TE Lab Manual

Transportation Engineering Laboratory Manual Page No:
Experiment No: Date:
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE
1. CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE:
The „AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE‟ gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate
to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. It is the percentage by weight of the crushed (or
finer) material obtained when the test aggregates are subjected to a specified load under standardized
conditions, and is a numerical index of the strength of the aggregate used in road construction. Aggregates
with lower crushing value indicate a lower crushed fraction under traffic loads, would produce smaller
pieces not coated with binder and these would be easily displaced or loosened out resulting in loss of the
surface/layer. In short the aggregates used in road construction must be strong enough to withstand
crushing under roller and traffic.
2. OBJECTIVES:
(i)To determine crushing value of given road aggregates;
(ii) To assess suitability of aggregates for use in different types of road pavements.
3. Apparatus:
The apparatus for the standard aggregate crushing test as per IS: 2386-1963(part IV) consists of the
following:
(i) The test mould a 15.2 cm diameter open-ended steel cylinder with square base plate ;plunger
having a piston of diameter 15cm,with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger so that
a rod could be inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
(ii) A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross-section 16mm in diameter and 45 to60 cm
long, rounded at one end.
(iii) A balance of capacity 5kg, readable and accurate upto 1gm.
(iv) IS sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm, and 2.36mm
(v) A compression testing machine capable of applying load upto 40tonnes at a uniform rate of
4tonnes per minute.
(vi) A cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 11.5 cm and height 18cm.
Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Plunger, Crushing mould, measuring cylinder and tamping rod
Crushing mould, Plunger, Cylindrical measure and tamping rod specifications

4. Procedure:
The AGGREGATE Sample: The material for the standard test consists of aggregates sized
10.0mm to 12.5.The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing. The aggregates
may be dried by heating at 100º-110ºC for not more than 4 hours and cooled to room temperature
before testing, if necessary.
(i) Sieve the material through 12.5mm and 10mm sieves. The aggregates passing through 12.5mm sieve
and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprise the test material.
(ii)Take about 3.5kg of this material.
(iii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just more than 1/3rd depth of the measuring cylinder.
(iv) Compact the material by giving by 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of tamping rod.
(v) Add two more layers in similar manner, such that the cylinder is full.
(vi) Remove the excess material with a straight edge. The quantity contained in the measuring cylinder is
that amount of aggregates which will be used to prepare the test specimen.
(vii)Empty the cylinder and weigh the aggregates, accurate up to 1gm.
(viii)Transfer the whole of this weighted quantity to the test mould by filling it in three layers in the same
manner as for cylindrical measure. The total depth of the sample is then about 10 cm and the surface a
little below the top of mould.
(ix)Level off the surface and place the plunger over it so that it rests horizontally on the surface of the
aggregates.
(x)Place this assembly on the pedestal of compression testing machine.
(xi)Apply the load at a uniform rate of 4 tones per minute until the total applied load is 40 tones.
(xii)Release the load.
(xiii)Take the aggregate out of cylinder and sieve them through 2.36 mm IS sieve .weigh this fraction
passing through it to an accuracy of 0.1 gm. This fraction is a measure of loss of material due to crushing.
(xiv)Note down the observations in the proforma and compute the aggregate crushing value. The mean of
two observations, rounded to nearest whole number is reported as the `AGGREGATE CRUSHING
VALUE‟.

Test with Non-standard sizes of Aggregates
If required, or if the standard size is not available, test may be carried out with different
gradations. However specifications will be different for such cases and should conform to those given in
the following table:

5. Precautions:
(i)The plunger should be placed centrally and rest directly on the aggregates .Care should be taken that it
should be taken that it does not touch the walls of the cylinder so as to ensure that the entire load is
transferred onto the aggregates.
(ii) In the operation of sieving the aggregates through 2.36mm sieve and weighing care should be taken to
avoid loss of fines. The sum of weights of fractions retained and passing the sieve should not differ from
the original weight of the specimen by more than 1gm.
(iii) The tamping should be done properly by gently dropping the tamping rid and not by hammering
action. Also the tamping should be uniform over the surface of the aggregates taking care that the tamping
rod does not frequently strike against the walls of the mould.
6. Record of Observations:
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:-
Sample 1 Sample 2
Weight of standard cylinder (w1), g
Weight of cylinder + aggregate (w2) , g
Weight of aggregate (w2 - w1) , g
Weight of sample retained on 2.36 mm sieve, g
Weight of aggregate after crushing and Passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve, g
Aggregate crushing value, %
Average of two samples, %
Wt. of crushed aggregate passing . mm sieve

Aggregate crushing value = * 100
Wt. of total sample
(NOTE:-The mean of the two results to the nearest whole number is reported as the `AGGREGATE
CRUSHING VALUIE‟ of the material).
7. Interpretation of results:
The suitability of aggregate is adjusted, dependent upon its proposed use in the pavement layers. The
table given below lays down specified limits or percent aggregate crushing value, for different types of
road construction.

Type of Road Construction Maximum allowed Aggregate

Crushing value
1 Flexible Pavements
a. Soling 50
b. Water Bound Macadam 40
c. Bituminous Macadam 40
d. Bituminous surface dressing or 30
thin premix carpet
e. Dense mix carpet 30
2 Rigid Pavements
a. Other than wearing course 45
b. Surface or wearing course 30
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION:
1. How is the crushing strength test carried out on cylindrical specimen? Why is the test not carried out
commonly?
2. What is the specified standard size of aggregates? How is the aggregate crushing value of non-
standard size aggregate evaluated?
3. Aggregate crushing value of material A is 40 and that of B is 25. Which one is better and why?
4. What are the applications of aggregate crushing test?
5. What are the recommended maximum values of aggregate crushing value for the aggregates to be used
in base and surface courses of cement concrete?
6. What are the uses of the aggregate crushing test?
7. Which property of aggregates is measured by this test?

Viva
Aggregate crushing test:
1. Why measuring cylinder is used?

2. Why the diameter of mould is 15cm and height is 14cm?
3. Why the surface of tamping rod is round at one end?
4. Why do we use aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm sieve?
5. Which property is determined in aggregate crushing test?
6. Why is compaction done in 3 layers 25 blows each?
7. Why tamping is required?
8. Why gradually applied load is applied in this test?
9. What is the rate of loading? Why?
10. Why volumetric measurement is taken instead of weight?
11. What is the permissible value of crushing test? Why?
12. Why maximum load is restricted to 40 tonnes?
13. What is the application of aggregate crushing test?
14. Why do we use only 2.36 IS Sieve in aggregate crushing test?
15. Does the size and shape of aggregate influence the result?
16. How aggregate crushing value is expressed?
17. Should aggregates having high ACV be considered good for road construction?
18. Aggregate in which layer is subjected to crushing loads? Gradual loads?
19. Which road stretches are subjected to gradually applied loads?
20. Why rate of loading is 4 Tonnes per minute?
21. What is the significance of 4 Tonnes?
22. What is the influence of size in ACV?
23. What is the influence of gradation on ACV?
24. Why load fluctuates during ACV test?
25. Does the aggregate get crushed or attrition too happens? How?
26. What is the basis for suggesting the limiting values for each layer?
27. Why aggregate particles get interlocked after ACV test?
Observation Record Viva Total

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

1. CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to
movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their
breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates should therefore have sufficient
toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. This characteristic resistance to
sudden impact or shock, which may differ from its resistance to gradually applied
compressive load.
2. OBJECTIVES
(i) To determine the impact value of the road aggregates.
(ii) To assess the suitability of the given aggregate in road construction on the basis
of impact value.
3. Apparatus
The apparatus of the aggregate impact value test as per IS: 2386(part 4) -1963 consists
of:
(i) A testing machine weighing 45-60 kg and having a metal base with a plane lower
surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on level and plane
concrete floor of minimum 45 cm thickness. The machine should also have
provisions for fixing its base.
(ii) A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102mm.depth 50mm and minimum
thickness 6.3mm.
(iii) A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end is cylindrical in
shape, is 50mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2mm chamfer at the lower
edge and case hardened. The hammer should slide freely between vertical guides
and be concentric with the cup. The free fall of the hammer should be within
380 ± 5 mm.
(iv) A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75mm and depth 50mm for
measuring aggregates.
(v) Tamping rod 10mm in diameter and 230mm long, rounded at one end.
(vi) A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate up to 0.1g.

Impact test apparatus – blue print

Measuring cylinder, Tamping rod and Impact mould
Impact testing apparatus

4. Procedure
The test sample: It consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm to 12.5mm. The aggregates
should be dried by heating at 100º-110ºC for a period of 4 hours and cooled.
(i) Sieve the materials through 12.5 mm and 10.0 mm IS sieves. The aggregates
passing through 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the test
materials.
(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3rd depth of measuring cylinder.
(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the
tamping rod.
(iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.
(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram.
(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing upon the level plate,
block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of the test
sample in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.
(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380mm above the surface of the
aggregate sample in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample.
Give 15 such blows at an interval of not less than one second between successive
falls.
(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36mm IS
sieves until no further significant amount passes in one minute. Weigh the fraction
passing the sieve to an accuracy of 1gm. Also weigh the fraction retained in the
sieve.
Note down the observations in the proforma and compute the aggregate impact
value. The mean of two observations, rounded to nearest whole number is
reported as the “Aggregates Impact value”.
5. Precautions
(I) Place the plunger centrally so that it falls directly on the aggregate sample and
does not touch the walls of the cylinder in order to ensure that the entire load is
transmitted on to the aggregate.
(II) In the operation of sieving the aggregates through 2.36mm sieve the sum of
fractions retained and passing the sieve should not differ from the original weight
of the specimen by more than 1gm.
(III) The tamping is to be done properly by gently dropping the tamping rod and not by
hammering action. Also the tamping should be uniform over the surface of the

aggregate taking care that the tamping rod does not frequently strike against the
walls of the mould.
6. Record of observations:
Sample 1 Sample 2
Weight of standard cylinder (w1), g
Weight of cylinder + aggregate (w2) , g
Weight of aggregate (w2 - w1) , g
Weight of sample retained on 2.36 mm sieve, g
Weight of aggregate after crushing and Passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve, g
Aggregate Impact value, %
Average of two samples, %
Wt. of crushed aggregate passing . mm sieve

Aggregate Impact Value = * 100
Wt. of total sample
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

Questions for discussion Questions:
1. What are the advantages of Aggregate Impact test over any other aggregate test?
2. Briefly mention the procedure of aggregate impact test?
3. How is aggregate impact value expressed?
4. What are the desirable limits of aggregate impact value specified for different pavement
layers?
5. Aggregate impact value material A is 20 and that of B is 45. Which one is better for surface
course? Why?

