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Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on soil organic

carbon storage, soil quality and yield sustainability under sub-humid
and semi-arid tropical India

Article  in  Field Crops Research · September 2005

DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2004.10.006

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 Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
www.elsevier.com/locate/fcr

Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure application on soil

organic carbon storage, soil quality and yield sustainability
under sub-humid and semi-arid tropical India
M.C. Mannaa, A. Swarupb,*, R.H. Wanjaria, H.N. Ravankarc, B. Mishrad,
M.N. Sahae, Y.V. Singha, D.K. Sahid, P.A. Sarapc
a
Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India
b
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, 132001, India
c
Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola 444104, India
d
Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi 834006, India
e
Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibre, Barrackpore 734101, India
Received 10 December 2003; received in revised form 10 October 2004; accepted 26 October 2004

Abstract

In south Asian countries, production fatigue has been observed as yields which have started declining or stagnating under
long-term experiments in multiple cropping systems due to continuous cultivation. We examined the potential impact of
continuous cultivation of crops in rotation, and fertilizer and manure application on yield trends, soil organic carbon (SOC)
storage, soil quality parameters (active fractions of SOC in particular) and sustainable yield index (SYI). Crop rotations included
in the study were: rice–wheat–jute, soybean–wheat and sorghum–wheat system at Barrackpore (Typic Eutrochrept), Ranchi
(Typic Haplustalf) and Akola (Typic Haplustert), respectively. Field treatments included unfertilized (control), 100% N, 100%
NP, 100% NPK and 100% NPK + FYM. The negative yield trend was observed in unbalanced use of inorganic N and NP
application at all the three sites. The positive yield trend was observed in the NPK and NPK + FYM treatments at Ranchi and
Akola. However, significantly negative-yield trends were observed in these treatments at Barrackpore under rice-based system.
Results showed that the SOC in the unfertilized plot (control) decreased by 41.5, 24.5, and 15.5% compared to initial values in
Barrackpore, Ranchi and Akola, respectively, wherein the treatment receiving NPK and NPK + FYM either maintained or
improved it over initial SOC content in these sites. The estimated annual C input values in NPK + FYM treatments were 4392,
4159 and 3113 kg ha
1 year
1 in rice–wheat–jute, sorghum–wheat and soybean–wheat system, respectively. Active fractions of
SOC, viz., water-soluble carbon and hydrolysable carbohydrates, soil microbial biomass C and N, dehydrogenase and alkaline
phosphatase activity, improved significantly with the application of NPK and NPK + FYM. The content of SOC significantly
(p  0.05) correlated with SYI and active fractions of SOC, which support better sustainable productivity. Results suggest that
current fertilizer recommendations of 100% recommended NPK are adequate for maintaining SOC and its active fractions as

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 184 2291119.

E-mail address: aswarup@cssri.ren.nic.in (A. Swarup).

0378-4290/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2004.10.006
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
well. The causes of yield decline are mostly location specific but depletion of SOC and its active fractions seems to be a general
cause.
# 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Carbon storage; Long-term experiments; Semi-arid; Soil organic carbon; Soil quality; Sub-humid; Sustainable yield index
1. Introduction
Stagnation/decline in yields has been observed in
rice-based cropping systems in Asia and reasons
ascribed to this phenomenon are quality and quantity
of soil organic carbon (SOC) and its impact on nutrient
supply (Bhandari et al., 2002; Ladha et al., 2003).
Several workers have studied the composition and
losses of SOC, particularly C and N, under intensive
cropping and continuous cultivation (Dalal and Mayer,
1986; Dawe et al., 2000; Swarup et al., 2000). Dalal
and Mayer (1986) reported that constituents of organic
matter such as N, P and S also declined with
cultivation practices in sub-humid tropics of Australia.
Thus, loss and restoration of SOC could be influenced
through land use management practices like cropping
frequency (Campbell et al., 1995), reduced tillage
(Reicosky et al., 1995), fertilizer (Gregorich et al.,
1996) and manure application (Sommerfeldt et al.,
1988). Therefore, long-term sustainability and overall
productivity of cropping systems are directly related to
the maintenance of soil organic matter (Swarup et al.,
2000).
Increasing organic matter inputs via agricultural
management is the key to increase in SOC content
(Janzen et al., 1992). Similarly, qualities of organics
(i.e. lignin, C–N ratio etc.) also influence the quantity
of SOC development in soil. In intensive cropping
system, burning or removal of crop residues is a
common practice, where combine harvester is used.
Thus, only the roots are recycled/retained under
intensive cultivation. Under such situation, there is a
need to quantify the C inputs return back to soil, if it is
sufficient to improve the SOC restorative process in a
long run. We also need to know if total organic matter
and things related to it are the major constraint for
yield improvement.
The concept of soil quality is centered on the ability
of the soil to perform specific functions like sustaining
biological activity, regulating water flow, buffering,
storing, and cycling of nutrients, etc. (Karlen et al.,
265
1997). The information on the long-term effect of
manure and fertilizer on crop residue production and
its subsequent effects on SOC storage and soil quality
is limited in sub-humid and semi-arid tropical
cropping systems in India (Dawe et al., 2003). Indeed,
quantification of SOC in relation to various crop
management practices is of prime importance in
identifying sustainable systems for SOC dynamics in
soil. There is lack of research knowledge of carbon
quantification through belowground crop residues
under cultivated land management system. This is
extremely important to understand the effects of
cropping practices and soil types on SOC storage,
which could influence yield sustainability and soil
quality.
The objectives of this investigation were to: (i)
determine the long-term effects of manure and
fertilizer application on yield trends, SOC trends
and sustainability, (ii) estimate the annual C-inputs
under diversified cropping systems and soil types, and
(iii) assess potential impact on soil quality parameters
(active fractions of SOC) vis-a vis yield sustainability
under continuous and long-term cropping.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site descriptions
Data analyzed in this study were taken from multi-
locations (Barrackpore, Ranchi and Akola), under All
India Coordinated Research Project on long-term
fertilizer experiments. The geographic locations and
physico-chemical properties for all sites under study
are presented in Table 1. Barrackpore is located at
0 0
22845 N, 88826 E and 9 m above mean sea level
(m.s.l.), and has sub-humid (moist) to humid
subtropical climate. Average annual rainfall is
1698 mm and the soils are alluvial Typic Eutrochrept
with sandy loam texture (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
0 0
Ranchi (23830 N, 85815 E and 120 m above m.s.l.) has
266 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280

