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Communication Koncept PDF
Communication Koncept PDF
Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
Understand the process of Amplitude Modulation.
Understand different types of Amplitude Modulation.
Design different modulators for Amplitude Modulation.
Understand the different demodulation techniques.
Introduction
Baseband term is used to designate the band of frequencies of the signal delivered by the
source. In telephony, baseband is the audio band i.e. 0 – 3.5 KHz. Baseband Signals are
transmitted without modulation as they have sufficient power at low frequencies so they
cannot be transmitted at radio frequencies but by means of co-axial cables and optical
fibers.
Long haul communication over radio links requires modulation to shift the spectrum to
higher frequencies in order to enable efficient power radiation using antennas of reasonable
dimensions. Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of the carrier signal like
its Amplitude, Frequency or Phase are varied in proportion to message signal.
Amplitude Modulation refers to the process in which amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
with the message signal.
The process of modulation i.e. shifting the signal spectrum to a higher frequency is
illustrated below by an example,
If signal and its Fourier Transform is x t X
By Frequency Shifting Property, x t e
jt
X and x t e
o
jt
X
o
Suppose, y t x t cos t
c
x t j t jc t
y t e c e
2
y t
1
2
X X
c c
F.T. 1
Hence, x t cos 2f t X f f X f f
c 2 c c
The spectrum of x(t) and y(t) are shown below,
In the figures shown above, M(0) represents the magnitude of spectrum at 0 frequency.
As can be seen from the above figures, that spectrum of baseband spectrum is shifted to
higher carrier frequency by multiplication with sinusoidal carrier signal. This is the basic
process of amplitude modulation.
Further, we will see different types of Amplitude Modulation.
Bandwidth = f
m
Since, the spectrum consists of impulses at carrier frequency and two side bands namely USB
i.e. Upper Side Band and LSB i.e. Lower Side Band so it is called as Double Side Band – Full
Carrier.
c m
B.W. f f f f
c m
2f H
m z
It means bandwidth of AM signal is twice the bandwidth of message signal.
Note: If message signal m(t) is non – sinusoidal, and contains frequencies f ,f ,f and
m1 m2 m3
so on and frequency of carrier c(t) is f ; frequencies in modulated signal will be,
c
s t f f , f f , f f etc.
c m1 c m2 c m3
Solved Examples
Problem: If a 60kHz carrier is amplitude modulated by a speech band of 300kHz 3kHz .
What is range of frequency for USB and LSB?
Solution: Carrier Frequency, f 60kHz
c
Message Frequency, f 300Hz 3kHz
m
The lower frequency is mapped to 60 0.3 kHz
Problem: A 1000kHz carrier is simultaneously modulated with 300Hz and 2kHz audio sine
wave. Which of the frequencies are not present in output?
a) 998kHz b) 1000.3kHz c) 999.7kHz d)700kHz
Solution: Carrier Frequency, f 1000kHz
c
Modulating Signal Frequency, f 0.3kHz f 2kHz
1 2
Frequencies present in output,
1002kHz 999.7kHz
f f f f
c 1 998kHz c 2 1000.3kHz
Ans: 700kHz
Modulation Index
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of peak of message signal to the peak of carrier
signal.
If A A ; m 1; under modulation
m c a
If A A ; m 1; over modulation
m c a
If A A ; m 1 ; critical modulation
m c a
c
s t A m t cos t
c
m 1
a
From the above figure it can be observed that shape of message signal remains intact as the
envelope of carrier signal and hence it can easily be detected.
Critical Modulation
A A
m c
m 1
a
In this case, envelope detector is not an ideal solution because information will be lost at
touching points i.e. the points where the two envelopes meet each other.
Over Modulation
A A
m c
m 1
a
No information is seen at CRO because positive and negative portion will cancel effect of
each other. Envelope detector cannot be used in this case.
The crossing over of positive and negative envelopes is shown in the figure below,
m c
A A
m
A A
c
m
a
c
A A
m
A A
c
m
A A
m max min
a A A
max min
So, maximum and minimum amplitude,
A
max C
A 1 m
a
A A 1 m
min C a
For eg. if A 10, A 5
max min
10 5 1
Modulation Index, m
a 10 5 3
Modulated Signal, s t A m t cos t
c c
let m t A cos t
m m
c m m
s t A A cos t cos t
c
s t A cos t A cos t cos t
c c m m c
A
c c c m c
s t A cos t m cos t cos
2 m t
Taking Fourier Transform of the modulated signal,
A
c c
S A
c
m
2 c m c m
A
2 c m
m
c m
c
Modulated Signal, s t A m t cos t A cos t m t cos t
c c c c
Power in A cos t can be calculated in terms of Fourier Series Coefficients ck ,
c c
e jc t e jct Ac jc t Ac jct
A cos t A e e
c c c 2 2 2
2 2
A A A 2
Power = c k
2 c c c
2 2 2
A2 m2 t
Power in Modulated Signal, P c
T 2 2
Let m t A cos t
m m
m2 t A2 cos2 t
m m
A2
2
m t m
2
A2 A2
Hence, P c m
T 2 4
A2 m2 A
P c 1 a where m m
T 2 2 a A
c
m2
P P 1 a
T c 2
This is valid only if message signal is sinusoidal.
