World History Eng PDF

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World History
What is renaissance?
Renaissance means a “rebirth” or revival. It is a time period
when interest is art, literature, education and other similar
subjects, along with interest in Ancient Greece and Rome, was
reborn.
The renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly
from the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the
Late Middle ages and later spreading to the rest of the Europe.
The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era,
but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform
across Europe. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a
resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the
development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but
widespread educational reforms.
Traditionally, this intellectual transformation has resulted in the
renaissance being viewed as a bridge b/w the middle ages and
the modern era.
Although, the renaissance saw revolutions many intellectual
pursuits, as well as social & political upheaval, it is perhaps best
known for its artistic upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its
artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths
Add:-B-14, Friends Colony, Opposite Ram Mandir, Lal Kothi, Jaipur Phone No. 0141-4015747, M-9636977490 Rajasthan GK
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as Leonardo-da-Vinci & Michelangelo, who inspired the term

Renaissance Man”
# What did Renaissance do?
-The European Renaissance was a time where the Church split
into two major religions, the Roman Catholicism and the
Protestants. The Renaissance was a time where it made the
people look at the Christian Faith and notice its Flaws. It made
the people think about what the church was doing and it made
them think about the powers the church was abusing.
-It change the way we think about art, literature, architecture,
music, science and god as people started to believe that not
everything revolved around god & some things were due to us.
# What are the symbolic meanings of animals in Renaissance
art?
-Symbology and iconography were indeed present in
renaissance art. Iconography usually refers to Christian symbols
used to identify a character in a painting, while symbology in
for more general and often secular purposes. Icons such as a
black robe and knotted robe belt are used identify St. Francis
often these are combined with stigmata.
When you see an angel and a sword in his hand, it is probably
Michael.
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{Dog= fidelity, loyalty}

{Peacock= Immortality}
MODERN WORLD HISTORY

REFORMATION
(In 16th century)
REFORMATION:-
It was a change in Church’s way of teaching and
practicing Christianity. Renaissance led to reformation of
church. In Germany the movement for church reform
eventually lead to a split in the church that formed a new form
of Christianity known as Protestantism. The series of events
that gave birth to Protestantism is known as Protestant
Reformation.
# Causes of the Reformation:-

1. Problems in the Catholic Church.
Gothics of the church claim that its leaders were corrupt
and the clergy lived an extravagant life. Simony (sale of
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church offices), pluralism, absenteeism, sale of

indulgences, nepotism, clerical ignorance etc. became the
attributes of church. There was a moral decline of papacy.
Thus reformist movements had arisen in reaction to these
demerits of the church.
2. Impact of Renaissance
Renaissance values of Humanism & secularism stimulated
widespread criticism of Catholic Church’s extravagance.
Christian humanists of the northern Renaissance criticized
the church and questioned the validity of the satin vulgate
(catholic bible). The Italian renaissance was at times
marked by a de-emphasis on religion while emphasizing
secularism and individualism among high Church leaders.
Renaissance encouraged humanism with free and
independent thinking , strengthened logic and scientific
temperament. Education was emphasized. Thus a
consciousness was created among the masses and review
of scientific religious sentiments and principles started.
3. Political reasons.
The members of Christian clergy wielded political authority
and permeated all faces of life. Church became very
powerful and had powers like to impose taxes, judiciary
power etc. the holy roman emperor also acquired many
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powers due to church & his dominancy and influence

increased over the rest of the Europe.
Thus the other rulers became weak in authority and
wanted to regain their powers. These rulers supported
reformation to diminish the effect of church & pope.
Initial reformists arose the feeling of nationalism
4. Economic reasons.
The flow of money in Europe was unidirectional and it
concentrated in Rome. The money was not used
productively and this created dissatisfaction among the
traders and entrepreneurs. Church criticized the
commercial activities and imposed tax, which in turn
adversely affected the other rulers.
5. The crisis of the 14th & 15th centuries hurt the prestige of
the clergy eg- Babylonian captivity & great schism (1377-
1417). The conciliar movement to reform the church and
give a church council more power than the pope was
rejected by several popes in the 15th & 16th century.
6. Scientific discoveries and inventions.
Impact of renaissance was new discoveries and
inventions. The people of Europe started developing logic
and scientific temperament. This freed them from the
shackles of religious dogmatism and superstitions.
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REFORMERS
# Initial reformers :
1. John wycliffe
2. John Hus
3. Sevonarola
4. Erasmus.
1. John Wycliffe:
-Resident of England. He was a professor and opposed
the corruption of church.
-He gave anti clerical and biblically centered reforms. He
criticized the accumulation of money in church .
according to him the bible was the sole authority that
can lead to salvation.
-He stressed personal communion with god, and
diminished the importance of the sacraments. He
translated the bible into English. (book= wycliffe’s bible)
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-He is known as the “morning star of the reformation.”

-His followers -continued his ideas in the 16th century.
2. John hus, czech

-Ideas were similar to Wycliffe. He was the theorist of
ecclesiastical reformation after Wycliffe.
- Religious leader of in bohemia who led a nationalist
movement there.
- Hussites was a Christian movement following the
teachings of john Hus.
- He was burned at the stake for his views.
3. Sevonarola, Florence
- He was a priest of Florence and was burnt alive for the
opposition of the church.
- He denounced clerical corruption, despotic rule and
exploitation of the poor.
- He is known for his prophecies of civic glory and calls for
church renewal.
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5. Erasmus: in the praise of folly (1509) :

-Criticized the corruption of church and the hypocrisy of
the clergy.
-A contemporary remarked that “Erasmus laid the egg that
Luther hatched.”
#Important reformers
1. Martin Luther
2. Wrich Zwingli- Swiss Reformation
3. John Calvin – Frenchman
4. John Knox
1. Martin Luther :
- He was an Augustinian monk who taught at the university
of Wittenberg in Saxony. He was a professor of theology.
- His visit of Rome was an event of cardinal importance in
his life, there a representative of pope Leo x, Johann
Tetzel was selling indulgences in north Germany to raise
money to rebuild st. Peters basilica in Rome. The
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immoral life of the priests shocked him. He returned

home full of ardent desire to reform the church.
- Indulgences were certificates issued by the church that
were said to reduce or even cancel punishment for sins-
as long as one also truly repented.
- On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther wrote ninety-five
theses in Latin and nailed on the doors of all saints
church, Wittenberg and officially started the reformation.
- He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from god’s
punishment for sin could be purchased with monetary
values. Later he translated the ninety five theses in
German.
- His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of
pope Leo x in 1520 and the holy Roman emperor Charles
at the ‘diet of worms’ in 1521 resulted in his
excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an
outlaw by the emperor. His works were also banned.
The orders of excommunication of Luther were
called as ‘ paper bull’ and which was burnt by him.
# views of martin Luther :-
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- He opposed the selling of indulgences and the extravagant

life style of church and clergy.
- Pope is not infallible.
- According to him salvation could be achieved through faith
alone and only 3 sacraments.
- Baptism and communion were valid.
- He rejected catholic monastic tenets of poverty chastity
and obedience.
- Encouraged German princes to reform the church in their
states.
- According to him the church should consist a ‘priesthood
of all believers’, not a hierarchical structure. The bible
contained all that was needed for a person to lead a
Christian life-a church hierarchy of bishops and priests
was unnecessary.
- He attached importance to vernacular languages and
translated bible into German language.
- He supported slavery, despotic monarchy system and a
national church.
The teachings of Luther concerning human
equality and the duty of man to remedy religious
abuses led to the peasant’s war in Germany in 1525.
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- In 1526,the diet of Speyer denied recognition to Luther. In

1529, another session was convened in Speyer and again
recognition was denied and steps were taken against the
followers of Luther. It reaffirmed the edict of ‘diet of
worms’ condemning the teachings of martin Luther as
heresy.
- On April 19, 1529, supporters of Luther protested against
Speyer which is considered as the beginning of
protestant religion.
- In 1545, a civil war broke out in Germany between the
supporters and opposers of Luther.
#peace of Augsburg (1555)

- it was signed between Charles v, holy roman emperor and
the forces of Schmalkaldic league on September 25,
1555. It temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over
Lutherism.
- Provisions :-
(a) The effect of the treaty was to establish official
toleration for Lutherans in the Holy Roman
Empire. So, under this treaty recognition was given
to Luther supporters.
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The assets and property acquired by the

