Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Short communication

Mix design and properties of fly ash waste lightweight aggregates

T
in structural lightweight concrete
Manu S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar
School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials and has the ability to consume industrial
Sintered wastes in high volume. As the demand for concrete is increasing, one of the eff ective ways to reduce the
Strength undesirable environmental impact of the concrete is by the use of waste and by-product materials as cement
Mix design and aggregate substitutes in concrete. One such waste material is fly ash, which is produced in large
Resistivity
quantities from thermal power plants as a by-product. A substantial amount of fly ash is left unused posing
environmental and storage problems. The production of sintered lightweight aggregate with fly ash is an
eff ective method to dispose of fly ash in large quantities. Due to lack of a proper mix design procedure, the
production and ap-plication of lightweight aggregate in structural concrete are not much entertained. The
absorp-tion characteristic of lightweight aggregate is a major concern, while developing the mix pro-
portioning of lightweight concretes. The present study is an attempt to establish a new mix design procedure
for the development of sintered fly ash lightweight aggregate concretes, which is simple and more reliable
than the existing procedures. Also, the proposed methodology has been validated by developing a spectrum
of concretes having water cement ratios varying from 0.25 to 0.75. From the study, it is obvious that the
development of 70 MPa concrete is possible by using cement alone without any additives. Also, it is ensured
3
that all the concretes have densities less than 2000 kg/m .

1. Introduction

The aggregates in concrete play a very significant role as far as the matured concrete properties are concerned. Aggregate is a very important
ingredient in concrete; in India, the aggregates used are of granite origin which is crushed in nature. Its extensive use in concrete will trigger
ecological and environmental disparity. The environmental impacts of granite aggregates extraction are a major concern in India. The eff ects
comprise deforestation of forests, noise, dirt, vibrations resulting from blasting the mountains and environmental pollution. Unexpected
mistreatment of heavy rock masses may result in landslides of frail and vertical mountain slopes. The apprehension about the exhaustion of
natural resources and the eff ect on atmosphere has predominantly focused con-sideration on the likelihood of use of synthetically produced
(from waste materials) aggregates as a substitute to naturally occurring resources. This practice can provide simultaneous solution towards the
waste management and preservation of natural resources up to large extent [1].

No matter whatever may be the aggregate type, nearby 60–70% of the total volume of the concrete is occupied by aggregates itself.
Commonly available synthetically produced lightweight aggregates (LWA) which are suitable for structural applications are:

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pdinakar@rediff mail.com (P. Dinakar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2017.09.005
Received 22 May 2017; Received in revised form 14 August 2017; Accepted 27 September 2017
Available online 12 October 2017
2214-5095/ © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
M.S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

expanded shale/clay/slate aggregate, blast furnace slag aggregate, sintered fly ash aggregate. Among all these, sintered fly ash aggregate is the
best for the use in structural applications [2]. These aggregates were prepared by sintering the mixture of fly ash, semi plastic clay as binder and
coke breeze at a certain proportion and sintering them at a temperature between 1200 °C to 1300 °C in a Laboratory Chain Grate Sintering
System by the Down Draft Sintering Technique [3]. The aggregates that were prepared by the above technique are called sintered fly ash light
weight aggregates [4].
Fly ash is a waste material which generates twin problems of discarding as well as environmental degradation, due to its nature of causing air
and water pollution on a large scale. Nearly145 coal-based thermal power stations in India are producing over 184 million tons fly ash per year
[1] out of which only 56% was utilized eff ectively and the remaining is still a concern to the community [5,6]. Therefore, the manufacture of
sintered fly ash lightweight aggregate is an appropriate step to utilize a large quantity of fly ash in concrete. However, a non-existence of
worthwhile technology to produce sintered fly-ash lightweight aggregates and the absence of a market has deterred Indian entrepreneurs from
producing sintered fly-ash aggregate. Recently a couple of industry players in India have focused their attention on the development of sintered
fly ash light weight aggregates commercially on a large scale from the fly ash obtained from their captive power plants. As such, there is no
Indian standard available for the lightweight aggregates. More recently, pilot studies by the authors have established that this material displays
substantial potential for use in structural concrete [7].