A2
P c of R 1
c 2
If R 1
A2
Power in Carrier Signal, P c
c 2R
m2
P P 1 a
T c 2
Since, P I2
m2
I I 1 a
T a 2
m2
Power in Modulated Signal, P P a P
T c 2 c
m2
Here, a P represents total sideband power.
2 c
Since, sideband consists of Upper Sideband and Lower sideband
m2 m2
P aP P aP
LSB 4 c USB 4 c
P P m2
Average sideband power USB LSB a P
2 c
4
If message signal is not given, it is assumed to be sinusoidal. In practical message signal is
never sinusoidal as sinusoidal signals are deterministic so no information is contained in it.
Solved Examples
Problem: If c(t) and a(t) are used to generate an AM signal with Modulation Index (M.I.)=0.5,
What is the ratio of total sideband power to carrier power?
m2 1
Solution: Total Sideband Power, a P P
2 c 8 c
Total Sideband power 1
carrier power 8
Problem: If equation for AM is s t 10 1 0.5sin2f t cos2f t , what is value of average
m c
sideband power?
Solution: Message Signal, m t A sin2f t
m m
Modulated Signal, s t 10 5sin2f t cos2f t
m c
Modulation Index, m 0.5
a
100
Carrier Power, P 50
c 2
m2 1 50
Average sideband power a P 50 = 3.125 watt
4 c 16 16
2
Important Formulas
Maximum Amplitude, A
max
A A
c m
A2
Carrier power c P
2R c
m2
Total sideband power c P
2 c
m2
Average sideband power P P c .P
USB LSB 4 c
2
Peak output power
A A
c m
2R
Solved Examples
Problem: A given AM broadcasting station transmitter has a total power of 5W. If carrier is
modulated by a sinusoidal signal of m 0.707 .
a
Calculate (i) Average sideband power
(ii) Peak output power
In both cases, assume that antenna is replaced by a 50 resistance.
m2
Solution: Transmitted Power, P P 1 a
T c 2
P 5
Carrier Power, P T 4W
c 2 1
ma 1 4
1 2
m2 1
Average sideband power a P 4 = 0.5W
4 c 8
A 2
Since, P c
c 2R
A 4 2 50 400
2
c
A 20
c
A 1
Modulation Index m m
a A 2
C
20
A 10 2
m 2
2
Ac Am
2 1
20 1
2
2
Peak output power 11.65W
2R 50 2
Problem: If a carrier has peak amplitude of 10V at a frequency 1MHz. If sinusoidal signal of
frequency 1kHz modulates between 7.5 and 12.5. Then calculate,
(i) Modulation index (ii) Peak output power (iii) Average sideband power
Assume that antenna used has a resistance of 50 .
Solution: Given A 12.5 A 7.5
max min
A A
Modulation Index, m max min 12.5 7.5 5 1
a A A 12.5 7.5 20 4
max min
m2 A2 1 100 1
Average sideband power a c W 0.015625W
4 2R 4 16 2 50 64
2 2
Peak output power
c
A A
m
c
A2 1 m
a
100
1 0.25 2 1.25 2 = 1.5625W
2R 2R 2 50
m2 t
Sideband Power, P
SB 2
P
Transmission efficiency SB
P
T
For sinusoidal signal
m2 A2 A2
P a c m
SB 2 2 4
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Communication Systems (Theory)
A2
P c
C 2
A2
m m2
Efficiency, 4 a
A2 A 2 2 m2
c m a
2 4
Maximum transmission efficiency: m 1
a
1
100 33.33%
max 3
Only 33.33% power will be utilized while 66.67% power is wasted.
1 1
Problem: If a message signal is given by m t cos t sin t . If m(t) is modulated with
2 1 2 1
a carrier of frequency to generate s t 1 m t cos t , then what is the value of
c c
in% ?
1 2 2 1
Solution: Message Signal m t cos t sin t cos t
2 2 1 2 1
2 1 4
1 A
Hence, A A 1 m m 1
m 2 c A a 2
c
A 1
Modulation Index, m m
a A 2
c
m2 1
a 2 1
2 100% 1
100% 100% 20%
5
2m 2
a 2
c
Comparing with standard equation, s t A A cos t cos t
m m c
A2
Carrier Power, P c 100
c 2
Carrier Amplitude, A A 10 2
c
m2
a m2
Transmission Efficiency, 0.4 2 a
m2 2
m 2
1 a 2
a
2
Modulation Index, m
a 3
2B 2
m
a A 3
2
B 10
3
Here, m2 t is mean square value of message signal m(t). For a periodic message signal this
value can be computed as,
1
m2 t m2 t dt
T T
Where, T is time period of message signal m(t)
Solved Examples
Problem: If c t 2cos t and message signal is shown, then calculate
c
(i) Total power P
T
(ii) Efficiency
T
T
2 1 2 2 1 2
Solution: Mean Square Value of Message Signal, m t 2 dt 2 dt
T T
0 T
2
1 T 1T
m2 t 4 4 =4
T 2 42
A2 m2 (t) 4 4
P c 4
T 2 2 2 2
m2 (t)
2
% 2 100% 100% 50%
P 4
T
Problem: Solve the previous problem if square wave of message signal is replaced by
sawtooth waveform shown below,
T T
Solution: Equation of m(t) in ,
2 2
6
mt t
T
2
T /2 T /2 A
1 2 t dt 1
m2 t T T m t dt
T T/2
m
T /2
A2 T3 A2 32
2
m t m m 3
T3 3 3 3
Since, carrier signal is same so carrier power remains same.
