Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-1 Power Circuits and Systems

Chapter 10 : Power Circuits and Systems

Section 10.9 :
Ex. 10.9.2 : A class B push-pull amplifier supplies power to a loud speaker of 8 . The output
transformer has a turns ratio N1 : N2 of 4 : 1 and efficiency of 95%. Calculate the
following :
1. Maximum power output. 2. Maximum power dissipation in each transistor.
3. Maximum base currents for each transistor.
Assume hfe = 15 and VCC = 24 Volts. Page No. 10-43.
Soln. :
Given : [ N1 / N2 ] = 4,  of transformer = 0.95, VCC = 24 V, RL = 8  , hfe = 15
To calculate Pac ( max ) :
The maximum output power can be obtained by assuming V m = VCC .
2 2
Vm VCC
 Pac ( max ) = = ...(1)
2 RL 2 RL

RL = [ N1 / N2 ] RL = ( 4 )  8 = 128 
2 2
But ...(2)
2
( 24 )
 Pac ( max ) = = 2.25 Watt ...(3)
2  128
But since the transformer efficiency  = 0.95 the actual output power is given by,
Po = Pac ( max )   = 2.25  0.95 = 2.137 W ...Ans.
To calculate the power dissipation :
2
2  (24 )
2
2 VCC
Maximum power dissipation = = = 0.912 W.
 RL   128
2 2

But this power dissipation corresponds to two transistors. Hence the maximum power dissipation
per transistor is given by,
0.912
Pd ( max ) / Transistor = = 0.456 W ...Ans.
2
To calculate Im :
Vm I m VCC Im 24 Im
We know that, Pac ( max ) = =  2.25 =
2 2 2
2.25  2
 Im = = 0.1875 Amp ...(4)
24
To calculate the maximum base current :
Im 0.1875
Ib ( max ) = = = 12.5 mA ...Ans.
hfe 15
Ex. 10.9.3 : The maximum ac power supplied to a 4  loud speaker by a class B push-pull amplifier is
2 W. Calculate the turns ratio of the transformer if VCC = 12 V and the transformer is ideal.
Page No. 10-43.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-2 Power Circuits and Systems

Soln. :
Given : VCC = 12 V, Pac ( max ) = 2 W, RL = 4 
We know that the maximum ac power is obtained when Vm = VCC .
2 2 2
Vm VCC VCC 2
( 12 )
 Pac ( max ) = =  RL = = = 36  ...(1)
2 RL 2 RL 2 Pac ( max ) 22

RL
2
But = [ N1 / N2 ] RL
 36 = [ N1 / N2 ]  4
2

 [ N1 / N2 ] = 9
2

N1
 = 3 …Ans.
N2
Ex. 10.9.4 : For a class B push-pull amplifier operating on a 24 V supply, the collector voltage of each
transistor swings from 24 V i.e. VCC to 4 V, with application of the input signal. Each
transistor has the maximum collector dissipation rating of 10 W. Calculate :
1. Output power 2. DC input power
3. Collector circuit efficiency. Assume [ N1 / N2 ] = 1. Page No. 10-43.
Soln. :
Given : VCC = 24 V, Vmax = 24 V, Vmin = 4 V,
Pd ( max ) / transistor = 10 W.
To calculate the ac output power and dc power, it is necessary to calculate R  . L

Step 1 : Calculate the value of RL :

Pd ( max ) = 2  Pd ( max ) / transistor = 2  10 = 20 W
2
2 VCC
But, Pd ( max ) =
 RL
2

2  ( 24 )
2
 20 = ,  RL = 5.84  ...(1)
  R
2
L

Step 2 : Calculate the output power ( Pac ) :

2
2 2
Vm (Vmax – Vmin) (24 – 4)
Pac = = = = 34.12 Watt ...Ans.
2 RL 2  RL 2  5.84

Step 3 : Calculate the dc input power ( Pdc ) :

2 Im
Pdc = VCC 

Vm ( 24 – 4 )
But, Im = = = 3.42 Amp.
RL 5.84

24  2  3.42
 Pdc = = 52.32 Watt ...Ans.

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-3 Power Circuits and Systems

Step 4 : To calculate the % efficiency :

Pac 34.12
% =  100 =  100 = 65.22 % ...Ans.
Pdc 52.32
Ex. 10.9.7 : A single transistor operates as an ideal class B amplifier. The dc current drawn by the
transistor from the supply is 20 mA. Calculate the amount of ac power delivered to the load
if load resistance is 1 k. Page No. 10-48.
Soln. :
Given : Idc = 20 mA, RL = 1 k

Steps to be followed :

Step 1 : Calculate the value of Im from Idc as Idc = ( Im /  ) .

2
Im RL
Step 2 : Then calculate the output power Pac =
2

Fig. P. 10.9.7: Supply current waveform

Step 1 : Calculate the value of Im :

Referring to Fig. P. 10.9.7 we can write the expression for the average value of the source current
as,
 – Im
1 
Idc =
2
 Im sin t dt =
2
[ cos t]0
0
– Im – Im
=  [ cos  – cos 0] = ( –1 – 1 )
2 
 Idc = Im /  ...(1)
 Im = Idc   = 20 mA   = 62.63 mA ...(2)
Step 2 : Calculate the output power :
2
Pac = IL ( rms ) RL ...(3)
 From the current waveform of Fig. P.10.9.7, we can calculate I L rms as follows :
2
1  2 2   Im  1 – cos 2t 
1/2 1/2

IL rms =   Im sin t dt  =   dt

2  0  2  0 2

2
 Im  
1/2
Im 1
=   ( 1 – cos 2t ) dt   – 0) = Im / 2 …(4)
2  (
=
4  0  
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-4 Power Circuits and Systems

 Substitute Equation (4) into (3) to get,

2
Pac = ( Im / 2 )  RL = Im RL / 4
2

( 62.83  10–3 )2  1 103

= = 0.985 W ...Ans.
4
Ex. 10.9.8 : For an ideal class B push-pull amplifier show that the maximum output power can be as
high as five times the maximum power dissipation in each transistor. Page No. 10-48.
Soln. : We are expected to prove the following relation :
Pac ( max ) = 5 Pd ( max ) per transistor
Referring to Equation (10.9.14) we can write that,
2
VCC
Pac ( max ) = ...(1)
2 RL
Referring to Equation (10.9.15) we can write that,
2
Pd ( max ) per transistor = 2 P
 ac ( max )

2

 Pac ( max ) = P per transistor = 4.934 Pd ( max ) per transistor

2 d ( max )
 Pac ( max )  5 Pd ( max ) per transistor
Hence proved.
Section 10.12 :
Ex. 10.12.1 : A complementary push-pull amplifier has capacitive coupled load RL = 8, supply voltage
 12 V calculate :
1. Pac( max ) 2. PD of each transistor 3. Efficiency Page No. 10-53.
Soln. :
Step 1 : To calculate Pac ( max ) :
2
Vm
Pac ( max ) = Substitute Vm = VCC to get,
2 RL
2
VCC 2
( 12 )
Pac ( max ) = = = 9 Watt ...Ans.
2 RL 28
Step 2 : To calculate Im :
Vm
Im =
RL
VCC 12
= …(1)
RL 8
= 1.5 Amp
Step 3 : To calculate Pdc :
2 VCC Im
Pdc =

2  12  1.5
= = 11.46 W Fig. P. 10.12.1 : Given circuit

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-5 Power Circuits and Systems

Step 4 : To calculate efficiency :

Pac 9
% =  100 =  100 = 78.5 % ...Ans.
Pdc 11.46
Step 5 : To calculate Pd of each transistor :
Total Power dissipation Pd = Pdc – Pac
= 11.46 – 9 = 2.46 W ...Ans.
2.46
 Pd per transistor = = 1.23 W …Ans.
2
Ex. 10.12.2 : The circuit shown in Fig. P. 10.12.2
operates with a sinusoidal input.
Calculate :
1. Maximum A.C. power output.
2. Power dissipation in each
transistor.
3. Conversion efficiency at
maximum power output.
Page No. 10-53.
Fig. P. 10.12.2
Soln. :
As only a single supply is being used, we have to use all the expressions derived for the
complementary symmetry with a substitution of VCC = VCC / 2 .
Step 1 : Maximum A.C. power output Pac ( max ) :
2
Vm
Pac =
2 RL
To obtain Pac ( max ) we substitute Vm = VCC
But here we will substitute Vm = VCC / 2
2
(VCC / 2)
 Pac ( max ) =
2 RL
2
VCC 2
( 20 )
= = = 6.25 Watt ...Ans.
8 RL 88
Step 2 : Power dissipation in each transistor :
We know that,
2
Pd ( max ) per transistor = 2 P
 ac ( max )
2
 Pd ( max ) per transistor = 2  6.25 = 1.26 W ...Ans.