Viva:
Aggregate impact test:
1. Why measuring cylinder is used?

2. Why the diameter of mould is 10.2cm and height is 5cm?
3. Why the surface of tamping rod is conical at one end?
4. Why do we use aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm sieve?
5. Which property is determined in aggregate impact test?
6. Why is compaction done in 3 layers 25 blows each?
7. Why tamping is required?
8. Why volumetric measurement is taken instead of weight?
9. What is the permissible value of impact test? Why?
10. What is the application of aggregate impact test?
11. Why do we use only 2.36 IS Sieve in aggregate crushing test?
12. What is height of fall? Why?
13. What is weight of hammer? Why?
14. Why number of hammer blows is restricted to 15? Why not more? Why not less?
15. Where does impact occur in pavement?
17. Should aggregates having high impact value be considered good load construction?
18. How does toughness differ from compressive strength?
19. Which test simulates the field conditions better aggregate- aggregate crushing vale or aggregate
impact value?
20. Should a good quality road aggregate give higher impact value?
21. Which layer is usually subjected to higher impact loads?
22. What is the difference between the aggregates‟ response to gradually applied load and impact load?
23. What is the influence of shape of aggregate on AIV?
24. What is the influence of size of aggregate on AIV?
25. Why less quantity of material is taken in AIV and more in ACV?
26. How the AIV value can be correlated to field where most of the times aggregate is subjected to all
types of loads?

LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE
The aggregate used in surface course of the highway pavements are subjected to wearing due to
movement of traffic. When vehicle moves on the road, the soil particles present between the pneumatic
tyres and roads‟ surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The steel reamed wheels and animal driven
vehicles also cause considerable abrasion of the road surface. Therefore, the road aggregates should be
hard enough to resist the abrasion. Resistance to abrasion of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los-
Angeles Abrasion value.
The principle of Los-Angeles abrasion test is to produce the abrasive action by use of standard steel
balls which when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolutions also
causes impact on aggregates. The percentage wear of aggregates due to rubbing with steel balls is
determined and is known as Los-Angeles Abrasion value.
2. OBJECTIVES
(a) to determine the Los-Angeles abrasion value.

(b) to find out the suitability of aggregates for its use in road construction.
3. Apparatus
The apparatus as per IS 2386 (Part4) -1963 consists of:
(a) Los-Angeles Machine: It consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both the ends with an
internal diameter of 700mm and length 500mm and capable of rotating about its horizontal axis.
A removable cover for introducing sample is provided which when clamped is dust tight. A
removable steel shaft projecting radially 88mm into cylinder and extending full length (i.e.
500mm) is mounted firmly on the interior of cylinder. The shelf is placed at a distance 1250mm
minimum from the opening in the direction of rotation.
(b) Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter and each weighing
between 390 to 445g; six to twelve balls are required.
(c) Sieve: The 1.70mm IS Sieve.
(d) Balance of capacity 5kg or 10kg
(e) Drying oven
(f) Miscellaneous like tray etc.


4. Procedure
Test sample: It consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105º-110º C and are coarser than 1.70mm
sieve size. The sample should conform to any of the gradings shown in table:
Table 1: Grading of Test Samples
Sieve size (Square Weight in g of test Samples for Grade

Hole)
Passing Retained A B C D E F G
mm on mm
80 63 - - - - 2500*
63 50 - - - - 2500*
50 40 - - - - 5000* 5000* -
40 25 1250 - - - - 5000* 5000*
25 20 1250 - - - - - 5000*
20 12.5 1.250 2500 - - - -
12.5 10 1250 2500 - - - - -
10.0 6.3 - - 2500 - - - -
6.3 4.75 - - 2500 - - - -
4.75 2.36 - - - 5000 - - -
*Tolerance of ±2 percent permitted.
(a) Select the grading to be used in the test. It should be chosen such that it conforms to the grading
to be used in construction, to the maximum extent possible.
(b) Take 5kg of sample for grading A,B,C or D and 10kg for gradings E,F and G.
(c) Choose the abrasive charge as per table
Table 2: Selection of Abrasion Charge
Grading No. of steel balls Weight of charge ,g

A 12 5000±25
B 11 4584±25
C 8 3330±20
D 6 2500±15
E 12 5000±25
F 12 5000±25
G 12 5000±25
(d) Open the cover and feed the aggregates and steel balls in the cylinder. Replace the cover tightly.

(e) Rotate the machine at a uniform speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute.

(f) Allow the machine to run for 500 revolutions for grading A, B, C or D and 1000 revolutions for
grading E, F or G.
(g) Stop the machine after desired number of revolutions.
(h) Remove the dust cover and take out material.
(i) Separate the steel balls and sieve the material on 1.70mm size.
(j) Wash the material coarser than 1.70mm size.
(k) Dry it in the oven to a constant weight and weigh to an accuracy of 1g.
(l) Calculate the percentage of loss of material.
(m) Take another sample and repeat the experiment. Find the mean of two values and report it as Los-
Angeles Abrasion Value.
5. Precautions
(a) The cover should be fixed tightly before rotating the machine.
(b) All material should be discharged from the cylinder after the conduct of test.
6 .Record of Observations:
Grading selected Sample 1 Sample 2
Original weight of the sample ( ),g
Weight of aggregates retained on 1.70mm IS

sieve ( ) , g
Loss of weight ( ),g
Percentage wear [ ]%
Los-Angeles abrasion Value =

7. Interpretation of Results
Los-Angeles abrasion test is commonly used to evaluate the hardness of the aggregates. The test
has acceptability because the resistance to abrasion and impact is determined simultaneously. Depending
upon the numerical value, the suitability of aggregates for different road constructions can be judged as
per Indian Road Congress specifications given below:
S No. Type of pavement layer Max. permissible abrasion

value in %
1. Water Bound Macadam, sub base course 60
2. WBM base course with bituminous surfacing 50
3. Bituminous bound macadam 50
4. WBM surfacing course 40
5. Bitumen penetration Macadam 40
6. Bitumen surface dressing, cement concrete surface course 35
7. Bitumen concrete surface course 30
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
(a) What properties of aggregates are determination by Los-Angeles test?

(b) How does impact occur in the test?
(c) What is the purpose of providing the shelf inside the cylinder?
(d) Sample A and B lave LA Abrasion values 15 and 30 respectively which sample is harder?
(e) How do you select the grading?
(f) An aggregate sample is found to be having LA abrasion value of 37. For which type construction
it may be used?

Viva:
Los-Angeles abrasion test:
1. Define abrasion?
2. Where does abrasion occur?
3. What is the principal in los- Angeles abrasion test?
4. What are the dimensions of machine?
5. Why is a steel shelf placed in the machine? What are its dimensions?
6. Why steel charge is used?
7. How is number of steel balls to be used is decided?
8. Why 1.7mm sieve is used?
9. Why don‟t we use the actual pavement grading to do the experiment?
10. Why do we have different grades of aggregates?
11. Why do we have different specifications for number of charges, rpm and sample weight for different
grades?
12. Why rate of revolutions is restricted to 33 per min?
13. What are the permissible limits?
14. Does the change in grade of aggregate effect the permissible limits?
16. How does impact occur in the test?
17. How do we select the grading?
18. Why is los- Angeles abrasion value more significant?
19. What are different methods of carrying out abrasion test on aggregates?
20. What is MoRTH?
21. Why should there be a shelf in LAV test?
22. Why the cylinder dimensions have been selected like that?
23. Why pounding too is considered in abrasion test?
24. Why the number of balls should be changed based on gradation?
25. Why the metal spheres are selected like that? The shape and size?
26. What will happen if copper balls are used instead of steel balls?
27. Why are the metal balls called charge?
28. Why is the position of shelf so located?

DEVAL’S ATTRITION VALUE
Attrition value is determined in order to determine the aggregate‟s resistance against wearing due
to the rubbing action between the aggregate particles. In this test the aggregate sample can be
tested for attrition as well as for abrasion. For attrition test no charge is placed, but for abrasion
test aggregate is mixed with abrasion charge consisting of six standard balls and rotated in closed
inclined cylinder for specific number of revolutions. The attrition value / abrasion value is then
expressed as the percentage of abraded material with reference to the original weight of the test
sample.
2. OBJECTIVE
To determine the Deval‟s attrition value of road aggregates.
3. Apparatus
The apparatus as per IS 2386 (part IV) -1963 consists of:
 Deval machine: it consists of one or more (usually two) hollow cast iron cylinders having
an internal diameter of 20cm and depth 34cm. the cylinders are closed at the bottom and
provide with a tightly fitting cover. The cylinders are mounted on a shaft at an angle of
30 with the axis of rotation.
 IS sieve of size 1.70 mm
 Abrasive charge – 6 cast iron or steel balls each having an approximate diameter of 48
mm and weighing between 390 to 445 g.
 Balance of capacity 10 kg.
 Drying oven and tray.

Deval’s attrition test machine - blue print
Deval’s attrition and abrasion testing machine
4. Procedure
Test sample: the sample consists of dry and clean aggregates made up of percentage of different
sizes conforming to one of the grading given in table 1. The grading adopted should be one
which mostly closely represents the coarse aggregates to be used in construction.
1. Choose the grading and weigh the material as per Table 2.
2. Place the material in the cylinder.
3. For attrition no charge is placed. For abrasion place the abrasive charge in the cylinder.
The total weight of steel balls should be close to 2500 g.
4. Fix the cover tightly.