4 3
Transmitted Power, P 3.5w
T 2 2
3
Efficiency, 2 100 42.85%
3.5
Problem: Calculate total power and efficiency carrier signal is given as, c t 2cos t and
c
modulation index is m 0.5 . The message signal waveform is shown below,
a
m(t)max k
Solution: Modulation Index, m 0.5
a A 2
c
Hence, K=1
K2 1
Mean Square Value of Message Signal, m2 t
3 3
A2 m2 t
Total Power, P c
T 2 2
4 1
P 2.167W
T 2 6
0.16
Transmission Efficiency, 100% 7.19%
2.16
A A
Solution: Modulation Index, m max min 30 0.5
a A A 60
max min
A A
Carrier Amplitude, A max min 45 15 30
c 2 2
Peak of modulating Signal, m t A m 30 0.5 15
max C a
15 75
2
Trapezoidal Method
If the modulated signal is plotted in X-Y mode on a CRO then the shape of a trapezoid
appears as shown below,
L L
m 1 2
a L L
1 2
Solved Examples
Problem: If AM wave pattern for non – periodic, signal in CRO is shown, what is value of
Modulation Index?
Problem: In trapezoidal method, if ratio of short height to long height is 0.65, what is value
of modulation index?
L
Solution: Ratio of short height to long height is, 2
L
1
L
L L 1 2L
Modulation Index, m 1 2 1 1 0.65 0.35 0.212
a L L L 1 0.65 1.65
1 2 1 2
L
1
example any periodic signal can be resolved into Fourier Series and so it can be treated as
Multi-tone Signal.
Let m t A cos t A cos t A cos t ...................
1 m1 2 m2 3 m3
Modulated Signal, s t A m t cos t
c c
s(t) A A cos t A cos t ........... cos t
c 1 m1 2 m2 c
A A
s(t) A 1 1 cos t 2 cos t ........ cos t
c A m1 A m2 c
c c
s t A 1 m cos t m cos t ....... cos t
c a1 m1 a2 m2 c
Here, m represents modulation index for ith tone
ai
B.W. max 2 ,2 ,2 ,............
1 2 3
B.W. 2max , , ,............
1 2 3
Frequency spectrum
The frequency spectrum for modulated multi-tone signal is as shown below,
Solved Examples
Problem: If equation of AM wave is given as:
s t 10 5cos 2 103 t 2cos 4 103 t cos 2 106 t
Calculate, (i) m (ii) P (iii) Bandwidth
a T
Solution: Modulation Index for different tones present in the signal are,
5 2
m 0.5 and m 0.2
a1 10 a2 10
Modulation Index, m
a
0.52 0.22 0.29 0.5385
A2 m2 2
Power Transmitted, P c 1 a 50 1 0.5385 = 57.25W
T 2
2 2
In case of low level, generation of AM takes place in initial stage only and this generated AM
is modified by using a linear device which may be a class A or class B amplifier.
In high level, modulation takes place in final stage of amplifier and modulation circuitry has
to handle high value of power.
These are two basic techniques to implement Amplitude Modulation.
The differences in both types of modulation techniques are listed below,
Generation of AM
There are two basic methods for generation of Amplitude Modulated Wave,
Switching Modulator
Non-Linear Device
Switching Modulator
The input voltage to the circuit is sum of message and
carrier signal.
During positive half cycle of input, Diode is ON
V V
o i
The practical and ideal characteristics of Diode are shown
Below,
Practical characteristics are non-linear due to knee voltage. If knee voltage is neglected the
characteristics become linear.
This diode switching operation can also be assumed as multiplication of input signal by an
infinite square pulse shown below,
Here, the switching pulse is 1 during the positive half cycle so that input and output are
same and switching pulse is 0 during negative half cycle as Diode is OFF so output becomes
zero.
Positive and negative cycles are assumed based on cosine function which is the carrier wave.
The time period of square wave,
2
Tp
c
Since, it is a periodic function, it can be represented in terms of Fourier Series
1 2 2
p(t) cos t cos3 t ............
2 c 3 c
The output of switching modulator is then,
1 2 2
V A cos t m t cos t cos3 t ....
o c c
2 c 3 c
mt 2 2
V A cos t A cos2 t m t cos t .....
o c c 2 c c c
Desired components are (I) and (IV) out of all the components present after multiplication.
If one selects a LPF with cut-off frequency
c m
then first and fourth component can
be extracted but in that case 2nd component is also present at the output which is undesired.