 Total power dissipation = 1.26  2 = 2.53 W
Step 3 : Efficiency :
Pac ( max ) 6.25
 = = = 0.7115 = 71.15% ...Ans.
Pac ( max ) + Pd 6.25 + 2.53
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-6 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.12.3 : An ideal class B complementary symmetry push pull amplifier operates with V CC = 12 V
and RL = 5 . If the input is sinusoidal, calculate :
1. Maximum power output.
2. Power dissipation in both transistors.
3. Power dissipation in each transistor.
4. Conversion efficiency for maximum output. Page No. 10-54.
Soln. : This example is similar to Ex. 10.12.2.
1. Maximum ac power Pac ( max ) :
2
VCC ( 12 )
2
Pac ( max ) = = = 3.6 W ...Ans.
8 RL 85

2. Maximum power dissipation in both the transistors :

4 4
Pd ( max ) = 2 P = 2  3.6 = 1.46 W ...Ans.
 ac ( max ) 
3. Maximum power dissipation per transistor :
Pd ( max ) / transistor = 1.46 / 2 = 0.73 W ...Ans.

4. Efficiency :
Pac ( max ) 3.6
% =  100 =  100 = 71.15% ...Ans.
Pac ( max ) + Pd ( max ) 5.06
Ex. 10.12.4 : A series fed class A amplifier shown in Fig. P. 10.12.4, operates from D.C. source and
applied sinusoidal input signal generates peak base current 9 mA. Calculate
1. Quiescent current ICQ 2. Quiescent voltage VCEQ
3. D.C. input power PDC 4. A.C. output power PAC
5. Efficiency.
Assume  = 50 and VBE = 0.7 V. Page No. 10-54.
Soln. :
VCC – VBE
1. IBQ =
RB
20 – 0.7
=
1.5  10
3

= 12.867 mA
2. ICQ =   IBQ
= 50  12.867
= 643.33 mA ...Ans.
Fig. P. 10.12.4 : Given circuit

3. VCEQ = VCC – ICQ RC = 20 – (0.6433  16 ) = 9.7 ...Ans.

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-7 Power Circuits and Systems

4. DC input power PDC = VCC  ICQ = 20  0.6433 = 12.866 W ...Ans.

2
5. AC output power PAC = IC rms  RC

Ib peak = 9 mA = 50  9 = 540 mA
IC ( peak )
 IC rms = = 381.83 m
2

 PAC = (0.3818)  16 = 2.3328 W

2
...Ans.
2.3328
6. Efficiency  = PAC / PDC = = 0.1813 or 18.13% ...Ans.
12.866

Ex. 10.12.5 : A class B push-pull amplifier supplies power to a resistive load of 12 . The output
transformer has a turns ratio of 3 : 1 and efficiency of 78.5%. Obtain :
1. Maximum power output.
2. Maximum power dissipation in each transistor.
3. Maximum base and collector current for each transistor.
Assume hfe = 25 and VCC = 20 V. Page No. 10-54.
Soln. :
Given : [ N1 : N2 ] = 4,  of transformer = 0.785
VCC = 20 V, RL = 12  and hfe = 25
Step 1 : Calculate Pac ( max ) :
The maximum output power can be obtained by assuming V m = VCC .
2 2
Vm VCC
 Pac ( max ) = =
2 RL 2 RL

But RL = [N1 / N2 ] RL = (3)  12 = 108 

2 2

2
( 20 )
 Pac ( max ) = = 3.7 W ...Ans.
108
Step 2 : Maximum power dissipation :
2
2 VCC2  ( 20 )
2
Pd ( max ) = 2 = 2 = 0.75 W.

 RL   108

 Pd ( max ) per transistor = 0.75 / 2 = 0.375 W ...Ans.

Step 3 : Calculate Im :
Vm I m VCC Im
We know that Pac ( max ) = =
2 2
20  Im
 3.7 =  Im = 0.37 Amp
2
Step 4 : Calculate the maximum base current :
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-8 Power Circuits and Systems

Im 0.37
Ib max = = = 14.8 mA ...Ans.
hfe 25

Ex. 10.12.6 : For the transformer coupled class A circuit shown in Fig. P. 10.12.6 calculate the
maximum efficiency. Assume 1. the device to be ideal and 2. RB is adjusted for maximum
input swings. Page No. 10-54.

Fig. P. 10.12.6
Soln. : Please Refer section 10.7.1.

Ex. 10.12.7 : In a class B amplifier VCE ( min ) = 1 Volt and the supply voltage VCC = 18 V. Calculate the
collector efficiency. Page No. 10-54.
Soln. : As proved in section 10.9.2,
Vm I m / 2  Vm
Efficiency  = Pac / Pdc = =
2 VCC Im /  4 VCC
But Vm = VCC – VCE ( min ) = 18 – 1 = 17 V
  17
  = = 0.7417 or 74.17 % ...Ans.
4  18
Ex. 10.12.9 : A single transistor amplifier with transformer coupled load produces harmonic amplitudes
in the output as,
B0 = 1.5 mA B1 = 120 mA
B2 = 10 mA B3 = 4 mA
B4 = 2 mA B5 = 1 mA
1. Determine the percentage total harmonic distortion
2. Assume a second identical transistor is used alongwith a suitable transformer to
provide push-pull operation.
Use the above harmonic amplitudes to determine the new total harmonic distortion.
Page No. 10-55.
Soln. :
Part (i)
| B2 | 10
Second harmonic distortion D2 = = = 0.0833
| B1 | 120
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-9 Power Circuits and Systems

| B3 | 4
Third harmonic distortion D3 = = = 0.0333
| B1 | 120
| B4 | 2
Fourth harmonic distortion D4 = = = 0.0166
| B1 | 120
| B5 | 1 –3
Fifth harmonic distortion D5 = = = 8.33  10
| B1 | 120

Hence percentage total harmonic distortion

D2 + D3 + D4 + D5  100
2 2 2 2
D =

–3 2
(0.0833) + (0.0333) + (0.0166) + (8.33  10 )  100
2 2 2
=

= 0.09165  100 = 9.165 % ...Ans.

Part (ii)
When a second transistor is used, all the even harmonic components are automatically cancelled
out. So the THD is given by,

D3 + D5  100
2 2
D =

–3 2
(0.0333) + (8.33  10 )  100 = 3.4326 %
2
= ...Ans.

Ex. 10.12.10: A transformer coupled class A, AF power amplifier uses an ideal output transformer
having a load resistance of 1.5  on its secondary side. If the amplifier is to deliver
maximum power output of 3 W to the load when the collector supply voltage is 15V,
determine :
1. Turns ratio of output transformer. 2. Power transistor ratings required.
3. DC power input to the amplifier. Page No. 10-55.
Soln. :
Given : RL = 1.5  , Pac = 3 W, VCC = 15 V.

Turns ratio of the output transformer :

The maximum output power is given by,

2
(V1m )
Pac ( max ) =
2 RL

where V1m = Maximum primary voltage = VCC

RL = Reflected load resistance on the primary side.

