Humankind constantly attempts to improve the world through

research, the systematic foundation that we use to attain new

knowledge, add to existing knowledge, and to develop new
processes and techniques[i]. However, in order to conduct
research, the researcher must implement research methods.
These research methods are the strategies, tools, and techniques
used by the researcher to collect the relevant evidence needed to
create theories[ii]. Consequently, these research methods need to
be credible, valid, and reliable. This is accomplished by writing a
sound methodology, which consists of a systematic and
theoretical analysis of the above research methods. A
methodology allows the researcher to evaluate and validate the
rigour of the study and methods used to obtain the new
information.
Research methods constitute only one component of the
multidimensional research methodology. It is crucial for
researchers to distinguish between methods and methodology in
order to implement good science. Thus, the intent of the following
article is to clarify the similarities and differences of these two
concepts in order to further facilitate research knowledge and
practice.

Research Methods
 The research process consists of the steps that need to be followed
in order to carry out research effectively. The most salient aspects
of the research process are listed below:
 Develop a research problem
 Carry out an extensive literature review
 Develop a hypothesis or research question
 Compose an appropriate research and sample design
 Collect data and conduct analyses
 Test the hypothesis
 Interpret and Discuss
 Make conclusions based on the data

All of the techniques, procedures, and tools used to collect and

analyse information in the research process are collectively
termed research methods. In other words, research methods are
the ways in which researchers obtain information and find
solutions to the research problem. All the methods used during a
research study are referred to as the research methods. They
include numerical schemes, experimental studies, theoretical
procedures, statistical approaches, etc. There are three basic
groups in research methods:
 Group one, which includes all methods involved
with data collection;
 Group two, which includes all statistical techniques employed to
create relationships between variables; and
 Group three, which includes those methods used to evaluate
accuracy of results.
Group two and three generally include analytical methods[iii].
The main types of research methods are
1. Exploratory research, which assists in identifying a problem;
2. Empirical research, which utilizes empirical evidence to examine
the feasibility of a solution; and
3. Constructive research, which tests theories.
The above research methods can be further divided into 4
categories: conceptual research, quantitative research, applied
research, and descriptive research. Consequently, research
methods encompass qualitative and quantitative designs, as well
as the respective data collection tools, such as focus group
discussions, surveys, interviews, systematic observations,
sampling methods, etc. The primary purpose of research methods
is to find solutions that address the research problem.
Accordingly, research methods are more useful towards the later
stages of the research project when it is time to draw
conclusions[iv]. Summing up, research methods include all the
strategies, processes, and techniques used by the investigator or
researcher during their research project to successfully initiate,
perform, and conclude the study. Moreover, research methods are
only one facet of the multi-dimensional concept known as
research methodology.

Research Methodology
The above concept is defined as the science behind the methods
used to gain knowledge. In other words, methodology is the study
of the methods used and the reasoning behind why those
particular methods were used. It is a way in which to
 systematically solve the research problem (i.e., analyse the logic
behind the steps taken by a researcher to answer said research
question). The methodology section in any research serves the
purpose of explaining the ways in which results were obtained
(i.e., the research methods that were employed and the way in
which results were analysed in order to allow the reader to
critically evaluate the research methods). A research methodology
provides an all encompassing theoretical and philosophical
framework that is used at the beginning of a project to explain the
functioning and reasoning behind chosen research methods, as
well as to guide the research process. More importantly, the
methodology for any research project is pivotal to maintaining
reliable research methods and results, which adds to the value of
the findings and interpretations[v]. Methodology seeks
consideration of the following aspects:
 finding the suitable research method for the chosen problem,
 discovering the accuracy of the results of a chosen method, and
 ensuring the efficiency of the research method.

Thus, a well-written methodology should do the following:

 Introduce and explain reasons for the overall methodological
approach (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method) used for
investigation,
 Indicate how the research methods are applicable to the study,
 Describe the specific data collection methods,
 Provide sufficient explanation of data analysis methods and
procedures, and
 Provide rationale for the chosen research methods.
In order for the research to be relevant, researcher must know the
research methods, as well as the methodology. Researchers
should be knowledgeable about the development of certain tests,
as well as possess the ability to calculate the mean, mode, median,
and standard deviation, etc. Furthermore, researchers are
required to know how and when to apply certain research
techniques in order to ascertain which techniques are applicable
to which research problems. The decisions behind the
methodology design need to be clearly explained and the
reasoning substantiated in order for the research to be critically
analysed and evaluated by others[vi]. Therefore, research
methods represent only one component of the multi-dimensional
concept of research methodology.