Table 1
Physicochemical properties and fertility status of the experimental sites before commencing the study
Physicochemical properties Barrackpore Ranchi Akola
Soil taxonomy order Inceptisols Alfisols Vertisols
Sub group Typic Eutrochrept Typic Haplustalf Typic Haplustert
Bulk density (g cm
3) 1.35 1.36 1.26
WSA (>250 mm)a 39.30 27.20 67.5
Water holding capacity (% by weight)) 44.30 31.32 50.33
Sand (g kg
1) 540.0 662.3 314.0
Silt (g kg
1) 280.0 84.3 162.0
Clay (g kg
1) 180.0 253.4 524.0
Organic carbon (g kg
1) 7.12 4.50 4.60
Total nitrogen (mg kg
1) 860.0 500.0 440.0
pH (1:2:soil:water) 7.10 5.30 8.10
CEC (c mol kg
1) 19.10 7.80 48.20
Available N (kg ha
1) 223.00 295.00 120.00
Available P (kg ha
1) 41.50 12.60 8.40
Available K (kg ha
1) 314.6 157.60 358.00
a
Water stable aggregates carbon in percentage.

sub-humid climate with severe hot, dry summer
and cool winter, average annual rainfall of 1450 mm,
and the soils are red Typic Haplustalf with sandy
0 0
clay loam texture. Akola is located at 20842 N, 7782 E
and 307.43 m above m.s.l. in a semi-arid tropical
zone, with 824.7 mm average annual rainfall, and soils
are medium black Typic Haplustert with clayey
texture.
2.2. Experimental treatments, yield trends and SOC
content trends analysis
In a fixed plot of long-term experiment on a
sequential cropping system five nutrient manage-
ments were considered for comparing nutrient supply
through mineral and organic fertilizer, the 29-year
period at Barrackpore (1972–1973 to 2001–2002), the
30-year period at Ranchi (1971–1972 to 2001–2002)
and the 14-year period at Akola (1988 to 2001–2002).
The treatments selected for this study consisted of
unfertilized (control); 100% recommended N (N);
100% recommended N and P (NP); 100% recom-
mended N, P and K (NPK); and 100% NPK plus
farmyard manure (NPK + FYM). The 100% NPK for
rice, wheat and jute at Barrackpore was 120:26:50,
120:26:50 and 60:13:50 kg ha
1, respectively. The
100% NPK for soybean and wheat at Ranchi was
25:26:33 and 80:26:33, respectively. The 100% NPK
for sorghum and wheat at Akola was 100:50:40 and
120:60:60, respectively. The FYM was applied at
10 Mg ha
1 (3300  3.5 kg C ha
1 year
1) every
year before sowing of rainy season crops. Urea,
single super phosphate and muriate of potash were
used as sources of N, P and K, respectively. At
Barrackpore, annual three crops in rotation, i.e. rice
(Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and
fibre crop jute (Corchorous olitorius L.) have been
regularly followed for 29 years during 1972–2001.
Rice was grown during rainy season (July–October),
while wheat and jute were grown in winter
(November–April) and summer (May–July), respec-
tively. At Ranchi, soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merri.)
was the first crop sown in the year 1971 followed by
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). A rotation of soybean–
potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)–wheat was followed
till 1980. Afterward, potato was excluded and only
soybean–wheat rotation was followed up to 2001.
The field experiment was started with sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor Moench)–wheat crop rotation in
1988 at Akola. Recommended weed control and plant
protection measures were adopted in all crops
throughout the period of experimentation.
Least-squares linear regression analysis was done
to determine yield trends (slopes) over the years to test
the hypothesis that yield trends throughout the
experimentation period are not significantly different
from zero. The P-values on the slopes indicate the
level of significance of the observed yield changes.
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280 267

Table 2
Chemical compositions of different crops
Crops Leaf C Stubble Root Stubble Root Stubbles left Lignin in Lignin Cellulose Cellulose Stubble Root
content biomass biomass biomass biomass over contribution stubble in root in stubble in root C/N C/N
(%) C (%) C (%) N (%) N (%) after harvest (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) ratio ratio
Wheat – 46.9 48.1 0.48 0.51 8.6 6.8 7.3 33.6 31.2 97.7 94.4
Jute 46.1  3.1 48.3 49.8 0.47 0.48 3.4 12.1 13.8 36.7 32.1 102.7 103.7
Rice – 45.3 46.1 0.46 0.48 5.6 7.3 8.3 33.1 30.2 98.5 96.1
Soybean 41.0  2.2 47.9 50.1 0.88 1.12 3.8 11.9 13.1 31.1 30.1 54.3 44.7
Sorghum 44.8 46.7 0.45 0.47 3.5 8.5 10.1 37.6 35.3 99.6 99.4
LSD 5% 0.36 0.24 0.09 0.06 0.35 1.66 0.26 3.18 1.76 – –

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Gomez and Gomez,
1984) was performed to determine the effects of
treatments. To test the hypothesis on yield trends, a
simple linear regression analysis of grain yields
over the years was done to determine a time trend
variable.
Y ¼ a þ bt