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-10 Power Circuits and Systems

2
VCC
 Pac ( max ) =
2 RL
2
(15)
RL = = 37.5  ...(1)
23

RL
2 2
 N1  N1 37.5
We know that, =      = 1.5 = 25
RL  N2   N2 
N1
 The turns ratio = 5 …Ans.
N2

Power dissipation of the transistor :

VCC
Pd ( max ) = VCC ICQ But ICQ = = 0.4
RL

 Pd ( max ) = 15  0.4 = 6.0 W ...Ans.

DC input power to the amplifier :

PDC = VCC ICQ = 15  0.4 = 6 W ...Ans.

Ex. 10.12.11 : A push-pull class B, AF power amplifier uses ideal output transformer whose primary has
a total of 160 turns and whose secondary has 40 turns. It must be capable of delivering
40W to 8 . load under maximum power conditions. What is the minimum possible
value VCC ? Page No. 10-55.
Soln. :
N1
Given : Turns ratio = 4, Pac ( max ) = 40W, RL = 8 
N2

We know that for a push-pull class B amplifier,

2
Vm
Pac ( max ) =
2 RL

where Vm = VCC and RL = ( N1 / N2 ) RL

2

2
VCC
 Pac ( max ) =
2  ( N1 / N2 ) RL
2

2
 2  (4)  8  40 = 10240
2
VCC =

 VCC = 101.19 Volts ...Ans.

Thus the minimum required VCC is 101.19 Volts.

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-11 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.12.12 : Derive the expression for power dissipation rating of a transistor operated as class A and
class B amplifier and show that class B can deliver 5 times the output power than class
A. A complimentary symmetry amplifier supplies output to a load of 3  from supply
voltage of 20V. Calculate maximum power output and rating of transistors.

Page No. 10-55.

Soln. :
Part I :
1. We know that for a class A amplifier
Pac ( max ) = 0.5 VCC ICQ ...(1)
and the maximum power dissipation is given by,
Pd ( max ) = VCC ICQ ...(2)
As there are two transistors in a class A push-pull amplifier.
Maximum power dissipation/transistor = 0.5 V CC ICQ = 0.5 Pd ( max ) . Therefore, for a class A
amplifier,
Pac ( max ) = Maximum power dissipation per transistor ...(3)

2. For a class B push pull amplifier

2
Pd ( max ) per transistor = 2 P
 ac ( max )

2
 Pac ( max ) = P per transistor = 4.934 Pd ( max ) per transistor
2 d ( max )
 Pac ( max )  5 Pd ( max ) per transistor ...(4)
But, from Equation (3), Pd ( max ) per transistor = Pac ( max ) of class A amplifier hence Equation (4)
gets modified as :
Pac ( max ) of class B = 5  Pac ( max ) of class A ...Proved.

Part II : Given : A complementary symmetry amplifier, R L = 3  , VCC = 20V.

Maximum output power :

2
VCC 2
(20)
Pac ( max ) = = = 66.66 W ...Ans.
2 RL 23

Maximum power rating of transistor :

Vm VCC 20
Im = = = = 6.66 Amp.
RL RL 3
2 VCC Im 2  20  6.66
Pdc = = = 84.88 W.
RL 
 Total power dissipation = Pdc – Pac = 84.88 – 66.66 = 18.22 W
18.22
 Power dissipation per transistor = = 9.11 W ...Ans.
2
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-12 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.12.13 : The reflected load resistance of a push-pull amplifier is 4. It draws a current of 3.25
Amp from 24 V d.c. power supply with sinusoidal input.
Calculate : 1. a.c. power output. 2. Conversion efficiency
3. Minimum dissipation rating of each transistor. Page No. 10-55.
Soln. :
Given : RL = 4  , Idc = 3.25 Amp., VCC = 24 V.
AC output power Pac :
Pac = I1rms RL
2
...(1)
2 I1m
But Idc =

 
 Peak primary current I1m = I =  3.25 = 5.1 Amp.
2 dc 2
I1m
 RMS primary current I1 rms = = 3.6 Amp.
2
Substituting this value into Equation (1) we get,
= (3.6)  4 = 52.12 Watts
2
Pac ...Ans.
Conversion efficiency (  ) :
DC input power PDC = VCC  Idc = 24  3.25 = 78 W
Pac 52.123
Efficiency  = = = 0.6682 or 66.82% ...Ans.
PDC 78
Minimum dissipation rating of each transistor :
Total power dissipation Pd = PDC – Pac = 78 – 52.12 = 25.88 W
25.88
 Minimum dissipation rating per transistor = = 12.94 W ...Ans.
2

Ex. 10.12.14 : Explain three point method to obtain second harmonic distortion in a power amplifier. A
sinusoidal signal Vs = 1.75 sin 600t is fed to a power amplifier. The resulting output
current is :

Io = 15 sin 600t + 1.5 sin 1200t + 1.2 sin 1800t + 0.5 sin 2400t. Calculate percentage
increase in power due to distortion. Draw circuit diagram of complementary symmetry
power amplifier with a driver circuit using transistors and explain its operation in brief.

Page No. 10-56.

Soln. :
1. The output current is given by,
Io = 15 sin 600t + 1.5 sin 1200t + 1.2 sin 1800t + 0.5 sin 2400t. Comparing this expression with
the following ,
Io = A1 sin t + A2 sin 2t + A3 sin 3t + A4 sin 4t.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-13 Power Circuits and Systems

We get the amplitudes of various harmonic components A1, A2, A3 and A4 as :

A1 = 15, A2 = 1.5, A3 = 1.2, A4 = 0.5.
th
2. The percentage n harmonic distortion is given by,
| An |
 100
th
% n harmonic distortion = % Dn =
| A1 |
| A2 | 1.5
 Second order distortion, D2 = = = 0.1
| A1 | 15
| A3 | 1.2
Third order distortion, D3 = = = 0.08
| A1 | 15
| A4 | 0.5
Fourth order distortion, D4 = = = 0.03333.
| A1 | 15

3. Let the power delivered to the load without distortion be P. Hence the load power when distortion
is considered is given by,
P = P ( 1 + D )
2

where D = Total harmonic distortion.

2 2 2
D = D2 + D3 + D4 + …..

P = P (1 + D2 + D3 + D4 ) = P [1 + (0.1) + (0.08) + (0.0333)

2 2 2

2 2 2
]
 P = [ 1.0175] P
P – P 1.0175 P – P
4. Percent increase in load power =  100 =  100 = 1.75% ...Ans.
P P
For complementary symmetry power amplifier with a driver circuit refer section 10.9.7.

Ex. 10.12.15 : A single stage common-emitter A.F. power amplifier, working in class-A condition,
supplies 2 W to 4 k load. The zero signal D.C. collector current is 35 mA and D.C.
collector current with signal is 39 mA. Determine the percentage of second harmonic
distortion in the output. Page No. 10-56.
Soln. :
Given : ICQ = 35 mA .…when the signal is absent.
1. When the signal is present
Ic = ICQ + Ao = 39 mA
 Ao = 39 – 35 = 4 mA = A2 = 4 mA
2 2
A1 A2
=  +  R L = R L ( A1 + A2 )
1 2 2
2. Now Pac
 2 2  2
1 2 –3 2
  4  10 [A1 + ( 4  10 ) ]
3
2 =
2
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-14 Power Circuits and Systems

2 –4
 A1 = 9.84  10  A1 = 0.0313 Amp or 31.368 mA.

3. Therefore the second harmonic distortion is given by,

| A2 | 4
% D2 =  100 =  100 = 12.7% ...Ans.
| A1 | 31.368

Ex. 10.12.16 : For a class A amplifier shown in the Fig. P. 10.12.16(a) transformer turns ratio 8 : 1. The
transformer has an efficiency of 90% and d.c. resistance of 10  for the primary.
Transistor has  = 20 and VBE = 0.5 V. Determine :
(a) Maximum power delivered to the load. (b) Circuit efficiency. Page No. 10-56.