5. Rotate the machine for 10,000 revolutions at a speed of 30-33 rpm.

6. After completion stop the machine and remove the material.
7. Sieve the material through 1.70 mm IS sieve.
8. Wash, dry and weigh the material retained on this sieve.
9. Calculate the Attrition /Abrasion value. Find the average of two readings.
Note: Most of the machines have 2 cylinders, thus two samples can be tested simultaneously.
Table 1: Gradings of aggregate for Deval’s attition test :
Grading passing IS sieve mm retained on IS sieve mm percentage of sample
A 20 12.5 25
25 20 25
40 25 25
50 40 25
B 20 12.5 25
25 20 25
40 25 50
C 20 12.5 50
25 20 50
D 12.5 4.75 50
20 12.5 50
E 10 4.75 50
12.5 10 50
The weight of the test sample depending upon the specific gravity is chosen from the following
Table 2:

Table 2: weight of sample for Deval Test
Range of specific gravity Weight of sample in grams
More than 2.8 5500

2.4 to 2.8 5000
2.2 to 2.39 4500
Less than 2.2 4000
5. Precautions
The lid of the cylinder should be fixed tightly.

6. Record of Observations
Grading =
Specific gravity =
Sample I Sample II
Weight of sample (W1), g
Weight of material retained on IS sieve 1.7 mm. g (W2),g
Percentage wear [ ]%
Deval Attrition / Abrasion Value =

ANALYSIS OF RESULT

Viva:
Deval’s attrition test:
1. Define attrition?
2. Why inner surface of cylinder is smooth?
3. Why cylinders are inclined at 30 degrees?
4. Why can‟t we extrapolate the value obtained at 1000 revolutions to 10000 revolutions?
5. Why rate of revolutions is restricted to 30- 33 per min?
6. Where does attrition occur in pavement?
7. Why different grades of aggregates are used?
8. Why only 1.7mm sieve is used?
9. Why MoRTH does not use Deval‟s attrition test?
10. Why do we have 2 cylinders in apparatus?
11. If Deval‟s abrasion test is done why only steel balls are used?
12. What is principal of determining of abrasion value by deval‟s machine?
14. Why don‟t we use the actual pavement grading to do the experiment?
15. What are the dimensions of cylinders? Why?
16. Why the number of revolutions is specified as 10000?
17. What is difference between Deval‟s abrasion and Los-Angeles abrasion value?
18. Why 5kg of sample is used in Deval‟s attrition test?
19. How do we select the grading?
20. Why only standard gradations are used?
21. Why there are different quantities for different gradations?
22. How the standard gradations have come?
23. What will happen if aggregates from two different sources are mixed?
24. What is the influence of shape and size of aggregate?
25. What will happen if 10 kg of aggregate is taken instead of 5 kg?
26. If the machine is stopped intermittently for every 10-15 revolutions, what will happen to Attrition
value?
27. Why specific gravity of aggregate is given more importance in selecting the weight of sample to be
taken?
28. Will the abrasion too happen in deval‟s attrition test as the aggregate comes in contact with metal
cylinders?

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER

ABSORPTION
CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE
Specific gravity is a measure of the type of aggregate particle character and the density of
particle packing, which contributes to strength, hardness and other parameters. If the specific
gravity of each constituent is known, its weight can be converted in to solid volume and hence a
theoretical yield of concrete per unit volume can be calculated. Specific gravity of aggregate is
required in preparing the design mix in cement concrete. Similarly, specific gravity of aggregate
is required when we deal with light weight and heavy weight concrete. Water absorption also
gives an idea on the internal structure of aggregate. Aggregates having more absorption are more
porous in nature and are generally considered unsuitable, unless found to be acceptable based on
strength, impact and hardness tests. In case of flexible pavements, lower the water absorption
higher will be the service life of pavement
OBJECTIVE
To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate.
CODE OF PRACTICE: IS 2386 PART 3
DEFINITION
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of aggregate at a
given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature.

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION AND SPECIFICATION:
1. Pycnometer
2. Digital balance
3. scoop
4. Distilled water
TEST PROCEDURE:
Specific Gravity
i) Take an empty pycnometer and take its weight on digital balance (W1)
ii) Take about 1/3rd full of aggregates into the pycnometer and measure the weight (W2)
iii) Now fill the pycnometer containing aggregate with distilled water to the brim while
expelling all the air bubbles and take the weight (W3)
iv) Empty the pycnometer and fill it with distilled water to the brim and take the weight
(W4)
TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Weight of Weight of
Weight of Weight of
Pycnometer + Pycnometer+ SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Empty Pycnometer +
aggregate Distilled (G)
S. No Bottle aggregate +
water –
water
W1 (gm) W2 (gm) – –
W3 (gm) W4 (gm)
Average specific gravity of the fine aggregate =

Water Absorption:
i) Take the weight of empty wire basket (W1)

ii) Take about 1/3rd full of coarse aggregate which is dry, clean from stone dust or other
materials and take the weight (W2)
iii) Now immerse the wire basket with aggregate into a water container and allow it to
soak for about 24 hours
iv) After 24 hours take out the wire basket with aggregate from the water container and
drain all the water and take the weight of the aggregate with wire basket (W3)
Water absorption = *100 =
PRECAUTIONS:
 When water is added to the aggregate which is placed in the pycnometer, care should be
taken to see that there should not be any kind of air bubbles in the aggregate.
 The pycnometer should be properly cleaned for taking the weight of pycnometer with
distilled water
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

Viva:
Specific gravity
1. Why there is hole at the top of pycnometer?

2. Why the top portion of pycnometer is conical?
3. What is specific gravity?
4. Is there any relation between specific gravity and density?
5. What will be usual range of specific gravity for cement, aggregate, sand, bitumen?
6. Can you judge the suitability of aggregate based on specific gravity value
7. What is the use of finding the specific gravity of aggregate or bitumen
8. Why the specific gravity of bitumen is referred to as close to that of water
9. What are the factors that influence the specific gravity of aggregate
10. Why do we call aggregate as aggregate?
11. Will the shape affect the specific gravity of aggregate
12. Is specific gravity aggregate size dependent?
13. What is the difference between pycnometer and density bottle
14. What is the difference between the procedures adopted in pycnometer method and wire
basket method?
15. What are the units of specific gravity?
Water absorption
1. What is the allowable range of water absorption

2. What happens if water absorption is more than the limiting value
3. Will it be same for flexible pavement and rigid pavement
4. Is there any relation between specific gravity and water absorption
5. Is the aggregate size an influencing factor in finding the water absorption
6. Why is water absorption more important for coarse aggregate
7. What is the water absorption equivalent for fine aggregate
8. Does shape influence water absorption
9. Does water absorption mean only rain water or atmospheric moisture too
10. How long the aggregate should be immersed in water to determine the water absorption
11. What are the units of water absorption


FLAKINESS INDEX AND ELONGATION

INDEX
FLAKINESS INDEX
CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE:
The particle shape of aggregates is determined by the percentages of flaky and elongated
particles contained in it. For base course and construction of bituminous and cement concrete
types, the presence of flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable as they may cause
inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads. The angularity number
i.e., flaky and elongation has considerable importance in the gradation requirements of various
types of mixes such as bituminous concrete, cement concrete and soil aggregate mixes.
The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times mean dimension. It is not applicable to size less than 6.3 mm.
In other words, the flakiness index is the % by weight of those particles present in an aggregate
sample whose least dimension (thickness) is lesser than 3/5th of their mean dimension.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the flakiness index of coarse aggregate.
CODE OF PRACTICE: IS 2386 Part 1 – 1963
APPARATUS DESCRIPTION AND SPECIFICATION:
1. Thickness gauge
2. Digital Balance
3. IS Sieves
4. Scoop

TEST PROCEDURE:
1) Take sufficient quantity of aggregate such that a minimum number of 200 pieces of any fraction
can be tested.
2) Sieve the aggregate with the sieve sizes 63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 31.5mm, 25 mm, 20 mm, 16
mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm and 6.3 mm.
3) Each fraction is gauged in turn for thickness on the metal gauge.
4) Weight of total amount of aggregate passing the gauge is taken to an accuracy of at least 0.1%
of weight of the sample.
5) Flakiness index is the total weight of the material passing through various gauge thickness
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of sample taken.

TABLE OF OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Sample I : Weight of aggregate = g

Sample II : Weight of aggregate = g
Sieve Size Wt. of aggregate Weight passing through the thickness gauge
Designation (g) (g)
63 mm-50 mm
50 mm-40 mm
40 mm-31.5 mm
31.5 mm-25 mm
25 mm-20 mm
20 mm-16 mm
16 mm-12.5 mm
12.5 mm-10 mm
10 mm-6.3 mm
Total weight
Calculation
FLAKINESS INDEX=
Results
The flakiness Index of sample I =
The flakiness Index of sample II =
Interpretation of result:
The flakiness index of aggregate used in building constructions should be less than 15%.

ELONGATION INDEX
Elongation index of on aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest

dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times mean dimension. It is not applicable to size less than
6.3 mm. In other words, the elongation index is the percentage by weight of
those particles present in an aggregate sample whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than
9/5th of their mean dimension.
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the elongation index of aggregate.
APPARATUS
1. Elongation gauge
2. Digital Balance accurate to 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample
3. Sieves
4. Scoop.

Procedure:
Elongation is done for non flaky aggregates (flaky are removed from aggregate first)
(i.) Take sufficient quantity of aggregate and sieve through the sieve sizes 50 mm, 40 mm, 25
mm, 31.5 mm, 25 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm and 6.3 mm to provide a minimum
number of 200 pieces of any fraction to be tested.
(ii.) Gauge each fraction individually for a length of a metal length gauge of pattern shown.
(iii.) Weigh the total amount retained by the length gauge to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of
the weight of the test sample.
(iv.) The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on various length gauges
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the test sample.
Observations
(a) Weight of sample = g
Passing of Retaining on Weight retained Weight of aggregate
IS Sieve No. IS Sieve No on each sieve retained on length
(g) gauge (g)
50 mm 40mm
40mm 31.5mm
31.5mm 25mm
25mm 20mm
20mm 16mm
16mm 12.5mm
12.5mm 10mm
10mm 6.3mm
Total weight
Elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on various length gauges, expressed as
a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.

Total weight retained on length gauge

Elongation Index = x 100
Elongation Index = ………………..%.
Precautions
Proper care should be taken while passing the aggregate through the length gauge i.e. aggregate
should be kept in length direction at the length gauge.
Results
The elongation index of the given aggregate = %
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

Viva:
Shape factor: Elongation and flakiness index:
1. What do we determine aggregate shape factor?