Differences Between Research Methods and Research Methodology

Methods
Are defined as the methods or techniques that are used to gather evidence
and conduct research.

Involves conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, etc.

The main objective is to discover solutions to research problems.

Narrow scope of practice (i.e., consists of various research strategies,

methods, techniques, tools, etc.)
Used in later stages of research.

Conclusion
A methodology is required in order to systematically solve the
research problem by analysing the logic behind different research
methods implemented. The use of a clear methodology renders
that are reliable, reproducible, and correct. In order to produce
research that is systematic, logical, and replicable, researchers
require an in-depth knowledge of research methodology.

Research methods are only one facet of research methodology and

provide an avenue by which to find solutions to research
problems. However, research methods are the primary route to
conducting research, and the methodology of a research project is
entrenched in the utilization of research methods. With that being
said, it is safe to deduce that both phenomena are contingent
upon the existence of the other.

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What is Reliability?

The idea behind reliability is that any significant results must be more than a one-off finding and be
inherently repeatable.
Other researchers must be able to perform exactly the same experiment, under the same conditions
and generate the same results. This will reinforce the findings and ensure that the wider scientific
community will accept the hypothesis.
Without this replication of statistically significant results, the experiment and research have not
fulfilled all of the requirements of testability.
This prerequisite is essential to a hypothesis establishing itself as an accepted scientific truth.
For example, if you are performing a time critical experiment, you will be using some type of
stopwatch. Generally, it is reasonable to assume that the instruments are reliable and will keep true
and accurate time. However, diligent scientists take measurements many times, to minimize the
chances of malfunction and maintain validity and reliability.
At the other extreme, any experiment that uses human judgment is always going to come under
question.

For example, if observers rate certain aspects, like in Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment, then the
reliability of the test is compromised. Human judgment can vary wildly between observers, and the
same individual may rate things differently depending upon time of day and current mood.
This means that such experiments are more difficult to repeat and are inherently less reliable.
Reliability is a necessary ingredient for determining the overall validity of a scientific experiment and
enhancing the strength of the results.
Debate between social and pure scientists, concerning reliability, is robust and ongoing.

What is Validity?

Validity encompasses the entire experimental concept and establishes whether the results obtained
meet all of the requirements of the scientific research method.

For example, there must have been randomization of the sample groups and appropriate care and
diligence shown in the allocation of controls.
Internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of the steps
of the scientific research method.
Even if your results are great, sloppy and inconsistent design will compromise your integrity in the
eyes of the scientific community. Internal validity and reliability are at the core of any experimental
design.
External validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are any other
possible causal relationships.
Control groups and randomization will lessen external validity problems but no method can be
completely successful. This is why the statistical proofs of a hypothesis called significant, not
absolute truth.
Any scientific research design only puts forward a possible cause for the studied effect.
There is always the chance that another unknown factor contributed to the results and findings. This
extraneous causal relationship may become more apparent, as techniques are refined and honed.
Conclusion

If you have constructed your experiment to contain validity and reliability then the scientific
community is more likely to accept your findings.
Eliminating other potential causal relationships, by using controls and duplicate samples, is the best
way to ensure that your results stand up to rigorous questioning.

What is an Experiment?
From the Latin word, “experior” which means “to attempt” or “to
experience”, experiment is defined as testing a hypothesis by
carrying out a procedure under highly controlled conditions. This
makes the method ideal in studying primary data. By
manipulating a certain independent variable, its effect on a
dependent variable can be measured. A cause and effect
relationship is verified by exposing participants to certain
treatments. For instance, researchers can measure how water
intake can affect people’s metabolism by letting the experimental
group drink 8 glasses of water each day while the control group
will only have 4 glasses. Their metabolism rates will then be
compared after a week and statistical treatments like T-test will be
employed to validate the results.

What is a Survey?
From the medieval Latin word, “supervidere” which means “to
see”, survey is defined as having a comprehensive view of certain
topics. Survey studies are largely conducted to look into people’s
opinions, feelings, and thoughts. It is best suited for descriptive
research which seeks to answer “what” questions regarding the
respondents. Questionnaires are ideal in collecting information
from a big population as they can be simultaneously administered
to different groups and individuals. Survey questions can be sent
to numerous respondents in both online and offline settings. For
 instance, researchers who are studying happiness levels among
millennials floated questionnaires, made phone calls, and sent e-
mails regarding the participants’ perceived emotional states. The
data were then collated and statistical treatment such as getting
the weighted mean was utilized to analyze the responses.