Fig. P. 10.12.16(a)

Soln. :
Step 1 : Draw the Thevenin's equivalent circuit :
The Thevenin's equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. P. 10.12.16(b).

R2
VTH =  VCC
R1 + R2
100
=  25
100 + 1000
= 2.27 V
RB = R1 || R2
= 100 || 1000 = 91 
Step 2 : Calculate IB :
Applying KVL to the base loop we get,
VTH = IB RB + VBE + IE RE
Fig. P. 10.12.6(b) : Thevenin's equivalent
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-15 Power Circuits and Systems

VTH = ( IB  91) + 0.5 + [ ( 1 +  ) IB  10  ]  2.27 = IB ( 91 + 210 ) + 0 .5

 IB = 5.88 mA ...(1)
Step 3 : Calculate IE and VB :
IE = ( 1 +  ) IB = 21 + 5.88 mA = 123.48 mA or 0.12348 A ...(2)
The base voltage VB is given by,

VB = VBE + IE RE = 0.5 + ( 0.12348  10 ) = 1.7348 V ...(3)

Step 4 : Calculate current I1 through R1 and IC :

VCC – VB 25 – 1.7348
I1 = = = 23.2652 mA ...(4)
R1 1k

and IC =  IB = 20  5.88 mA = 117.6 mA ...(5)

Step 5 : Calculate the dc input power :

Total dc input power PDC = ( IC + I1 )  VCC

= ( 23.2652 + 117.6) mA  25 = 3.5216 W ...(6)

Step 6 : Calculate maximum power delivered to the load :

The reflected load resistance to the primary is
2 2
RL  N1  8
R = 2 = RL    = 5    = 320 
L n  N2  1 
For maximum power delivered to the load, calculate the maximum value of primary voltage.

V1 m = VCEQ

To calculate VCEQ apply KVL to the collector loop of Fig. P. 10.12.6(b).

 VCC = ( IC  10  ) + VCEQ + 10 IE

 VCEQ = 25 – (0.1176  10) – (0.12348  10) = 22.59 volts

 Maximum primary power

2
2
1 V1m 1 (22.59)
P1 ( max ) = =  = 0.7974 W
2 R 2 320
L

The maximum load power is given by,

Pac ( max ) = Transformer  P1 ( max ) = 0.9  0.7974 = 0.7176 W

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-16 Power Circuits and Systems

Step 7 : Calculate efficiency :

Pac (max) 0.7176
%  =  100 =  100 = 20.38 % ...Ans.
PDC 3.5216

Ex. 10.12.17 : The collector characteristics of a power transistor are as follows :

VCE IC (Amp) IC (Amp) IC (Amp)

volts for Ib = 5 mA for Ib = 10 mA for Ib = 20 mA

1 0.32 0.62 1.25

5 0.38 0.70 1.38

10 0.40 0.75 1.48

15 0.42 0.82 1.58

20 0.48 0.90 -
This transistor is used in a transformer coupled class B push-pull amplifier with
VCC = 20 V, reflected load RL = 15 ohms. If a sinusoidal input signal of 20 mA peak is
applied to the transistor amplifier calculate :
(a) AC power output (b) Collector circuit efficiency.
(c) % Third harmonic distortion. Page No. 10-56.
Soln. :
Given : VCC = 20 V, RL = 15  , input current = 20 mA peak

Type of amplifier : Transformer coupled class B.

Step 1 : Draw the characteristics of power transistor :
 The characteristics of power transistor is shown in Fig. P. 10.12.17.
 The operation is class B, so the co-ordinates of Q point are (20 V, 0 A) and it is on the x-axis.
 The dc load line is a vertical line passing through the Q point. Thus line is parallel to y-axis.
 Draw the ac load line. The ac load line passes through the Q point and its slope is ( – 1/ RL ). The
equation for ac load line is,
–1
IC =  VCE + C ...(1)
RL

At Q point, IC = 0 and VCE = VCC = 20 V, whereas RL = 15  .

– 20
 0 = + C  C = 1.33 ...(2)
15
At VCE = 0,

IC = – 0 + 1.33  IC = 1.33 mA ...(3)

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-17 Power Circuits and Systems

 So the second point through which the ac load line passes through is (0, 1.33 A).
 The input signal is Ib = 20 mA (peak). The point of intersection of the characteristics for
Ib = 20 mA and the ac load line is obtained as point A. Its co-ordinates are (1.2 V, 1.26 A) from
the graph.
 IC corresponding to point A is 1.26 A and VCE is 2.2 volts.
So as shown in Fig. P. 10.12.17 maximum output voltage is
Vm = 20 – 1.2 = 18.8 volts and Im = 1.26 A

Fig. P. 10.12.17

Step 2 : Calculate the third harmonic distortion :

 We will use the five point method for calculating the third harmonic distortion.
| B3 |
D3 =
| B1 |

 For a class B operation, the even order harmonics B 2 and B4 are absent and the dc value B0 and
ICQ is zero.
 Substituting these values we get,
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-18 Power Circuits and Systems

Imax = ICQ + B0 + B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 = B1 + B3 ...(1)

and I1 / 2 = ICQ + B0 + 0.5 B1 – 0.5 B2 – B3 – 0.5 B4 = 0.5 B1 – B3 ...(2)
 Adding Equations (1) and (2) we get,
Imax + I1 / 2 1.26 + 0.7
Imax + I1/ 2 = 1.5 B1  B1 = = = 1.3
1.5 1.5
And from Equation (1) B3 = Imax – B1 = 1.26 – 1.3 = – 0.04
So the third harmonic distortion is given by,
| B3 | 0.04
D3 = = = 0.03076 or 3.076 %
| B1 | 1.3
Step 3 : Calculate ac power :
Vm I m 18. 8  1.26
Pdc = = = 11.844 W ...Ans.
2 2
Step 4 : Calculate dc power and efficiency :
2 Im 2  1.26
PDC = VCC  Idc = VCC  = 20  = 16.042 W ...Ans.
 
Pdc 11.844
 =  100 =  100 = 73.83% ...Ans.
PDC 16.042
Ex. 10.12.18 : In the complementary symmetry amplifier shown in Fig. P. 10.12.18, the transistors and
diodes are of silicon. Calculate :
(a) Base to ground d.c., voltages of Q1 and Q2.
(b) Power delivered to load under maximum signal conditions.
(c) Conversion efficiency under maximum signal.
(d) Approximate value of C, if the circuit is used at signal frequency down to 30 Hz.
Page No. 10-57.

Fig. P. 10.12.18
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-19 Power Circuits and Systems

Soln. :
Step 1 : Calculate the base voltages of the two transistors :
 Assume the base currents of both the transistors to be small and apply KVL to the input loop to get,
VCC = (1 k  I ) + VD1 + VD2 + (1 k  I )
VCC – VD1 – VD2 20 – 14
 I = = = 9.3 mA
2k 2k
Base voltage of Q2 = VB2 = I  1 k = 9.3  1 = 9.3 V ...Ans.
Base voltage of Q1 = VB1 = VB2 + VD1 + VD2 = 9.3 + 1.4 = 10.7 V ...Ans.
Step 2 : Calculate maximum load power :
 This circuit operates on a single polarity supply. So the new value of V CC to be used for amplifier
calculations is V = V / 2 = 10 V.
CC CC
2
1 2 1 ( 10 )
 Pac ( max ) = VL =  =5W ...Ans.
2 2 10
Step 3 : DC power and conversion efficiency :

2 VCC
2 Im
PDC = VCC ICQ = VCC  = VCC 
  RL
2
 2
2 ( VCC ) 2 ( 10 )
= = = 6.3661 W
 RL  10
Pac (max )
5
 % =  100 =  100 = 78.5398 % ...Ans.
PDC 6.3661
Step 4 : Value of C :
1
f =
2  RL C
1 1
C = = = 530.5 F ...Ans.
2  f  RL 2   30  10
Ex. 10.12.19 : A complementary-symmetry class-AB, A. F. power amplifier uses two matched
transistors and a dual power supply of  30 V to feed a common load of 8 . If input
voltage of this amplifier is 8 V( rms ), calculate :
1. D.C. power input 2. A.C. power output
3. Maximum possible a.c. power output 4. Efficiency
5. Power dissipation of each transistor.
Assume that the two transistors are connected in an ideal C-C configuration.
Page No. 10-57.
Soln. :
Given : VCC =  30 V, RL = 8  , Vin = 8 V (rms)
Type of amplifier : Complementary symmetry class AB.
Step 1 : Calculate peak load current Im :
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-20 Power Circuits and Systems

For C.C. configuration, voltage gain = 1

 Vo ( rms ) = Vin ( rms ) = 8 V
 Vom = 2  Vo ( rms ) = 2  8 = 11.3137 V
Vom 11.3137
 Im = = = 1.4142 Amp.
RL 8
Step 2 : Calculate DC input power :
2 Im 30  2  1.4142
PDC = VCC  IDC = VCC  = = 27 W ...Ans.
 