Hence, one has to take a BPF between
c m
and
c m
Here, is maximum frequency of message signal.
m
Modulated Signal is the output of filter,
A 2 A 4
s t c cos t m t cos t c 1 m t cos t
2 c c 2 A c
c
4
k amplitude sensitivity
a A
c
Modulation Index, m m t .k
a max a
V a v a v2
o 1i 2 i
Input Voltage, V m t A cos t
i c c
2
o 1
V a m t A cos t a m t A cos t
c c 2 c c
The band of Filter is, ,
c m c m
In order to remove the third term from the output of band pass filter, the necessary
condition is,
Solved Examples
c a
s t A 1 k m t cos t
c
2
1 1 c
V a A cos t k m t A cos t a A cos t A k m t cos t
c a c c 2 c c c a c
2
Since, 2cos t 1 cos2 t
c c
Solved Examples
Problem: What is a value of maximum Harmonic Distortion possible in non – linear device
output?
Solution: Let m t A cos t
m m
k 2 A2
2 2 2
y t k A cos t 2k A cos t a m cos 2 t 2k A cos t
a m m a m m 2 m a m m
k2A2 k2 A2
% Harmonic Distortion a m
2 2k A
100% a m 100% 25 k A
4 a m
a m
Maximum Harmonic Distortion = 25% max k A 1
a m
Problem: Assertion: Square Law Detector are not particularly satisfactory for detection if
modulating signal base amplitude is greater than 1V.
Reason: A square detector H.D. is as high as 25% for completely modulated signal.
Solution: Both Assertion and Reason are correct but reason is not correct explanation of
assertion. Reason will be that is causes harmonic distraction for high amplitude ( m2 t will
be denominating).
Synchronous Detection
c a
Modulated Signal, s t A 1 k m t cos t
c
Here, synchronization means frequency of carrier and frequency of local oscillator are in
synchronization.
c a
V t s t c t A 1 k m t cos t A' cos t
1 c c c
A A
1 c c a c 2 a
V t A A' 1 k m t cos2 t c c 1 k m t 1 cos2 t
c
A A'
2
V t c c 1 k m t cos2 t k m t cos2 t
1 a c a c
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Communication Systems (Theory)
A A' A A'
c ck m t c c
Output of LPF:
2 a
2
A A'
c ck m t
Output of capacitor:
2 a
The capacitor blocks DC Voltage and so the output is proportional to message signal. So,
there is no distortion in output.
Envelope Detector
For the case of under-modulation, the modulated wave and its envelope are shown below,
Here, if we are able to extract the envelope then message signal can be extracted from the
modulated waveform without the loss of any information.
When modulation index is 1 i.e. the case of critical modulation the modulated waveform and
its envelope are shown below,
But the information is lost when the modulated waveform touches the axis so message
signal cannot be completely recovered.
In the figure shown above, the modulation index is greater than 1 and so it is a case of Over-
Modulation.
Information is lost due to overlapping of positive and negative envelope so envelope
detection will not yield the message signal.
Hence, Envelope detector will work efficiently only when modulation index is less than 1.
Basic Operation
In positive half, diode will be ON and capacitor starts changing through resistance R .
s
The time constant for charging of capacitor is, R C .
s c
Here capacitor will charge fast upto peak value and hence should be small.
1
R C
s c f
c
If time constant is small, capacitor charging will be fast.
In negative half, diode becomes off and start discharging through R . In this case, R C
L L
becomes very important.
If R C is very small, then there will be fluctuation in the output and high value of ripple
L
will be present. Due to this there may be some ripples at the output. These spikes/ripples
fluctuations will degrades the performance of output.
1
R C
L f
c
If R C is very high; initially capacitor will be charged upto peak and due to high value of
L
R C . Let voltage discharge upto some value in negative half cycle (during period when
L
diode is off). Next peak at input having high value will charged capacitor to higher voltage.
During negative half cycle, capacitor discharges very slowly and cannot reach the level of
next peak. If having very small value, voltage is not sufficient to make diode ON and so, it will
miss that peak; so an amount of information will be lost (small peaks) due to large discharge
time this is called as Diagonal clipping.
The capacitor shall be able to discharge by the next peak arrives so that no information is
1
missed and hence, R C T
L m f
m
1 1
R C {for satisfactory operation}
f L f
c m
Solved Examples
Problem: An A.M. signal is detected using an envelope detector carrier frequency are 1MHz
and 2kHz, then what is value of time constant for envelope detector?
(a) 500s (b) 20s
(c) 1s (d) 0.2s
Solution: For satisfactory detection of message signal,
1 1
RC
10 6
2 103
1s RC 500s
1 m2
RC a
.m
m a
To avoid diagonal clipping, rate of discharge of capacitor voltage should be greater than rate
of decrease of modulating voltage.
c a m
Modulated Waveform, s t A 1 m cos t cos t
c
Envelope of Modulated Signal is, V
envelope c a
A 1 m cos t
m
When the capacitor discharges, the capacitor voltage is given by,
t t
V t V e RC V 1
c envelope envelope RC
Capacitor should discharge before next peak arrives so no information is lost. Hence,
dV dV
c envelope
dt dt
dV V
c envelope
dt RC
dV
envelope
dt
sin t A m A m sin t
m m c a c a m m
V
envelope
A m sin t
RC c a m m
Thus, RC c
A 1 m cos t
a m
A m sin t
c a m m
1 m cos t
RC a m
m sin t
a m m
m
a m a m m a m m a m
m sin t .m sin t m 2 cos t 1 m cos t
m m
m sin2 t cos t 1 m cos t
a a m
m cos t
a m
RC
1 ma cos mt 1 m2
a
m sin t
a m m m 1 m2
a m a
1 m2
RC max m a
a m
Note:
This is valid for single tone sinusoidal signal only.