2. How is shape factor expressed?
3. How the shape factor influences the behaviour of aggregate?
4. Out of elongated and flaky aggregate which is weaker?
5. How does the shape factor denote the void content?
6. What is flakiness index?
7. What is elongation index?
8. Why this test is is applicable to aggregates greater than 6.3mm?
9. Why do we obtain flakiness index prior to elongation index?
10. Why is the least dimension value specified as 0.6 times the average dimension in flakiness
11. Why is longest dimension taken as 1.8 times the average dimension in elongation index?
12. What is permissible limit of shape factor?
13. Is elongated and flaky particle are necessary in a pavement?
14. Why has IRC specified separate limitations for elongation and flakiness index while MoRTH has
combined the limits?
15. How does the elongated and flaky particle fail under load?
16. Discuss the advantages and limitations of rounded and angular aggregates in different types of
pavements?
17. Does shape factor influenced by grade of aggregate?
18. What are the applications of shape test?
19. What is the influence of shape factor on strength and performance of aggregate?
20. Why should one accept the aggregate having shape factor upto 30, when one knows that lower the
shape factor better is the aggregate
21. If the shape factor of locally available aggregate is 35, should one reject it or can some how use it?
22. What are the factors that influence the shape factor of aggregate?
23. What is the influence of specific gravity on shape factor
24. What is the influence of mineral composition and density of packing on shape factor
25. Will the crusher used influence the shape factor?
26. What are the different types of stone crushers?

PENETRATION VALUE
Penetration is a measurement of hardness or consistency of bituminous material. It is the vertical

distance traversed or penetrated by the point of a standard needle in to the bituminous material under
specific condition of load, time and temperature. This distance is measured in one tenth of a millimeter.
This test is used for evaluating consistency of bituminous material. It is not regarded as suitable for use in
connection with the testing of road tar because of the high surface tension exhibited by these materials
and the fact that they contain relatively large amount of free carbon.
2. OBJECTIVES
i. To determine the consistency of bituminous material,

ii. To assess the suitability of bitumen for its use under different climatic condition and type of
construction.
3. APPARATUS
i. Container: A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic dish 55 mm in diameter and 35 mm in depth is

required. If the penetration is of order of 225 or more deeper dish of mm diameter and 45 mm
depth is required.
ii. Needle: A straight, highly polished, cylindrical hard steel rod, as per dimensions given.
iii. Water bath: A water bath maintained at 25.0± 0.1ºC containing not less than 10 liters of water,
the sample being immersed to a depth not less than 100 mm from the top and supported on a
perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from the bottom of the bath.
iv. Transfer dish or tray: It should provide support to the container and should not rock the
container. It should be of such capacity as to completely immerse into the container during the
test.
v. Penetration apparatus: It should be such that will allow the needle to penetrate without much
friction and is accurately calibrated to give result in one tenth of millimeter.
vi. Thermometer: Range 0 - 44ºC and readable up to 0.2ºC.
vii. Time measuring device: With an accuracy +0.1sec.


4. Procedure
i. Preparation of test specimen: Soften the material to a pouring consistency at a temperature not
more than 60ºC for tars and 90ºC for bitumen above the approximate softening point and stir it
thoroughly until it is homogeneous and is free from air bubbles and water. Pour the melt into the
container to a depth at least 10 mm in excess of the expected penetration. Protect the sample from
dust and allow it to cool in an atmosphere at a temperature between 15 to 30ºC for one hour. Then
place it along with the transfer dish in the water bath at 25±0.1ºC and allow it to remain for 1 to
1½ hour. The test is carried out at 25±0.1ºC. Unless otherwise stated.
ii. Fill the transfer dish water from the water bath to depth sufficient to cover the container
completely, place the sample in it and put it upon the stand of the penetration apparatus.
iii. Clean the needle with benzene, dry it and load with the weight. The total moving load required is
100±0.25gm, including the weight of the needle, carrier and super-imposed weights.
iv. Adjust the needle to make contact with the surface of the sample. This may be done by placing
the needle point in contact with its image reflected by the surface of the bituminous material.
v. Make the pointer of the dial to read zero or note the initial dial reading.
vi. Release the needle for exactly five seconds.
vii. Adjust the penetration machine to measure the distance penetrated.
viii. Make at least 3 readings at points on the surface of the sample not less return the sample and
transfer dish to the water bath and wash the needle clean with benzene and dry it. In case of
material of penetration greater than 225, three determinations on each of the two identical test
specimens using a separate needle for each determination should be made, leaving the needle in
the sample on completion of each determinations to avoid disturbance of the specimen.
5. Precautions
i. There should be no movement of the container while needle is penetrating into the sample.
ii. The sample should be free from any extraneous matter.
iii. The needle should be cleaned with benzene and dried before each penetration.
6. Record of observation
Actual test temperature= ºC
TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3

Penetrometer dial reading
(a) Initial
(b) Final
Penetration value
Mean penetration value=

7. Interpretation of results
Penetration test is a commonly adopted test on bitumen to the material in terms of its hardness. A 80/100
grade bitumen indicates that its penetration value lies between 80 and 100.The grading of bitumen helps
to assess its suitability for use in different climatic conditions and type of constructions. For bituminous
macadam and penetration macadam, IRC suggests bitumen grades 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. In warmer
regions lower penetration grades are preferred to avoid softening whereas higher penetration does not
occur. Highest penetration grade is used in spray application works.
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

Questions for discussion

i. Which property of bitumen is related to penetration value?
ii. The penetration value of a binder is 65; what is the distance in mm which the needle has
penetrated through?
iii. What variations are expected in the test result if;
a) The time of penetration is increased?
b) The actual test temperature is below the standard temperature?
iv. What does a 80/100 grade bitumen indicate?
v. Which bitumen grades are commonly used in warmer regions and why?
Viva:
Penetration test:
1. What is the significance of penetration test?

2. What are the factors effecting penetration test?
3. Which parameter is measured in penetration test?
4. What is the unit of penetration value? Why?
5. Why grade of bitumen is specified on bases of penetration value?
6. Why the test is performed under specified duration, load and temperature?
7. Specify the test conditions?
8. Why both air cooling and water cooling is required?
9. What is principle of penetration test?
10. What are the dimensions of penetrometer needle and mould? Why?
11. Why the needle should not be placed closer than 10mm between successive penetration points?
12. What are applications of penetration test?
13. What are limitations of penetration for grading bitumen?
14. How the consistency of bitumen is analyzed based of penetration value?
15. What is 30, 40 represent in 30/40 grade bitumen?
16. Does penetration influence the binding property?

SOFTENING POINT

The softening point of bitumen or tar is the temperature at which the substance attains a
particular of degree of softening. As per IS:334-1982, it is the temperature (in ºC) at which a standard ball
passes through a sample of bitumen in a mould and falls through a height of 2.5 cm, when heated under
water or glycerin at specified conditions of test. The binder should have sufficient fluidity before its
applications in road uses. The determination of softening point helps to know the temperature upto the
bituminous binder should be heated for various road use applications. Softening point is determined by
ring and ball apparatus.
2. OBJECTIVE
To determine the softening point of bitumen/tar
3. Apparatus
i) The ring and ball apparatus consists of following :

(a) Steel balls – Two numbers each of 9.5 mm dia. And weighing 3.5±0.05 g.
(b) Brass rings – Two numbers each having depth of 6.4 mm. The inside diameter at
bottom and top is 15.9 mm and 17.5 mm respectively.
(c) Ball guides to guide the movement of steel balls centrally.
(d) Support – That can hold rings in position and also allows for suspension of a
thermometer. The distance between the bottom of the rings and the top surface of the
bottom plate of the support is 25 mm.
ii) The thermometer can read upto 100 ºC with an accuracy of 0.2 ºC.
iii) Bath – A heat resistant glass breaker not less than 85 mm in diameter and 1220 mm in depth.
iv) Stirrer.
4. Procedure
i) Preparation of test sample: Heat the material to a temperature between 75 ºC – 100 ºC above
its softening point. Stir until it is completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water. If
necessary filter it through IS sieve 30. Place the ring, previously heated to a temperature
approximating to that of the molten material, on a metal plate which has been coated with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerin and dextrin. After cooling for 30 minutes in air, level the
material in ring by removing the excess with a warmed, sharp knife.
ii) Assembly the apparatus with the rings, thermometer and ball guides in position.
iii) Fill the bath with distilled water to a height of 50 mm above the upper surface of rings. The
starting temperature should be 5 ºC
Note: Use glycerin in place of water if the softening point is expected to be above 80 ºC. The
starting temperature may be kept 35 ºC.

iv) Apply heat to the bath and stir the liquid so that the temperature rises at a uniform rate of
5±0.5 ºC per minute.
v) As the temperature increases the bituminous material softens and the ball sinks through the
ring carrying a portion of the material with it.
vi) Note down the temperature when any of the steel ball with bituminous coating touches the
bottom plate.
vii) Record the temperature when the second ball also touches the bottom plate. The average of
the two readings to the nearest 0.5 ºC is reported as the softening point.

5. Precautions
i) Distilled water should be used as the heating medium.

ii) During the conduct of test the apparatus should not be subjected to vibrations.
iii) The bulb of the thermometer should be at about the same level as the rings.
6. Record and observation
1 2
Temperature when the ball touches bottom, ºC
Average
Softening point of bitumen/tar =
Softening point indicates the temperature at which binders possess the same viscosity
with it. Bituminous materials do not have a definite melting point. Rather the change of state from
solid to liquid is gradual and is over a wide range of temperature. Softening point has particular
significance for materials that are to be used as joints and crack fillers. Higher softening point
ensures that they will not flow during service. In general, the higher the softening point, the lesser
the temperature susceptibility. Bitumen with higher softening point may be preferred in warmer
places.
Analysis of Result:

Questions for discussion
i) What is the importance of determination of softening point in road construction operations?

ii) What is the concept of determination softening point by ring and ball apparatus?
iii) What is the criteria of selection of medium used for heating the specimen?
iv) What will happen to softening point if:
a) Aluminum balls are used in place of steel balls?
b) The distance between rings and the bottom place is increased?
Softening point:
1. What is softening point?