Step 3 : AC output power :
2 2
1 Vom 1 ( 11.3137 )
Po (AC) = =  =8W ...Ans.
2 RL 2 8
Step 4 : Maximum possible ac output power :
2 2
1 VCC 1 ( 30 )
Po AC ( max ) =  =  = 56.25 W ...Ans.
2 RL 2 8
PAC 8W
Step 5 : Efficiency = = = 0.2962 OR 29.62 % ...Ans.
PDC 27 W

%  = 29.62 %

Step 6 : Power dissipation per transistor :

PDC – PAC 27 – 8 W
PD = = = 9.5 W …Ans.
2 2

Ex. 10.12.20 : An ideal class B power amplifier is shown in Fig. P. 10.12.20. Assume that the
characteristics of the transistors used are linear.
For this circuit, derive the following. Make suitable assumptions if necessary :
1. Power output derived to load ( Pout )
2. DC input power drawn from the supply ( Pcc )
3. Efficiency of the class B amplifier (  )
4. Maximum efficiency of the amplifier ( max )
5. Power dissipated in each transistor. Page No. 10-57.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-21 Power Circuits and Systems

Fig. P. 10.12.20

Soln. :
N1
Let the turns ratio be
N2
2
Vm  N1
R = =    RL
L Im  N2
iprimary = ic1 – ic2
Step I : To find power output delivered to load ( Pout ) :
Vm Im
VL rms = IL rms =
2 2
Vm I m Vm I m
Pout = VL rms IL rms =  =
2 2 2
Step II : To find DC input power drawn from the supply ( P CC ) :
The average value of supply current is,
2 Im 2 Im 2 VCC Im
Idc = PCC = VCC  Idc = VCC  =
  
Step III : To find efficiency of class B amplifier (  ) :
Vm I m
Pac Pout 2  Vm
 = = = = 
Pdc PCC 2 VCC Im 4 VCC

Step IV : To find maximum efficiency of the amplifier ( max ) :
 Vm
% =   100  = max when Vm = VCC
4 VCC
 VCC
% max =   100 = 78.5 %
4 VCC
Step V : To find power dissipated in each transistor :
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-22 Power Circuits and Systems

2 VCC Im Vm I m
Pd = Pdc – Pac = –
 2
2
Vm 2 VCC  Vm Vm
But Im =  Pd = –
RL  RL 2 RL
Ex. 10.12.21 : For the circuit shown in Fig. P. 10.12.20 in the previous example show that
2 VCC
1. Power dissipated in the transistor is maximum when load voltage Vm =

Maximum collector power dissipation for both transistors combined as 2 VCC /  RL
2 2
2.
Page No. 10-58.
Soln. :
2
Vm
2 VmVCC
Part I : We know that, PD = –
 R 2 RL
L
Differentiating w.r.t. Vm
d PD 2 VCC 2 Vm 2 VCC Vm
= – 0= –
d Vm  R 2 RL  R RL
L L

2 VCC Vm 2 VCC
=  Vm =
 RL RL 

2 VCC
Thus, maximum PD occurs when Vm =

2
Vm
2 Vm 1
Part II : We know that, PD = VCC –
 R 2 R
L L
2 VCC
Maximum PD occurs when Vm =

2

max PD =
2 VCC

2 VCC
–
1

 2 VCC 
 R  2 RL   
L
2 2 2 2
4 VCCVCC VCC 2 VCC
2
max PD = 2 – 2 = 2 [4–2]= 2
 RL  R
L
 RL  RL

Ex. 10.12.22 : The dynamic transfer characteristic curve for a given transistor is :
2
ic (in mA) = 50 Ib + 1000 ib where ib ( in mA ) = 10 cos 2 (100 )t
Calculate the percent harmonic distortion. Page No. 10-58.
Soln. :
Given : G1 = 50, G2 = 1000, Ibm = 10, cos t = cos 2 (100 )t
Step I : To find B0 and B1 :
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-23 Power Circuits and Systems

2 1 –6
 1000  (10)  10 = 0.05
2
B0 = B2 = G2 Ibm =
2
B1 = G1 = 50
Step II : To find % harmonic distortion :
B2
0.05
%D =  100 % =  100 = 0.1 % ...Ans.
B1 50
Ex. 10.12.23 : A sinusoidal signal Vs = 1.95 sin 400t is applied to a power amplifier. The resulting
current is given by
io = 12 sin 400t + 1.2 sin 800t + 0.9 sin 1200t + 0.4 sin 1600t
Calculate : 1. Total harmonic distortion
2. Percentage increase in power because of distortion. Page No. 10-58.
Soln. :
Step 1 : Obtain the amplitudes of Fourier components :
The standard expression for io is as follows :
io = B0 + B1 sin t + B2 sin 2t + B3 sin 3t + B4 sin 4t
Comparing with the given equation we get,
B0 = 0, B1 = 12, B2 = 1.2, B3 = 0.9, B4 = 0.4
Step 2 : Various distortions and THD :
B2
1.2
Second harmonic distortion D2 = = = 0.1
B1 12
B3
0.9
Third harmonic distortion D3 = = = 0.075
B1 12
B4
0.4
Fourth harmonic distortion D4 = = = 0.0333
B1 12
2 2 2
Total harmonic distortion. THD = D2 + D3 + D4  100

(0.1) + (0.075) + (0.0333)  100 = 12.9359 %

2 2 2
= ...Ans.

Step 3 : Percent increase in power due to distortion :

Output power including the distortion is
2
P = ( 1 + D ) P1
where D = Total harmonic distortion P1 = Fundamental power

 P
2
= [ 1 + (0.1294) ] P1 = 1.01673 P1

So % increase = ( P – P1 )  100 = ( 1.01673 P1 – P1 )  100 = 1.6733 % ...Ans.

Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-24 Power Circuits and Systems

Section 10.13 :

Ex. 10.13.1 : For a regulated dc power supply, the output voltage varies from 12 V to 11.6 V when the
load current is varied from 0 to 100 mA which is the maximum value of I L. If the ac line
voltage and temperature are constant, calculate the load regulation, % load regulation
and output resistance of the power supply. Page No. 10-64.
Soln. :
Given : VNL = 12 V, VFL = 11.6 V, IL max = 100 mA.
1. The load regulation, L.R. = VNL – VFL = 12 – 11.6 = 0.4 V ...Ans.
VNL–VFL 0.4
2. % load regulation =  100 =  100 = 3.45% ...Ans.
VFL 11.6
Vo 0.4 V
3. Output resistance Ro = = =4 ...Ans.
IL 100mA

Ex. 10.13.2 : For a regulated dc power supply, the output voltage changes in the range of 12 V ± 0.2 V
when the ac line voltage fluctuates in the range of 230V ± 10%. Calculate the source
regulation (SR) and percent source regulation. Page No. 10-64.
Soln. :
1. Source regulation, S.R. = VLH – VLL
VLH = 12 + 0.2 = 12.2 V and VLL = 12 – 0.2 = 11.8 V
  S.R. = 12.2 – 11.8 = 0.4 V ...Ans.
S.R.
2. % S.R. =  100
VNom
Now VNom = 12 V
0.4
% S.R. =  100 = 3.33%
12

Ex. 10.13.3 : A DC power supply is known to have a ripple factor of 10%. If the DC output voltage is
10V, what is the rms value of the ripple voltage in the output ? Assuming this ripple to be
sinusoidal in nature, what is its peak to peak voltage ? Page No. 10-64.
Soln. : R.F. = 0.1, VLdc = 10V
VRMS
1. Ripple factor = where VRMS = RMS value of ripple voltage.
VLdc
VRMS
 0.1 =  VRMS = 0.1  10 = 1V ...Ans.
10
2. If the ripple is sinusoidal then the peak to peak ripple is given by,
Vp – p = 2 2 VRMS = 2 2  1 = 2.84 Volts. ...Ans.