Here value of time constant depends upon max modulation frequency and modulation
index m .
a
Envelope detector is an Asynchronous detector (since no oscillator is used).
Solved Examples
Problem: If s t 10 1 0.5cos 2 500t cos 2 106 t and demodulated by envelope
detector, than what is maximum value time constant to avoid diagonal clipping?
1 m2
a 1 0.25
Solution: RC 0.55
max .m 0.5 2 500
m a
Solved Examples
Problem: In DSB – FC, if m 1 , what is % saving in transmitted power if:
a
a) Only carrier is suppressed
b) Carrier and one side band is suppressed.
Solution: For 100% Modulation Index, the transmitted power is
m 2
1 3
P P 1 a P 1 P
T c 2 c 2 2 c
1
If carrier is suppressed then, transmitted power becomes,
1
P P
T c
2 2
3 1
2 Pc 2 Pc
% saving = 66.67%
3
P
2 c
Now, if one sideband as well as carrier is suppressed the transmitted power becomes half
1
P P
T c
2 4
3 1
2 Pc 4 Pc
% saving 100% = 83.33%
3
P
2 c
In DSB-SC, whenever message signal crosses zero level i.e. it becomes negative from positive
or vice versa then modulated signal also changes polarity. This can be called as 1800 phase
shift in the sinusoidal carrier wave.
When m(t) is negative. Suppose, m(t) = -g(t)
Then, modulated signal becomes,
s t m t cos t g t cos t
c c
s t g t cos t 1800
c
DSB – SC Frequency Domain Representation
Suppression of carrier means first generate DSB – FC and then suppress the carrier.
s t m t cos t
c
The spectrum of Modulated Signal is,
S w
1
2
M M
c
c
From, the spectrum of modulated wave,
Bandwidth, BW 2 rad
m sec
V a V a V2
1 1i 2 i
The input to Non-Linear Device is sum of message and carrier signal,
V m t A cos t
i c c
The output of Non-Linear Device is,
c m
Band Pass Filter of frequency to
c
m
Then, at the output second and fourth terms are present which means DSB-FC is generated.
The carrier is then suppressed to generate DSB-SC signal.
1 c
s t A m t cos t
c
s t A m t cos t
2 c c
The output of modulator is,
s t s t 2m t cos t
1 2 c
The output of Balanced Modulator is product of Message and Carrier Signal.
Ring Modulator
The input to Ring Modulator is the message signal. The carrier signal controls the switching
of Diodes to transfer the input signal to output.
(i) For m(t) = 0 and D ,D ON and D ,D OFF
1 2 3 4
The output is zero.
Message Signal is transferred to output with opposite polarity due to cross connection.
Since modulated wave becomes zero when m(t) becomes zero and there is phase reversal
also at m(t) = 0 as shown by circled points in output wave; hence it is DSB – SC.
In ring modulator, if one frequency is f and other is f , output will have frequency
1 2
Detection of DSB – SC
The following methods can be used for detection of message signal from DSB-SC Modulated
Signal.
Switching Modulator
1 2
V m t cos t m t
1 cos 2ct 2 m t cos t
o1 2 c 2 3 c
1 mt mt
V mt cos t cos2 t ........
o1 2 c c
To get message signal, one can design a LPF of cut – off frequency practically, it can be taken
as 2
m
The carrier multiplied to message signal and the one used for demodulation needs to have
same frequency and hence synchronized to each other.
A mt
1 c c c
V m t cos t A cos t c
2 c
cos 2 t cos
If we use a LPF for detection then the output is,
A m t
V c cos
o 2
If 0 , then
A mt
1 c c
V m t cos t A cos t c
c 2
1 cos 2 t
c
After filtering with a Low Pass Filter, there is complete message signal recovery at the output.
A m t
V c
o 2
In this case, the demodulating signal is in perfect synchronization with the modulating signal.
c c
Then, c t A' cos t
A' m t
i
c c c
V t m t cos t A' cos t
c
2
c
cos 2 t cos t
Case 1: 0 and 0
No distortion, no attenuation
mt
y t
2
Case 2: 0 and 0
Only attenuation as amplitude is changed.
m t cos
y t
2
Case 3: 0 and 0
A' m t
y t c cos t
2
Here, attenuation as well as distortion is present in the output.
Case 4: 0 and 0
Only Distortion is present due to time dependent term in the output.
m t cos t
y t
2
Costas Receiver
A Costas Loop is a phase locked loop used for recovery of carrier signal from DSB-SC
Modulated Signal.