1
where Y is the grain/fiber yield (kg ha ), a the
constant, t the year, and b the slope or magnitude
of yield trend (yield changes per year). Similarly,
SOC trends was also obtained with similar equation
for different treatments. Where Y is the SOC content
(g kg
1), a the constant, t the year, and b the slope or
magnitude of SOC content trend (SOC changes per
year).
Yield data was used over the year for calculating
sustainable yield index (SYI) following the equation
suggested by Singh et al. (1996):
SYI ¼ ðy
s n
1 Þ y
1
m (2)
where y is the mean yield, sn
1, the standard devia-
tion and ym the maximum yield obtained under a set of
management treatments.
2.3. Estimation of gross C-input
The gross C-input in soil was calculated on the
basis of observed and derived values of C content in
leaf, root, rhizodeposition and stubble biomass of
different crops (Table 2). These parameters were
determined during 2000–2001. Root samples were
taken from an area of 0.2 m 0.2 m to a depth of
30 cm with a narrow flat-bladed shovel and handsaw.
Root sample was passed through a series of sieve to
collect coarse roots (>4 mm), medium roots (2–
4 mm) and fine roots (0.250–1 mm) without attempt-
ing to differentiate live and dead roots. Coarse
sand was removed from the sieves by a forceps by
hand sorting method. Roots were then dried at 65 8C
at a constant temperature and weighed sub-samples
were passed through 0.150 mm sieve for carbon
(1) analysis (Anderson and Ingram, 1993). The con-
tribution of leaf-fall carbon into soil was estimated
only for soybean and jute because other crops like
wheat, rice and sorghum did not have any leaf-fall.
For leaf-fall collection, 1 m2 area was randomly
selected between two rows, and samples were
collected by hand sorting on nylon net at 6th, 9th
and 12th week of crop growth of soybean and jute.
The leaf-fall samples were cleaned with a tap water
and dried at 65 8C. The details of chemical
composition of C input are presented in Table 2.
Carbon concentration of root and stubble biomass
was estimated by dry combustion method as
described by Poincelot (1972). While calculating
total rhizodeposition derived from different crops in
the present study, we considered similar values as it
was mentioned by Bronson et al. (1998). Root
exudates therefore represented 15% of aboveground
biomass at maturity with a C concentration of 36 and
33% in unfertilized and fertilized treatments, respec-
tively. During the crop growth, weeds were removed
and incorporated into soil. However, no weed
biomass was recorded; and therefore the value of
C input through weed biomass was ignored, while
constructing C input in these systems.
To estimate the annual rate of changes in SOC, it is
necessary to know the amount of organic C present in
the soil at the beginning of the experiment. In order to
establish relationship between C addition (external C
addition plus crops C-inputs) and SOC storage in a
268 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
given soils were fitted in simple linear regression
equation.
dCs
¼ aX
b (3)
dt
where dCs/dt are the losses or gains from initial value
over time (t) in 0–30 cm soil depth, X is the annual C
input, the slope of this equation is decay rate constant
(a) and the intercept (b) represent the annual loss of C
from the native SOC. We assumed that the whole
amount of biomass C from leaf fall, stubble and root
mass C and rhizodeposition remained in the 0–30 cm
surface layer. Carbon content (Mg ha
1 or kg ha
1) of
0–30 cm depths was calculated by multiplying C-
concentrations (g kg
1 soil) with bulk density and
soil depth.
2.4. Soil analysis
Available N, P, K and soil organic C were estimated
every year after completion of each cropping system.
Soil quality parameters were analysed for all the three
sites in 2001 after harvest of wheat. The available N
(alkaline permanganate method, Subbiah and Asija,
1956); available P (Olsen et al., 1954), 1N NH4OAC-
K (Hanway and Heidel, 1952) and soil organic C
concentration (Walkley and Black, 1934) were also
estimated from soil samples. For present study, in
order to estimate SOC changes, soil samples were
taken after harvest of wheat in 15-cm increment to a
depth of 30 cm with an 8 cm diameter steel-coring bit
in April 2001. Hot water-soluble C (McGill et al.,
1986) and acid-hydrolysable carbohydrates (Brink
et al., 1960) were also estimated from soil samples.
Total N was determined by the standard method as
described by Bremner (1965). Lignin and cellulose
was determined by the method of Rowland and
Roberts (1994). The soil microbial biomass (SMBC)
was estimated by the chloroform-fumigation incuba-
tion method of Jenkinson and Powlson (1976) using a
kC value of 0.45 and microbial biomass N was
calculated by the method of Jenkinson and Ladd
(1981) using a kN value of 0.54. Dehydrogenase
activity (DHA) was measured by the method of Casida
et al. (1964) and soil alkaline phosphatase was assayed
by the method of Tabatabai and Bremner (1969).
Physicochemical properties were estimated by the
method as described by Page (1982).
2.5. Statistical analysis
The experiments were conducted in randomized
complete block design with four-field replications for
each treatment. In order to compare the treatments, the
yield data was pooled over the years and an analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was performed following standard
procedures for randomized block design (Gomez and
Gomez, 1984). The t-test was used to test significant
differences between treatment means. The significant
differences between treatments were compared with
the least significant difference (L.S.D.) at 5% level of
probability. Linear regression equation was fitted to
study trend analysis and relationship between SYI and
soil quality parameters.
3. Results
3.1. Chemical composition of crops
Nitrogen concentration was higher in legume
stubble than cereal stubble and fibre jute stalk. The
lowest N (0.45%) concentration was in sorghum
stubble. Root N contents also followed the similar
trend. In general, C and N content in stubble biomass
was comparatively lower than root C and N content.
Lignin content ranged from 6.8 to 12.1% in stubble
and 7.3 to 13.8% in root (Table 2). Lignin content in
roots was relatively higher than stubble. Lignin/
nitrogen (L/N) and C/N ratios are quality indicators of
plant residues often used, while evaluating the
stability of carbon decomposition in soil. It was
observed that L/N ratio in root was relatively higher
than L/N ratio in stubbles but the reverse was the case
for C/N ratios.
3.2. Yield trends, SOC trends and sustainability
Yield trends of rice (
2.8 to
9% per year,
p  0.002), wheat (
1.3 to
3.6% per year,
p  0.035) and jute (
1.1 to
11.8% per year,
p  0.028) at Barrackpore were significantly negative
for all treatments except NPK in wheat (
1.7% per
year, p  0.066) (Table 3, Fig. 1). The rate of yield
changes of all the three crops, however, recorded
relatively lower negative values in NPK + FYM-
treated plots than NPK treatment. Rice grain yield
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280 269