Ex. 10.13.4 : A linear regulator has unregulated supply derived from FWR capacitor filter arrangement.
Ripple rejection of regulator is specified to be 60 dB. If input unregulated supply has a
ripple of 2 V peak-to-peak, what will be the output RMS ripple ? If the regulator has 12 V
output with full load current of 1 A, calculate percentage load regulation. Given-output
resistance of regulator = 200 milliohms. Page No. 10-64.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-25 Power Circuits and Systems

Soln. :
Given : Ripple rejection = 60 dB Peak to peak input ripple = 2V, Vo = 12 V, IFL = 1 A.
Ro = 200 m
To find : Rms ripple in output,
% load regulation
Step 1 : Rms ripple output :

Ripple rejection (dB) = 20 log10 

Vripple (output) Vripple (output)
  – 60 = 20 log10  
 Vripple (input)   Vripple (input) 
–3
Vr (output)
 1  10 =
2
–3
 Vr (output) = 2  10 volts or 2 mV ...(1)
Note that this is the peak to peak value of output ripple voltage.
Assuming the output ripple to be sinusoidal we get
2 mV
Rms Vr (output) = = 0.707 mV ...Ans.
2 2
Step 2 : Percent load regulation :
Referring to Fig. P. 10.13.4 we get,
Vo (NL) = 12 V
and Vo (FL) = 12 – (Ro  IL)
–3
= 12 – (200  10  1)
= 11.8 volts Fig. P. 10.13.4
Vo (NL) – Vo (FL) 12 – 11.8
 % load regulation =  100 =  100 = 1.6949 % ...Ans.
Vo (FL) 11.8
Section 10.15 :
Ex. 10.15.1 : For a zener voltage regulator of
Fig. P. 10.15.1, if IZ min = 2 mA,
IZ max = 20 mA and VZ = 5V, determine
the range of input voltage over which
the output voltage remains constant.
Assume rZ = 0 . Page No. 10-68.

Fig. P. 10.15.1

Soln. :
Given : VZ = 5V, IZ min = 2 mA, IZ max = 20 mA., RS = RL = 1 k.
Step 1 : Calculate load current :
VZ 5V
IL = = = 5 mA ...(1)
RL 1 k
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-26 Power Circuits and Systems

Step 2 : Obtain Vin (min) :

Vin (min) is the minimum input voltage which can keep the zener diode in the zener region. So
corresponding to Vin (min), the zener current IZ = IZ (min).
 Source current I = IL + IZ (min)
 I = (5 + 2) = 7 mA ...(2)
 Vin (min) = VZ + Minimum voltage drop across RS.
–3
= 5 + IRS = 5 + (7  10  1  10 ) = 12 Volt
3
...Ans.
Step 3 : Obtain Vin (max) :
Vin (max) is the maximum input voltage which will ensure that I Z is less than or equal to IZ (max). So
corresponding to Vin (max), the zener current IZ = IZ (max).
 Source current I = IL + IZ (max)
 I = (5 + 20) = 25 mA ...(3)
 Vin (max) = VZ + Maximum voltage drop across RS
–3
= 5 + IRS = 5 + (25  10  1  10 ) = 30 Volt
3
...Ans.
Thus the range of input voltage to have a constant output voltage is 12 to 30 V.

Ex. 10.15.2 : For a zener voltage regulator of the previous example if Vin = 30 V constant calculate the
range of load current over which the output voltage remains constant. Page No. 10-68.
Soln. :
Given : VZ = 5V, IZ (min) = 2 mA, IZ (max) = 20 mA, RS = 1 k, Vin = 30 V.
Step 1 : Calculate the source current :
Here due to constant Vin, the source current is going to remain constant.
Vin – VZ 30 – 5
 Source current I = = = 25 mA ...(1)
RS 1 k

Step 2 : Calculate IL (min) :

IL(min) is the minimum value of load current which ensures that I Z is less than IZ (max). So
corresponding to IL (min), the zener current IZ = IZ (max).
 Source current I = IL (min) + IZ (max)
 IL (min) = I – IZ (max) = (25 – 20) = 5 mA ...Ans.
Step 3 : Calculate IL (max) :
IL (max) is the maximum value of load current which can keep the zener diode in the zener region.
So corresponding to IL (max) the zener current IZ = IZ (max).
 I = IL (max) + IZ (min)
 IL (max) = I – IZ (min) = 25 – 2 = 23 mA ...Ans.
Thus the range of load current over which output voltage remains constant is 5 mA to 23 mA.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-27 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.15.3 : Design a zener voltage regulator for the following specifications.
Vin = 20  2 Volt, Output voltage Vo = 6V, Load current IL = 50 mA, IZ (min) = 5 mA, Zener
wattage PZ = 0.5 Watt. Page No. 10-68.
Soln. :
Given : Vin (min) = 18V, Vin (max) = 22V, Vo = 6V, IL = 50 mA,
IZ (min) = 5 mA and PZ = 0.5 W.
Step 1 : Calculate IZ (max) :
PZ
0.5
IZ (max) = = = 83.33 mA ...(1)
VZ 6
Step 2 : Calculate RS (min) :
When RS = RS (min), the source current I can become maximum corresponding to V in = Vin (max). As
the load current is constant, this increased source current will flow through the zener. Therefore the
value of RS (min) should be such that even when Vin = Vin (max), the zener current IZ  IZ (max).
Vin (max) – VZ
 RS (min) = ...(2)
[IL + IZ (max)]
22 – 6
 RS (min) = – 3 = 120  ...Ans.
[50 + 83.33]  10
Step 3 : Calculate RS (max) and select RS :
When RS = RS (max) the source current I can become minimum corresponding to V in = Vin (min). As
IL is constant, care should be taken to ensure that IZ  IZ (min).
Vin (min) – VZ
 RS (max) = ...(3)
[IL + IZ (min)]
18 – 6
 RS (max) = – 3 = 218.18  ...Ans.
[50 + 5]  10
Thus RS  120  and RS  218.2 .

So, select RS = 180 .

Step 4 : Select zener diode :
Vo = 6 V

 V Z = Vo = 6 V
Fig. P. 10.15.3 : Designed circuit

 Select the zener diode with following specifications :

1. VZ = 6 V
2. IZ (max)  83.33 mA
3. PZ = 0.5 W.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-28 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.15.4 : Design and draw a zener regulator circuit to meet the following specifications. Load
voltage = 8V, source voltage = 30 V. IL = 50 mA. Assume IZ (min) = 5 mA, PZ = 1.0 Watt.
Page No. 10-68.
Soln. :
Given : VZ = 8 V, Vin = 30 V, IL = 50 mA, IZ (min) = 5 mA, PZ = 1W.
Step 1 : Calculate IZ (max) :
PZ 1
IZ (max) = = = 125 mA ...(1)
VZ 8
Step 2 : Calculate RS (min) and RS (max) :
Vin – VZ 30 – 8
RS (max) = =
IL + IZ (min) (50 + 5)  10– 3

 RS (max) = 400  ...Ans.