Modulated Signal, s t m t cos t
c
The output y t and y t will be,
1 2
A mt
1 c c
y t A m t cos t cos t c
c 2 c
cos 2 t cos
A mt
y
2
c
t A m t cos
c
t
cos
c
t 90 c
2 c
sin 2 t sin
When both these signals are passed through LPF then the outputs are,
A mt A mt
s t c cos s t c sin
1 2 2 2
For small value of ; cos 1and sin
A m t A m t
s t c s t c
1 2 2 2
Phase discriminator is a device which generates DC voltage corresponding to phase
difference Φ. This DC voltage will modify phase in value such that VCO phase and input
phase are same so, by Costas Receiver, the receiver circuit will become complex and this is
for only low phase errors.
Solved Examples
Problem: A message signal band – limited to frequency ' f ' has power 'P ' , what is power
m m
of output shown in figure?
m2 t
P
m 2
Output of multiplier is,
mt
1 c c
X t m t cos t cos t
2 c
cos 2 t cos
The output of Low Pass Filter becomes,
mt
y t cos
2
2
1 m t
Power cos2
4 2
P
Power of Output m cos2
4
Since, cut-off frequency f 1Hz is less than the frequency of message signal. Hence,
c
y t 0 which means no signal will pass through LPF.
Problem: If the input to a coherent detector is DSB – SC signal plus noise, than what is value
of noise at output?
Assume n t n cos t n sin t and c t cos t
I c Q c c
n : In-phase component of Noise
I
n : Quadrature component of Noise
Q
Types of Envelope
There are three types of envelope,
Pre Envelope
An analytic signal is a complex signal created by adding a signal with its Hilbert Transform in
Quadrature. It is also known as pre-envelope of a signal.
x t x t jxˆ t
p
Here, x̂ t is the Hilbert Transform of x(t)
By taking the pre-envelope the negative frequency components are discarded and the real
signal can be easily recovered from complex signal by discarding the imaginary part.
Natural Envelope
The magnitude of pre-envelope of a signal is known as natural envelope of a signal.
x t
Natural Envelope: p
Complex Envelope
Analytic Signals are often shifted in frequency or down converted to 0Hz. It possibly creates
negative frequency components. This helps in reducing the maximum frequency so that
sampling rate also reduces. Complex Envelope is given by,
j t
x
c
t xp t e c
Solved Examples
Problem: A modulated signal is given by
s t eat cos t t u t where and are positive constants, calculate:
c c
(i) Pre envelope (ii) Complex envelope (iii) Natural envelope
Solution: Pre-envelope, s t s t jsˆ t
p
s t eat cos t t u t jsin t t eat
p c c
This happens because Hilbert transform of cosine signal is sine signal.
s t eatu t e
j t
c
eate c
j t
ut
p
Complex Envelope, s t s t e
j t
c eate c
j t
u t e
j t
c
c p
jt
s t eate ut
c
Note: In questions, if only envelope is asked, then envelope taken is natural envelope.
If s t s cos t s sin t
I c Q c
Natural envelope: s t s t s2 s2
p I Q
Pre-Envelope, x t m t cos t jm t sin t
p c c
x t m t cos t jsin t m t e c
j t
p c c
Natural Envelope, x t m t
p
Method-2
x t m t cos t cos m t sin t sin m t cos t m t sin t
c c I c Q c
Natural Envelope x t m2 t m2 t m2 t m t
p I Q
sin199t 2sinnt
Determine the output if, n t
t
, mt
t
and c t cos200t
Problem: Consider a system shown in figure. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote Fourier Transform of
x(t) and y(t) respectively. If ideal HPF has cut – off frequency of 10kHz. Then positive
frequencies where Y(f) will have spectral peaks are?
So, the positive frequency peaks lie in the spectrum at 2kHz and 24kHz.
Alternatively, we can directly solve by observing that input has peaks at -1kHz and 1kHz, so
after first multiplier peaks will lie at 9kHz and 11kHz. After High Pass Filter, only 11kHz and -
11kHz peak passes and after second multiplier -11kHz is shifted to 2kHz and 11kHz is shifted
to 24kHz.
Problem: A DSB – SC signal is to be generated with carrier frequency f / =1MHz using a non
c
– linear device with input-output characteristics V a V a V3 where a and a are
o 1i 1i o 1
constants. The output of non – linear device can be filtered by an appropriate BPF. Let
c
V A cos 2f t m t where m(t) is message signal. Then value of f in MHz is?
i c c
V a V a V3
o o i 1i
3
V a A cos2f t m t a A cos2f t m t
o o c c 1 c c
o c c
V a A cos 2f t m t a A3 cos3 2f t a m3 t
o 1 c c 1
1 cos 4 f t
3a m t A2 c 3a m2 t A cos 2f t
c
1 c 2 1 c
Desired component for DSB-SC generation,
3a A2
y t 1 c m t cos 4 f t
2 c
The DSB-SC for a carrier frequency of f ' must be,
c
m t cos 2f 't
c
On comparing with generated DSB-SC,
4f 2f '
c c
f ' 1MHz
f c 2.5MHz 250kHz
c 2 2
Generation of QAM
By 900 phase shift we generate a second carrier A sin t in phase quadrature with the
c c
carrier signal A cos t
c c
1 cos2 t A2m t
2
y t A m t c c 2 sin2 t
1 c 1 2 2 c
A2m t 1 cos2 t
2
y t A m t sin2 t c 2 c
1 c 1 c 2 2
In QAM, we transmit two signals using the same Bandwidth and so it leads to efficient
utilization of Bandwidth.