Table 3
Long-term effect of manure and fertilizers on yield trends at different locations
Locations Treatments Rate of yield change Initial value Sustainable yield
(Mg ha
1) index (SYI)
Magnitude t-stat p-value
(Mg ha
1 year
1)
Barrackpore
Rice Control
0.028
3.410 0.002 1.93 0.16
N
0.087
6.032 0.000 4.49 0.33
NP
0.081
4.972 0.000 4.75 0.38
NPK
0.090
5.753 0.000 5.03 0.40
NPK + FYM
0.060
3.958 0.000 4.81 0.47
LSD 5% – – – – 0.04
Wheat Control
0.013
3.067 0.005 0.95 0.14
N
0.036
4.550 0.000 2.50 0.41
NP
0.021
2.225 0.034 2.55 0.49
NPK
0.017
1.913 0.066 2.56 0.52
NPK + FYM
0.021
2.209 0.035 2.67 0.55
LSD 5% – – – – 0.034
Jute Control
0.118
2.318 0.028 3.20 0.20
N
0.040
6.827 0.000 2.90 0.47
NP
0.038
8.254 0.000 2.35 0.51
NPK
0.032
7.576 0.000 2.47 0.61
NPK + FYM
0.011
2.382 0.024 2.30 0.70
LSD 5% – – – – 0.04
Ranchi
Soybean Control
0.030
5.803 0.000 1.12 0.14
N
0.015
1.658 0.109 0.62 0.02
NP
0.021
2.895 0.007 1.23 0.22
NPK 0.006 0.845 0.405 1.43 0.48
NPK + FYM 0.001 0.154 0.879 1.71 0.62
LSD 5% – – – – 0.052
Wheat Control
0.045
5.722 0.000 1.50 0.04
N
0.025
4.298 0.000 0.80 0.01
NP
0.006
0.267 0.791 2.31 0.22
NPK 0.063 1.186 0.245 2.31 0.32
NPK + FYM 0.003 2.657 0.013 2.23 0.38
LSD 5% – – – – 0.063
Akola
Sorghum Control
0.103
3.095 0.008 1.63 0.02
N
0.119
2.191 0.046 2.84 0.14
NP
0.113
1.479 0.161 3.54 0.21
NPK
0.044
0.573 0.576 3.41 0.27
NPK + FYM 0.052 0.734 0.476 3.40 0.41
LSD 5% – – – – 0.071
Wheat Control
0.014
1.994 0.006 0.30 0.01
N
0.046
2.177 0.047 1.38 0.15
NP
0.023
0.621 0.544 1.65 0.21
NPK 0.052 1.130 0.278 1.55 0.28
NPK + FYM 0.103 1.856 0.085 1.67 0.36
LSD 5% – – – – 0.081
(a) intercept value is considered as initial value.
 270
M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280

Fig. 1. Trends in yields of rice, wheat and jute and SOC contend under various treatments of fertilizer and manure application at Barrackpore in India. Measured mean yields and SOC
of the treatments (symbols) and the trend line fitted by linear regression (Tables 3 and 4) are shown.
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280 271

Fig. 2. Trends in soybean and wheat and SOC content under various treatments of fertilizer and manure application at Ranchi in India. Measured
mean yields and SOC of the treatments (symbols) and the trend line fitted by linear regression (Tables 3 and 4) are shown.

declined maximum (
90 kg ha
1 year
1) in NPK
followed by jute (
38 kg fibre ha
1 year
1) in NP and
wheat (
36 kg grain ha
1 year
1) in N-treated plots.
At Ranchi, significantly negative yield trends were
observed for control (
3% per year, p = 0) and NP
(
2.1% per year, p  0.007) in soybean, and for the
control (
4.5% per year, p = 0), and N (
2.5% per
year, p = 0), in wheat (Table 3, Fig. 2). Moreover, a
significant (p = 0.013) positive yield trend was only
observed for NPK + FYM in wheat. At Akola,
significantly negative yield trends were observed for
control (
1.4 to
10.3% per year, p  0.008) and N
(
4.6 to
11.9% per year, p  0.047) in sorghum and
wheat (Table 3, Fig. 3). However, yield trends were not
significantly different from zero for all other treat-
ments. The annual increase in wheat yields at Ranchi
and Akola were +6.3 and +10.3% per year under NPK
and NPK + FYM treatments, respectively.
Trends of SOC revealed that unfertilized control, N
and NP were negative (
1.7 to
4.4% per year) at
Barrackpore (Table 4); however, the declining trends
were statistically significant for only control
272 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280

Fig. 3. Trends in yields of sorghum and wheat and SOC content under various treatments of fertilizer and manure applications at Akola in India.
Measured mean yields and SOC of the treatments (symbols) and the trend line fitted by linear regression (Tables 3 and 4) are shown.

(p = 0.025) and N (p = 0). Similarly, at Ranchi SOC
trends were negative in all treatments except
NPK + FYM (+0.3% per year, p = 0.543). At Akola,
SOC trend was significantly negative in only control
(
12.6% per year, p = 0.004). The positive SOC
trends in all the three sites were observed in NPK- and
NPK + FYM-treated plots except in NPK (
1.1% per
year, p = 0.082) at Ranchi. Moreover, annual increase
in SOC was +6.6 and +11.5% in NPK + FYM and
+7.8 and +7.6% in NPK-treated plots, respectively, at
Barrackpore and Akola. It was also observed that SOC
trends declined during initial 10 years in all these
treatments at Barrackpore and Ranchi, and stabilized
or increased thereafter (Figs. 1, 2). However, SOC was
either maintained or increased since initial year in all
treatments except in control at Akola (Fig. 3).
The values of SYI significantly differed (p  0.05),
in the plots receiving N, NP, NPK and NPK + FYM
treatments. Data revealed that SYI was considerably
lower in control (0.01–0.16), N (0.01–0.33) and NP
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280 273

Table 4
Long-term effect of manure and fertilizers on SOC trends at different locations
Locations Treatments Rate of SOC change Initial value (g kg
1)a
Magnitude (g kg
1 year
1) t-stat p-value
Barrackpore
(Rice–wheat–jute) Control
0.028
2.364 0.025 5.30
N
0.044
5.770 0.000 6.35
NP
0.017
1.540 0.123 4.98
NPK 0.078 5.880 0.000 4.64
NPK + FYM 0.066 5.250 0.000 5.05
Ranchi
(Soybean–wheat) Control
0.023
3.400 0.002 3.8
N
0.008
0.861 0.396 3.7
NP
0.017
1.719 0.096 3.8
NPK
0.011
1.803 0.082 4.1
NPK + FYM 0.003 0.616 0.543 4.2
Akola
(Sorghum–wheat) Control
0.126
3.444 0.004 4.7
N 0.032 1.594 0.123 4.5
NP 0.066 9.761 0.000 4.6
NPK 0.076 7.149 0.000 4.5
NPK + FYM 0.115 2.773 0.014 5.8
a
Intercept value is considered as initial value.