Vin – VZ 30 – 8
RS (min) = =
IL + IZ (max) (50 + 125)  10– 3

RS (min) = 125.7  ...Ans.

Thus RS should be between 125.7 and 400 .

So select RS = 220 .

The circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. P. 10.15.4. Fig. P. 10.15.4 : Designed zener regulator
Step 3 : Select the zener diode :
Vo = 8 V  VZ = 8 V
Select the zener diode having following specifications :
VZ = 8 V, IZ (max) = 125 mA, PZ = 1 W
Section 10.18 :
Ex. 10.18.2 : Design a series voltage regulator with an error amplifier as per the specifications given
below :
Specifications :
1. Unregulated d.c. input voltage Vin = 20 V
2. Regulated output voltage Vo = 12 V
3. Maximum load current IL max = 50 mA Page No. 10-80.
Soln. :
Refer Fig. 10.18.4. This is the regulator circuit to be designed.
Step 1 : Selection of zener diode :
Let VZ  Vo / 2
 VZ = 12/2 = 6 Volts
So select a zener diode having VZ = 6 Volts.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-29 Power Circuits and Systems

Step 2 : Calculate R :
Let IZT = 10 mA to operate the zener diode in the zener region.
 IR = 10 mA
Vo – VZ 12 – 6
 R = = – 3 = 600 
IR 10  10
Use R = 560  which is a standard value.
 IE1 (max) = IL (max) + IR = 50 mA + 10 mA = 60 mA
Step 3 : Selection of Q1 :
Q1 is the series pass transistor. The power dissipation in Q1 is given by,
PD (max) = IE1 (max)  (Vin – Vo)
= 60  10– 3  (20 – 12) = 480 mW
VCE1 (max) = Vin = 20 V
IC1 (max) = IE1 (max) = 60 mA
Select Q1 as per these specifications.
Step 4 : Calculate R3 :
Let hFE (min) at IC = 60 mA of Q1 be 50.
IE1 (max)
 IB1 (max) =
hFE (min)
60 mA
 IB1 (max) = = 1.2 mA
50
Let IC2 >>> IB1 (max)
 Let IC2 = 5 mA
Vin – VB1 20 – (12 + 0.7)
 R3 = =
IC2 + IB1 (max) (5 + 1.2) mA
 R3 = 1.18 k
Select R3 = 1.2 k which is the standard value.
Step 5 : Calculate R2 :
IZ = IE2 + IR = 5 mA + 10 mA = 15 mA
It is necessary that I2 >> IB2.
So letI2 = 1 mA.
VZ + VBE2 6 + 0.7
 R2 = =
I2 1 mA
 R2 = 6.7 k
Use 6.8 k which is a standard value.
Step 6 : Calculate R1 :
Vo – VR2 12 – 6.7
R1  = = 5.1 k
I2 1 mA
Use 4.7 k or 5.1 k which is a standard value.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-30 Power Circuits and Systems

Section 10.19 :
Ex. 10.19.2 : For a transistorised series pass regulator shown in Fig. P. 10.19.2, calculate the output
voltage Vo and hence the temperature stability factor ST.
Given : Vz (0C) = 10.00 V, Vz (50C) = 10.25 V,
Q1 and Q2 are silicon transistors.
VBEQ2 (0C) = 0.650 V,VBEQ2 (50C) = 0.540 V
R1, R2, R3, R4 are stable resistors.
Assume IB2 << IR1, R2. Page No. 10-81.

Fig. P. 10.19.2
Soln. :
Steps to be followed :
Step 1 : Calculate Vo . Since IB2 << IR1, R2 , by voltage divider rule.
R1 + R2
Vo =  ( VZ + VBE2 )
R2
Step 2 : Calculate ST .
Vo
ST =
T
Step 1 : Calculate Vo :

Vo = R1 + R2  (V + V )
 R1  BE2 z

= 
1 k + 1.2 k
at 0C Vo1
 1.2 k   (0.650 + 10)
Vo1 = 19.525 Volts ...Ans.
at 50C Vo2 = 1.833 (0.540 + 10.25) = 19.78 Volts ...Ans.
Step 2 : Calculate stability factor ST :
Vo Vo2 – Vo1 19.78 – 19.525
ST = = =
T T2 – T1 50 – 0
ST = 5.13 mV/C ...Ans.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-31 Power Circuits and Systems

Section 10.21 :
Ex. 10.21.1 : For a series regulator shown in Fig. P. 10.21.1. Q1 and Q2 are silicon transistors with
hfe = 100 and VBE = 0.7. Calculate :
1. The range over which output voltage can be adjusted.
2. Collector current of Q2.
3. The zener diode current if Vz = 10 V. For 2. and 3. above assume, that output
voltage has been adjusted to 20 V. Page No. 10-84.

Fig. P. 10.21.1

Soln. :
Step I : To find range over which output voltage can be adjusted :
Case (i) : With RP at point A.
R1 = 1 k, R2 = 1.5 k + 0.5 k = 2 k

Vo = 1 +   ( VBE2 + Vz )
R1
 R2

 Vo = 1 + 1 (0.7 + 10)
 2
 Vo = 1.5  10.7 = 16.05 V
Case (ii) : With RP at point B.
R1 = 1 k + 0.5 k = 1.5 k
R2 = 1.5 k

 Vo = 1 + R1
 (VBE2 + Vz)
 R2

= 1 +
1.5 k
 Vo (0.7 + 10)
 1.5 k
Vo = (1 + 1) (10.7) = 21.4 V
The output voltage can be varied from 16 to 21 V.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-32 Power Circuits and Systems

Step II : To find collector current of Q2 :

Vout = 20 V ...given
Vout 20
 IL = = = 0.5 A
RL 40
Let the current through R1, RP and R2 be I such that I > IB2.
Vout 20
 I = =
R1 + R2 + RP 1 k + 0.5 k + 1.5 k
20
I = = 6.67 mA ...Ans.
3000
IE1
 IE1 = I + IL, IB1 =
1 + hfe1
–3 506.67
IE1 = 6.67  10 + 0.5, IB1 =
1 + 100
IE1 = 0.5067 A. IB1 = 5.0165 mA
IE1 = 506.67 mA
VB1 = VBE1 + Vout = 0.7 + 20 = 20.7 V
Vin – VB1 30 – 20.7
 IR3 = = 3 = 6.2 mA
R3 1.5  10
IC2 = IR3 – IB1 = 6.2 – 5 = 1.1834 mA ...Ans.
Step III : To find zener diode current :
IC2 1.1834
IB2 = = = 11.8346 A
hfe 100
IE2 = IB2 + IC2
–6 –3
IE2 = 11.83  10 + 1.1834  10
IE2 = 1.1952 mA
Zener current, IZ = IE2 + IR4
30 – 10
But IR4 =
2000
 IR4 = 10 mA
 IZ = 1.192 + 10 = 11.192 mA ...Ans.