The lightweight aggregates manufactured with fly ash are light due to the presence of air voids and these voids are responsible for their
absorbency. This absorbency plays a significant role in the mix design and also in the performance of the concrete. The absorption caused by the
lightweight aggregate is mainly responsible for the difficulty during the production of lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) in practical
situations. Porous lightweight aggregates have become highly sensitive as the w/c ratio varies. The moisture content during the mixing stage
state is a major concern for LWAC. The North American approach is to use the LWA in a saturated state; contrary to this, Norwegian approach
prefers dry LWA having a moisture content less than 8% [8]. The problems associated with the variation in the moisture content with pre-soaked
LWA can be nullified using dry LWA and the reduction in fresh mix density is an added advantage in this procedure [9]. By considering the cost
of production and the improved durability properties it was suggested to use the aggregates in the dry state. Also, there is no appreciable
diff erence in the workability and compressive strength between the concrete using air dried and pre-soaked aggregates if the water absorption is
compensated by additional water during mixing [10].

The mix design of SLWAC is more complex than that of normal concrete as more design parameters such as absorbed water during the
mixing of concrete and proportioning of diff erent aggregate sizes etc. are needs to be determined. Taking this into account, a simplified design
method is required to produce SLWAC made with natural sand. Presently due to the lack of proper mix design procedures, the developed
concretes are poor in structural performance and therefore the use of sintered fly ash lightweight ag-gregates has been limited to non-structural
elements.
Till now no reliable study has been made to determine the water absorbed by the porous aggregate during concrete mixing. In the earlier
methods, the absorbed water was determined by completely immersing the aggregates in water for a specified time. Also, a combined aggregate
grading is missing from all the available methods. The main objective of this paper is to suggest a simple and reliable mix design method to the
community to bridge the existing gap. Consequently, this study examines the development of LWAC and evaluates the performance of these
concretes through proper experimental investigations. The outcome of these in-vestigations on fly ash lightweight aggregate specifies that one
can suppose not only the environmental protection through recycling of waste resources but also the reduction in dead load and enhancement of
some of the matured concrete properties.

2. Review of previous mix design methods

The previous mix design procedures suggested for LWAC diff er completely from traditional concrete design. And most of these methods are
not applicable to all kinds of aggregates, even though all are lightweight aggregates.
Swamy and Lambert [11] provided a mix design chart which aimed to develop concrete having a compressive strength, up to 60 MPa. Here
the coarse aggregate content was fixed for all the concretes irrespective of their physical characteristics like grading and specific gravity.

Dhir et al. [2] suggested a mix design procedure for aglite (expanded clay/shale) aggregate. Here the medium and fine size aglites were used
3
as aggregates. The medium aggregate content was fixed as 480 kg/m for all the mixes irrespective of the strength and density requirements.
Also in this mix design procedure, it was found out that the use of fly ash as a fine aggregate replacement improved the cohesiveness and helped
to improve the workability. This procedure is almost silent about the aggregate absorption characteristics, so it is not applicable to all type of
aggregates. Also, this methodology only focused on medium workable mixes (50 ± 10 mm slump).

ACI 211 [12] recommends a mix proportioning method for SLWAC based on weight or volume of the ingredients. In weigh batching it is
supposed that the aggregates are in a saturated condition and in volume batching it requires information such as the dry loose bulk density of
aggregates and the optimum fine aggregate to total aggregate ratio. To obtain these specified data it requires carrying out a series of trial and error
examinations. Also, the available graphs and tables were developed using limited test para-meters.

A rational mix design method for the development of lightweight aggregate concrete was proposed by EuroLightCon [13]. In this method, a
detailed study was conducted on the absorption characteristics of the commercially available aggregates known as Liapor (expanded shale) and
Lytag (sintered fly ash). Thirty minutes’ water absorption was considered as the amount of water absorbed during mixing and casting. In this
procedure, for a desired slump/spread, the volume percentage of the matrix content was

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M.S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

determined from the provided S- curve. From the obtained results, it was observed that 30% of matrix content provided good workability. The
volume of sand was fixed as 40% of the total aggregate volume. This procedure is limited to w/c ratios varying between 0.25 and 0.35.

Chandra and Berntsson [14] proposed a semi empirical mix design procedure. According to this method, the strength of the mortar and the
aggregates are calculated using the same empirical formula based on bulk density; irrespective of the type of ag-gregates used. Also, it relays a
two-phase system without considering the eff ect of the interfacial transition zone. These two factors determined the characteristic compressive
strength of the concrete. In this methodology volume of paste and coarse aggregates are fixed.

A simple mix design procedure for the development of structural lightweight aggregate concrete was proposed by Bogas and Gomes [15]
based on the biphasic model, wherein the characteristic strength of mortar and of lightweight aggregate in concrete was also considered as mix
design parameters. By assuming the paste volume and coarse aggregate volume other parameters were determined.

