International RILEM Conference on Material Science – MATSCI, Aachen 2010 – Vol.

III, AdIPoC 189

THE K-VALUE CONCEPT APPLIED FOR GGBFS – PRINCIPLES AND

EXPERIENCES

R. Härdtl, Heidelberg Technology Center, Leimen, Germany

ABSTRACT: The k-value concept is used in the European concrete standard EN 206-1 to
define prescriptive application rules for fly ash (EN 450-1) and silica fume (EN 13263-1).
Principle idea of the k-value is a generally valid and simple concept for the use of specified
concrete additions satisfying the requirements on concrete performance (especially durability)
without the need for an additional verification procedure.

Rules for the application of ggbfs according to the k-value concept shall be included in
EN 206-1. So far systematic investigations on the k-value of ggbfs are very limited. The paper
describes the principles of the k-value concept and the way k-values are calculated. It explains
the basic approaches which are necessary to determine limits for k-values for standardization
purposes as it has been realized for fly ash. Based on available results of concrete tests from
different research programs k-values for ggbfs have been calculated taking into consideration
different influencing parameters.

The results show that the k-value concept is also applicable for ggbfs. The size of determined
k-values varies in a broad range. It strongly depends on the quality of the slag, its fineness, the
interaction with cement (type, composition, strength class), the slag content, the w/c-ratio, and
others. For a save concept in a prescriptive standard all these parameters have to be taken into
consideration.

1 INTRODUCTION

Modern concrete is a multi-component system consisting of cement, different fraction of

aggregate, mineral additions, chemical admixtures and other additives when necessary. The
broad range of potential materials offers various options to optimize the concrete composition
according to the individual necessities. Nevertheless there is the need of accepted and proven
concrete mix design methods to satisfy the high demands on principal requirements like
quality, durability and safety. Currently two different principles of concrete mix design
concepts are in use: prescriptive approaches and performance-related approaches.

In performance-related design concepts the concrete composition is optimized in a way that

defined requirements on certain concrete properties are fulfilled. Therefore suitable test
methods and performance criteria are necessary. Concerning the composition of the concrete
mix only limited requirements are defined. As the mix design usually refers only to a specific
selection and combination of concrete constituents larger efforts in proving and certifying the
individual concretes are necessary.

In prescriptive approaches the requirements on the concrete composition are much more
specified. Following the defined limits the concrete will fulfil the necessary properties and
performance according the actual state-of-the-art. In principle, there is no need for any further
verification procedure for the individual concrete recipes despite the usual initial testing to be
performed for each concrete. This requires that the defined rules are on the save side and
cover all possible variations within the given frame.
190 HÄRDTL: The k-Value Concept for GGBFS – Principles and Experiences

For the use of concrete additions the European concrete standard EN 206-1 applies the k-
value approach as a prescriptive design method. Rules for the use of fly ash (EN 450-1) and
silica fume (EN 13263-1) are included in the current version of the standard. For ground
granulated blast furnace slag (ggbfs) this design concept has been established in some
countries, but the experiences are limited. In a revised version of EN 206-1 it is intended to
also include application rules for ggbfs specified in EN 15167-1. This paper compiles the
results of studies in which k-values for ggbfs were calculated based on available data from
concrete tests.

2 PRINCIPLES OF K-VALUE CONCEPT

Concrete additions are able to contribute to concrete properties by various mechanisms. Their
influence on concrete properties depends on the characteristics of the individual material
properties, on the age of concrete, on the ambient conditions (temperature, humidity) and
various other parameters. To take into account these effects in the concrete mix design, the k-
value method uses the relationship between the water/cement ratio and the strength of
concrete. The concept was introduced by Iain A Smith for the first time in 1967 for the design
of fly ash concretes [Smi67]. In this concept the water/cement ratio vs. compressive strength
relationship is compared for references concretes without addition and concretes with addition
(Fig. 2.1).

Strength Basic requirement:

! wa
Reference Concrete with ω0 =
concrete addition ca + k.a

ωa 1
k=( -1)
ω0 a/ca

w/c
ω0 ωa = wa / ca

Fig. 2.1. Principle of k-value determination

For concretes with addition, the addition is considered in the formula of the water/cement
ratio as part of the cementitious constituent provided with a factor k (equation 2.1). This
factor k indicates the contribution of the addition to strength development in relation to the
cement.

ωo = wa/(ca + k • a) (2.1)

with ωo = water/cement ratio of reference concrete without addition

wa = water content of concrete with addition [kg/m3]
ca = cement content of concrete with addition [kg/m3]
a = content of addition [kg/m3]
International RILEM Conference on Material Science – MATSCI, Aachen 2010 – Vol. III, AdIPoC 191

When these parameters have been determined for equal strength, k can be calculated

k = (wa/ωo - ca) / a (2.2)

or if normalized to the cement content of the concrete with addition ca

k = (ωa/ωo - 1) / (a / ca) (2.3)

with ωa = water/cement ratio of concrete with addition (wa/ca)

The calculation of k-value should preferably not be done on the results of single concretes
mixes, but by a set of data. This allows a more precise determination of the water/cement ratio
vs. strength relationship. To arithmetically describe that relationship, different empirical
equations could be used. Usually a linear relationship gives a good approximation of strength
in restricted ranges of water/cement ratio

fc = A • ωo + B (2.4)

with fc = compressive strength of concrete [MPa]

A, B = empirical constants to be determined from concrete tests

But also other non-linear approaches (e.g. Abrams’s law) could be used [Wes84], [Bij03].
Comparison of the different approaches shows that there might be slight differences in the
calculated k-values, but the level of the results is similar. The variances in the measured
compressive strength results have a much higher impact on the calculated values [Vis98].