Ex. 10.21.2 : In the circuit of Fig. P. 10.21.1 in the previous example, if the dynamic resistance of zener
diode RZ = 8  and hie = 0.5 k. hre = hoe = 0 for Q1 and Q2. Calculate the approximate
output impedance of the series pass regulator. Page No. 10-85.
Soln. :
Given : RZ = 8  , hie = 0.5 k.
To find : Ro
Vout
Ro =
IL Vin temperature constant
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-33 Power Circuits and Systems

R1 + R2
Ro =
gm2 R2 hfe1
R1 = 1 k, R2 = 2 k
Step I : To calculate gm2 :
R2
hfe 
R1 + R2
gm2 =
[ R1 || R2 ] + [ hie2 + (1 + hfe2) RZ]
2
100 
1+2
gm2 = –3
[ 1 || 2 ] + [ 0.5 + (1 + 100) 8  10 ]
66.67
gm2 =
0.6667 + [ 0.5 + 0.808 ]
gm2 = 33.763 mA/V
Step II : To find Ro :
(1 + 2)  10
3
Ro = –3
33.763  10  2  10  100
3

Ro = 0.4442  ...Ans.
Ex. 10.21.3 : The emitter follower regulator is to supply a load current of 500 mA at 10.3 V. The
unregulated dc supply varies from 16 to 20 V. Use a zener 11 V which requires minimum
bias current of 2 mA for stable operation. The series pass transistor has parameters.
dVz
Given : hfe = 50, VBE = 0.7 and dI = 20 , hie = 100 .
z

Determine :
1. Value of zener bias resistor Rb.
2. The wattage of Rb.
3. Power dissipation rating of zener.
4. Power dissipation rating of transistor.
5. Variation in Vo for variation in Vin from 16 to 20 V at IL = 500 mA constant.
6. Variation in Vo for load variation from 50 mA at Vin = 16 V constant.
Page No. 10-85.
Soln. :
Given : IL = 500 mA, Vo = 10.3 V
Vin = 16 to 20 V, Vz = 11 V
Iz min = 2 mA, hfe = 50, VBE = 0.7
Rz = 20 , hie = 100 
Step I : To find Rb :
IL = IE = 500 mA
IE 500
IB = = = 9.8039 mA
1 +  1 + 50
IR = IB + IZ = 9.89039 mA + 2 mA
b
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-34 Power Circuits and Systems

 IR = 11.8039 mA
b
Vin – Vz
But IR =
b Rb
16 – 11
 Rb = – 3 = 423.58  ...Ans.
11.80  10
Step II : To find wattage of Rb :
2
(Vin – Vz)
Wattage rating =
Rb
2
(20 – 11)
Wattage rating = = 0.1912 W ...Ans.
423.58
Step III : To find PD of zener :
IR = IB + Iz
b
20 – 11
Maximum IR = = 21.247 mA (when IL = 0, IB = 0 and IR = Iz max)
b 423.58 b

PD of zener = Vz Iz max
But Iz (max) = IR
b (max)
–3
 PD of zener = 11  21.247  10 = 0.23372 W ...Ans.
Step IV : To find PD of transistor :
VCE = VC – VE
VCE = 20 – 10.3 = 9.7 V
 PD = VCE IE = 9.7  0.5 = 4.85 W ...Ans.
Step V : To find SV :
Vo
SV =
Vin IL constant
Rz
SV =
Rb + Rz
20
SV = = 0.045 or 4.5 % ...Ans.
423.58 + 20
Step VI : To calculate Ro :
Vo
For the given circuit, Ro =
IL
Rz + hie
Ro =
1 + hfe
20 + 100
Ro = = 2.3529  ...Ans.
1 + 50
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-35 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.21.4 : A linear regulator has unregulated supply derived from FWR capacitor filter arrangement.
Ripple rejection of regulator is specified to be 60 dB. If input unregulated supply has a
ripple of 2 V peak-to-peak, what will be the output RMS ripple ? If the regulator has 12 V
output with full load current of 1 A, calculate percentage load regulation. Given-output
resistance of regulator = 200 milliohms. Page No. 10-85.
Soln. :
Given :
Ripple rejection = 60 dB
Peak to Peak input ripple = 2V, Vo = 12 V, IFL = 1 A.
Ro = 200 m
To find : Rms ripple in output
% load regulation
Step 1 : Rms ripple output :
 Vripple (output) 
Ripple rejection (dB) = 20 log10  
 Vripple (input) 
 – 60 = 20 log10
 Vr (output) 
 2 
–3
Vr (output)
 1  10 =
2
–3
 Vr (output) = 2  10 volts or 2 mV ...(1)
Note that this is the peak to peak value of output ripple voltage.
Assuming the output ripple to be sinusoidal we get
2 mV
Rms Vr (output) = = 0.707 mV ...Ans.
2 2
Step 2 : Percent load regulation :

Fig. P. 10.21.4

Referring to Fig. P. 10.21.4 we get

Vo (NL) = 12 V
and Vo (FL) = 10 – ( Ro  IL )
–3
= 12 – (200  10  1)
= 11.8 volts
Vo (NL) – Vo (FL)
 % load regualtion =  100
Vo (FL)
12 – 11.8
=  100 = 1.6949 % ...Ans.
11.8
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-36 Power Circuits and Systems

Ex. 10.21.5 : Design a Transistor Series Regulator to deliver 800 mA load current to load at + 12V DC.
The input voltage to regulator varies from 18 to 24 V DC. Assume suitable active and
passive devices (in terms of their specifications). Suggest practical values of resistors
from  5% tolerance series. For your design, calculate :
1. Worst case power dissipated by series pass transistor
2. Power dissipated by Zener diode
3. Maximum power delivered to load
4. Maximum power delivered by input unregulated supply
5. Efficiency of regulator circuit Page No. 10-85.
Soln. :
Given : IL = 800 mA, Vo = 12 V, Vin = 18 to 24 V
Step 1 : Draw the circuit diagram :
Fig. P. 10.21.5 shows the required circuit diagram.

Fig. P. 10.21.5 : A transistor series regulator

Step 2 : Design of the Regulator :

VZ = Vo + VBE = 12 + 0.7 = 12.7 V
Let PZ (max) = 1 W
PZ (max) 1 W
 IZ (max) = = = 78.74 mA
VZ 12.7

Therefore, Select the zener diode with the following specifications :

VZ = 12.7 V, PZ (max) = 1 W, IZ (max) = 80 mA
Now let us select the transistor.
IL = IE = 800 mA
Let  of the transistor be 15.
 typ = 15
IL 800
 IB = = = 50 mA
1 +  16
IC = IB = 15  50 = 750 mA
Maximum power dissipation of the transistor corresponds to the short circuited output.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-37 Power Circuits and Systems

 PD (max) = VCE (max)  IC

= Vin (max)  IC = 24  750 mA
 PD (max) = 18 W
Select a transistor with following specifications.
VCE (max) = 36 V, IC (max) = 1.5 A, PD (max) = 54 W
Calculate RB :
Vin –VZ 14 – 12.7
 RB = =
IRB IB + I Z
RB (min) :
RB (min) should not be too small. Even at maximum value of V in, the current through IZ should not
exceed IZ (max).
Vin (max) – VZ
 RB (min) =
IB + IZ (max)
24 – 12.7
 RB (min) = = 87.74 
(50 + 78.78) mA
RB (max) :
RB (max) should not be too large. Even at minimum Vin, the current through IZ should not be less
than IZ (min) i.e. 5 mA.
Vin (min) – VZ
RB (max) =
IB + IZ (min)
18 – 12.7
RB (max) = = 96.36 
(50 + 5) mA
The value of RB should be between RB (max) and RB (min).

 RB = 92 

Designed values :
RB = 92 , VZ = 12.7 V,
PZ (max) = 1 W, IZ (max) = 80 mA,
IZ (min) = 5 mA,  = 15,
PD (max) = 54 W, IC (max) = 1.5 A,
VCE (max) = 36 V,
Calculations from the designed circuit :
1. Worst case power dissipation in the transistor :
PD (max) = Vin (max)  IL
= 24  0.8 = 19.2 W ...Ans.
This corresponds to short circuited output terminals.
Basic Electronics (GTU) 10-38 Power Circuits and Systems

2. Power dissipated by zener :

Maximum zener current corresponds to Vin (max).
Vin (max) – VZ
 IB + IZ (max) =
RB
24 – 12.7
 IB + IZ (max) = = 122.83 mA
92
 IZ (max) = 122.83 – 50 = 72.83 mA
–3
 PZ (max) = VZ  IZ (max) = 12.7  72.83  10
= 0.9248 W ...Ans.
3. Maximum power delivered to the load :
PL (max) = Vo  IL = 12  0.8 = 9.6 W ...Ans.
4. Maximum power delivered by input supply :
Pin (max) = Vin (max)  [ IC + IB + IZ (max) ]
= 24  [ 750 + 122.83] mA
= 20.95 W
5. Efficiency :
PL (max) 9.6
min = = = 0.4582 or 45.82% ...Ans.
Pin (max) 20.95