Solved Examples
Problem: What is Hilbert Transform of x t sin t ?
o
Solution: The spectrum of signal x(t) is,
X
j
o o
Fourier Transform of Hilbert Transform is,
H jsgn
Y X H sgn
o o
Y
o o
Taking Inverse Fourier Transform,
y t cos t
o
When we use only one of the sidebands instead of two sidebands it is known as Single
Sideband.
In the above spectrum, we have only considered Upper Sideband for SSB Modulation.
In the above spectrum we have considered the lower sideband out of the two sidebands.
SSB – SC requires minimum value of Bandwidth and minimum value of transmitted power.
Since, information is carried out by 2 sidebands and they are images of each other, hence
they carry same information.
Bandwidth is noise – filtering characteristics of the system, means as Bandwidth increases the
effect of Noise increases. The power spectral density of Noise is constant so the higher the
Bandwidth more is the Power contained in Noise and so more is the effect of Noise.
For one to many communication, we will prefer either DSB – SC or DSB – FC since design for
receiver needed is simple for one to one communication, we will use SSB – SC modulation.
SSB can be effectively used for FDM and generally used in point – to – point communication
and mobile communication.
Generation of SSB – SC
To generate SSB-SC, we first create DSB-FC and suppress the carrier in order to generate
DSB-SC and then either upper or lower sideband is suppressed to create SSB-SC.
Let m t A cos t and c t A cos t
m m c c
DSB-FC modulated signal is,
c c c m m
s t A m t cos t A cos t A cos t cos t
c c
If the carrier is suppressed,
A
m
s t A cos t cos t m
m c 2 c m c
cos t cos
m t
A A
2 c m 2 c
s t m cos t m cos t
m
The first term has higher frequency and second one has lower frequency. So, first one is
called as Upper Sideband and second term is called as Lower Sideband
If m t A cos t and m
ˆ t A sin t
m m m m
Generation of SSB – SC
There are three methods used for generation of SSB-SC signal,
(1) Frequency discriminator
(2) Phase discriminator
(3) Weaver discriminator
This method first generate DSB – SC and a filter is used to remove unwanted sidebands.
This filter may be RC, LC or mechanical filter depending on carrier frequency.
This filter may have flat pass band and extremely highly attention outside the pass band.
The frequency generated by this filter may be very low which will be translated to a higher
frequency by use of local oscillator.
This dc filter may be used upto a frequency of 100kHz and is bulky in size which can
create a problem. Hence mechanical filter will be preferred and due to this reason,
mechanical filter are preferred.
Advantages
This method gives side – suppression ratio upto 90 dB which is quite adequate.
Side band filter also help to attenuate carrier if present in Balanced Modulator.
In this case, Pass Band is sufficiently flat and wide.
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Communication Systems (Theory)
Disadvantages
They cannot generate SSB at every frequency.
They are bulky in size.
At lower audio frequency, design becomes expensive.
Step-3: This spectrum must be translated to higher carrier frequency by the use of Local
Oscillator. The output will have a spectrum of,
By this method, we can generate SSB-SC in which only upper sideband is present. Similarly,
by changing the signal pass band we can generate the Lower Sideband signal.
Here, BM represents Balanced Modulator which multiples message signal with carrier signal.
H.T. represents Hilbert Transform.
The outputs of Balanced Modulators are,
1
S t cos t cos t
m c
S t sin t sin t
2 m c
These signals can also be represented as,
1
1
2 c m
S t cos t cos t
c m
S t cos t cos t
1
2 2 c m c m
The output of summer will be either upper sideband or lower sideband based on whether
signals are added or subtracted.
1 2 c m
Addition: y t S S cos t LSB
1 2 c
Subtraction: y t S S cos t USB
m
Advantages
Bulky filter are replaced by small filter.
It can generate SSB at any frequency.
Low audio frequency may be used for modulation.
There is easy switching from one sideband to other side band.
To generate SSB at high frequency up – conversion and repetitive mixing is not required.
Disadvantages
It requires a complex audio frequency phase shift network because it has to work for low
frequency range.
Sideband suppression depends on phase relationship between two phase shifters else
sideband may not be successfully suppressed.
Output of 2 balanced modulators must be exactly same otherwise correlation is not
complete and desired frequency component is not achieved.
Solved Examples
Problem: In following scheme, if spectrum M(f) of m(t) is shown in the figure, then spectrum
Y(f) of y(t) will be?
Solution: This is a phase discrimination method of generation of SSB-SC and due to addition
of both signals, LSB will be generated.
The DSB-SC spectrum will be as shown below,
Weaver Method
In Weaver Method, the band of interest is first translated to zero by modulating with a carrier
B
wave of frequency lying at the center of band, f
c1 2
This pair of signals is passed through LPF to remove sidebands that is not centered at zero.
Then it is modulated to desired carrier frequency by a pair of quadrature mixers.