Yang et al. [16] proposed an initial mix proportioning procedure for SLWAC through regression analysis of 347 data points. The data points
were mainly compiled from expanded fly ash or clay lightweight aggregates. This procedure considered the absolute volume and the dry density
of the concrete as boundary conditions. The absorption criterion is not well defined in this method.
From the above discussion, it is obvious that most of the proposed methodologies adopt the fixation of either the aggregate content or paste
volume of the concrete, irrespective of the aggregate characteristics and the concrete fresh and hardened require-ments. To date, there is no
specific mix design methodology which has been developed for SLWACs to achieve a definite strength such as in normal concretes. The present
investigation is an eff ort towards this direction.

3. Proposed mix design methodology

The present investigation is an endeavour to develop a reliable and simple mix design procedure through the proper packing of the
aggregates. As far as the theoretical work is concerned there have been three aspects of mix design in which most of the work has been carried
out; water/cement ratio, aggregate water absorption, and aggregate grading.
In 1919 Abrams developed a relationship between water-cement ratios and compressive strength of concrete [17]. According to this relation,
the strength of the concrete is inversely proportional to the w/c ratio. This theory has remained the basis for most of the mix design procedures
even in the modern age. But this relationship is more suitable for normal aggregate concretes where the paste matrix is the weakest link.
Considering the porous nature of the aggregates in the concrete, the aggregate itself is the weakest element. The interfacial transition zone in
porous aggregate concrete is superior to the normal aggregate concretes [18,19]. This phenomenon may help to counterbalance the low strength
of the aggregate to some extent. As a result of the present investigation, a new strength to w/c ratio relation was developed.

Proper estimation of water absorption by aggregates is vital in the development of SLWAC. Currently, these calculations are based only on
universal practice; a more robust approach is essential. Aggregate absorption is mostly aff ected by the microstructure, surface characteristics and
characteristics of the surrounding mortar. These parameters should be considered in the absorption characteristics of any porous aggregates. The
absorption capacity of LWAs can be determined by immersing the respective aggregates for a specified time in the water. But this procedure
never simulates the real absorption that happens during the mixing process because the aggregates are surrounded by the mortar paste, and not by
water alone. In the present methodology, the absorption of the sintered fly ash aggregates was determined in the received state. The detailed
absorption study on the aggregates is discussed in the upcoming section.

It is a well-known fact that fresh and hardened properties of the concrete mix significantly depend on the packing of its coarse and fine
aggregates. Proper proportioning of diff erent aggregate sizes is an essential step in the concrete mix design procedure [20]. Aggregate packing
has an important role in the development of high strength concretes [21,22]. The primary objective during proportioning of diff erent aggregate
size groups is to minimize the void ratio of the aggregate matrix. The euro-pack model by Goltermann et al. [23], the compressible packing
model by De Larrard [24] and the theory of particle mixtures by Dewar [25] are such significant methods. The granulometric curve provided by
DIN 1045 [26] is quite convenient in proportioning of diff erent aggregate sizes to form a well packed aggregate batch. According to DIN 1045
[26], the region between the curves 'A' and 'B' was found to be the favourable region for concrete proportioning. Curve 'B' act as a boundary
between usable and favourable regions. According to the results obtained from the previous researchers, DIN 'A' is preferable to design normal
vibrated concrete and DIN 'B' is suitable for the development of self-compacting concretes [21,22]. However, it should be borne in mind that if
the specific gravity of the aggregates is varying it is recommended to adopt the absolute volume method.

Proper aggregate gradation enhances the consistency of the mix and finally results in a dense concrete. This dense aggregate matrix is
achieved through the combined aggregate grading as suggested by DIN 1045 standards.
The mix design procedure proposed for the development of SLWAC is depicted in Fig. 1 and can be briefed in the subsequent steps:
Step 1: Fix the water cement ratio
Water-cement ratio is the major strength determining factor in any type of cement concrete. In almost all the mix design pro-cedures, the w/c
ratio of normal concretes is determined using a standard compressive strength to w/c ratio curve. The present study develops a new w/c relation
for the development of SLWAC and the same is presented in Fig. 2.
Step 2: Fix the water content
3
The water content (‘w’ in kg/m ) required for concrete can be finalized based on the workability requirement for a particular situation and can
be determined using the guidelines provided by ACI. The free water content can be fixed somewhere between

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M.S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

Fig. 1. Flow chart of the proposed mix design methodology.

Fig. 2. Strength to water cement ratio relationship of LWAC.