2. What is the principle of softening point test?
3. What is other name of softening temperature? Why?
4. How does temperature influence softening point?
5. What is the rate of heating?
6. What is general range of softening point for paving jobs?
7. How does grade of bitumen influence the softening point?
8. What are the dimensions of ring and ball?
9. Upto which temperature is the sample heated initially?
10. Why different liquids (water, glycerin) used in the bath?
11. What is the relation between softening point and viscosity?
12. Does softening influence the binding property?
13. What are the factors effecting this test?
14. What are the applications of softening point?
16. Why the initial temperature is maintained at 5 degree?
17. Why is the ring used is in conical shape?

DUCTILITY VALUE
The „Ductility Test’ gives a measure of adhesive property of Bitumen and its ability to stretch.
In a flexible pavement design, it is necessary that binder should form a thin ductile film around the
aggregates so that the physical interlocking of the aggregates is improved. Binder material having
insufficient ductility gets cracked when subjected to repeated traffic loads and it provides previous
pavement surface. Ductility of a bituminous is measured by the distance in centimeters to which it which
it will elongate before breaking when two ends of the standard briquette specimen of the material are
pulled apart at a specified speed and at a specified temperature.
2. OBJECTIVES
a. To measure the ductility of a given a sample of bitumen;
b. To determine the suitability of bitumen for its use in road construction.
3. Apparatus
The apparatus for standard ductility test as per IS: 1208-1978 consists of the following:
a) Briquette mould: It is made up of brass with the shape, dimensions and tolerance. The ends b
and b‟ being known as clips of part a and a‟ are sides of the mould. The circular holes are
provided in the clips to grip the fixed and movable ends of the testing machine. The mould
when properly assembled from a briquette specimen of a following dimensions:
Total length 75.0±0.5 mm
Distance between clips 30.0±0.3 mm
Width at mount of slip 20.00±0.2mm
Width at mount of cross-selection 10.00±0.1mm
(half way between clips)
Thickness throughout 10.0±0.1 mm

b) Water bath: a bath maintained within ±0.1ºC of the specified test temperature, containing not
less than 10 liters of water, the specimen being submerged to a depth of not less than 10cms and
supported on a perforated shelf and less than 5cms from the bottom of the bath.
c) Testing machine: For pulling the briquette of bituminous material apart, any apparatus may be
used which is so constructed that the specimen will be continuously submerged in water while
the two clips are being pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of 50 ± 2.5 mm per minute.
d) Thermometer: Range 0-44ºC and readable upto 0.2ºC.
4. Procedure
i. Melt the bituminous test material completely at a temperature of 75ºC to 100ºC above the
approximate softening point until it becomes thoroughly fluid.
ii. Strain the fluid through IS sieving 30.
iii. After stirring the fluid, pour it in the mould assembly and place it on a brass table.
iv. In order to prevent the material under test from sticking, coat the surface of the plate and
interior surfaces of the slides of the mould with mercury or by a mixture of equal parts of
glycerin and dextrin.
v. After about 30-40 minutes, keep the plate assembly along with the sample in a water bath.
Maintain the 27ºC for half an hour.
vi. Remove the sample and mould assembly from the water bath and the specimen by leveling
the surface using a hot knife.
vii. Replace the mould assembly in water bath maintained at 27ºC for 80-90 minutes.
viii. Remove he sides of the mould.
ix. Hook the clips carefully on the machine without causing any initial strain.
x. Adjust the pointer to read zero.
xi. Start the machine and pull two clips horizontally at a speed of 50mm per minute.
xii. Note the distance at which the bitumen thread of specimen breaks.
xiii. Record the observations in proforma and compute the ductility value. Report the mean of two
observations, rounded to nearest to nearest whole number as the ductility value.
Note: machine may have a provision to fix two or more moulds so as to test these specimens
simultaneously.

Ductility test and briquette specifications
Ductility briquette & Sample
Ductility machine
5. Precautions
i) The plate assembly upon which the mould is placed shall be perfectly flat and level
so that the bottom surface of the mould touches it throughout.
ii) In filling the mould, care should be taken not to disarrange the parts and thus distort
the briquette and to see that no air pocket shall be within the moulded sample.

6. Record of observations
i) Bitumen grade =
ii) Pouring temperature ºC =
iii) Testing temperature ºC =
iv) Duration of cooling, minutes =
a) In air =
b) In water bath before trimming =
c) In water bath after trimming =
Briquette no.
1 2 3
a) Initial reading (a)

b) Final reading (b)
c) Ductility = b-a (cm)
Ductility value =
The stability of bitumen is judged, depending upon its time and proposed use. Bitumen with
low ductility value may get cracked especially in cold weather. IS has specified following value of
minimum ductility of various grades of bitumen as follows:
Source of paving bitumen Minimum ductility value
and penetration grade cm
Assam Petroleum A 25 5
A 35 10
A 45 12
A 65, A 90 and A 200 15
Bitumen from sources other than 50
Assam Petroleum
S 45, S 65 and S 90 75

8. Analysis of Result:

Question for discussion

i) What do you understand by ductility of bitumen; give its significance in a flexible pavement
construction
ii) Give the dimensions of the standard briquette mould.
iii) What is the test temperature and standard rate pull?
iv) How will be the ductility value affected if the test temperature is more than the specified one?
v) How is ductility value expressed?
Viva:
Ductility:
1. What is ductility?
2. What is the significance of his experiment?
3. What is rate of elongation?
5. What is the temperature at which the test is done? Why?
6. How is ductility value expressed?
7. Up to which temperature sample is heated initially?
8. What is the difference between ductility and elastic recovery?
9. Does grade influence the ductility? How?
10. What are sample dimensions?
11. What are parameters influencing ductility?
12. How do we express the ductility value?
13. What are the permissible values of this test?
14. What are the applications of ductility value?
15. How does the pouring temperature affect the ductility value?

ELASTIC RECOVERY
In flexible pavements the vehicle/wheel load is transferred to the sub-grade through flexure of bituminous
pavement which is supposed to rebound to the original position once the load moves away from the point
of contact/loading.
This is the elastic nature/ component of the bituminous layer that makes sure that the deflections are not
permanent. Bitumen which is visco-elastic has both viscous and elastic components in it. so it is essential
to test or estimate the elastic nature of the bitumen, which is the binder in flexible pavements.
Elastic recovery procedure goes on the same lines as ductility test. The main difference here is to test the
elastic nature of the bitumen at standard test temperature of 27°C. Elastic recovery gives the elastic
component / nature of the bitumen which is visco-elastic in nature. The test is conducted at 27 ± 0.5°C
and a rate of pull of 50 ± 2.5 mm per minute.
2. OBJECTIVE
To measure the cohesive property of bitumen and its ability to stretch and recover. It is expressed as
percentage length recovered after stretching for 10 cm Apparatus
3. APPARATUS
The elastic recovery test apparatus consists of items like sample moulds water bath square-end trowel
or putty knife sharpened on end and ductility machine. Following are standard specifications as per the IS
for the above items:
(a) Briquette mould: Mould is made of brass metal with shape and dimensions. Both ends called clips
possess circular holes to grip the fixed and movable ends of the testing machine side pieces when placed
together form the briquette of the following dimensions:
Length ... 75 mm
Distance between clips ... 30 mm
Width at mouth of clips ... 10 mm
Cross section ... 10 mmX10 mm

(b) Ductility machine: It is equipment which functions as constant temperature water bath and a
pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate. The central rod of the machine is threaded and through a gear
system provides movement to one end where the clip is fixed during initial placement. The other clip end
is hooked at the fixed end of the machine. The machine may have provision to fix two or more moulds so
as to test these specimens simultaneously.
PROCEDURE:
i) The specimen shape is like a beam of cross section 10 mm X 10 mm.

ii) The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature above the approximate softening point until it
is fluid.
iii) It is strained through IS sieve 30, poured in the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate,
after a solution of glycerin and dextrin is applied at all surfaces of the mould exposed to
bitumen.
iv) 30 minutes after the sample is poured into the moulds, the plate assembly along with the
sample is placed in water bath maintained at 27°C for 30 minutes.
v) The sample and mould assembly are removed from water bath and excess bitumen material is
cut off by leveling the surface using hot knife.
vi) After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water
bath maintained at 27ºC for 85 to 95 minutes.
vii) The sides of the mould are now removed and the clips are carefully hooked on the machine
without causing any initial strain.
viii) Two or more specimens may be prepared in the moulds and clipped to the machine so as
to conduct these tests simultaneously.
ix) The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally.
x) While the test is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is immersed in water at depth
of at least 10 mm.
xi) This specimen is stretched to a length of 10 cm and stretching is stopped.
xii) Then the specimen is cut in the middle with a glycerin coated knife and left to recover the
shape/elongation for one hour.
xiii) After one hour the severed specimen halves are brought together to check the final length
of the specimen (after one hour left for elastic recovery)
The percentage reduction in length of stretch (10 cm ) is elastic recovery.

Elastic recovery briquette and sample
Stretched and recovered elastic recovery test specimens

RESULTS:
Initial length of the stretched specimen: _____ cm (standard 10 cm)
Final length of the specimen with both halves joined: _____ cm
–
Elastic recovery = =
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

Questions for Discussion:
What is the influence of the following on Elastic Recovery Value?
1. pouring temperature
2. dimensions of briquette
3. improper level of briquette placement
4. test temperature
5. Rate of pulling
ViVa
Elastic recovery:
1. What is elastic recovery?

2. What are the sample dimensions?
3. What is rate of elongation?
4. Why is initial elongation 10cm?
5. Why is the experiment conducted in water?
6. Does grade influence the elastic recovery? How?
7. What are the permissible values of elastic recovery?
8. What are the applications of elastic recovery test?
10. What is the temperature at which the test is done? Why?
11. How elastic recovery value expressed?
12. Up to which temperature sample is heated initially?
13. What is significance of elastic recovery?
14. What is the difference between ductility and elastic recovery?
15. What are the parameters effecting elastic recovery?

FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT
1. Concept and Significance:
The flash and fire point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the application of test flame
causes the vapours from the material momentarily catch fire in the form of a flash under specified
conditions of test.
The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test flame causes the material to
ignite and burn at least for 5 seconds under specified conditions of test.
At high temperatures, bituminous materials emit hydrocarbon vapours which are susceptible to catch
fire. Therefore the heating temperature of bituminous material should be restricted to avoid hazardous
conditions. Flash point and fire point tests are used to determine the temperature to which bituminous
material can safely be heated.
2. Objective:
To determine flash point and fire point of the bituminous material.
3. Apparatus:
The apparatus as per IS:1209-1978 consists of:
Pensky Martens closed tester consisting of the following major parts:
Cup: It is made of brass, the inside of the cup may be turned to a slightly larger diameter above the filling
mark and the outside may be tapered above the flange. The flange is about 12mm in width and
approximately 3mm in thickness. It is equipped with devices for locating the position of the lid on the cup
and the cup itself in the stove. A handle is attached to the flange of the cup.
Lid: It includes a stirring device, cover proper, shutter and flame exposure device. The stirring device
consists of a vertical steel shaft of 2.5mm to 3mm diameter and mounted in the center of the cup. It
carries two bladed brass propellers. Cover proper is made of brass and fits the outside of the cup closely.
It has four openings.
Opening A has an area defined by area of two concentric circles. Opening B and C are of equal areas and
approximately half the angular width of opening A. Opening D is provided to grip the thermometer collar.

Shutter: 2.5 mm thick and made of brass. It is so shaped and mounted that it rotates on the axis of the
horizontal center of the lid. On one extreme position, the openings A,B and C of the lid are completely
closed and when in the other extreme position, these orifices are completely opened.
Flame: exposure device-having a tip with an opening 0.7 to 0.8mm in diameter. The device is equipped
with an operating mechanism which, when the shutter is in open position, depresses the tip so that the
center of orifice is between the planes of the under and the upper surfaces of the lid proper. A pilot flame
for automation relighting of the exposure flame should be provided.
Stove: It consists of an air bath and a top plate on which the flange of the cup rests. Air bath may be either
a flame-heated metal causing or an electric resistance element. The top plate is made of metal and it can
be attached to the air bath with the help of three screws in such a manner to leave an air gap.
Thermometer: For low ranges, it has measurement range from -7 to 110 ºC and readable up to 0.5ºC. For
expected higher values of flash and fire point, thermometer having a range of 90 to 370 ºC and readable to
2ºC should be used.
4. Procedure:
(a) Clean and dry all parts of the cup and its accessories thorough.
(b) Fill the cup with the material to be tested up to the level indicated by the filling mark.
(c) Place the lid on the cup and set the latter in the stove.
(d) Insert the thermometer.
(e) Light and adjust the test flame so that it is of the size of bead of 4mm in diameter. Apply heat such
that the temperature rises at a rate of 5 to 6 °C per minute.
(f) Turn the stirrer at a rate of approximately 60 revolutions per minute. Apply the test flame by operating
the device controlling the shutter and test flame burner so that the flame is lowered in 0.5 second, left in
its lowered position for one second, and quickly raised to its high position. Discontinue stirring during the
application of test flame.
(g) Apply the test flame initially at a temperature 17°C below the expected flash point. There after apply
the test flame at an interval of 1 C for the range above 104° C.
For the temperature range above 104°C increase this interval to 2°C.
(h) Note down the flash point as the temperature at which the flame application causes a distinct flash in
the interior of the cup.

The duplicate test results should not differ by more than the following:
FLASH POINT RANGE REPEATABILITY REPRODUCIBILITY
104 ºC AND BELOW 2 ºC 3.5 ºC
ABOVE 104 ºC 5.5 ºC 8.5 ºC
DETERMINATION OF OPEN FLASH AND FIRE POINT
The standard Pensky-Martens tester and thermometer as prescribed in previous

method is used with slight modifications. The cover of the cup is replaced by a clip which
encircles the upper rim of the cup and carries the thermometer and test flame. The test flame is
fixed at the vertical axis of the cup and in level with the upper edge of the cup.
Procedure:
(1) Follow the steps (1) to (5) as above

(2) Note the temperature at which a flash first appears at any point on the surface of the
material.
(3) Continue heating until the oil ignites and burns for 5 minutes. Record this temperature
as fire point.
(4) The duplicate test results should fall within the following range.
Repeatability Reproducibility
Flash point 8 ºC 11 ºC
Fire point 8 ºC 14 ºC

5. Precautions:
(1) The test flame should neither be larger than stipulated nor be applied more frequently than
specified as the surface layer may get super-heated.
(2) The bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame should not be confused with the true
flash.
6. Record of Observations:
FLASH POINT : ________ºC
FIRE POINT :__________ºC
7. Interpretation of Results:
The determination of flash point is helpful in assessing the safe limits of heating the
bitumen. The heating temperature of bitumen should be limited well below the flash
point.
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

Questions for Discussion:
(1) What is flash and fire points?
(2) What is utility of determining flash point?
( ) Should a good binder posse‟s higher flash point?
Viva:
Flash and fire point tests:
1. What is flash point and fire point?

2. Does grade influence the flash and fire point? How?
3. What is the significance of this experiment?
4. What are parameters influencing flash and fire point?
5. What are the permissible values of this test?
6. What are the applications of flash and fire point value?
7. What are the test apparatus?
8. When flash point is considered as safe point why do we find the fire point?
9. What is rate of heating?
10. How does the flash and fire point influence the mixing temperature?
11. What is mixing and compaction temperature?
12. What is the basis for selecting the mixing temperature? And compaction temperature?
13. Why should bitumen be heated to flash point temperature while mixing temperature is determined
by other means?
14. Why should there be a sufficient gap between flash point and fire point?

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BITUMEN
Specific gravity determination of bitumen is one type of characterizing the bitumen. Bitumen specific
gravity is close to that of water i.e., 1, usually slightly more than one. That is the reason bitumen
sinks/submerges in water
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the specific gravity of given bitumen
DEFINITION
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of bitumen at a given temperature
to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature.
APPARATUS:
1. Pycnometer
2. Digital balance
3. Distilled water

PROCEDURE:
i. This test should be conducted at standard 27°C test temperature, that means the bitumen
temperature and
ii. Take the weight of empty pycnometer (W1) on digital balance
iii. Take distilled water to 1/3rd volume of pycnometer and take the weight (W2)
iv. Now take about 200 grams of bitumen and drop bitumen in the form of small balls into the
pycnometer and measure the weight (W3)
v. The pycnometer is pre filled with water before dropping the bitumen only to avoid sticking of
bitumen to the walls of pycnometer
vi. W3-W2 will give the weight of bitumen taken
vii. Now fill the pycnometer with distilled water to the brim with bitumen inside, the weight increases
from W3 to (W4)
viii. Empty the pycnometer of its contents and fill the pycnometer with distilled water only to the brim
and take the weight (W5)
W3 –W2
Specific gravity of bitumen = -------------------------------------------
W5 – [(W4)-(W3-W2)]
RESULT:
ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
i. When water is added to the bitumen which is placed in the pycnometer, care should be taken to
eliminate water bubbles and bitumen balls should not contain voids
ii. The pycnometer should be properly cleaned for taking the weight of pycnometer with distilled
water

Viva:
Specific gravity
1. Why there is hole at the top of pycnometer

2. Why the top portion of pycnometer is conical
3. What is specific gravity
4. Is there any relation between specific gravity and density?
5. What will be usual range of specific gravity for cement, aggregate, sand, bitumen?
6. Can you judge the suitability of aggregate based on specific gravity value
7. What is the use of finding the specific gravity of aggregate or bitumen
8. Why the specific gravity of bitumen is referred to as close to that of water
9. What are the factors that influence the specific gravity of aggregate
10. Why do we call aggregate as aggregate?
11. Will the shape affect the specific gravity of aggregate
12. Is specific gravity aggregate size dependent
13. What is the difference between pycnometer and density bottle
14. What is the difference between the procedures adopted in pycnometer method and wire
basket method
15. What are the units of specific gravity

BITUMEN EXTRACTION
Concept and significance
The centrifuge extractor is used for the quantitative determination of bitumen in hit-mixed paving
mixtures and pavement samples, essentially as a fields test to exercise quality control and ensure that the
specified amount of bitumen has been used. The bitumen content is calculated by differences of the
weight of the extract aggregate, moisture content and ash from the weight of the sample taken for the test.
Objective:
To determine quality of the bitumen in hot-mix paving mixtures and pavement samples.
Apparatus
(i) The centrifuge extractor consists of a revolving bowl inside a housing. The bowl is provided with
a cover plate and it is secured in position by tightening the nuts.
(ii) The bowl housing is mounted on an enclosed gear box. A cover is clamped to housing.
(iii) The gears are splash lubricated and the system is operated manually with the handle.

Bitumen extractor - Interior
Bitumen extractor - Exterior

Procedure
1. Weight a 1000 g sample of asphalt mix.

2. With the fork break the sample down to small pieces and heat the sample to about 115 C.
3. Place the sample in the bowl and weigh it.
4. Cover the sample in the bowl with benzene or trichloroethane and allow it to soak for one hour.
5. Weigh filter ring. Place it around the edge of the bowl and clamp a lid on the bowl.
6. Place a beaker under the outlet.
7. Place the bowl in a centrifuge and rotate it gradually to increase the speed upto 3600 rpm. Rotate
the solvent ceases to flow from the outlet.
8. Stop the centrifuge, add 200ml of trichloroethane or benzene and rotate it again.
9. Repeat the procedure (not less than three washings) until the extract is no longer cloudy and is
fairly light in colour.
10. Remove the filter from the bowl and dry in air.
11. Brush the loose particles from the filter into the bowl.
12. Dry the filter to the constant weight in an oven at 98 C to 105 .
13. Dry the contents of the bowl on a steam bath and then to constant weight in an oven at 98 C to
105 C.
14. Obtain the weight of the filter and bowl with dry aggregates.
Precautions
(i) Separate the particles of the mixture as uniformly as possible taking care not to fracture the
mineral particles.
(ii) The cover plate should be fixed tightly on the bowl.
Record of Observations
Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3

Before Test
Wt. of bowl + sample (w1) g
Weight of bowl (w2), g
Weight of filter (w3), g
After test
Wt. of bowl + sample (w4), g

Weight of filter (w5), g

Weight of sample (w1-w2), g
Weight of aggregates in bowl (w4-w2), g
Weight of aggregates in filter (w5-w3), g
Weight of aggregates
WA = (w4-w2) + (w5-w3)
Weight of bitumen WB = (w1-w2)-WA
Bitumen content = ⁄ × 100%
Interpretation of results
The results of the tests are an indication regarding the quality of bitumen that has been used
in a bituminous mix. By performing this field test a substantial saving in the cost of bitumen can
be had by ensuring that the optimum quantity of bitumen has been provided. Also the
performance of the road be affected if lesser or more quantity of bitumen is used.
Questions for Discussion
1. What is the criteria for specifying benzene or trichloroethane as solvents to be used in

the test?
2. How would the road surface be effected in case the test reveals use of
i. Lesser quantity of bitumen
ii. More quantity of bitumen; than the optimum quantity?