Difference between
Experiment and Survey
1. Etymology of Experiment and Survey

Experiment came from the Latin word “experior” which means “to
attempt” or “to experience” while survey came from the Latin
word “supervidere” which means “to see”.

2. Source of Information of Experiment and Survey

Conducting an experiment enables the researchers to gather data

from the result of the experimental treatment. On the other hand,
surveys get information from the selected population.

3. Data

Experiments mainly deal with primary data while surveys can

gather secondary data which are in line with descriptive research.
4. Research involved in Experiment and Survey

While survey is employed in descriptive research, the

experimental method is noticeably used for experimental
research.

5. Sample Sizes for Experiment and Survey

As compared to surveys, the sample sizes used in experiments are

usually smaller. Since questionnaires can easily reach a number of
people in various places, surveys can cover larger samples.

6. Fields

Many social and behavioral fields use the survey method in

establishing facts while those in the physical and natural sciences
basically employ experiments.

7. Laboratory Research for Experiment and Survey

Laboratory research usually makes use of experiments whereas

field research largely profits from surveys.

8. Equipment needed for Experiment vs Survey

Experiments often use various equipment in facilitating

treatments and in observing responses while surveys do not need
such elaborate tools.
9. Analysis

Correlational analysis is crucial in surveys while causal analysis is

vital in experiments.

10. Challenge

Regarding surveys, it is usually difficult to study in-depth and

genuine responses as the questions are already set for all
respondents and some of them may not actually reveal their true
opinions. On the other hand, one common challenge in
experiments is ascertaining if the change of behavior observed
was really caused by the manipulation of the independent variable
or other factors.

11. Cost for Experiment vs Survey

Conducting surveys is usually lest costly as compared to

experiments as it is generally concerned with the sources in
making questionnaires. As for experiments, researches need
resources such as laboratories, equipment, and software.

12. Manipulation

Experiments involve the manipulation of the independent

variable by giving different treatments to the control and
experimental groups. As for surveys, the research participants are
 merely asked questions and this is done when manipulations are
not possible.

13. Relationships

Experiments tests causal relationships by verifying if the

independent variable significantly impacts the dependent
variable. As for surveys, they usually assess naturally occurring
and enduring variables.

14. Topic Range in Experiment vs Survey

As compared to experiments, surveys can be employed to look

into a wider range of topics since the questions can be subdivided
into different factors.

15. Randomization

Randomization practice is extremely crucial in establishing

validity in experiments while such technique may or may not be
employed in surveys.

Experiment vs Survey: Comparison table

 Summary of Experiment Vs
Survey
 Both experiment and survey methods are vital in collecting data.
 Experiment came from the Latin word “experior” which means “to
attempt” or “to experience” while survey came from Latin word
“supervidere” which means “to see”.
 Experiment mainly deals with primary data while surveys can
cover both primary and secondary data.
 While experiments are often done with smaller samples, surveys
can be effective with larger samples.
 Experiments are often concerned with laboratory research and
causal analysis while surveys are mostly associated with field
research and correlational analysis.
 As compared to surveys, conducting experiments is usually
costlier due to the equipment and highly controlled conditions.
 Experiments cover more specific topics while surveys can assess a
wider range of interests.

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What is Multistage Sampling?

Multistage sampling of 4 items from 3 blocks.

Multistage sampling divides large populations into stages to make the sampling process more practical. A
combination of stratified sampling or cluster sampling and simple random sampling is usually used.
Let’s say you wanted to find out which subjects U.S. school children preferred. A population list — a list of
all U.S. schoolchildren– would be near-impossible to come by, so you cannot take a sample of the
population. Instead, you divide the population into states and take a simple random sample of states. For
the next stage, you might take a simple random sample of schools from within those states. Finally you
could perform simple random sampling on the students within the schools to get your sample.

In order to classify multistage sampling as probability sampling, each stage must involve a probability
sampling method.

Real Life Examples

 The Census Bureau uses multistage sampling for the U.S. National Center for
Health Statistics’ National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). A multistage probability sample of 42,000
households in 376 probability sampling units (PSUs are usually counties or groups of counties), which
are chosen in groups of around four adjacent households.
 The Gallup poll uses multistage sampling. For example, they might randomly choose a certain number
of area codes then randomly sample a number of phone numbers from within each area code.
 Johnston et. al’s survey on drug use in high schools used three stage sampling: geographic areas,
followed by high schools within those areas, followed by senior students in those schools.
 The Australian Bureau of Statistics divides cities into “collection districts”, then blocks, then
households. Each stage uses random sampling, creating a need to list specific households only after the
final stage of sampling

What is a Pilot Survey?