3 3
166 kg/m to 211 kg/m [12].
Step 3: Determination of the cement content
3
Cement content (‘c’ in kg/m ) of each mix is determined by using Eq. (1); from the adopted water/cement ratio as per Step 1.
3 w
Cement content(kg/m ) =
w/c (1)
Step 4: Determination of coarse and fine aggregates
This methodology considers sintered fly ash aggregates as coarse aggregates and natural river sand as fine aggregates. The amount of total
aggregate can be determined using the absolute volume method. Three diff erent sizes of coarse aggregates were used for this study. These
aggregates were combined in such a way so that they fit nearly the combined grading specification of DIN ‘AB’ curve for

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M.S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

Fig. 3. The actual and the standard aggregate grading adopted (w/c: 0.45–0.75).

concretes having w/c ratio from 0.45 to 0.75 and DIN ‘A’ for concretes having w/c ratios from 0.25 to 0.45. The real grading curves used in the
investigations and the standard DINcombined aggregate curves are presented in Figs. 3 and 4.
3
Total concrete volume = 1 m ;
3
Assume air content = 2%, Air = 0.02 m
3
Actual concrete volume = 0.98 m
3
From step 2 and 3 the amount of cement and water used in the mixture is obtained. Let assume cement content is ‘c’ kg/m and water content
3
is ‘w’ kg/m .
Volume of paste (Vpaste) = (c/Gc + w/Gw) m, where Gc and Gw are the cement and water specific gravity respectively. Total
3
Volume of Aggregate (Vagg) = (0.98–Vpaste) m
In the combined aggregate grading for LWAs let the percentage of coarse aggregate (CO) in the total aggregate content be x % (CO1, mm =
x1%, CO2, mm = x2% and CO3, mm = x3%) and that of the fine aggregate content be y%. The percentage x1, x2, x3, and y are fixed in such a
way that the combination complies with the corresponding standard DIN curve.
3
Volume of coarse aggregate (Vco) = x % × Vaggm
Weight of CO1 aggregate = x1% × Vagg × Gco1
Weight of CO2 aggregate = x2% × Vagg × Gco2
Weight of CO3 aggregate = x3% × Vagg × Gco3Where Gco1, Gco2, and Gco3 is the specific gravities of CO1, CO2 and CO3 respec-tively.
3
Volume of fine aggregate = y% × Vaggm
The weight of fine aggregate = Vfa × Gs, where Gs is the specific gravity of sand.
Step 5: Determination of extra water required
The absorption is mainly happening in the coarse aggregate only. As per Step 4, the total coarse aggregate percentage is de-termined. So, the
absorbed water can be calculated using the relationships (2, 3 and 4) explained below. A separate absorption study has been conducted on the
coarse aggregates to determine the extra water that is required to compensate the absorbed water during the mixing process. The absorption study
that has been carried out is explained in the following section.

Fig. 4. The actual and the standard aggregate grading adopted (w/c: 0.25–0.45).

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M.S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

3.1. Absorption study on LWA

According to EN 206-1 [27], the water absorbed during concrete mixing is same as that of the absorption by the aggregate in pure water
during 1 h. Zhang and GjØrv [28] suggest a duration of 30 min instead of 1 h, to determine the equivalent absorption in water. Chandra and
Berntsson [14] suggested that the aggregate absorption in fresh concrete is about 75–100% of the first 30 min to 1 h of absorption in water.
Although there is some controversy, the diff erence between the absorption at 30 and 60 min tends to be negligible [29]. In the present study, the
absorption period is considered as 30 min; because the time required for mixing and casting of concrete normally lies within this period.

Punkki and GjØrv [30] proposed a method to assess the absorption of aggregate in cement paste, and the same has been adopted in the
present study. The absorption characteristics of the sintered fly ash lightweight aggregates are not well defined until now. In the present study,
lightweight aggregates of known moisture content (mc) were selected for absorption test. The initial weight (w i) and the moisture content were
noted. The suitable mortar paste (of a particular w/c ratio) was mixed and placed in 3 diff erent containers. 14 broken and 6 rounded aggregate
particles were batched to simulate the real-time situation. Aggregates were immersed in a particular mortar paste in each container for the
required period (5 min, 15 min, and 30 min) of absorption. After the absorption period, the aggregates were taken out and the surplus paste
around the aggregates was carefully removed using a small nylon brush on paper towel. The aggregates were then weighed on a balance accurate
to three decimal places of a gram and the value was recorded (w m). These aggregates were then kept in an oven at a temperature of 105 °C over a
period of 48 h. Finally, the aggregates were weighed again and the weights noted (w d). The aggregate absorption values were calculated using
Eqs. (2–4).
wm − wi
Total absorption by the coarse aggregates (ab%)= × 100%
w
i (2)
Total water absorption by the coarse aggregates (ab w %)= wm − wd × 100%
w
i (3)