TRAFFIC STUDIES
INTRODUCTION
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and classifications of
roadway vehicles at a given location. These data can help identify critical flow time periods,
determine the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow, or document
traffic volume trends. The length of the sampling period depends on the type of count being
taken and the intended use of the data recorded. For example, an intersection count may be
conducted during the peak flow period. If so, manual count with 15-minute intervals could be
used to obtain the traffic volume data.
USING COUNT PERIOD TO DETERMINE STUDY METHOD
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts: (1) manual and (2) automatic.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle classification,
turning movements, direction of travel, pedestrian movements, or vehicle occupancy. Automatic
counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle hourly patterns, daily or
seasonal variations and growth trends, or annual traffic estimates
MANUAL COUNT METHOD
Most applications of manual counts require small samples of data at any given location. Manual
counts are sometimes used when the effort and expense of automated equipment are not justified.
Manual counts are necessary when automatic equipment is not available. Manual counts are
typically used for periods of less than a day. Normal intervals for a manual count are 5, 10, or 15
minutes. Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour and a Friday evening rush hour may
show exceptionally high volumes and are not normally used in analysis; therefore, counts are
usually conducted on a Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday.

The purposes of carrying out traffic volume count are designing, improving traffic system,
planning, management etc.
a. Design purposes:
 Structural and geometric design of pavements, bridge, and other highway facilities. Structural
design is based on repetition of wheel load on the pavement in entire design life. AADT is
needed with traffic growth rate to compute design wheel repetition. Geometric design is based on
peak hour volume to avoid congestion.
 Intersection design including minimum turning path, channelization, flaring, traffic control
devices viz. traffic signs, markings, signals based on approach volume and turning proportions.
 Pedestrian volume study is useful for designing side walks, pedestrian crossing etc.
b. Improvement purposes:
 To allocate limited maintenance budget rationally, it is important to know the traffic volume
carried by a particular roadway section in order to decide the importance of the road and fixing
its relative priority.
 In order to improve the roadway operating condition, it is important to know the traffic
volume.
 To examine the existing operating/service condition of a roadway section.
 To check the need (warrant) traffic control devices.
 To determine the type of improvement measure need to be taken.
 To measure the effectiveness of a traffic control measure
c. Planning Purposes:
 Accurate information on the amount of traffic on the roads is vital for the planning of both
road maintenance and improvement policies
 Traffic volume network analysis helps in deciding/planning if there is need for Improvement
or Expansion in terms of construction missing links, by-pass, alternative road etc.
d. Dynamic Traffic Management Purposes:
 Up to date and continuous flow/congestion information is essential for optimizing
. Traffic signal design and thereby improving junction performance
. Network productivity by providing information to the road user

e. Other Purposes:
 Estimation of highway usage
 Measurement of current demand of a facility
 Estimation of trends
 Economic feasibility evaluation
 Computation of accident rates- accidents/100M vehicle-miles
The Data Collection Sheets are given at the end of manual.

Location:
Count Station No.
Section (To/From): Date/Month/Year

Direction: Day:
Road Name & No.
Fast moving PCU Slow moving PCU Total

2- 3- Fast Othe slow
Tim Bu Truc LC Ca wheele wheele movin Cycl r movin Numbe PC
e s k V r r r g e SMV g r U

Inference:

INTERSECTION STUDIES
Location: Section (To/From): Date/Month/Year

Count Station No. Direction: Left /Straight / Right Day:
Road Name & No.
Left turns Straight Right turn Total

Time Number PCU Number PCU Number PCU Number PCU

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Theory:
Speed is an important transportation consideration because it relates to safety, time,

comfort, convenience and economics. Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed
distribution of a traffic stream at a specific location. The data gathered in spot speed studies are
used to determine vehicle speed percentiles, which are useful in making many speed-related
decisions.
Spot speed data have a number of safety applications, for a spot speed study at a selected
location, a sample size of at least 30 and preferably more vehicles. Traffic counts during the peak
period may Show exceptionally high volumes and are not normally used in the analysis;
therefore, counts are usually conducted on the other times.
Spot speed data are gathered using one of three Methods:

(1) Stopwatch method,
(2) Radar meter method,
(3) Pneumatic road tube method.
The stopwatch method is the least expensive and least accurate of the methods.
Objectives
SPOT SPEED STUDY
Spot speed studies are vital for measuring different variables and factors needed in the
design and analysis of the highway system. Observed speeds are used for capacity analysis,

geometric design, safety measures, speed trends and assessment. Speed studies aid in the
decision making processes and in before-and-after studies to assess the effectiveness of roadway
modifications. Also, speed observations help determine whether the roadway is in need of new
law enforcement, realignment, or reconstruction.
Spot speed data have a number of safety applications, including the following:
 determining existing traffic operations and evaluation of traffic control devices,
 establishing roadway design elements, and
 measuring effectiveness of traffic control devices, including signs and markings,
 traffic operational changes, and
 Speed enforcement programs.
Because of the importance of such speed studies, data has to be collected properly and presented
effectively. Therefore required to select a section of a road outside the campus and away from
close intersections and unusual traffic activities. Information about the selected section of the
road is gathered such as section speed, number of lanes, and general description of location. Data
is to be collected during off peak periods on a week day.
Procedures
Spot Speed Study Steps
1. Organize Study Plan

2. Select Data Collection Method
3. Select Appropriate Site and Collect Field Data
4. Reduce and Analyze Data
5. Interpret and Report Findings
Step 1: Organize Study Plan

Essential to this initial step is to identify the reason for conducting the study and nature of the
problem to be evaluated. Other considerations for the study plan are the date(s) and time(s)

during which the study should be completed, and the number of vehicles that should be observed
as part of the study. The timing of the study should be consistent with the reason for conducting
the study. For example, if the study is being completed to determine if speed complaints are valid
during the evening rush hour, then the study should be completed during the evening rush hour.
Literature suggests that speed data be collected for a minimum of one hour and observe at least
30 vehicles; however depending upon the type of technology used to complete the study, and the
complexity of the study, sample sizes and durations can often include thousands of vehicles over
multiple days. Once the plan is completed, the study can be carried out and the data can be
evaluated as outlined in the steps below.
Step 2: STOPWATCH METHOD
The stopwatch method can be used to successfully complete a spot speed study using a small
sample size taken over a relatively short period of time. The stopwatch method is a quick and
inexpensive method for collecting speed data.
Step 3: Location Selection and Collect Field Data

The specific location of a study should be chosen carefully so that recorded speeds reflect how
vehicles typically travel along unimpeded sections of the road under free flow conditions.
Step 4: Speed Data Reduction and Analysis

After the study is completed and the data have been tabulated the following steps may be
considered as part of the typical data analysis. Specifically, the idea would be to identify key
Parameters associated with roadway speeds, which may include any or all of the following:
• Mean Speed: The average speed; calculated as the sum of all speeds divided by the
number of speed observations
.

• 85th Percentile Speed: The speed at or below which 85 percent of a sample of free
flowing vehicles is travelling; this is typically used as a baseline for establishing the speed
(based on a spot speed study)
• 95th Percentile Speed: The speed at or below which 95 percent of a sample of free
flowing vehicles is travelling (based on a spot speed study)
• Median (50th Percentile Speed): The speed that equally divides the distribution of spot
speeds; 50 percent of observed speeds are higher than the median; 50 percent of observed
speeds are lower than the median.
• Mode: The number that occurs most frequently in a series of numbers.
• Speed Variance: The difference in travel speeds for vehicles on the road.
Mathematically, variance is the average of the squares of the difference to the mean for
each observed speed.
• Pace: A 10 mile-per-hour increment in speeds that encompasses the highest portion of

observed speeds; often is the mean speed plus/minus five miles per hour (19).
Step 5: Interpret and Report Findings

Using the descriptive speed characteristics determined in Step 4, it is likely that there is now
sufficient data to answer the primary questions for which the spot speed study was originally
initiated.

Spot Speed data collection table:
Length of the stretch, L : ________ meters (ex: 100 meters)
Speed = L *(1/1000) / (T/3600) KMPH
Location: Section (To/From): Date/Month/Year

Count Station No. Direction: Left /Straight / Right Day:
Length of stretch: Road Name & No.
Type of Vehicle:
S.No. Time taken Speed S.No. Time taken Speed

(sec) T (KMPH) (sec) T (KMPH)

Frequency distribution data:
S No Speed Range Frequency Frequency as Cumulative %

(speed band) class (number of percentage (%) frequency
occurrences)

Draw the spot speed frequency distribution curve and cumulative frequency distribution curves
to find the mean speed, modal speed and 98th, 85th, 50th, 15th percentile speeds
Discussion
A typical layout for conducting a spot speed study using a stopwatch.
When selecting a location and layout, care must be exercised so that the observer can clearly see
any vertical reference posts. The observer should be positioned higher than the study area and be
looking down. The position could be on a bridge or a roadway back slope. The observer should
use reference points to aid in collecting the elapsed time it takes a vehicle to travel through the
study area. The reference point to start timing may be a brightly coloured vertical post. The
reference point to end timing may be a tree or a signpost in the observer‟s sight line. An accurate
sketch of the site should be documented, including number of lanes, position of observer, and
description of reference points.

