damped natural frequency = n  1   2
 = Phase angle
 Free vibration effect of damping
x t 

Undamped ζ=0 Critically damped ζ=1

Underdamped ζ<1 Overdamped ζ>1
 Degrees-of-freedom
Single-degree-of-freedom system
k
m

x1

Multi-degree-of-freedom (lumped parameter systems)

N modes, N natural frequencies

k k k k
m m m m

x1 x2 x3 x4
 Degrees-of-freedom
Infinite number of degrees-of-freedom (Systems having
distributed mass and stiffness) – beams, plates etc.

Example - beam

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3

 Free response of
multi-degree-of-freedom systems
Example - Cantilever
1

X + 2

x t 
+ 3
+
4
t
 Response of a SDOF system to
harmonic excitation
Steady-state
xf ( t )
Forced vibration
F sin t 
t
m
x
x p (t )
k c

x p ( t )  xf ( t )

t
 Steady-state response of a SDOF
system to harmonic excitation
F sin t  The equation of motion is

m
mx  cx  kx  F sin t 
x
k c The displacement is given by

x  X o sin t   

where
X is the amplitude
 is the phase angle between the response and the force
 Frequency response of a SDOF system
F sin t 
The amplitude of the
m response is given by
x
F
k c Xo 
 k   m    c 
2 2
2

Inertia force  mX o
2
The phase angle is given by
Damping  c 
Applied force force   tan 
1

 k  m 
2
F cX o

Stiffness force kX o
 Frequency response of a SDOF system
Fe jt
The equation of motion is
m
x mx  cx  kx  Fe jt
k c The displacement is given by

x  Xe jt
This leads to the complex amplitude given by
X 1 X 1  1 
 or   
F k   m  j c
2
F k  1   n   j 2  n 
2
 
Where n  k m and   c 2 mk
2
 
Complex notation allows the amplitude and phase information
to be combined into one equation
 Frequency response functions
X 1
Receptance 
F k   2 m  j c
Other frequency response functions (FRFs) are
Acceleration Force
Accelerance = Apparent Mass =
Force Acceleration

Velocity Force
Mobility = Impedance =
Force Velocity

Force
Dynamic Stiffness =
Displacement
Representation of frequency response data

Log receptance
Increasing damping
1
k

n Log frequency

phase -90° Increasing damping

 Vibration control of a SDOF system
Fe jt Xo 1

F
    c 
2
k  m
2 2

m x
Frequency Regions
k c
Low frequency   0  Xo F  1 k Stiffness controlled

Resonance  2  k m  X o F  1 c Damping controlled

High frequency   n  X o F  1  m Mass controlled

2 2

Xo
Log
F
1
k

Stiffness Damping Mass

controlled controlled controlled Log frequency
Representation of frequency response data
X 1 1 
Recall   
F k  1   n   j 2  n 
2
 

This includes amplitude and phase information. It

is possible to write this in terms of real and imaginary
components.
   
1   n 
2
X 1  1 2  n 
   j
F k  1    2 2  2   2  k  1    2 2  2   2 
   n   n
 

 n   n


real part imaginary part

 Real and Imaginary parts of FRF

X 
Re  
F 

n frequency

X 
Im  
F 
 Real and Imaginary parts of FRF
Real and Imaginary components can be plotted on one
diagram. This is called an Argand diagram or Nyquist plot
1k
X 
 Re  
F 

Increasing
frequency

n X 
Im  
F 
3D Plot of Real and Imaginary parts of FRF
X 
X  Re  
Im   F 
F 

 0

frequency
  0.1
 Summary
• Basic concepts
– Mass, stiffness and damping

• Introduction to free and forced vibrations

– Role of damping
– Frequency response functions
– Stiffness, damping and mass controlled frequency
regions