Protestants before 1552 which belonged to Roman
church was also given approval.
(b) The peace established the principle- “cuius region,
eivs religio” which allowed each prince to choose
the religion of his subjects.
(c) A provision was also made for the protection of
the Protestants in the areas of catholic majority.
- Drawbacks of the peace of Augsberg :-
1. Only Luther supporters were given recognition.
Neither Anabaptists nor the Calvinists were
protected under the peace.
2. Rulers were entitled to determine the religion of its
subjects, not people.
3. So many protestant groups living under the rule of
Lutheran prince still found themselves in the danger
of charge of heresy.
- In 1618, one of European wars of religion, ‘thirty years
war ‘ started in Germany and at last in 1648, ‘treaty of
Westphalia’ was convened. Under this treaty
recognition was given to all the Protestants. The- citizens
were given full power and freedom to choose their own
religion.
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2. Zwingli:
- He was a Swiss reformer.
- His reformist movement was inspired by nationalist
feelings. Zwingli opposed the working of Swiss people in
the armies of other states.
- He wanted to break completely from catholic tradition,
wanted to establish a theocracy or church-run state in
the Swiss city of Zurich. In 1525 he established reformed
church.
- His influence was maximum in Zurich & Berne. In 1531 war
broke out over protestant missionary activities in the
catholic areas of Switzerland. Zwingli and his force of
followers were defeated by an army of Catholics. Zwingli
died fighting in the war.
- Like Luther he stressed salvation by faith alone and
denounced many catholic beliefs & practices such as
purgatory and the sale of indulgences.
3. John calvin :
- He was born at Noah in France.
- He apposed the dogmatic and ill practices of church and
started his movement in France. But due to the
opposition of the king of France he fled to Switzerland.
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- His influence was maximum in Geneva. There he

established a town state and he himself became the
chief of the town & thus established his despotic power.
- He was a supporter of democratic system & opposed
monarchy.
- He strictly implemented the ideas of simplicity and
morality.
- His followers :-
In France = huguenotes
In England = puritans &
In Scotland = Presbyterians.
- The cornerstone of his theology was that god possessed all
encompassing power & knowledge. He argued, god
determines the fate of every person- a doctrine called-
predestination.
# differences in the ideologies of Luther & Calvin :
1. Luther was a liberal while Calvin was a strict discipline
follower.
2. Luther favored despotic monarchial rule but Calvin favored
democracy.
3. Luther accepted 3 sacraments while Calvin accepted 2.
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4. Luther gave symbolic importance to miracles while Calvin

rejected them fully.
5. Luther supported slavery while Calvin opposed it.
6. Calvin supported the concept of pre –destination while
Luther opposed it.
# Reformation in England :
Reformation ideas filtered into England during the 1500s. it
was more political rather than religious. The quarrel arose over
succession to throne of henry’s six children by Catherine of
Aragon, only Mary survived.
Henry wanted to leave a male heir to the throne to avoid a
civil war. Believing that the Catherine was too old to have more
children the king decided to marry Anne Boleyn.
In 1527 henry asked the pope to agree to a divorce but
Catherine’s nephew was a powerful holy roman emperor
Charles v upon whom the pope demanded for protection.
Charles wanted Catherine to remain as queen of England in
order to influence the country’s policies in favor of his own
interests. The pope refused henry’s request.
With the parliament support he had a series of laws passed
that separated the English church from pope. The most
important law, the act of supremacy passed in 1534 made
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henry head of the English church instead of pope but the

catholic form of the church was maintained.
Later Henry married Anne Boleyn and Edward was born.
when Edward became the king, the English church was given a
protestant form Kramer prepared a book of 112 principles and
Thomas Moore was burnt alive for opposition.
After the death of Edward in his teen, Mary (daughter of
Catherine) became the queen. She changed the form of English
church as Roman Catholic and punished the protestants.
Kramer was burnt alive she married a Spanish king which
resulted in the decrease of her popularity. Mary is known as
bloody Mary due to the prosecution of protestants.
- After Mary, Elizabeth-I became the next queen. She was
the daughter of Anne Boleyn. She used religion as a
political tool in a better way and the protestant form was
given to English church. She passed the act of supremacy
and republished the book of Kramer containing 39
principles. She was tolerant towards Catholics.
# counter reformation:
In this church eliminated many abuses, clarified its
theology and re-established the pope’s authority over the
church members. The council of Trent, a religious meet was
organized. The principles declared in this meet are :-
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1. Under this supremacy of the pope was accepted and

believed that pope was infallible.
2. Supremacy of the church was accepted.
3. All the seven sacraments were again approved.
4. It was believed that between human & god only church
could play the role of mediator.
5. Selling of indulgences and corrupt behavior of the priests
were abolished. Training facilities were provided to the
priests. The marriage of the bishops and priests was still
prohibited.
6. The Latin form of bible was approved but the priests were
allowed to teach in vernacular languages.
7. Index was prepared for prohibited books and the true
Catholics were expected to not to read them.
8. Clergy were ordered to follow strict rules of behavior.
# Impact of reformation :-
1. On religion : The Christianity was divided into a number of
sects. Through counter reformation a number of reforms
were made in the catholic form of Christianity. Protestants
too also made reformations. The peace of Augsburg set
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the stage for the division of Europe into a protestant north

and a catholic south, a division that remains to this day.
Northen Germany and Scandinavia were Lutheran. Areas
of southern Germany and Switzerland, Netherlands &
Scotland- with their economic wealth based in town held
to Calvinism England setup its own Anglican church, a
blend of Protestantism and Catholicism under royal
control.
2. On polity : the reformation led to a civil war in Europe
which lasted for 150 years. Due to this causalities and
political instability occurred in Europe.
Reformists like martin Luther, Zwingli etc. spread the
feeling of nationalism in Europe which later gave rise to
nation states.
Reformation resulted in the weakening of holy roman
emperor. The political powers of church and pope were
ended.
During this time middle class supported rulers,
weakened feudalism and gave rise to monarchy system.
Later on, the middle class demanded rights in political
system which became the basis of democracy.
Reformation also encouraged secularism.
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3. On economy : the unproductive assets of church were now

being used in production and additional economic
activities were encouraged. The economy of the states
was improved. Unidirectional flow of money towards
churches stopped. This in turn gave rise to mercantilism
and later to capitalism as reformists emphasized on
personal property.
4. Social impact :-
Generally the social institutions are based on
religious principles and when there is a change in those
principles, it leads to a change in society also. After
reformation the social institutions became weak and the
marriage life was disturbed than before.
The education was encouraged by the reformers.
Vernacular languages were given prominence.
The Protestants destroyed monuments, artifacts of
the church in order to oppose the luxurious life of the
priests and bishops. This adversely affected the art and
cultural aspect.
- Spreading Catholicism :-
# Ignatius of Loyola :
He was a Spanish noble whose military carrier had
ended abruptly when he was rounded in battle. During
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his long recovery he found comfort in the lives of the

saints and vowed to serve god. He became a bigot
devotee of Roman Catholic Church.
In 1540, the pope recognized a new religious order,
the society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Founded by Ignatius of
Loyola, the Jesuits worked to spread Catholicism and
combat heresy.
The principles, rules and regulations of the society of
Jesus were quite strict & complicated and after going
through a complicated procedure the membership of
the society was given.
The Jesuits wore the black robe of monks, lived
simple lives, but did not withdraw from the world.
The members used to live on high moral principles.
These Jesuits stopped the storm of protestants and rose
the confidence of Catholics, preached to the people,
helped the poor and set up schools, served as advisors
in royal courts founded universities.
# Inquisition :- it was a church court set up to stamp out
heresy. In 1505, the inquisition introduced censorship to
curtail humanist & protest thinking.
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During the reformation it was reestablished. It

became defamed as it gave death punishment to
Protestants.
# Teresa of Avila:- another supporter of catholic renewal
was the Spanish nun Teresa of Avila.
3 Colonialism & Imperialism
Colonialism : controlling the economy of a country by another

country & using it for serving self- interests by the forms is
known as colonialism.
Imperialism : it implied having political, social, cultural control
along with economic control of a country by another country &
using it for serving self- interests by the another country.
- It seems more logical that imperialism is followed by
colonialism became to have economic control over a
country, political control is necessary.
- Colonialism & imperialism – originated from mercantilism.
During the earliest phases of colonialism, Spain &
Portugal were ahead in the race. There was a stiff
competition among European countries to establish
colonies & earn more & more economic benefits by
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more & more economic exploitation. For this

European countries fought a number of wars like
seven years’ war, Carnatic wars etc.
After the independence of America, England &
France realized that colonies are not merely for
economic exploitation only & that the colonies were
like ripe apples which were destined to separate from
mother countries upon maturation ( ripening).
So after America independence England accorded
better treatment & limited autonomy to its colonies
like New Zealand , Australia & Canada. It also noticed
a significant rise is trade & profits with America post
independence so it promoted free trade with other
colonies as recommended by ‘wealth & nations’ of
Adam smith.
But Asian & African colonies were treated
differently & England adopted measures so that the
people there do not mature.
The period of 1815- 1870 is that of a slow and
peaceful colonialisation during which the unification
& nationalization of European countries was taking
place.
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Initial reasons for imperialism were