A pilot survey is a strategy used to test the questionnaire using a smaller sample compared to the
planned sample size. In this phase of conducting a survey, the questionnaire is administered to a
percentage of the total sample population, or in more informal cases just to a convenience sample.

Advantages of a Pilot Survey

Conducting a pilot survey prior to the actual, large-scale survey presents many benefits and
advantages for the researcher. One of these is the exploration of the particular issues that may
potentially have an antagonistic impact on the survey results. These issues include the
appropriateness of questions to the target population.
A pilot survey also tests the correctness of the instructions to be measured by whether all the
respondents in the pilot sample are able to follow the directions as indicated. It also provides better
information on whether the type of survey is effective in fulfilling the purpose of the study. Practically
speaking, pilot surveys save financial resources because if errors are found in the questionnaire or
interview early on, there would be a lesser chance of unreliable results or worse, that you would
need to start over again after conducting the survey.
All in all, the main objective of a pilot study is to determine whether conducting a large-scale survey
is worth the effort.
Read also: The Pilot Study.
Types of Pilot Survey
A. According to Organization

There are two types of pilot survey according to organization – external and internal. An external
pilot survey intends to administer the questionnaire to a small group of target participants who will
not be included in the main survey. On the other hand, an internal pilot survey will consider the
respondents in the pilot as the first participants in the main survey.

B. According to Respondent Participation

There are two types of pilot survey according to the participation of the respondents – undeclared
and participatory. In an undeclared pilot survey, you administer the survey to a certain number of
respondents as if it is the real and full scale survey, not a pretest one. On the other hand,
participatory pilot surveys involve informing the respondents that they are in the pre-test phase. The
respondents are to be asked what they can say about the questionnaire, specifically their reactions,
comments and suggestions. For instance, you may ask them about how clear the instructions are or
which questions are hard to answer. Converse and Presser (1986) recommend using the
participatory pilot survey first, and then conducting the undeclared pilot.

The Results of a Pilot Survey

After obtaining and analyzing the results of the pilot survey, logistical, technical and other issues or
problems can be addressed. The questionnaire or interview format can be revised, or the type of
survey may be altered into a more suitable one. After the revision of the survey, the researcher may
opt to conduct a second pilot survey to determine whether the errors and issues are effectively
solved. If the problems were minor, then the large-scale survey can be executed.

Mathematical model vs. statistical model

Both Statistical as well Mathematical models involve mathematical formulas and equations
but this this not mean that both are the same thing. Mathematical models are kind of static
model that represent a natural/real phenomenon in mathematical form; the models once
formulated does not necessitate to change the form after they are formed. However
statistical or data based models are enough flexible to change as per arrival of new data as
they can incorporate new and emerging patterns and trends; this is where pattern
recognition/machine learning come into focus.

Since statistics is a branch of mathematics, statistical models are a subset of mathematical

models. Statistical models include randomness which is the characteristic of statistics.

Mathematical models are generally exact and given by equations, where statistical models
are generally given by data and the probability of the dataset matching the statistical
model. There are usually blurs between the two types of models.

Mathematical models determine how the system changes from one state to the next and
describes the interdependence of the variables (or factors) involved. Statistical models
characterize the numerical data and attempts at estimating probabilistic future behavior of a
system based on its past behavior.

Data analytics in research

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming and modeling data with the goal of
discovering useful information, informing conclusion and supporting decision-making. Data analysis
has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names,
and is used in different business, science, and social science domains. In today's business world,
data analysis plays a role in making decisions more scientific and helping businesses operate more
effectively.[1]
Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on statistical modeling and
knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes, while business
intelligence covers data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business
information.[2] In statistical applications, data analysis can be divided into descriptive
statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on
discovering new features in the data while CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying
existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on application of statistical models for predictive
forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural
techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data.
All of the above are varieties of data analysis.
Data integration is a precursor to data analysis,[according to whom?] and data analysis is closely
linked[how?] to data visualization and data

The process of data analysis[edit]

Data science process flowchart from Doing Data Science, by Schutt & O'Neil (2013)

Analysis refers to breaking a whole into its separate components for individual examination. Data
analysis is a process for obtaining raw data and converting it into information useful for decision-
making by users. Data is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses or disprove
theories.[3]
Statistician John Tukey defined data analysis in 1961 as: "Procedures for analyzing data, techniques
for interpreting the results of such procedures, ways of planning the gathering of data to make its
analysis easier, more precise or more accurate, and all the machinery and results of (mathematical)
statistics which apply to analyzing data."[4]
There are several phases that can be distinguished, described below. The phases are iterative, in
that feedback from later phases may result in additional work in earlier phases.[5] The CRISP
framework used in data mining has similar steps.