INFERENCE:

TYPICAL HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION

ESTIMATING CAPACITY OF A TRAFFIC ROTARY
Overview
Rotary intersections or round abouts are special form of at-grade intersections laid out for the
movement of traffic in one direction around a central traffic island. Essentially all the major
conflicts at an intersection namely the collision between through and right-turn movements are
converted into milder conflicts namely merging and diverging. The vehicles entering the rotary
are gently forced to move in a clockwise direction in orderly fashion. They then weave out of the
rotary to the desired direction. The benefits, design principles, capacity of rotary etc. will be
discussed in this chapter.
General
Advantages and disadvantages
The key advantages of a rotary intersection are listed below:
1. Traffic flow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe
conflicts between crossing movements.
2. All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to
move at slower speed. Thus, none of the vehicles need to be stopped,unlike in a
signalized intersection.
3. Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conflicts, accidents and
their severity are much less in rotaries.
4. Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or traffic
signals.
5. They are ideally suited for moderate traffic, especially with irregular geometry, or
intersections with more than three or four approaches.
Although rotaries offer some distinct advantages, there are few specific limitations for rotaries
which are listed below.

1. All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore, the
cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection.
2. Even when there is relatively low traffic, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed.
3. Rotaries require large area of relatively flat land making them costly at urban areas.
4. The vehicles do not usually stop at a rotary. They accelerate and exit the rotary at
relatively high speed. Therefore, they are not suitable when there is high pedestrian
movements.
Guidelines for the selection
Because of the above limitation, rotaries are not suitable for every location. There are few
guidelines that help in deciding the suitability of a rotary. They are listed below.
1. Rotaries are suitable when the traffic entering from all the four approaches are relatively
equal.
2. A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour can be considered as the upper limiting
case and a volume of 500 vehicles per hour is the lower limit.
3. A rotary is very beneficial when the proportion of the right-turn traffic is very high;
typically if it is more than 30 percent.
4. Rotaries are suitable when there are more than four approaches or if there is no separate
lanes available for right-turn traffic. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection
geometry is complex.
Traffic operations in a rotary
As noted earlier, the traffic operations at a rotary are three; diverging, merging and weaving. All
the other conflicts are converted into these three less severe conflicts.
1. Diverging: It is a traffic operation when the vehicles moving in one direction is separated
into different streams according to their destinations.
2. Merging: Merging is the opposite of diverging. Merging is referred to as the process of
joining the traffic coming from different approaches and going to a common destination
into a single stream.

3. Weaving: Weaving is the combined movement of both merging and diverging

movements in the same direction.
These movements are shown in figure.
Traffic operations in a rotary

It can be observed that movements from each direction split into three; left, straight, and right
turn.
Design elements
The design elements include design speed, radius at entry, exit and the central island, weaving
length and width, entry and exit widths. In addition the capacity of the rotary can also be
determined by using some empirical formula. A typical rotary and the important design elements
are shown in figure here

Design elements of a rotary
Design speed
All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary. Therefore, the design speed of a
rotary will be much lower than the roads leading to it. Although it is possible to design
roundabout without much speed reduction, the geometry may lead to very large size incurring
huge cost of construction. The normal practice is to keep the design speed as 30 and 40 kmph for
urban and rural areas respectively.
Entry, exit and island radius
The radius at the entry depends on various factors like design speed, super-elevation, and
coefficient of friction. The entry to the rotary is not straight, but a small curvature is introduced.
This will force the driver to reduce the speed. The entry radius of about 20 and 25 meters is ideal
for an urban and rural design respectively.

The exit radius should be higher than the entry radius and the radius of the rotary island so that
the vehicles will discharge from the rotary at a higher rate. A general practice is to keep the exit
radius as 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius. However, if pedestrian movement is higher at the exit
approach, then the exit radius could be set as same as that of the entry radius.
The radius of the central island is governed by the design speed, and the radius of the entry
curve. The radius of the central island, in practice, is given a slightly higher radius so that the
movement of the traffic already in the rotary will have priority. The radius of the central island
which is about 1.3 times that of the entry curve is adequate for all practical purposes.
Width of the rotary
The entry width and exit width of the rotary is governed by the traffic entering and leaving the
intersection and the width of the approaching road. The width of the carriageway at entry and
exit will be lower than the width of the carriageway at the approaches to enable reduction of
speed. IRC suggests that a two lane road of 7 m width should be kept as 7 m for urban roads and
6.5 m for rural roads. Further, a three lane road of 10.5 m is to be reduced to 7 m and 7.5 m
respectively for urban and rural roads.
The width of the weaving section should be higher than the width at entry and exit. Normally this
will be one lane more than the average entry and exit width. Thus weaving width is given as,
where is the width of the carriageway at the entry and is the carriageway width at exit.
Weaving length determines how smoothly the traffic can merge and diverge. It is decided based
on many factors such as weaving width, proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic
etc. This can be best achieved by making the ratio of weaving length to the weaving width very
high. A ratio of 4 is the minimum value suggested by IRC. Very large weaving length is also
dangerous, as it may encourage over-speeding.

Capacity
The capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section. Transportation
road research lab (TRL) proposed the following empirical formula to find the capacity of the
weaving section.
where is the average entry and exit width, i.e, , is the weaving width, is the
length of weaving, and is the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic.
Figure 3 shows four types of movements at a weaving section, and are the non-weaving
traffic and and are the weaving traffic.
Weaving operation in a rotary

Therefore,
This capacity formula is valid only if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. Weaving width at the rotary is in between 6 and 18 meters.

2. The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is in
the range of 0.4 to 1.
3. The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and
0.4.
4. The proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic in the rotary is in the range of
0.4 and 1.
5. The weaving length available at the intersection is in between 18 and 90 m.
Numerical example
The width of a carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 15 m. The entry and exit
width at the rotary is 10 m. The traffic approaching the intersection from the four sides is shown
in the figure below. Find the capacity of the rotary using the given data.
Traffic approaching the rotary
Solution
 The traffic from the four approaches negotiating through the roundabout is illustrated in
next figure

 Traffic negotiating a rotary
 Weaving width is calculated as, w = = 13.5 m
 Weaving length, l is calculated as = 4 w = 54 m

 The proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic in all the four approaches is
found out first.
 It is clear from equation,that the highest proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving
traffic will give the minimum capacity. Let the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-
weaving traffic in West-North direction be denoted as , in North-East direction
as , in the East-South direction as , and finally in the South-West direction
as .
 The weaving traffic movements in the East-South direction is shown in figure 6. Then
using equation,

 Thus the proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic is highest in the East-South
direction.
Traffic weaving in East-South direction
 Therefore, the capacity of the rotary will be capacity of this weaving section. From
equation,

Summary
Traffic rotaries reduce the complexity of crossing traffic by forcing them into weaving
operations. The shape and size of the rotary are determined by the traffic volume and share of
turning movements. Capacity assessment of a rotary is done by analyzing the section having the
greatest proportion of weaving traffic. The analysis is done by using the formula given by TRL.

PENETRATION INDEX
Find the penetration index of given sample by conducting penetration test at different test
temperatures and finding the penetration value at those temperatures and plotting the data on a
semi-log graph sheet.
Temperature vs Penetration value with penetration on log scale

BITUMEN EXTRACTION
Determine the bitumen content in the given sample of bituminous mix by using bitumen
extraction method with benzene as solvent

TEN PERCENT FINES VALUE OF AGGREGATE
Determine the 10% fines value of the given aggregate sample using aggregate
crushing test apparatus and CTM.

PAVEMENT CORE EXTRACTION
Extract a pavement core using motorized core cutter and report the
thicknesses of different layers as per the visible demarcations and find the
Marshall Stability value of the core if the thickness of any layer is close to or
more than 2.5 inches

BITUMEN PURITY TEST
(SOLUBILITY TEST)
Determine the purity of given bitumen sample by solubility test using Trichloro-ethylene or
CarbonTetraChloride or Benzene as solvent.

REFERENCES:-
1 Indian Standards Methods of Testing Tar and Bitumen
2 Shell Bitumen Handbook
3 Indian Standards Specification for Paving Bitumen, IS : 73, 1961, Indian Standards
Institution.
4 Highway material testing by K. Duggal
5 Pavement material testing by A. Veeraraghavan, Khanna and Justo
6 Asphalt Science And Technology Arthur M Usmani

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Transportation Engineering Laboratory Manual Page No:

Experiment No: Date:

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

1. CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE:

(i)To determine crushing value of given road aggregates;

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Plunger, Crushing mould, measuring cylinder and tamping rod

Crushing mould, Plunger, Cylindrical measure and tamping rod specifications

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

(ii)Take about 3.5kg of this material.

(vii)Empty the cylinder and weigh the aggregates, accurate up to 1gm.

(x)Place this assembly on the pedestal of compression testing machine.

(xii)Release the load.

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Test with Non-standard sizes of Aggregates

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:-

Weight of standard cylinder (w1), g

Weight of cylinder + aggregate (w2) , g

Weight of aggregate (w2 - w1) , g

Weight of sample retained on 2.36 mm sieve, g

Weight of aggregate after crushing and Passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve, g

Aggregate crushing value, %

Average of two samples, %

Wt. of crushed aggregate passing . mm sieve

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Type of Road Construction Maximum allowed Aggregate

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION:

4. What are the applications of aggregate crushing test?

6. What are the uses of the aggregate crushing test?

7. Which property of aggregates is measured by this test?

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Aggregate crushing test:

1. Why measuring cylinder is used?

Observation Record Viva Total

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Experiment No: Date:

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Impact test apparatus – blue print

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Measuring cylinder, Tamping rod and Impact mould

Impact testing apparatus

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Wt. of crushed aggregate passing . mm sieve

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Questions for discussion Questions:

2. Briefly mention the procedure of aggregate impact test?

3. How is aggregate impact value expressed?

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Aggregate impact test:

1. Why measuring cylinder is used?

Observation Record Viva Total

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering

Experiment No: Date:

LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE

1. CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE

(a) to determine the Los-Angeles abrasion value.

The apparatus as per IS 2386 (Part4) -1963 consists of:

Department of Civil Engineering MVGR College of Engineering