1. Renaissance
2. Religious reforms
3. Geographical & scientific discoveries
4. Rise is population
5. Industrial revolution
6. Mercantilism
New imperialism- 1870 onwards
Till 1870 Italy & Germany were unified & needed colonies.
Now the major European countries competing for colonies
were England, France, Germany, Italy and other small countries
like Spain, Portugal etc. till then U.S. & Japan also joined the
race of colonialism. U.S. asserted & gave slogan that “America
for Americans” & japan said “Asia for Asians.
Features of new imperialism :
1. Germany + Italy + other small countries also joined.
2. Non European countries like U.S. & japan joined
3. Highly militarized
Each country improved its navy but no wars were fought.
4. Extreme nationalism
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Now colonialism was considered national glory & citizens

also forced their governments to establish colonies.
5. Africa was the new focus.
Africa was closest to Europe but had been ignored so far
anticipating no resources but now all players understood the
value of Africa & shifted focus upon it. Till 1870 only 10% of
Africa had been explored but from 1870- 1890, 90% of Africa
was explored. It was divided among players peacefully
without war.
Reasons for new imperialism
1. Political
- Unification of Germany & Italy caused them to race for
colonies.
- Prussia in 1870 defeated France in the Battle of sedan &
declared unification of Germany from hall of mirrors at
Versailles places which was powerful blow to the prestige
of France. Now France had immense pressure to save its
remaining honor by acquiring new colonies.
- England already was at top position in terms & colonies
but now it started feeling insecure because of several
new players coming in. so it intensified it colonialism to
remain at number one position.
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2. Economic :
- Industrial revolution was led by Germany after 1850 & by
now the whole Europe was undergoing industrial
revolution. This required more & more raw materials &
sufficient market to sell the manufactured goods. The
only & the best option was to establish colonies to serve
both the purposes.
- Europe was by now saturated for investment i.e.
investments had already been made wherever they could
be made & now there was no way of investing surplus
capital in Europe. So far this reason, the necessity of new
colonies was felt by all the countries where surplus
capital could be invested.
Investments were made in colonies in those sectors
which could help in greater & faster availability of raw
material to another countries & a more efficient
access of manufactured goods to the markets in the
colonies. These were mostly transportation sectors
like railway, roads, ports etc. railway served two
purposes; first it further strengthened iron & steel
industries of mother countries & second, easier
transport of raw material like tea leaves, cotton etc.
almost 25% capital of European countries had been
invested in colonies.
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- Emerging industries like shipping & arms industries

wanted a tensed environment so that demand for their
products remains high among nations. For this, they
forced their governments to establish more & more
colonies.
3. Religious
- Missionaries were spreading Christianity in colonies & got
support from mother countries for a number of reasons.
First, the spread of Christianity & their culture brought
religious & cultural glory to mother countries. Second,
newly formed Christians demanded European products
which expanded their markets. Third, insult &
mistreatment & missionaries gave colonialists an excuse
to attack & conquer political rights along with the
economic dominance.
4. Population increase
- A healthier lifestyle following industrial revolution &
decreased morality ( death) rate resulted in higher life
expectancy & increased population in Europe for which
now more resources were required which were available
in colonies.
5. Extreme nationalism
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Now the governments also had pressure from citizens

to expand colonies & bring glory to the nation. This
extreme nationalism contributed significantly in
popularizing colonialism.
Distribution of Africa :
David Livingston was a missionary & a doctor born in
Scotland, went to serve Africans in 1840 & discovered victoria
& Nyasa lakes there. When he didn’t return till 1873, Henery
Marten Stanley of Wales went to look for him, found him &
urged him to return to England but Livingston denied. After
some time Livingston died & a conflict arose between Africans
& Europeans on the question & cremation of his body. Africans
took out the heart out of his dead body & handed over the rest
to British.
Stanley approached Leopold – II of Belgium & told him
about the significance of Africa. They both founded ‘
international association for explotation & civilization of
Africa’. Later in 1876 a conference was held in Brussels with an
objective to tell the Europeans about the importance of Africa
as a place for spread of Christianity.
Now suddenly all colonial countries rushed for Africa
looking at which the Berlin Congress was called in 1884-85. The
objectives were to divide Africa & to form rules & regulation
regarding Africa.
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Berlin act
- Congo : free state & all Europeans could do trade there.
- Congo river valley : all countries could use it for
navigation.
- Niger: North : England
South : France
- Any takeover of any region must be real & all European
countries had to be informed about the conquest.
- Efforts were to be made for welfare & development of
natives like education, health & cultural development.
By 1900, whole of the Africa had been divided & the
maximum area was acquired by France most of which
was in Sahara while the ‘Best Area’ was acquired by
England.
The Boer revolt :
- In south Africa, Dutch farmers Boers lived.
- British used to exploit & oppress them so they started a
revolt against British which went on from 1884-1886 &
finally in 1886, the dispute was settled.
- Later, the gold was discovered in those regions & British
again came & oppressed the Boers in 1900.
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- Boers started a war against British & resisted successfully

for two years and six months.
- On 31st may 1902 British soldiers won & the treaty of
Berinigging was signed in 1902
-Internal autonomy to Boers.
-Dutch : Educational & cultural language
-English : Administrative language
- The Boer rebellion was led by Paul Cruger.
- Gandhiji supported British for which they awarded him
with Boer medal.
- William Kaiser sent a telegram encouraging Boers &
Cruger & openly opposed England.
Impacts of colonialism
1. On colonies :
- Negative
 Independence finished, had no autonomy.
 Economic exploitation by mother countries.
 Culture of colonies was destroyed.
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 Some races (red Indians) were even totally finished

by mother countries.
- Positive
 Renaissance spread to colonies
 Modern democracy, health, education, science
 Social reforms, religious reforms.
 Industrial revolution reached to colonies.
 Development of transport & communication.
 Other all the good charges that we see today.

2. On mother countries
- Positive
 Large expire brought glory.
 Their culture spreaded in whole world.
 Economic prosperity
 Industrial revolution further developed .

- Negative
 Several wars had to be fought.
 Resulted in world war.
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 Their image became that of exploiters.
French revolution
“ The French revolution was equally a struggle of weapons as
well as ideas. Freedom, equality and fraternity are the eternal
contributors of this revolution and Napoleon can be called its
product.
Reasons :-
Political reasons – there was a hereditary absolute monarchy in
France and the king held himself to be the representative
of god on earth. The absolute monarchy reached the
zenith of its prestige and power during the region of Louis
XIV. he used to say “ A Thing is Legal because I want it”.
The king had become headstrong and despotic.
Louis XV , the successor of Louis XIV was incompetent.
Instead of improving administration, he indulged himself
in the vagaries of a luxurious life. At the verge of his death
he admitted “ An insurgence will erupt after my death “
Then Louis XVI ascended the throne. He lacked in
leadership. Like all the bourbon kings , Louis XVI remained
under the thumb of his wife Mary Antoinette.
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The French administration was incompetent,

disorganized, corrupt and expensive. Absence of
uniformity was its greatest flaw Entire country was divided
into two kinds of provinces for regional administrative.
Provinces
Government Generalites
Head- governor Head – Entendent (bourgeois
class)
There was no authoritative code of laws in the country law
Changed at every 12kms. Proletariat (the lowest class) could
not seek justice.
The language of the court Was Latin which the French Public
did not understand.
- Letter de cachet – it was a warrant using which any one

could be arrested and put to jail.
Social reasons- the French society was complex and diversified.
It was divided chiefly in three classes:-
The clergy
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The nobility
The commoners
The elite invested with special rights comprised only one
percent of the whole French population. It is estimated that
20% the landlords and the clergy possessed one fifth of the
whole French property even then these two sections were
exempted from paying taxes and the resources less people of
the third sections were burdened with many taxes.
The aristocrats exploited farmers and lower class. The middle
class (bourgeoisie) had realized that class disparity could be
eliminated by destroying the feudal set up. They supported a
political change that would mould the politics and the
government in their favor. The middle class business flourished
opposed, restrictions imposed upon their business and
supported the cause of laissez-faire.
The artisans and laborers lived in misery. They were paid
meager wages but made to work for long time. The educated &
intellectual section of society created political awareness
among them.
Religious reason- the Roman Catholic Church was dominant in
France. It possessed huge property because of its special rights
and extensive influence in the country, the church of France
was termed as “ a state within a state “
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This had become notorious. Priests were indulged