Assume m t cos 2f t
m
The output of first oscillator is, v t cos 2f t
1 1
Due to 900 phase shift, v
2
t sin 2f1t
After the multiplier or Balanced Modulator the output is,
m 1
1
2 1 m
v t cos 2f t cos 2f t cos 2 f f t cos 2 f f t
3 m 1
t cos 2 f f t
1
v
5
2 1 m
t sin 2 f f t
1
v
6
2 1 m
The output of second oscillator is,
v
7
t cos 2f2t and v
8
t sin 2f2t
t cos 2 f f f t cos 2 f f f t
1
v
9
4 2 1 m 2 1 m
Similarly,
10
1
2
v t sin 2 f f t sin 2f t
1 m 2
1
v t cos 2 f f f t cos 2 f f f t
10 4 2 1 m 2 1 m
The output of Weaver Modulator is,
y t
1
2
cos 2 f f f t
2 1 m
B B
If f and f f
1 2 2 c 2
1
Then, y t cos 2 f f t which is the Upper Sideband signal and similarly Lower
2 C m
Sideband signal can be generated.
Comparison of Techniques
Parameter Filter Phase Shift Weaver
900 phase shift Not Required Required Required
SSB Generation Not for all frequency All Frequencies All Frequencies
Up-conversion Required Not Required Not Required
Complexity Less Moderate Highest
Design Aspect Size, Weight and Phase Shift of 900 Symmetry of B.M.
Frequency
Switching Capacity Not Possible Easy Easy
Detection of SSB – SC
Synchronous Detection
c t cos t
c
y t m t cos t cos t
1 c c m
c
ˆ t sin t cos t
c
mt ˆ t
y t
1 2 c
cos 2 t cos
m
2 c
sin 2 t sin
After passing through LPF,
mt ˆ t
m
y t cos sin
2 2
mt
If 0, y t
2
m̂ t
; y t
2 2
It means there is no Quadrature Null Effect problem in the SSB – SC due to phase error.
Due to absence of carrier and one side band, transmitted power and Bandwidth are reduced
but at same time due to absence carrier, receiver will become complex. In order to reduce
this problem, a small power carrier signal is directly transmitted from the transmitter so that
these will be synchronization in frequency of local oscillator and modulated signal.
Same function is served by costar receiver in DSB – SC.
The first waveform shows the spectrum of DSB-SC modulated signal. The second and
third waveforms represent Upper Sideband and Lower Sideband variation of VSB signal.
B.W. f f
m b
Major advantage of SSB is that it reduced bandwidth equal to half as compared to AM or
DSB – FC but SSB signal are very different to generate because it is difficult to desired side
band and eliminate undesired sideband.
For this purpose, filter must have a very sharp cut off frequency and in case information
contains low frequency signal, then generation of SSB be difficult. This difficulty is generate
by a scheme because VSB – SC which is a compromise b/w DSB – SC and SSB – SC.
We can break the output into two components one in-phase component and other is
Quadrature Component.
s t
I h m t cos 2fc d h t cos 2fct m t
Taking Fourier Transform,
I
1
2 Mf . 21 Hf fc Hf fc
S f M f . H f f f f f
c c
H f f H f f 1,
c c
f W
M f mt
Thus, S f and s t
I 2 I 2
Q
1
2j
S f M f . H f f H f f
c c
m t
s t Q
Q 2
S M M .H
c c I
Detection:
1 c
c I c I
Y w S S M H H
c
Here, we have neglected 2 components
c
1
H
I c I
o H H
c
Y Y .H M = M(w)
o 1 o
Hence, y
o
t mt
s t A m t cos t
c c
Comparing this to SSB signal, the in-phase and quadrature component of signal are,
I
s t A mt
c and s t 0
Q
Natural Envelope A m t
c
SSB – SC
s t m t cos t m
ˆ t sin t
c c
SSB – FC
A A
c 2
s t A cos t c m cos t
c c m
A A A
s t A cos t 1 m cos t m c sin t sin t
c c 2 m 2 c m
The in-phase and quadrature component are,
A A
s 1 m cos t A s m sin t
I 2 m c Q 2 m
A2 A2 A2
2
Envelope A 1 m cos2 t A cos t c m sin2 t
c 4 m m m 4 m
A2A2 A2
c m 2 2 2 m
Envelope A A A cos t A 1 A cos t
4 c c m m c 4 m m
A2
Envelope A 1 m A cos t
c 4 m m
SNR o
F.O.M.
SNR c
SNR o Defined as ratio of average power of demodulated signal to average power of
noise both measured at receiver output.
SNR c Defined as ratio of average power of modulating signal to average power of noise
both measured at receiver input.
c2A2P c2 A2P
SNR o 4 cN SNR c 4 cN
m o m o
Here,
c = constant
A = Carrier power
c
P = power of message signal
= message signal Bandwidth
m
N
o
2 = Power spectral density of white noise
A2K 2P A2 1 k 2P
SNR 0 2c Na SNR c c2 N a
m o m o
k2P
A2
Figure of Merit, F.O.M. a where P m
1 k2P 2
a
m2
FOM a
2 m2
a
1
If m 1 ; F.O.M. which is same as Transmission Efficiency
a 3