(0.21–0.49) than NPK (0.27–0.61) and NPK + FYM
(0.36–0.70). Significantly greater SYI was recorded in
rice–wheat–jute (0.14–0.70) followed by soybean–
wheat (0.02–0.62) and sorghum–wheat (0.02–0.41).
In fact, SYI values increased with increasing fertilizer
inputs in all the three sites and it was maximum under
NPK + FYM-treated plots (Table 3).
3.3. Plant derived soil C input
The effect of inorganic fertilizer use on below-
ground C-inputs in rice–wheat–jute systems was
relatively greater than sorghum–wheat and soy-
bean–wheat systems (Table 5). In rice-based system
at Barrackpore, the estimated annual C input was
4392 kg ha
1 year
1 in NPK + FYM treatment com-
prising, 2171 kg through root biomass, 1192 kg
through rhizodeposition, 635 kg through stubble and
394 kg through leaf-fall. In sorghum–wheat system at
Akola, the annual C input was 4159 kg ha
1 year
1 in
FYM + NPK treatment of which 2273 was as root C,
1328 as rhizodeposition C, and 558 as stubble C. In
soybean–wheat system at Ranchi, annual C input was
3113 kg ha
1 year
1 in FYM + NPK treatment of
which 1567 was root C, 813 as rhizodeposition C, 516
as stubble C and 217 from leaf-fall C. In unfertilized
(control), the total C input in rice–wheat–jute system
was 1616 kg C ha
1 year
1 (root biomass + rhizode-
position + stubble biomass), which was about seven-
fold higher than sorghum–wheat and about three-fold
higher than soybean–wheat system (Table 5). The
average annual belowground gross C input added to
the soil in these systems varied largely due to fertilizer
NPK application either alone or in combination of
FYM. Additional gain of C input to the tune of 2001–
2773, 1347–2544, and 998–3937 kg C ha
1 year
1
due to fertilizer and manure application in rice–
wheat–jute, sorghum–wheat and soybean–wheat sys-
tem over unfertilized control, respectively.
3.4. Rate constant (h) and added biomass C input
The annual rate of change in SOC versus annual
gross C-input has been depicted in Figs. 4a–c. In all
the treatments, degree of SOC change depended upon
annual rate of N, NP, NPK and NPK plus FYM
application. The observed values of annual rate of
change in SOC (dCs/dt) in 0–30 cm soil depth was
positively correlated with the gross C input (X) to the
corresponding soil depth in all the three systems: dCs/
 274
Table 5
Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure on gross C input from plant cannopy under different cropping systems in different soils types
Parameters Barrackpore (Typic Eutrochept) Ranchi (Typic Haplustalf) Akola (Typic Haplustert)
Rice Wheat Jute Total Additional gain Soybean Wheat Total Additional gain Sorghum Wheat Total Additional gain
over control over control over control
Root biomass C
Control 324 161 257 743 – 143 138 281 – 116 9 125 –
N 797 464 551 1812 1069 88 78 166
115 557 117 674 549

M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280

NP 760 471 656 1887 1144 369 564 933 652 1016 195 1211 1085
NPK 912 484 613 2009 1266 569 780 1348 1067 1544 477 2021 1895
NPK + FYM 945 562 664 2171 1428 619 948 1567 1286 1699 574 2273 2148
L.S.D. 5% Crop (C) = 20.7, Treat (T) = 28.37; TXC = 46.33 Crop (C) = 33.7, Treat (T) = 48.3; Crop (C) = 8.5, Treat (T) = 14.8; TXC = 19.2
TXC = 75.6
Rhizodeposition C
Control 200 94 168 461 – 73 77 150 – 68 5 73 –
N 427 245 299 971 510 39 44 83
67 339 60 399 326
NP 480 278 365 1123 661 187 341 529 379 607 116 723 650
NPK 498 289 350 1137 676 251 408 659 509 799 255 1054 980
NPK + FYM 522 300 370 1192 730 307 506 813 663 998 330 1328 1255
L.S.D. 5% Crop (C) = 10.4, Treat (T) = 14.9; TXC = 23.3 Crop (C) = 16.1,Treat (T) = 25.4; TXC = 35.9 Crop (C) = 5.1, Treat (T) = 7.7; TXC = 11.5
Leaf-fall C
Control – – 178 178 – 51 51 – – – – –
N – – 318 318 139 27 27
24 – – – –
NP – – 388 388 210 133 133 62 – – – –
NPK – – 372 372 194 177 177 126 – – – –
NPK + FYM – – 394 394 215 217 217 166 – – – –
L.S.D. 5% Treat (T) = 23.7 Treat (T) = 32.1
Stubbles C
Control 103 76 56 234 – 25 63 88 – 20 4 24 –
N 219 200 99 518 283 13 36 49
39 98 49 147 123
NP 246 227 121 594 359 63 278 342 254 176 95 271 247
NPK 255 235 116 607 372 85 333 418 330 231 207 439 415
NPK + FYM 267 245 123 635 400 104 412 516 429 289 269 558 534
L.S.D. 5% Crop (C) = 5.6, Treat (T) = 8.7; TXC = 12.5 Crop (C) = 6.2; Treat (T) = 11.5; Crop (C) = 2.7, Treat (T) = 40.6; TXC = 58.6
TXC = 14.04
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
Fig. 4. Comparision between SOC changes (kg ha
1 year
1) in 0–
30 cm depth and in soils and total C inputs in (a) Typic Eutrochrept
(rice–wheat–jute), (b) Typic Haplustalf (soyabean–wheat) and (c)
Typic Haplustert (sorghum–wheat).
dt = 0.0536X
297.1, R2 = 0.78 (n = 20) in Typic
Eutrochrept at Barrackpore, dCs/dt = 0.0217X –92.6,
R2 = 0.45 (n = 20) in Typic Haplustalf at Ranchi, and
dCs/dt = 0.0871X -53.4, R2 = 0.73 (n = 20) in Typic
Haplustalf at Akola. The slope of the equation was the
decay rate constant (a) for the incorporation of crop
residues into SOM as indicated in Eq. (3). The
intercept (b) of the equation indicates the annual loss
of C from the native soil organic matter. Annual loss of
C in rice, soybean and sorghum-based systems were