in luxury. The impact of skepticism decreased the church’s
popularity.
Economic reasons :- The economic condition of France was
very miserable. Extravagance of ruling classes and erratic
taxation system were fully accountable for economic crisis.
Louis XV worsened the economic condition by
participating in Austria’s wars of succession and the seven
years war.
The French taxation system was defective and
disorganized. 75% income of state was spent on paying the
loans. Due to lack of saving no public welfare programs
were performed. Before revolution inflation rate was 69%
whereas rise in wages of labor was only 22%.
The commercial policy of state was so defective that
the development of business and production was not
possible.
Intellectual enlightenment:-
French intellectuals- Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau,
Diderot, Quesnay, Tourge and D’alembert. These thinkers
infused independent thinking in people. The characteristic
aspect of their thoughts was the establishment of liberal,
progressive and ideal society. They supported the cause of
35
lassez-faire, elimination of prevalent disparity in taxation

and approved of the rights of autonomy in administration.
Writers were churning the discontent of French society
and they revealed the hollowness of the French
institutions.
 Rousseau’s social contract propounded three

principles :
Liberty, equality, fraternity which were also the
principles of French revolution. Revolutionary leader
Robespear followed social contract like bible Rousseau
said that sovereignty lives in people and laws are made in
accordance to the wish of people. People have the right to
or can dethrone an unable or incompetent king.
 Voltaire- Supporter of personal freedom and
freedom of expression, opposed church, pope
bible, superstition etc.
 Montesquieu was against monarchy system, and
gave the principle of separation of power.
 Diderot with his friends help wrote ‘encyclopedia’
which broadened the vision of French people.
These writers did not affect the French
revolution directly and they were not a part of it.
36
Nobles and royal family members were also their

supporter. Human value was the base on main
subject of their writings.
Immediate causes-
The economic condition of France has declined and
Louis XVI changed France ministers in succession.
Turgot
Necker
Calonne
Brienne
Necker
Louis XVI did not welcome Turgot’s reforms and dismissed him.
Turgot’s policy was- no tax no loan, and no extravagant
expenses.
Necker continued the policy of Turgot. In 1781, Necker
published his most influential work. The compte rendu au roi.
In it, he summarized governmental income and expenditures,
giving the first ever public record of royal finances. It made
people aware about the fact that most of their income was
consumed in expenses incurred by the royal family. Antoinette
dismissed him.
37
Unlike Turgot and Necker, Calonne was in favor of taking

loans. In 1786, the royal treasury turned empty. Therefore, a
special council consisting of priests, feudal lords, magistrates
etc was summoned. This special council had no representation
of the common people. In the meeting, Calonne moved a
proposal that all sections of the society should be taxed to
improve the economic condition of the country. The illustrious
members of the council did not approve this proposal and
demanded Calonne’s dismissal.
Brianne suggested to impose a uniform land tax on all
sections of the society as well as new “stamp tax”. He was in
favor of ending all the privileges of nobles. Special council
rejected his proposal. The king dissolved the council and sent
Brianne’s proposals to the parliament for registration. The
parliament refused to register the new taxes and declared that
only the estate. General was empowered to impose new taxes
Louis XVI dissolved the parliament also.
The Estates General was an old representative council of
France whose session had not been held for the last 175 years.
The session of estates general was scheduled for 7 may,
1789. The estates general had three categories of members:
the feudal lords (nobles) , priests and the representatives of the
proletariat. The king doubled the member of third category.
38
There was a dispute that weather the estates general

should have three houses or one. Priests and nobles demanded
for three house and the proletariat demanded for one house as
they were more in member. The member of the third chamber
finished. On having a combined session of all the three
chambers so that a decision might be taken on the strength of
majority of all members. The members of the first and second
chambers opposed this demand but the members of the third
chamber remained adamant on it. In this way, a deadlock
developed at the outset of the session.
17 June 1789- Third chamber declared itself to be the national
council. On 20 June, Louis ordered to shut the doors of the
council hall. The representatives of the national council became
furious and decided to hold the session of the council in the
tennis court. The pledge executed by the representatives of the
court is famous as the ‘tennis court oath’. This event shook the
foundation of the French absolute monarchy on 27 June 1789,
the national council won a constitutional sanction.
On 9 July, the national council declared itself to be the
constituent assembly
The king and the assembly were suspicious of each other.
The condition of Paris became very turbulent. There was a
rumor that soldiers were being sent to Paris. It infuriated
people and they decided to equip themselves with weapons.
39
Demolition of bastille- The fort of bastille contained a huge

store of weapons, so the great crowd marched towards bastille.
The unruly crowd stormed into the fort on 14 July is considered
to be the beginning of revolution. 14 July was declared a
national day. A new tri- color flag was adopted and the old
administration was replaced by a new municipal government
known as the ‘Paris commune.’
On 4 august 1789, the national assembly declaration
demanded the abolition of all the privileges of nobles or
enjoyed by feudal lords.
On 27 august 1789, the constituent assembly translated its
ideals and objectives in the form of the declaration of human
rights. The contained the following points:-
1. Man is invested with some natural rights which he
acquires by birth.
2. Law is the expression of common will.
3. Nobody should be arrested unlawfully.
4. The security of public rights is the duty of the state.
5. Sovereignty was invested in the nation instead of state or
parliament.
6. All people have the right to acquire government ranks
according to their merits.
40
7. Private property is an inviolate and unbreachable right.

8. All are free to defuse religion and thoughts provided they
do not violate any law.
9. Freedom lies in those activities that do not harm others.
10. All officers of the state are accountable to the public.
On 5-6 oct. – thousands of women crowded together in Paris

and reached Versailles as people suspected that the king was
gathering force in Versailles in order to suppress the revolution.
The crowd demanded to take the king and the queen to Paris.
The royal family was brought to Paris and kept as prisoner
there.
On 3 Nov 1789- the constituent assembly nationalized the
church property in order to handle the deteriorating economic
condition of France. The French church became dependent on
the state and it had no relation with Roman church now. Priests
were to be appointed by public. Every priest was ordered to
take on oath of allegiance to the constitution of the clergy. The
state was made responsible to disburse Bulgarice was defeated
& only a small part of Macedonia was given to Bulgaria.
WORLD WAR I (1914-1918)
CAUSES :-
41
1) Clashes of interests in European countries.

2) Division of Europe in two parts.
3) Imperialistic competition
4) Militarism
5) Role of press
6) Lack of international organization
7) Immediate causes
8) Russia japan war 1905
I) CLASH OF INTERESTS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES :-
 French- Prussia war :- (1870-1871)

War between France and Prussia ( the future German
empire) ended a humiliating defeat for France.
 ALSACE & LORRAINE over taken by Prussia.
 France force to pay huge war indemnity.
 War led to creation of a powerful German empire.
 Military & industrial potential led to disrupt the European

balance of power.
 French desire to revenge strengthened.
42
-Austria- Prussia war (1866) war of Sodawa

In 1866 the rivalry between Prussia & Austria for supremacy
within German confederation was at its height Austria was
defeated in Sodawa war
 Austria wanted to regain its lost credit ; & saw the

possibility in Balkan states which were politically unstable
& divided.
 Balkan states/ region was resided by “slaves” who were

follower of orthodox, so Russia considered it its natural
region.
This led to clash of interests b/w Russia & Austria.
 Turkish ottoman empire had hold on these areas.

In 20th century beginning a revolution named
YONGTUKKEN started.
Young Turks were supporters of democracy & pressurized
to regain control on Balkan region.
- BALKAN WAR I :- 1912
- Ist Balkan war fought b/w the members of Balkan League,
Serbia, Bulgaria & Montenegro & the ottoman empire (Turkey )
43
- The Balkan league was formed under Russian support in

1912 to take Macedonia away from Turkey, which was already
involved in a war with Italy.
- Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territory
including Macedonia & Albania.
Macedonia was to be divided among the Balkan allies.
BALKAN WAR II :- 1913 :-
 Balkan war II began when Serbia, Greece & Romania

quarreled with Bulgaria over the division of their joint
conquests in Macedonia.
 On June 1, 1913 Serbia & Greece joined an alliance against

Bulgaria.
Bulgaria ordered war against Serbia & Greek forces in
Macedonia.
-CLASH OF ITALY & AUSTRIA’S INTERESTS:-
Italy’s prosy port was under control of Austria, which Italy
wanted to regain.
England & Germany :-
After unification Germany required colonies, which were
already controlled by England. So Germany became rival of
England.
44
III DIVISION OF EUROPE IN TWO-CAMPS :-

Europe was divided into two opposing camps
- The TRIPLE ALLINCE :- Germany , Italy & austrelia
- The TRIPPLE ENTENTE :- France, Russia & England
-1870 Prussia- France war :- After defeating France Bismarck
was sure that France will take this defeat revenge. So he
followed the method to keep France friendless. For this
Bismarck took help of secret treaty.
1873:- Bismarck negotiated THREE EMPEROR LEAGUE which
tied Austria Hungary, Germany and Russia to each others did in
time of war.
1879:- Dual Alliance – B/w Germany & Austria Hungary
1881-82 Triple Alliance :- Italy was also included in dual
alliance. The provision of treaty was to assist each other in war
times.
Meanwhile a dispute emerges B/w Bismarck & Wilhelm Kaiser -
Reinsurance treaty:-
Bismarck in 1888 agreed to reinsurance treaty with Russia.
Tiara Nicholas II of Russia allowed the reinsurance treaty to
lapse in 1890.
-FRENCH- RUSSIAN AGREEMENT- 1894
45
After lapse of reinsurance treaty Russia allied of France.