Total paste absorption by the coarse aggregates (abm %) = (ab – abw) % (4)

The 30-min absorption is generally considered as the absorption capacity of the aggregates during the concrete production [14,31]. As a
result of this experimental study, a correlation was established between the aggregate absorption capacity and diff erent w/c ratios. The
established results were represented in Fig. 5 for 30 min absorption.
Mass of compensated water required (wab) = m × abw %, where abwis the total water absorption by the aggregate during mixing. Mass of
compensated water required for CO1 aggregate (wab1) = m1 × abw1%, where abw1is the percentage total water ab-
sorption of CO1.
Mass of compensated water required for CO2 aggregate (wab2) = m2 × abw2%, where abw2is the percentage total water ab-sorption of CO2.

Mass of compensated water required for CO3 aggregate (wab3) = m3 × abw3%, where abw3is the percentage total water ab-sorption of CO3.

Step 6: Trial mixtures of fresh and strength tests on LWAC

Trials mixtures can be prepared using the proportions determined as per the procedure mentioned above. Fresh and strength properties
through diff erent workability and strength tests should be carried out on prepared LWAC.
Step 7: Modification of mix proportion
If the strength results of the tested concrete fail to meet the required performance, a proper modification is recommended until all the
properties of LWAC meet the requirements as per ACI 213 [32].

Fig. 5. Variation of percentage water absorption of aggregates with water cement ratio.

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M.S. Nadesan, P. Dinakar Case Studies in Construction Materials 7 (2017) 336–347

Table 1
Comparison of concrete mix design parameters.

Mix design Applicability Type of aggregates Water- cement Water CA/TA Remarks
method ratio content

ACI 211.1 [34] For all grades up to nominal maximum size 0.25–0.82 166–211 0.52–0.74 ACI 211.2 provides guidelines
ACI 211.2 [12] 83 MPa of aggregate for design of light weight
ACI 211.4 [35] concrete up to 41 MPa
DIN 1045 [26] For all grades up to Rounded only 0.40–0.75 135–220 Combined aggregate No guidelines for design of light
55 MPa grading weight concrete
BS (BRE) [33] For all grades up to crushed and uncrushed 0.30–0.90 115–250 0.40–0.80 Also provides guidelines for
75 MPa only design of light weight concrete
EN 206 [27] For all grades up to Rounded only 0.30–0.90 115–250 0.40–0.80 Also provides guidelines for
88 MPa design of light weight concrete
IS 10262 [36] For all grades up to angular, sub angular and 0.40–0.60 165–208 0.44–0.75 No guidelines for design of light
55 MPa rounded weight concrete
Proposed For all grades up to Rounded sintered fly ash 0.25–0.75 166–211 Combined aggregate Solely for the design of sintered
method 70 MPa light weight aggregates grading using DIN fly ash light weight concrete
only standard.

3
CA: Coarse aggregate, TA: Total aggregate, Water content in kg/m .

4. Comparison of the proposed method with the existing standard methods

The proposed method is a simple and reliable method for the design of lightweight concrete using sintered fly ash lightweight aggregates, by
means of an established relationship between 28-days compressive strength of concrete versus various influencing parameters of mix design. The
proposed method is validated experimentally in the laboratory for various concrete grades-and achieved the desired strengths. The proposed
method can be used for mix design of lightweight concrete mixes using sintered fly ash aggregates for strengths up to 70 MPa and can be used by
field engineers at the construction sites. The method also proposed a relationship for determining the water to be compensated by aggregates
absorption (Fig. 5) at the time of concrete mixing. Regarding aggregate gradation, a combined aggregate grading was adopted from DIN 1045
[26] standards by using the DIN curves. A basic comparison of the existing method with the various standards for conventional aggregates is
presented in Table 1. From the table, it can be seen that the existing method is solely for the design of lightweight concrete using sintered fly ash
lightweight aggregates which are round in shape. The basic design procedure is the same as any conventional method of concrete mix design
adopted by any code. From the table, it can also be seen that some of the codes such as ACI [12], BS [33], and EN 206 [27] have also given
some guidelines for the design of lightweight concretes, but there was no standard procedure for the design of lightweight concretes as there is
for conventional concretes. The present method addresses all these in a systematic manner in the form of a mix design procedure.