297.1,
92.6 and
53.4 kg C ha
1 year
1, respec-
tively (Fig. 4a–c). This result indicated that under the
present experimental setup the C losses from the
native SOC during 29, 30 and 14 years of above
cropping systems were 297.1, 92.6 and 53.4 kg C
ha
1 year
1, respectively. Overall, gross C-input was
relatively higher in rice-based cropping at Barrack-
pore as compared to sorghum-based system at Akola
and soybean-based system at Ranchi, but C loss rate
275
was much higher in the former (297.1 kg ha
1 year
1)
than latter (92.6 and 53.4 kg C ha
1 year
1).
3.5. Soil quality
Effect of long-term fertilizer and manure on soil
quality parameters was evaluated under all the soil
groups (Table 6). The results showed that application
of NPK with FYM decreased soil bulk density in the
surface 0–15 cm over initial values whereas N, NP and
NPK treatments increased it. Greater amount of C and
N loss was observed in the 0–15 cm surface under N
and NP plots at Barrackpore and Ranchi whereas
impact of these treatments was positive at Akola.
Application of NPK or NPK + FYM had either
maintained or improved C and N levels over initial
soils status in all these systems. The SOC content in
the 0–15 cm surface decreased with greater magnitude
(41.91%) in the control plots in Typic Eutrochrept
(Barrackpore) in rice-based system followed by
soybean–wheat system (24.51%) in Typic Haplustalf
(Ranchi) and sorghum–wheat system (15.51%) in
Typic Haplustert (Akola) compared to initial level.
The available N remained unchanged in N-, NP-
and NPK-treated plots in all these soils. Total and
available P increased in NP-, NPK- and NPK + FYM-
treated plots. Microbial biomass (SMBC and SMBN),
and activity of enzymes such as DHA and soil alkaline
phosphatase varied significantly (p  0.05) with
fertilizer and manure input. In the imbalanced
fertilized plots (N and NP), SMBC decreased about
1.1–3 folds compared to NPK + FYM application in
all these sites. Water-stable aggregates (WSA) (250–
2000 mm) decreased to 50% in N-, NP- and NPK-
treated plots compared to NPK + FYM. The pH
decreased under N fertilized plot in Typic Haplustalf
at Ranchi (Table 6). Hot water-soluble carbon and
acid-hydrolysable carbohydrates decreased signifi-
cantly (p  0.05) in NPK-treated plots. However,
these values were either maintained or increased in
NPK + FYM-treated plots. At Barrackpore, there was
significant correlation (r = 0.76*) between SYI and
SOC. Similarly, the significant correlation between
SOC with SMBC (r = 0.92**), WSC (r = 0.96**),
hydrolysable carbohydrates (r = 0.90**), dehydrogen-
ase activity (r = 0.94**), and phosphatase activity
(r = 0.98**), were observed in rice-based system at
Barrackpore. At Akola, there was a significant
 276
Table 6
Long-term effect of fertilizer and manure on some indicative parameters of soil quality in Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols
Parameters Typic Eutrochrept L.S.D. Typic Haplustalf L.S.D. Typic Haplustert L.S.D.