-BRITISH EMERGENCE FROM SPLENDID ISOLATION : 1902
In the early yrs of 20th century in 1902 Britain agreed a military
alliance with Japan, aimed to limit Germany colonial gains in
the east.
-COEDIAL AGREEMENTS :- Britain, France – Russia :-
1904 :- England & France signs entente cordiale with this
cordial England finally finishes its isolation policy.
1907 : Russia also allies with Britain & France & a three fold
alliance known as TRIPLE ENTENTE emerges, also known as
ALLIED NATIONS.
3. IMPERIALISM
After 1875 new imperialism started. All European countries
become competitive to increase their power & wealth by
bringing additional territories under their control.
> Germany & Italy lagged behind in imperialism, so only
redistribution could only fulfill their desire to attain
colonies.
> The increasing competition & desire for greater empires
led to an increased in confrontation that helped push the
world into world war I.
46
4. MILITARISM :-
- Integration of Germany brought the arms race in Europe.
- By 1914 Germany had the greatest increase in military
build up.
- Europeans started believing that all great problems can be
solved only by wars, so increase in military become
competitive.
- Big army’s gave security feeling to general public suffering
insecurities.
- Great Britain & Germany both become competitive to
increase their navies.
- Germany & Russia particularly the military establishment
began to have a greater influence on public policy.
This increase in militarism helped push the countries
to war.
5. NATIONALISM :-
After 1870 nationalism took a violent form which had
negative aspect. Each nation was in try to prove their
dominance and power. This way they were in a war to prove
themselves superior compared to other nations.
47
->Government had pressure of general public to maintain &

increase their nations credit.
The nationalism of the various countries throughout Europe
contributed not only to the beginning but the intension of
the war in Europe.
6. ROLE OF PRESS :-
In contemporary Europe almost all nation’s press was
suffering from violent nationalism & they published articles
fill of hatred feelings towards other rations.
7. LACK OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION :-
- In the time of hatred & competition there was need of an
international organization for solving misunderstanding
b/w nations.
- Unfortunately there was no such organization which could
enhance brotherhood among nations.
8. RUSSIAN WAR WITH JAPAN 1905
- Russia declined Japan’s offer in 1903 for each to recognize
the other’s interests in Manchuria & Korea.
48
- Japan launched a successful attack upon Russian in the

battles of liaoy ang, shaho & Mukden b/w 20 feb.- 10
march 1905.
- Japanese navy admiral Togo also destroyed the Russian
sea power in port Arthur in the pacific Togo.
- Russia again faced a crushing defeat on the Baltic fleet of
Russia in the battle of Tsushima on 27-28 may.
6. IMMEDIATE CAUSE :- Assassination of “Archduke Franz
Ferdinand” In June 1914 , a Serbian nationalist
assassinated “ Archduke Franz” Ferdinand & his wife while
they were in SARAJEVO , Bosnia which was a part of
Austria Hungary.
 Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina which

were under control of Austria-Hungary.
 This assassination led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on

Serbia.
 July ultimatum :- July 23 Austria- Hungary presented an

ultimatum on Serbia.
Vienna however, intentionally imposed impossible
demands on Serbia in order to be able to declare war on
its neighbor.
28 July 1914 :- Austria declared war on Serbia
49
 Russia began to mobilize due to its alliance with Serbia (

blank cheque 24 July 1914)
1st aug -> Germany declared war against Russia.
3rd aug.-> Germany declared war against France.
4th aug -> Germany declared war against Belgium
 England in favor of Belgium declares war against Germany.
 Bulgaria & turkey joins Austria & Germany.
 Italy joins allied nations.

Nov 1918 :- Germany surrenders & on 11 Nov 1918 world
war I ended.
 1917 communist revolution in Russia & Litovaski treaty

Russia withdrew itself from world war I.
 At this point America joins the war in favor of Britain &

France.
 Japan, china & India also enters war towards allied

nations.
RESULT OF WORLD WAR I :-
1. POLITICAL IMPACT :-
 Monarchies system collapsed.
50
 Democratic system emerged in Europe.
 Fall of 4 big European empires.

German –
Russian- Romanoff
Austria- Hapsburg
Turkish- ottoman
 When democratic system didn’t came up to publics belief-

dictatorship emerged ( Hitler & Mussolini )
 1917- communism emerged due to impacts of world war I.
 Communism gave rise to SOVIET UNION many developing

nations followed communism which led to era of cold war.
 Austria & Italy looses their prestige in Europe & becomes

marginalized.
 America emerges as a new power.
 Hungary was separated from Austria.
 New states like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia emerges on

world map.
IMPACT OF COLONIES :-
51
 During world war allied nations promoted democratic

values & took help from colonies.
 This aroused the feeling of “self-rule” in colonial people,

out when their desire was ignored, national revolution get
fired.
 Colonial soldiers confidence boosted up when they

defeated German & Austrian army, this broke the myth
that foreigners are undefeatable. These stories brought
up.
 Political awareness in colonial people.

2. ECONOMIC IMPACT:- Economically W.W.I. was horribly
expensive & approx. 10 billion $ monitory loss was
concluded.
 Native of production changed & more and more gains &

ammunition was produced instead of consumer goods-
demand of consumer goods surpassed their supply –
inflation appears.
 More & more youth were forcefully dragged into wars
 Agricultural production suffered ->government

revenue- suffered drastically- more minting of
notes by govt- inflation
52
 Supply of raw material suffered – industrial production
 Transportation is effected during war time – supply crisis.

All these factors made the world economy vulnerable to a
world wide depression & resulted in recession of 1929.
ECONOMICAL +Ve IMPACT :-
 Contribution of machines increased due to low availability

of man power
 It encouraged newer inventions & innovations in

production area.
 New technologies like- armaments, submarines, ships, etc

were developed.
ECONOMICAL IMPACT OF COLONIES :-
 Colonies faced +ve impact of WWI.
 Export Trade with mother countries was hampered- export

of raw material stopped- domestic producers got raw
material at cheaper rates.
 European imports hampered/ stopped – market become

available for domestic production.
 Inflation arouses nationalism.
53
SOCIAL IMPACT :-
 Approx deaths = 80 lakhs

Injuries = 2 cr.
These heavy life lose decreased the youth population &
children & elders population increased - caused social
imbalance & hampered production.
+ve Impact
1920- women empowerment was encouraged.
THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE OF 1919

A conference attended by the victorious allied powers 32
representatives of victorious nations attend the conference,
but a committee of 10 members was finalized seeing to great
(32) members.
Drawback of Paris peace conference :-
1. Venue :- The selection of Paris as venue, which was full of
feelings of revenge towards Germany, so an impartial
decision was not expected.
54
2. Only victorious 32 nations were invited conference.

3. Russia was not invited, because Russian communist govt
withdrew from war.
4. All representatives were not given optimum participation,
- Only 10 members committee was given powers.
- In them also only BIG 4 nations had real decision making
power.
-Woodrow Wilson(US president)
-Clemenceau (French PM)
-Lloyd George (British premier)
-Orlando(Italian PM) left
the conference in between
1. Woodrow Wilson:-
=> He declared a 14 point formula to conclude treaties.
=> Emphasized on establishment of “LEAGUE OF NATIONS”
2. Lloyd George ( British PM) :-
He was a practical leader. He has 2 aims at this
conference.
 To gain max benefits for England.
55
 Not to let France became powerful in Europe, so that in

future Europe’s doesn’t face “imbalance of power”.
He was not interested in – league of nations & Germany’s
total devastation.
3. Clemenceau :- ( France PM)
He was a smart politician & also known as ‘tiger of
politics’
His aim was to – 1. Take back Alsace & Lorraine from
Germany
2 to make Germany completely – weak, poor & paralyzed
so that. In future France doesn’t have to fear from
Germany.
3 Compensate of past
4 & security for future.
4. ORLANDO ( ITALIAN PM)

He wanted to implement the secret treaty London ( 1915)
He left the conference in between.
TREATIES OF PARIS CONFERENCE :-
Germany -> treaty of Versailles ( 1919 )
56
Austria -> treaty of St. Germaine ( 1919 )

Hungary -> treaty of Trianon ( 1920 )
Bulgaria -> treaty of Neuilly ( 1919)
Turkey -> treaty of severs & treaty of Lausanne
( c khalifa ) nationalist party of turkey
Led by Kemal pasha
Dismissed serve treaty to
This treaty commenced.
TREATY OF VERSAILLES :-
 Germany surrendered Alsace – Lorraine to France by

referendum.
 Coal & iron fields of SAAR VALLEY given to France for

15yrs.
 Schleswig given to Denmark following referendum
 Eupen- Malmedy & Moresnet ceded to Belgium.
 Memel port ( on north coast ) given to Lithuania.
57
 Danzing port kept under control of league of nations,

Poland given a special privilege to form a corridor to the
Baltic sea on its western frontier.
 Germany lost all rights to its colonies. The allied powers

held these as ‘MANDATORIES” of league of nations.
2 Military provisions of treaty of Versailles- 1919
 Germany had to end “Essential Military Services”.
 To reduce the strength of its army to 1,00,000 men for 12

years.
 Max naval force can be 15000, only.
 Air force to be completely abolished.
 To conscript & restrict production & stop import export of

war materials.
 Navy devoid of submarines.
 Rhine river area was to be demilitarized while the Kiev

canal was to be thrown open to all nations.
 Ban on fortification of Germany.