5. Development of SLWAC

5.1. Materials

Ordinary Portland cement (similar to ASTM Type I) meeting the requirements mentioned in IS: 12269 [37] was used as the binder material.
The diff erent size fractions of sintered fly ash aggregates (2–4 mm fraction, 4–8 mm fraction and 8–12 mm fraction) were taken as coarse
aggregates (Fig. 6) and well-graded natural river sand having a maximum size of 4.75 mm were used as fine ag-gregates, to attain a well-packed
aggregate matrix. The coarse aggregates with 2–4, 4–8 and 8–12 mm fractions had specific gravities of 1.41, 1.42 and 1.44, whereas the fine
aggregate had specific gravity of 2.65, respectively, as determined experimentally. The properties of the aggregates that were used in the present
experimental investigation are presented in Table 2. Commercially available poly carboxylate ether (PCE) based superplasticizer was used in the
present study.

Fig. 6. Sintered fly ash lightweight aggregate samples of diff erent sizes.

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Table 2
Properties of aggregate used in this investigation.

Property Natural Aggregate Lightweight Aggregates

River sand 2–4 mm 4–8 mm 8–12 mm

3
Particle dry density (kg/m ) 2650 1410 1420 1440
3
Loose bulk density (kg/m ) 1352 816 800 783
24 h water absorption (%) 0.33 19.22 19.14 18.19
Total porosity (%) – 41 41 40

5.2. Mix proportions

To validate the developed mix methodology, six diff erent concretes having water-cement ratios 0.25, 0.35, 0.45, 0.55, 0.65 and 0.75 were
employed. The mix details are presented in Table 3. The letter in each mix designation represents mix identity, LW represents lightweight
concrete. The numbers 25, 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75 represent the corresponding water-cement ratios 0.25, 0.35, 0.45, 0.55, 0.65 and 0.75
respectively.

6. Experimental investigation

A 100-kg batch was prepared for each category concrete. The mixing sequence consisted of dry mixing of sand, lightweight coarse
aggregate, and cement in a laboratory pan mixer until it homogenized. 75% of the total water was added in the second stage for a duration of
about 3 min. Finally, the superplasticizer was added to the wet mixture along with the remaining 25% of the water and the mixing continued for
another 2 min. The initial mixing duration is more crucial for lightweight aggregate concrete due to its absorption mechanism. Thirty percent of
the total batch was utilized for determining the fresh properties. The remaining portion was used to cast specimens, with proper compaction
facilitated through vibration in order to determine the density and strength prop-erties.

The prepared specimens were water cured at 27 °C until the testing day. For determining the fresh properties, a slump test was performed.
All concretes were ensured that they maintained a design slump of 100 ± 10 mm. The compressive strength was as-certained at 3, 7, 28 and 90
days using 100 mm cube specimen. Cylindrical specimens having size 100 mm diameter and 200 mm length were used to determine the splitting
tensile strength and the surface resistivity at the age of 28 and 90 days. Three specimens were tested for each mix and the mean values were
reported.

7. Results and discussion

7.1. Density

The results of the fresh, air dry and oven dry densities of all the concretes are presented in Table 4. From this, it can be observed that the
3
plastic densities of LWCs varied between 1940 and 2040 kg/m , whereas the plastic densities of normal concrete usually varied between 2200
3
and 2600 kg/m [38]. From this observation, it can be seen that a density reduction of approximately 20% can be achieved when coarse
aggregates in normal concretes were completely replaced with sintered fly ash aggregates. The results comply with the finding of the previous
study [39]. However, it is obvious that further reduction in densities could be possible by incorporating lightweight fine aggregates in the
3
concrete matrix. Most of the guidelines categorize structural lightweight concrete on air-dry density possessing density less than 2000 kg/m
3
[38]. The obtained air-dry density varies from 1787 to 1973 kg/m . It can be observed that the above range of air-dry density complies with the
3
European standards for SLWC of air-dry density not more than 2000 kg/m . Except LW 25 and LW 35, all the other concretes met ACI
3
requirements of air-dry density, not exceeding 1850 kg/m . It could be possible that the air-dry densities of LW 25 and LW 35 can be reduced
further to satisfy ACI requirements by making some

Table 3
Mix details of the concretes investigated.

Description LW 25 LW 35 LW 45 LW 55 LW 65 LW 75

Water-cement ratio 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75

Cement (kg) 680 486 378 309 262 227
Water (kg) 170 170 170 170 170 170
3
Total Aggregate (m ) 0.594 0.656 0.690 0.712 0.727 0.738
Total Aggregate 8–12 mm (kg) 240 264 199 205 209 213
4–8 mm (kg) 256 283 240 247 252 256
2–4 mm (kg) 200 220 267 275 281 285
Sand (kg) 326 359 576 595 607 616
Extra Water (kg) 65 85 89 101 111 120
Super plasticizer (kg) 4.08 1.94 1.34 0.61 0 0

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Table 4
Fresh properties and densities of the developed concretes.