Data requirements[edit]
The data are necessary as inputs to the analysis, which is specified based upon the requirements of
those directing the analysis or customers (who will use the finished product of the analysis). The
general type of entity upon which the data will be collected is referred to as an experimental unit
(e.g., a person or population of people). Specific variables regarding a population (e.g., age and
income) may be specified and obtained. Data may be numerical or categorical (i.e., a text label for
numbers).[5]

Data collection[edit]
Data are collected from a variety of sources. The requirements may be communicated by analysts to
custodians of the data, such as information technology personnel within an organization. The data
may also be collected from sensors in the environment, such as traffic cameras, satellites, recording
devices, etc. It may also be obtained through interviews, downloads from online sources, or reading
documentation.[5]

Data processing[edit]
The phases of the intelligence cycle used to convert raw information into actionable intelligence or knowledge
are conceptually similar to the phases in data analysis.

Data initially obtained must be processed or organised for analysis. For instance, these may involve
placing data into rows and columns in a table format (i.e., structured data) for further analysis, such
as within a spreadsheet or statistical software.[5]

Data cleaning[edit]
Once processed and organised, the data may be incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain errors.
The need for data cleaning will arise from problems in the way that data are entered and stored.
Data cleaning is the process of preventing and correcting these errors. Common tasks include
record matching, identifying inaccuracy of data, overall quality of existing data,[6] deduplication, and
column segmentation.[7] Such data problems can also be identified through a variety of analytical
techniques. For example, with financial information, the totals for particular variables may be
compared against separately published numbers believed to be reliable.[8] Unusual amounts above
or below pre-determined thresholds may also be reviewed. There are several types of data cleaning
that depend on the type of data such as phone numbers, email addresses, employers etc.
Quantitative data methods for outlier detection can be used to get rid of likely incorrectly entered
data. Textual data spell checkers can be used to lessen the amount of mistyped words, but it is
harder to tell if the words themselves are correct.[9]

Exploratory data analysis[edit]

Once the data are cleaned, it can be analyzed. Analysts may apply a variety of techniques referred
to as exploratory data analysis to begin understanding the messages contained in the data.[10][11] The
process of exploration may result in additional data cleaning or additional requests for data, so these
activities may be iterative in nature. Descriptive statistics, such as the average or median, may be
generated to help understand the data. Data visualization may also be used to examine the data in
graphical format, to obtain additional insight regarding the messages within the data.[5]

Modeling and algorithms[edit]

Mathematical formulas or models called algorithms may be applied to the data to identify
relationships among the variables, such as correlation or causation. In general terms, models may
be developed to evaluate a particular variable in the data based on other variable(s) in the data, with
some residual error depending on model accuracy (i.e., Data = Model + Error).[3]
Inferential statistics includes techniques to measure relationships between particular variables. For
example, regression analysis may be used to model whether a change in advertising (independent
variable X) explains the variation in sales (dependent variable Y). In mathematical terms, Y (sales) is
a function of X (advertising). It may be described as Y = aX + b + error, where the model is designed
such that a and b minimize the error when the model predicts Y for a given range of values of X.
Analysts may attempt to build models that are descriptive of the data to simplify analysis and
communicate results.[3]

Data product[edit]
A data product is a computer application that takes data inputs and generates outputs, feeding them
back into the environment. It may be based on a model or algorithm. An example is an application
that analyzes data about customer purchasing history and recommends other purchases the
customer might enjoy.[5]

Communication[edit]

Data visualization to understand the results of a data analysis.[12]

Main article: Data visualization

Once the data are analyzed, it may be reported in many formats to the users of the analysis to
support their requirements. The users may have feedback, which results in additional analysis. As
such, much of the analytical cycle is iterative.[5]
When determining how to communicate the results, the analyst may consider data
visualization techniques to help clearly and efficiently communicate the message to the audience.
Data visualization uses information displays (such as tables and charts) to help communicate key
messages contained in the data. Tables are helpful to a user who might look up specific numbers,
while charts (e.g., bar charts or line charts) may help explain the quantitative messages contained in
the data.