3 ECONOMIC PROVISION
58
 Germany had to accept “war guilt” for which huge war

indemnity was imposed by way of financial reparation. ( 5
billion $)
 SAAR VALLEY’s possession was given to France.
 Forced to give 7 million ton coal to France & Italy & 8

million ton annual coal to Belgium.
RESULT OF TREATY OF VERSAILLES :-
 The humiliating treaty led to aggressive nationalism &

feeling of revenge, such a failure led to rise of dictatorial
credos like “Hitler”
 Earlier monarchy was opposed in Germany & democratic

govt gained momentum but this republican govt when
signed the humiliating treaty, it also lost its relevance in
general public.
 Economy of Germany crippled due to huge war penalty.

This destroyed economic condition aroused in satisfaction
amongst Germans & they become opponent of allied
powers.
This laid the foundation stone of W.W.II.
59
IMPORTANCE OF VERSAILLES TREATY :-
 Allied power were sure that if Allied powers had win the
WWI they would have imposed more humiliatary
condition on them.
(Brest-Litovsk treaty was a proof of it. )
 Allied power thought that when nation unnecessarily

becomes aggressive & disturbs world peace ; then it
becomes necessary to teach him lesson. So that future
harmony is maintained.
 Allied nations population was full of hatred during war

time & they wanted to punish Germany strictly, so leaders
of allied nations were under public pressure.
EVALUATION OF TREATY OF VERSAILLES :-
Treaty of Versailles was humiliating & dictated peace as the
German delegates were not allowed to discuss the terms of
the treaty but were only called to receive & sign it.
Versailles treaty was the most shameful treaty of history.
Though axial powers were given assurance that the base of
treaties would be 14 POINT FORMULA & they will be treated
sympathetically, but nothing such was followed.
 German delegates were treated like prisoners & forced to

sign treaty in lieu of devastation of Germany.
60
 The vision of treaty was very narrow overlooking the

future impact of such a humiliating treaty.
 Axial power were given assurance of referendum but

referendum was followed only in regions which were
supporters of allied nations like Alsace Lorrain Schleswig,
Eupen , Malmedy.
 Referendum was not practiced in Austria – Hungary as

they wanted to unify Germany.
 Most of Germany’s resources were overtaken by allied

powers & huge war penalty was imposed on Germany
which were impossible for Germany to pay of pressure of
general public to formulate strict treaty against Germany.
 In spite all these reasons , such a humiliating treaty was

not logical as one cannot suppress evil by evil.
This revenge full treaty laid the foundation stone of
W.W.II.
And seeing the ill effect of this treaty, no humiliating
treaties & condition were imposed after world war II by
world powers , whereas they followed the path of
cooperate on towards defeated nations & helped them to
rebuilt their economies & nations.
61
WORLD WAR II
At the close of the Paris peace conference the delegates of the
great powers expressed hopes that the old mistakes would not
be repeated and no nation would amass brute force but these
hopes were completely belied. French policy of extracting
reparation from Germany, worldwide depression, an empire
and the development of dictatorial power of Hitler in Germany
were some of the factors that gave a fatal blow to the
international order established in 1919. England adopted the
policy of appeasement and this encouraged the aggressive
nations. Consequently , the international situation became
frightful and finally on sep 1 , 1939 the second world war
started after 20 years of I world war. The ground for world war
had been prepared during these 20 yrs.
Economic & political situation in the world on the eve of the
world war II.
Economic situation
The whole world had to suffer economic & political
consequences of world war I.
62
Industries was in straits, export was declined and

unemployment was at high. National income fell, to cope with
this situation many countries developed their currency. Most of
the countries restricted imports and increased exports, some
raised tariffs and resorted to barter system.
It was said that if goods are not allowed to cross border, armies
will.
Economic disparities between countries increased as a
consequence of treaties signed after world war I. Relations with
Germany, Italy & japan became bitter because they thought
that injustice had been done to them. Out of seven big nations
four were prosperous and owned enough land & resources
where other three were resource less and forbidden to expand
their territory.
Political condition
Politically the world divided into two camps; the totalitarian
states ( Germany, Austria & Hungary ) and the democratic
states ( Britain, France and America ). In the name of
strengthening democracy, the USA supported Britain and
France. The Russian revolution did away with the despotism of
the czar but installed the absolute and effective dictatorship of
communist. In 1911 Italy handed over power to fascists under
Benito Mussolini & Germany supported Nazi party to establish
its dictatorship in 1933.
63
Communist , fascist and Nazi govt differed with each other in

their ideology and objectives still they had significant
similarities. They were all totalitarian govt but the power was
concentrated in the hands of a disciplined organization which
do not want to share It with anyone. These differences
between ideologies aggravated international tension and pared
the way for the world war.
Background of world war – II
After a peace of 20 yrs the flames of war once again engulfed
on sep. 1, 1939. The apprehension of war had begun after the
Paris peace conference of 1919. When German delegates were
forced to signed the dictated and humiliating treaty of
Versailles, restriction were imposed on them. Germany had
been defeated and crushed but it could not be neglected. At
the time of Paris peace treaty, the German delegate Matthias
Erzberger had said with great confidence. The nation with 60
million oppressed people could never parish.
At peace conference Germany was not treated in a
benefitting manner. The French policy was extracting
reparation from Germany in a harsh manner intensified her
indignation. America had gradually adopted the policy of
isolationism. France wanted to reduce Germany to a state of
extinction but Britain wanted to see her a prosperous nation
able to maintain balance in Europe and act as a shield against
64
communism thus Germany got an opportunity of violating the

conditions of treaty of Versailles.
Japan also discontented with the Paris peace treaties
and started to expanding of its military and implemented the
expansionist policies. Japan attack Manchuria in sep 1931 &
renamed it Manchukuo.
At that time dismemberment of Czechoslovakia took
place. Above 50% of German population lived in Sudetenland
province and it emerged in Germany. Through diplomatic
maneuvers Germany won the Baltic states and signed treaty
with Russia.
Britain wanted Germany to resolve the problem of
Poland peacefully but Hitler preferred a stern policy. Hitler
demanded the port of Danzing and the polish corridor to reach
sea, from Poland and attack on Poland on sep 1, 1939. This was
the beginning of world war II.
Causes of world war
(i) Harsh terms and conditions of the treaty of Versailles :-
In world war I Germany was defeated and made to sign
the humiliating treaty of Versailles: the allied power invoiced
the fourteen principles of Wilson but Lloyd George,
Clemenceau & their fellow diplomats were so overwhelmed
by the feelings of revenge, national self interests and future
65
security. As a result of this treaty Germany had to lose one-

eight of her territory and 7 million people with all her
colonies. Her navay was reduced to very low and military at 1
lakh only. Germany had to forgo 2/3 of her coal fields, 2/3 of
iron, 7/10 of zinc and more than half of lead deposits. A self
respecting country Germany could not bear such harsh and
humiliating condition for long and this led to the world war II.
(ii) Rise of dictators.
After world war I democracy has been set up in the
defeated as well as newly created states Weimar republic
which was established in Germany was accused of signing
treaty of Versailles, so that the Nazi party rose. It wanted to
re-establish the prestige of Germany in the international
field. Hitler tried to convince the people of the world that he
aimed at establishing peace but soon he turned aggressive.
In 1935 he gave up the military clauses in treaty of Versailles
and declared rearmament. In 1938 he annexed Austria and
dismembered Czechoslovakia.
After world war I, Mussolini established dictatorship
in Italy. He opposed the treaty of Versailles and attacked on
Abyssinia.
Japan also unfolded her imperialistic desire &
occupied Manchuria.
66
In may 1939, Italy signed a 10 year treaty with