M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280

(p < 0.05) (p < 0.05) (p < 0.05)
Initial Control N NP NPK NPK + Initial Control N NP NPK NPK + Initial Control N NP NPK NPK +
FYM FYM FYM
Bulk density (g cm
3) 1.35 1.34 1.36 1.34 1.3 1.27 NS 1.35 1.4 1.4 1.38 1.36 1.28 NS 1.26 1.27 1.3 1.27 1.26 1.25 NS
WSA (%) (<250 mm) 39.3 19.8 20.8 24.2 24 40.4 3.99 25.2 20.27 18 20.6 21.6 24.8 1.03 73.12 56.7 69 70.7 71.7 80.19 2.69
OC (g kg
1) 7.14 5.4 5.7 6.3 7.4 7.9 0.18 4.5 3.5 3.4 3.9 4.2 4.5 0.04 4.6 3.6 5.2 5.6 6.1 7 0.27
TN (mg kg
1) 960 422 660 748 867 927 26.7 500 445 460 475 505 570 19.9 440 360 456 460 486 590 9.2
pH (1:2, soil:water) 7.1 7.04 7.04 7 6.9 7.28 NS 5.3 5 4.2 5.03 4.9 5.31 NS 8.1 8 8 8.1 8.1 8 NS
CEC (c mol kg
1) 19.1 13.1 15.2 18.1 24 31 2.97 7.8 6.8 6.5 6.9 7.2 9.9 NS 48.1 45.6 46 47.1 48.2 49.9 NS
Available-N (kg ha
1) 223 210 230 245 273 285 8.47 295 163 317 327 331 392.9 11.2 120 98 237 258 290 319 6.6
Available-P (kg ha
1) 41.5 20.6 31.2 50.3 63 83.7 2.48 12.6 13.9 14 66.1 64.4 75.5 4.5 8.4 7.9 18 19.7 25.6 29.56 2.86
Available-K (kg ha
1) 143 115 132 155 192 225 7.4 157.6 95 60 58.5 164 177.8 7.5 358 250 263 305 356 445 12.5
SMBC (mg kg
1) – 190 189 245 398 576 57.4 – 154 185 204 210 231 20.1 - 201 220 244 382 465 30.4
SMBN (mg kg
1) – 7.5 8.9 9.1 14 18.7 3.1 – 7.78 6.8 12.6 13.6 14.5 2 – 8.1 11 12.3 13.3 16.4 1.25
Hot water soluble C – 10.7 18.6 26.3 69 80.4 8.2 – 13 14 16 18.5 23.5 1.4 – 16 17 19 22.3 27 2.72
(mg kg
1)
Soluble carbohydrates – 526 580 609 689 845 16.1 – 328 367 442 466 517 87.4 – 562 590 620 625 796 24.4
(mg kg
1)
SR (mg CO2–C – 22.3 22.8 23.1 37 49.7 4.1 – 18.3 20 21.8 22.7 24.1 2.9 – 18.3 22 24.6 25.9 33.3 2.15
100 g
1 10 d
1)
DHA (mg TPF g
1 – 45.6 50.8 70.8 86 118 8 – 33.5 36 44.8 54.7 62.6 4.8 – 37.5 38 39.8 41.3 44.41 1.99
24 h
1)
Alkaline phosphatase – 119.3 120 144 191 223 8.44 – 160.5 151 195 171 301.5 8.1 – 112.3 149 201 220 225.3 16
(p-nitrophenol
g
1 h
1)
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
correlation between SYI and SOC (r = 0.97**),
available N (r = 0.88*), available P (r = 0.97**) and
TN (r = 0.95**). At Ranchi, the correlation between
SYI with SOC (r = 0.98**), WSA (r = 0.90**), SMBN
(r = 0.89*) and DHA (r = 0.96**) was observed. A
significant and positive correlation between hydro-
lysable carbohydrates and SMBC (r = 0.96**), water
soluble carbon and SMBC (r = 0.92**) was observed
at Akola.
4. Discussion
4.1. Long-term effect of manure and fertilizer on
yield and SOC trends and sustainability
Yield decline in long-term experiments could occur
because of adversity of many factors such as decline of
soil organic matter and associated nutrients, imbal-
anced fertilizer use, cultivar, climate, insect pest, soil
types and crop management practices. Many research-
ers reported that insect and disease are probably not
the cause of yield decline in LTFE (Dawe et al., 2000,
2003). Similarly, cultivars in vogue were frequently
replaced by improved cultivars during the period of
experimentation. In present study, irrespective of
cropping systems and soil types, the significant yield
decline occurred under N and NP treatments (Table 3).
Continuous applications of balanced NPK fertilizer
minimized the yield decline. It was observed that
decline in yields is more pronounced with concomi-
tant decrease in SOC content and so at high-yielding
sites during initial years. For example, rice–wheat–
jute system at Barrackpore, the yield decline continues
even after application of NPK + FYM. This indicated
that total organic carbon stock was not necessarily
related to yield decline. The results are in conformity
with the findings of Bronson et al. (1998). Decline of
SOC was remarkable at Barrackpore and Ranchi
during initial 10 years even after application of
NPK + FYM but it improved gradually with advance-
ment of time (Figs. 1, 2). At Ranchi, yield trend was
positive but changes in SOC were negative in NPK
plots (Table 3). At Akola, sorghum yield showed
negative trend (
44.7 kg ha
1) under NPK fertiliza-
tion whereas changes in SOC was positive. Our study
showed that the sustainability of a fertilizer treatment
seems to be dependent on the combination of soil type,
277
climate and cropping system. Although the observed
yield decline is partly related to SOC development but
the consequence of organic matter fractions decline is
the concomitant decrease in nutrient supply that might
be remedied by application of fertilizer and manure in
a long run. The negative yield trends are complex
phenomena and may not be answered precisely on the
basis of present data set. There is a widespread
concern over possible climate changes, which might
be affecting yield trends due to decrease in photo-
synthesis, increased respiration, shortened vegetative
and grain filling period (Horie et al., 1995). The issue
of climate change and other soil parameters on
productivity needs more attention. The yield trends in
different cropping systems as influenced by fertilizer
NPK also showed that SYI followed the order:
NPK + FYM > NPK > NP > N > control. The con-
cepts of low SYI values in unbalanced fertilizer
application indicate unsustainability as proposed by
Singh et al. (1996).
4.2. Long-term effect of manure and fertilizer on
SOC storage
An increasing trend of SOC storage was observed
in Typic Haplustert of Akola even after application of
N fertilizer alone (Table 6). In case of Typic
Eutrochrept (Barrackpore) and Typic Haplustalf
(Ranchi) the SOC content was either maintained or
improved with NPK and NPK + FYM application.
Soil type could be one of the important parameters that
regulate organic C status of the soil. The major portion
of SOC is retained through clay–organic matter
interactions indicating the importance of the inorganic
part of the soil as substrate to bind the organic carbon.
We observed that the amount of clay present in Typic
Haplustert at Akola is about 2.9- and 2.1-fold greater
than Typic Eutrochrept of Barrackpore and Typic
Haplustalf of Ranchi, respectively. Ali et al., (1966)
also observed that SOC content increased with
increase in clay content in these soils. This might
be one of the reasons why the SOC was higher at
Akola even in imbalanced fertilizer application.
Removal of crop residue under continuous cropping
caused decrease in SOC storage (Fig. 4, Table 6),
because under intensive cropping system transitional
period between two crops is too short. For example,
after harvest of rice, only 20–25 days are available
278 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
prior to wheat sowing. This time frame is not sufficient
to decompose the organic residues. The direct
incorporation of any residue is not advisable because
it may induce deficit of nutrients to the next crop.
Thus, off situ composting is one of the options that
might be helpful to improve SOC storage.
Total belowground biomass C in sorghum–wheat
system was as good as triple cropping system, which
directly reflects on better SOC storage. The chemical
composition (lignin to-N ratio, C/N ratio, cellulose
and hemicelluloses) of plant root and shoot biomass