3
Name Slump (mm) Density (kg/m )

Fresh Density Air dry Density Oven dry Density

LW 25 110 2037 1973 1866

LW 35 110 2020 1927 1833
LW 45 105 1998 1859 1809
LW 55 100 1960 1812 1746
LW 65 100 1950 1806 1740
LW 75 95 1940 1787 1724

alterations in the composition of the mixtures. All these observations indicate that the proposed mix design methodology is working well in
maintaining the densities within the standard requirements.

7.2. Fresh properties

During the fresh state, it was ensured that the concrete had adequate consistency and stability to avoid segregation or handling problems. The
common standard workability test, the slump test, was performed for the concretes to ensure the sufficient workability that is required for a
structural concrete. By visual inspection, it was observed that the concretes were free from segregation and bleeding. The dosage of the
superplasticizer was determined in such a manner so that all the slumps were in the range of 100 ± 10 mm. From Table 4 it can be observed that
the superplasticizer dosage required to develop a workable high strength concrete using LWA is minimal. The reason for the lesser demand of
superplasticizer may be due to the spherical shape of the aggregates, which might have helped the concrete to exhibit more workability.

7.3. Compressive strength

According to ASTM C 330 [40], the minimum compressive strength required for structural lightweight concrete is 17 MPa. All the
developed concretes satisfied this criterion. The compressive strengths obtained for the diff erent concretes are mentioned in Fig. 7. By observing
the standard deviation of all the concretes at diff erent ages, it is certain that the consistency of the compressive strength is assured in LWACs.
This may be due to fact that the aggregates are manufactured in a controlled condition. From Fig. 7 it also can be observed that the strength
gaining behaviour is almost similar to that of normal aggregate concretes. The high water-cement ratio concretes i.e., 0.65 and 0.75 showed
significant improvements in the compressive strength even in the later ages. Strength im-provements of 34% and 36% were observed at 90 days
from the 28-day strength. At the same time, the other high strength concretes observed a 15% strength improvement during the same period.
Generally, in the case of normal aggregates, water that does not take part in the hydration may leave within the paste matrix. This water may
cause the formation of microscopic pores during hardening and will reduce the ultimate strength of the concrete. Generally, a mixture with
higher water content will undergo more shrinkage, since the extra water dries out which will result in internal cracks and will reduce the ultimate
strength. But in the present study, it was experienced that the excess water present in the mortar matrix may be absorbed by LWAs. This
absorbed water will act as an internal reservoir within the aggregates and causes internal curing [41]. It was also noticed that without the
incorporation of any mineral admixtures it is possible to achieve a compressive strength of above 70 MPa using sintered LWAs.

Fig. 2 depicts the strength to water-cement ratio relationship of the tested LWACs. The obtained relationship proves that the modified ACI
strength to water-cement ratio relation [42] is not valid for the sintered fly ash aggregate concretes. The newly developed relationship will be
better when considering the mix proportioning of LWAC using sintered fly ash aggregates. Moreover,

Fig. 7. Compressive strength of the developed concretes.

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Fig. 8. Variation of splitting tensile strength to water cement ratio.

the relationship reveals that at the higher water- cement ratios the lightweight aggregate concrete is much superior to the normal aggregate
concrete. Similar results were observed in a study carried out by Dinakar [39]. This may be due to the phenomenon of internal curing and the
improved interfacial transition zone. The excess water present in the cement paste is absorbed by the aggregate and used for internal curing at the
later stage. Apart from that, some pozzolanic reaction might have also taken place in the transition zone [18]. The strength study also points out
that the maximum possible strength achieved by LWA is limited to around 70 MPa in normal conditions. By the addition of mineral admixtures,
it may be possible to increase the strength to a nominal limit.

7.4. Splitting tensile strength

From the obtained results (Fig. 8) it can be noticed that the splitting tensile values varied from 2.49 to 3.63 MPa at 28 days and 2.80 to 4.01
MPa at 90 days. According to ASTM C 330 [40], the minimum tensile strength required for structural grade concrete is 2 MPa. So, it can be
considered that all the investigated LWACs fall under the category of structural concrete. From the obtained results, it can be observed that the
ratio of splitting tensile to compressive strength lies within the range of 5–9%. While in the case of conventional concretes, this ratio lies
between 5 and 15%. This means the tensile strength characteristics of LWAC were almost similar to that of the normal weight concrete (NWC).
It is evident from the results that the splitting tensile strength increases with the decrease in w/c.