Germany and both the states promised to cooperate each
other in case of war. Franco also established dictatorship in
Spain with the help of Germany & Italy.
(iii) Failure of league of nations.
League of nations failed to fulfill the objectives America
did not join the league. The allied powers used the league to
grind their own axe. England wanted to exercise control over
the communistic tendencies of Russia. The aim of France was
to see that the terms and condition of the peace conference
were observed. Japan ignored the proposals of league & quit
it. The league failed to take effective control steps during
these world crises.
(iv) Failure of the policy of appeasement
The mutual disputes among the allied powers also
contributed to the development of the power of Italy
& Germany. After the peace conference, the group of
‘five allied powers’ came to an end the France and
Britain had to take the responsibility of enforcing
peace treaties.
Britain helped Germany in rearmament for the
commercial benefit. He also appeased Italy to ward of
danger in Mediterranean sea and the far east. For
67
future trade interest in south-east Asia Britain, did

not oppose japan during the occupation of
Manchuria.
Another reason for adopting of policy of
appeasement was that the France became very
powerful after the first world war so to keep France
under control, Britain helped Germany, this enraged
the allied powers and France made separate treaties
with Poland Belgium and Czechoslovakia. Hitler and
Mussolini took full advantage of differences between
France and England and the policy of appeasement.
Mutual distrust of differences between powers and
they found it difficult to check the growing power of
the dictators. Thus, the policy of appeasement
completely demolished the concept of collective
security.
(v) Spirit of extreme nationalism
As in world war I, the spirit of extreme nationalism
was the one important cause of the conflict. Mainly
the economic nationalism was responsible for war.
The influence of extreme nationalism was pre
eminent in Italy, Germany and japan. These all
wanted to made their nation strong and glorious.
(vi) Problem of minorities
68
The right of ‘self-determination’ was not completely

followed so the problem of minorities produced at
high level. They were treated discriminately so they
raised their voices against the government which
created the instability in the political system and
Germany took advantage of this and occupied
Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia etc which created the
platform of world war II.
(vii) Uncontrolled competition for arm making
After world war I Germany , Austria etc were banned
for armament but the allied powers were continuing
producing their armament. This time air force was
also empowering along with navy. There were many
conventions held for disarmament like Washington
conference 1921 but they had no effective positive
results.
On 3rd sep France and England declared war against
Germany in this world war II started. Russia also
attacked on Poland. Finally on 6th and 9th aug atom
bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki by
which Japan surrendered.
(viii) Immediate reason :
69
Germany attacked Poland on 1st sep 1939. On sep 3rd

France & England warned Hitler to stop the war but
Hitler turned a deaf ear. So on 3rd sep France and
England attacked Germany and the world war II
started.
Consequences of world war II
- 2.20 crore people were died in this war. 3 crore people
were injured =. Billions of property destroyed directly &
indirectly. Environment of anarchy, mismanagement
remained for 6 years. By which people had to face many
problems.
- Sovereignty of Europe was ended, sovereignty of England,
France and Germany was ended and now America took
place of these and become the international power.
- Beginning of cold war
After the war two great powers USA and USSR
appeared on the international stage. They
represented contrasting ideologies, so soon
differences between them cropped up on various
counts. These differences generated so much tension
and animosity that a fierce war of charges, counter-
charges and propagation of mutually contradictory
70
ideologies continued for many years. That was the

cold war and remained for approx. 45 years.
Non-alignment movement
After the war new sovereign states came in existence
and decided to keep themselves away from the tussle
of cold war. Jawaharlal Nehru said,”as far as possible
we must keep ourselves away from the politics of two
opposing camps which has already bought about two
wars.
End of colonialism
After the world war II all the colonies were declined
and the freedom struggles in the Asian and African
colonies became faster and one after another
became independent. Till 1960 approx all the colonies
became independent.
Reasons of decline of colonies
- After world war II the awareness of politics was spread
over all the colonies and they started demanding for
freedom.
- In this war the imperialistic countries became weak and
they had the scarcity of resources to control them.
71
- Communism also become popular after the war. Now

Russia became a great power of world and it started
establishing of communist govt in Europe and Asia. In this
the prestige of communism was decreased and this was
also the result of Chinese revolution for communism in
1949.
- Establishment of united nations organization.
- Monarchy system was ended in japan.
- Germany divided into two parts.
The American war of independence
Or
American Revolution
 Early history
 Why European stayed there.
 Geographical and cultural of Colonies
 Causes of American Revolution.
 Taxes
 Boston tea party
 Impact of seven year war
72
 First continental congress (1774)
 Major events of the war.
 The second continental congress (May 10, 1775)
 Declaration of independence
 Peace of Paris
 Cause for failure of Britain
 Result of American war
 Constitution of America
 Nature of Revolution
 Freedom struggle or Revolution
 Impact of American Revolution

1. USA
2. England
3. France
4. Rest world
AMERICAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE

- Columbus reached America in 1492.
73
- In 1501 , Amerigo Vespucci reached America. The new

world continents were named Americas, after him.
- First British colony was established at Jamestown in 1607.
- By the end of 1775, 13 British Colonies has been
established. The population in these Colonies comprised
90% British people and 10% Dutch, German French and
Portuguese.
 The burning question is why the European stayed here ?

(i) People want to get rid of the wars of genocide giving
on continuous in Europe.
(ii) Poor people and Slaves used to be sold for fighting
wars; they left for America to save themselves.
(iii) Most people migrate to earn profit and same thought
they would to able to worship God freely and get
redemption from European region.
(iv) Political case as many supporters of the Stuart
dynasty in England left for America after the defeat
of Charles- I.
(v) Because of growth of population, prisoners were
given choice of going to America & they preferred
it.
74
A mixed culture developed in America because of the

immigration of people of different countries and
denomination and having interest in diverse occupations.
- Colonies were near to like in freedom condition as in the
beginning interference of the British Government was
minimum spirit of self reliance and tradition of self
governance took root in the American colonies.
Each colonies had representative assemblies
and in which two representative from each town. All
Administrative and legislative function were in hand of this
representative assembly. A Governor is appointed in each
Colony through British crown but generally he didn’t interfere
in political Affairs.
- British parliament passed time to time number of acts but
they were not implemented properly like :
In 1624: Made compulsory the British ship for
tobacco trade.
In 1651: Navigation Act was passed for all trade that
only British ship can be used.
In 1673: Taxes imposes on inter-trade between the
Colonies.
In 1731: Cooper industries were made under British
Control.
75
In 1750: Monopoly over iron industry.

These Acts were passed but they were never
implemented properly. So there Colonies never
realized that they were under the England crown and
were Colonies of Britain, they live freely and
independent.
SEVEN YEAR WAR 1756-1763

- This war was fought between England and France for the
subjugation of Canada.
- France defeated in this war.
- The American did not extended sufficient help to the
British army during the war and carried on trade with
France.
So that British government tried to impose taxes and
commercial restriction in America
The American with their tradition of self rule could not
tolerate it.
So this war was the main causes of American war.
76
- England decided to recover the expenditure from Colonies

for the security of Colonies and various taxes were
imposed on American Colonies and these opposed by
them
And it became the basic cause of Revolution
Taxes that were imposed and opposed by Colonies-
- Greenville proposed four Regulations which affected the
Colonies.
Two important Regulations
(i) Sugar Act (Molasses Act 1764)
(ii) Stamp Act 1766
Other two: Currency Act
Quartering Act 1766
- The Colonies oppose this Stamp Act very aggressively and
give slogan.
“No taxation without Representation”
At last in 1768, these Act were ended but its claim that British
parliament has right to impose taxes on British Colonies in
future this Proclamation is also opposed by Colonies.
77
These above mentioned taxations aroused the people of

America to withstand Britain’s attempt to impose its authority
on them.
CAUSES OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION:
1. The lack of affection and sympathy for Britain. Among the
people who had left Britain, there was no feeling of
affection for England in them. Among these people, now
living in America, the feeling of social equality began to
take root, where as clam distinction prevails in Britain and
Britain had done nothing for the benefit of the settlement
in America.
2. Basically Colonial people came from Europe So, they were
familiar with self-governance and equality concepts and
Colonist leave for freedom more than the citizen of
England died.
3. Harsh policy of Britain toward the Colonies:
After seven year war (1756-63), Britain adopted a policy
of realizing a part of cost of war with France by taxing
America (by king George)
The Americans, who hated imperialism, were not
prepared to allow England to realized too from America
and utilized it for the expansion & strengthening of British
empire.
78
4. The mercantilist law of Britain:

By P.M George Grenville in 1763 of England made various
laws for the direct taxation of America.
5. Townshend Act 1767: Finance Minister, Townshend
imposed tax on the import of five items- tea, glass, paper,
currency metal and dyes American refused to pay the
customs duties. And it was published in series of article in
which stressed open the fact that Townshend’s regulation
were contrary to the British conventions and laws.
6. The Boston-Massacre (1770) Demonstration and reprising
against Townshend Act took place in many Colonies in that
5 people were killed in the firing by army in Boston. The
American condemned it in strong language and called it
the “Boston Massacre”
The British government Yielded and except for a tax of
3 pence per pound on tea, all other taxes were repealed.
7. The upsurge of intellectual Consciousness. Century 18th in
Europe is term as Enlightenment period in Europe.
Many thinkers were there-
 Rouseose: He criticized the Social & Cultural development,

according to him individual should be independent but
social development trap him.
79
 Valfair: He criticized the pope, church and religious

theories.
Major events of the war:-

Even before the 2nd continental council, The British
Governor Gaires attack Boston & Captured it. Samuel
Adams & John wre busy organizing the people for
resistance. Gaires declared that except these two all would
be exonerated. Gaires sent army to capture them. The
army committed loot & resorted to firing on houses. The
people of the city retaliated. 200 British soldiers were
killed. This event of April 19 was beginning of war- Adam &
Hancock reached Philadelphia scot-free.
The second continental congress (May 10, 1785),
After the violence of Lexington, 2nd session of congress
took place. First time serious thought was given about
freedom of America. Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock,
Samuel sdars & Thorns Jettison were Prominent leader in
congress.
Following decision were taken in congress:-
80
a) All the states will give full support to Massachusetts

against the British military action.
b) Armed struggle against British army was inevitable.
c) George Washington wasn’t made the commander-
In-chief and he was authorized to organized the
American army.
d) The congress declared itself govt of independent
America.
e) It was decided to form govt. in all the Colonies & British
govt were removed.
f) It was decided to organize committee of safety at all
places.
Peace of Paris ( 3rd sept 1783)

Talks for peace continued from April 1782 and treaty was
signed on Sep 3, 1783. According to this treaty:-
1) The 13 of American Colonies were granted freedom.
2) The northern boundaries of America were settled.
3) The western boundaries were fixed up to the river
Mississippi & Southern boundaries Stretched up to Florida.
81
4) Florida & Island of Minorca were given to Spain..

5) Boundaries of Holland were mixed according to Pre-war
status quo.
6) France was allowed fishing rights in New found land.
7) Colonies of Bharat, held by France, were returned to her.,
Causes for failure of Britain:-

a) In America, area of struggle was very fast & fighting an all
fronts was a very difficult task for British army.
b) Political situation in England was favorable for
independence of America.
c) American army got simultaneous help from France,
Holland and Spain.
d) The harsh policies got simultaneous help from France,
Holland and Spain.
e) The leadership of persons like George Washington,
Samuel Adams, Thomas Paire, Jefferson and Franklin.
f) The dedication & scarifies of Patriotic leaders.
George Washington organized army according to the
authorization & began sending contingents towards
Boston.
82
British army under general Hoe suffered great losses in the

Battle of Bunk shill & these raised more of American army.
In March 1776 the supporters of England captured Boston.
Afterwards George Washington suffered defeat. There
were two political streams, loyalist- nationalist.
Loyalist were opposed to war against England
Nationalist were prepared to fight against British army.
Declaration of Independence:-
Common Sense a book written by Thomas Paine led a
great impact on American People. In the Continental
Congress of 1776, Richard Henry Lee proposal for
independence of America & John Adams supported it. A
five member committee was constituted to draft the
declaration these included-
Jefferson, Franklin, Adams, Ragger Sherman & Robe
Livingston. The congress adopted the draft resolution of
independence on July 2 and declared the independence of
13 Colonies on 4 July 1776 and approved the declaration
of independence.
The main purpose of declaration of independence was to
reveal that the public is empowered to charge a govt. that
deprives it of their natural rights. Public is the source of
83
power and was fully empowered to elect the govt. of its

choice.
Results of American war:-

1) Introduction of new system in America:-
In place of old system of 13 colonies, a united states came
into being. By this constitution which is the first written
constitution, a bicameral legislature of the senate and the
congress was created. The Supreme Court was accepted as
defender of constitution, which was invested with
authority of judicial reviews. In the constitution
fundamental rights for all the citizens were provided
before law was established.
2) Reorientation of the British Colonial Policy:-
The harsh policy adopted for reduction of burden of debt
misfired and Britain was left with much burden of debt.
Now Britain adopted a liberal policy called second Colonial
policy. A benevolent policy of friendship & reciprocity was
adopted but this did not apply to Colonies like Bharat &
other eastern countries where European lived only in small
numbers. This applied only to the colonies like Canada,
Australia, and South Africa etc.
3) End of personal rule of George III :-
84
As a result of Britain defeat in America personal tyrannical

rule of king came to an end. P.M Lord North led to resign.
The parliament demanded restriction of king’s power so
his powers were curtailed. Supremacy of parliament was
established.
4) Social, Cultural & Economical challenges before the
Government of America movement against Slavery &
slaver trade began. Economy of many states of the united
states depended on Slavery, therefore its abolition was
difficult.
5) Economic development of America:-
Textile of high quality began to be produced in large
quantity. Import from England was reduced America
began to export industrial goods very soon. Because of
economic growth, America becomes an economic super
power in twentieth century.
6) Inspiration for the French Revolution :-
The soldiers who fought against Britain were impressed by
patriotism & love for freedom of Americans. After
returning home they helped spreading idea in France. Lay
Fayette, who had fought in American war of
Independence, presented draft declaration of Right of man
in National Assembly of 1789 and played an Active role in
85
French Revolution. The principles of French Revolution,

liberty, equality & Fraternity were inherent in American
Revolution. A large No of French people who were
exploited by the upper classes and were as a result
suffering from grinding poverty wanted establishment of
democracy patterned on America.
7) Liberal policy of England towards Ireland:-
The Irish people, who had been suffering under harsh
English Rule for many centuries welcomed independence
of America. As a matter of political expediency, England
was forced to adopt liberal attitude towards Ireland.
8) Spread of National Feeling:-
The American freedom had its impact on the whole world.
During the 19th century, countries like Italy, Germany,
Ireland, Austria, Greece, Japan and China under the spell
of nationalism. The 19th century is the said to be century of
Nationalism.
9) Social Impact:-
Some Historian prefers to call the American war of
freedom a social struggle. Formation of organization like
Daughters of Freedom make it clear that women
contributed greatly to the war of Independence. American
86
economy depended greatly on slave labors, yet attempts

continued to be made for abolition of slavery.

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1

as Leonardo-da-Vinci & Michelangelo, who inspired the term

{Dog= fidelity, loyalty}

MODERN WORLD HISTORY

# Causes of the Reformation:-

church offices), pluralism, absenteeism, sale of

powers due to church & his dominancy and influence

-He is known as the “morning star of the reformation.”

2. John hus, czech

5. Erasmus: in the praise of folly (1509) :

immoral life of the priests shocked him. He returned

# views of martin Luther :-

- He opposed the selling of indulgences and the extravagant

- In 1526,the diet of Speyer denied recognition to Luther. In

#peace of Augsburg (1555)

The assets and property acquired by the

- His influence was maximum in Geneva. There he

4. Luther gave symbolic importance to miracles while Calvin

henry head of the English church instead of pope but the

1. Under this supremacy of the pope was accepted and

the stage for the division of Europe into a protestant north

3. On economy : the unproductive assets of church were now

his long recovery he found comfort in the lives of the

During the reformation it was reestablished. It

3 Colonialism & Imperialism

Colonialism : controlling the economy of a country by another

more & more economic exploitation. For this

Initial reasons for imperialism were

Now colonialism was considered national glory & citizens

- Emerging industries like shipping & arms industries

Now the governments also had pressure from citizens

- Boers started a war against British & resisted successfully

 Independence finished, had no autonomy.

 Economic exploitation by mother countries.

 Culture of colonies was destroyed.

 Some races (red Indians) were even totally finished

 Renaissance spread to colonies

 Modern democracy, health, education, science

 Social reforms, religious reforms.

 Industrial revolution reached to colonies.

 Development of transport & communication.

 Other all the good charges that we see today.

 Large expire brought glory.

 Their culture spreaded in whole world.

 Industrial revolution further developed .

 Several wars had to be fought.

 Resulted in world war.

 Their image became that of exploiters.

The French administration was incompetent,

- Letter de cachet – it was a warrant using which any one

This had become notorious. Priests were indulged

lassez-faire, elimination of prevalent disparity in taxation

 Rousseau’s social contract propounded three

Nobles and royal family members were also their

Unlike Turgot and Necker, Calonne was in favor of taking

There was a dispute that weather the estates general

Demolition of bastille- The fort of bastille contained a huge

7. Private property is an inviolate and unbreachable right.

On 5-6 oct. – thousands of women crowded together in Paris

1) Clashes of interests in European countries.

 French- Prussia war :- (1870-1871)

 ALSACE & LORRAINE over taken by Prussia.

 France force to pay huge war indemnity.