are important controlling factors for decomposition
rate of residue, and vary widely with quality of plant
materials as a function of climate and soil types
(Parton et al., 1987). In this study, averaged content of
C/N ratio and lignin to-N ratios in the rice–wheat–jute
system were relatively higher than soybean–wheat
system and on par with sorghum–wheat system. In
general, the decomposition rate is much faster in the
narrow C/N ratios than wide C/N ratios materials. This
is one of the reasons why the SOC storage was not
higher at Ranchi than the corresponding treatments at
Akola. Paustain et al. (1992) suggested that higher
lignin content of fresh organic matter enhanced
incorporation of N into stabilized soil organic
constituents.
From the regression equation we observed that in
Typic Haplustert (Akola), the value of humification
rate constant of annually added biomass C was higher
(0.087) for sorghum-based system than for rice-based
system (0.053) in Typic Eutrochrept at Barrackpore.
The linear relationship between change in SOC and
added C input in soil has also been reported by others
(Buyanovsky and Wanger, 1998) to explain changes in
SOC in terms of C input added to the soil and termed it
as carbon storage fraction constant. The changes in
SOC were linearly related to C input showing that
8.7% (a = 0.0871) of all added biomass C of sorghum-
based system converted to SOC and 5.4% (a = 0.054)
in rice-based system. The lower (a) value was
observed in sorghum-based system in Typic Haplus-
tert compared to rice-based system in Typic Eutro-
chrept. These indicate that the SOC in sorghum-based
system was comparatively more stable to decomposi-
tion than rice-based system. We estimated quantum of
biomass C required to maintain SOM equilibrium of
the experimental soil. At equilibrium when addition of
C inputs to the soil equal losses of C (i.e., dCs/dt = 0),
annual C input (X) became 4269 kg C ha
1 year
1 for
soybean–wheat, 5542 kg C ha
1 year
1 for rice–
wheat–jute and 6131 kg C ha
1 year
1 for sor-
ghum–wheat system. The amount could be managed
from crop residue, roots, rhizodeposition or any
external sources to maintain SOC content at equili-
brium up to the 0–30 cm soil depth. Likewise, Larson
et al. (1972) also reported that 2000 kg C ha
1 year
1
was necessarily required to maintain SOC in
continuous corn cultivation in Iowa. But higher
amount of C input required under sub-tropical soil
is possibly due to higher loss rate as evident by our
observations (Fig. 4a–c). The higher loss value
(297 kg C ha
1 year
1) in rice-based system
(Fig. 4a) clearly indicated that if we exploit the soil
with more intensive cultivation (triple cropping
system), without addition of crop residue in soils,
the SOC restoration process relatively induces to
reduce it. If the initial level of SOM is below the
capacity of a specific soil to store SOM then SOM
levels increase linearly with increasing input levels
although the slope of the line may differ thereby
reflecting the influence of climate, soil type and soil
management. The present study clearly brought out
the fact that even NP or N application did not satisfy
the required quantity of C input in rice and soybean-
based system. Even if the aboveground biomass of all
crops is recycled, these production levels are not
sufficient to supply enough C input to surpass the
quantum of C required to maintain equilibrium SOC
content. This study will help us to understand as to
how land use management strategies sustain SOC
storage in a long run.
4.3. Interrelationship between soil quality
parameters and yield sustainability
SOC influences a wide range of physical, chemical
and biological properties of soil and is considered the
most important indicator of soil quality (Carter et al.,
1999). The SOC content is inversely proportional to
bulk density as reported by Baur and Black (1994). We
observed that application of N or NP fertilizer tended
to increase bulk density and reduced SOC content,
However, NPK or NPK + FYM treatments enhanced
SOC and reduced bulk density at all three sites.
Similarly, application of N fertilizer alone signifi-
cantly (p  0.05) decreased the amount of WSA but
 M.C. Manna et al. / Field Crops Research 93 (2005) 264–280
NPK or NPK + FYM on the contrary either main-
tained or slightly increased as compared to initial
status. Several workers have reported positive
influence of soil aggregation (WSA) on soil quality,
crop productivity and soil nutrients-carrying capacity
(Six et al., 1998). Available status of N, P and K were
either maintained or improved under NPK and
NPK + FYM treatment irrespective of the soil and
cropping system. We observed that active fractions of
SOC (SMBC, SMBN, DHA and alkaline phosphatase)
changed significantly and substantial amount of these
parameters decreased under N or NP treatments as
compared to balanced NPK use. The relationships
between SYI and soil quality parameters indicated that
the total and active fractions of SOC ultimately
support the productivity, and their losses reduce the
nutrient supplying capacity of soil in the long run.
Most of the researches specifically emphasized upon
SOC and its pool fractions (active, slow and passive
pools), which lead to improved soil fertility, sustain-
ability and environmental quality (Carter, 2002). More
information is also required whether collapsing of
slow fraction (particulate organic matter C and N in
particular) of SOC hamper the nutrients supply in the
long run. Soil pH was not affected much in Typic
Eutrochrept and Typic Haplustert but N alone
treatment in Typic Haplustalf at Ranchi decreased
pH from 5.1 to 4.2.
5. Conclusions
The analysis of yield trends in a system basis at
Barrackpore (rice–wheat–jute) in Typic Eutrochrept,
Ranchi (soybean–wheat) in Typic Haplustalf and
Akola (sorghum–wheat) in Typic Haplustert, sug-
gested that significant yield decline is remarkable
under unbalanced (N or NP) fertilizer application. The
yield decline was more rapid under rice-based system
than soybean- or sorghum-based system. Regular
application of recommended dose of NPK fertilizer
reduced the negative yield trends. The causes of yield
decline are mostly location specific but depletion of soil
SOC, active fractions of SOC and associate nutrients
seems to be a general cause. The SYI followed the
order of NPK + FYM > NPK > NP > N > control
irrespective of soil and crop management system.
Though contribution of C inputs through belowground
279
was relatively higher in sorghum-based than soybean-
based cropping system, a more efficient strategy is
required in order to recycle the aboveground residue
biomass. Thus, SOC restoration process could be
improved by a set of management practices to
minimize the yield decline in the long run. Under
high intensive cropping system recommended dose of
inorganic NPK and NPK + FYM maintained soil
quality parameters, which in turn supports better crop
productivity. The issue of climatic change, and active
and slow fractions of SOC and associate nutrients on
productivity need more attention.
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