Generally, the tensile strength of the concrete mass is governed by the tensile characteristics of the aggregate, paste matrix, and the interfacial
transition zone [43]. Due to the lower bearing strength, the LWAC was not able to perform the same as NC having a similar composition, in
terms of tensile strength. Bogas and Nogueira [44] suggested that the lower splitting tensile may due to the internal curing of the LWAC. Even
though internal curing promotes continuous hydration it may also delay the shrinkage of mortar matrix around the aggregates. Due to this
diff erential shrinkage, premature micro cracks may occur within the mortar matrix or may cause the formation of equilibrating stress.
Additionally, the lower stiff ness of the LWA causes the excellent elastic compatibility between aggregate and the mortar matrix. This will
minimize the stress concentration within the concrete and may cause the development of micro cracks at the limiting strength. All the above
possibilities may adversely aff ect the tensile strength of the LWACs [44].

7.5. Surface resistivity

Surface resistivity is a widely accepted test procedure to indicate the performance characteristics of any concrete. This test indirectly gives a
picture of the transport capability of the concrete. From the obtained results as illustrated in Fig. 9; it can be observed that all the concretes
irrespective of w/c, fall under the same categories of surface resistivity as suggested by AASHTO TP 95
[45] at 28 and 90 days. At 28 and 90 days, the resisvity values varied from 13 to 18.4 kΩ cm and 54 to 63.7 kΩ cm respectively. The
performance class of concrete is shifted from ‘moderate’ chloride penetration to ‘very low’ from 28 days to 90 day period. The interesting
observation that was found in this analysis is that even without any Supplementary materials a steep increment occurred in surface resistivity
values with age. This increment may be due to the fact that the porous aggregate present in the concrete matrix may absorb some mixed water
from the paste phase, which may finally reduce the w/c surrounding the aggregate. Apart from this some cement paste may be penetrated into the
porous aggregate surface and seal the open pores in the aggregate [46] which may hinder the pores inter-connectivity. It is also noticed that w/c
ratio has less impact in the durability characteristics of these concretes. This observation is in line with the study conducted previously [47].

The superior resistivity results indicate that performance is no longer a threat for the concretes that were made up from sintered fly ash
aggregates. Though electrical resistivity is related to interconnected pore structure of the concrete, the porous lightweight aggregate concrete
exhibits satisfactory performance to recommend it as a structural material. This enhanced performance may be due to the result of the purified
interfacial transition zone (ITZ). In normal aggregate concrete, ITZ is the weakest link and responsible for most of its performance
characteristics. Nevertheless, in the present study, a strong and dense ITZ was clearly observed as shown

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Fig. 9. Variation of surface resistivity with water cement ratio.

in Fig. 10 for a typical LWAC with 0.75 water cement ratio. This clearly indicates that the concerns over ITZ no longer exist in LWACs.

8. Conclusions

The conclusions of the present experimental investigation can be listed as follows:

(1) It was found that SLWACs developed with the proposed methodology could be able to achieve compressive strengths between 28 and 70
3
MPa without using any mineral additives. Also, all the concretes maintained air dry densities below 2000 kg/m and obtained their design
slumps.
(2) A new strength to water-cement ratio relationship was established for the development of sintered fly ash LWAC.
(3) The proposed mix design methodology consists of simple calculations that are arranged in five steps. In the first step, the water cement ratio
for the required strength is determined from the provided curve. Then in the next step water content is fixed based on the workability
requirements, and thirdly the binder content is determined from the water cement ratio. In the fourth step with the help of the combined
aggregate grading curves as per ‘DIN standards’, the fine and coarse aggregate contents were determined. In the fifth step, the extra water
required to compensate the absorption of the aggregates is added as per the provided relationships. Lastly, the workability, density, and
strengths are evaluated through the routine procedures.
(4) The obtained tensile strength indicates that all the developed concretes are suitable for structural application according to ASTM C 330
requirements.
(5) The results of surface resistivity indicate that the ionic resistivity of all the developed concretes are quite satisfactory. Also, it was observed
that an abrupt increment in surface resistivity occurred in these concretes at later ages. All the concretes exhibited surface resistivity more
than 50 kΩ cm, which falls in the range of ‘very low’ chloride penetration as per AASHTO TP 95. However more durability studies are
required on these concretes to verify the performance characteristics.

Fig. 10. Aggregate paste interface of typical LWAC obtained in this study.

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