When a functional relationship between water/cement ratio and compressive strength based
on test results has been determined for reference concretes without addition and concretes
with a defined addition/cement ratio respectively both equations are set to be equal

fc (reference) = fc (addition) (2.5)

This follows the principle that the parameter k has to be determined on the basis of equal
strength. Now using formula 2.3 and necessary arithmetic transformations, k can be
determined. In this way of calculation, k will not be a single value but being a parameter in
functional dependence of the water/cement ratio of the reference concretes.

From the principle point of view, k-values indicating the efficiency of concrete additions
could also be calculated for other concrete properties than strength. But in most cases the
variance of the tests results (especially with regard to parameters indicating durability) is
significantly higher compared to compressive strength. Therefore the correlation of these
parameters to the water/cement ratio is less strong and the reliability in deriving k-values has
to be called into question. Therefore it is common approach to determine the k-value of an
addition based on strength results at an age of 28 days. Concretes with a composition using
that k-value than have to be produced and must fulfil the necessary durability requirements.
This procedure has been developed in the 1990s for the determination of k-values for fly ash
[Sch93]. The results based on that investigation formed the basis for the rules for fly ash
included in EN 206-1.
192 HÄRDTL: The k-Value Concept for GGBFS – Principles and Experiences

3 INVESTIGATIONS ON THE K-VALUE OF GGBFS

3.1 Approach of the study

So far no systematic investigation on the k-value of ggbfs has been published. For a
comprehensive evaluation of k-value results of concrete tests are necessary which include
data sets of concrete compressive strength test with a systematic variation of the cement
(cement + addition) content, the slag content and the water/(cement + addition) ratio. To
indicate the real efficiency of the addition, parameters like cement type, aggregates, curing,
etc. should be held constant. Four different and completely independent studies were selected
which fulfilled these requirements.

In each of the studies Portland cement CEM I and ggbfs from different sources have been
used. According to the available data all ggbfs samples fulfilled the requirements of the
European standard EN 15167- 1 “Ground granulated blast furnace slag for use in concrete,
mortar and grout”. Today it is still difficult to describe the quality and performance of ggbfs
by a single parameter. As criterion for the physical properties of ggbfs the fineness expressed
by the Blaine surface is used. There are several approaches to indicate the chemical
performance of slag by basicity factors or hydraulic indices [Ehr08]. They all give only a
rough indication of slag effectiveness as a lot of other parameters are affecting the properties
of ggbfs. In this study the F-value according Keil [Kei54] was used which is described by

F = (CaO + Al2O3 + 0.5 MgO + 0.5 S-) / (SiO2 + MnO) (3.1)

The glass content of the ggbfs samples has not been measured, but all available information
indicates glass contents of 90 % and more. The activity index (strength relationship of mortar
containing 50 % ggbfs/50 % test cement and mortar with 100 % test cement) was only
available for some samples.

3.2 Influence of slag content

The principle of k-value calculation should be explained by an example using the
compressive strength data [Dun07] compiled in Table 3.1. Reference concretes had been
produced at three levels of cement content (475, 330, 255 kg/m³) and related water/cement
ratios (0.35, 0.50 and 0.60). In further concrete mixes 35, 55 or 75 % by mass of the cement
respectively had been replaced by the same weight of ggbfs. The used ggbfs had a fineness of
4500 cm²/g which is far higher than the minimum requirement of EN 15167-1 (2750 cm²/g).
The F-value of 1.58 also indicates a slag of good reactivity.

Table 3.1. Compressive strength data used for k-value calculation (data from [Dun07])
Ggbfs content (% of total binder)
w/(c+s) c+s
0% 35% 55% 75%
0.35 475 kg/m³ 70 70 55 49
0.50 330 kg/m³ 47.5 47 39 33.5
0.65 255 kg/m³ 33.5 32.5 27.5 24

In Fig. 3.1 the strength results are plotted vs. the water/(cement + ggbfs) ratio of the mixes
with different ggbfs content. The graphs confirm the good linear approximation of the
correlation between w/(c+s) and compressive strength. For a ggbfs content of 35 % by mass
International RILEM Conference on Material Science – MATSCI, Aachen 2010 – Vol. III, AdIPoC 193

the strength results are very similar to that of the reference concretes without slag. This
indicates a performance of the ggbfs similar to cement which, if expressed by a k-value,
should be close to 1.0. The resulting curves for ggbfs content of 55 % and 75 % by mass are
below that of the references concretes. That means at that stage of hydration after 28 days the
replacing ggbfs is not able to give the same strength contribution like the used cement. As
result calculated k-values below 1.0 are to be expected.

80
Concrete strength at 28 days [MPa]

70 Ggbfs content

0%
60 35%
55%
50
75%
40
fc,o = -121,7ωo + 111,2
fc,35 = -125,0ωs + 112,3
30
fc,55 = -91,7ωs + 86,3

20 fc,75 = -83,3ωs + 77,2

Slag quality
10 Fineness 4500 cm²/g
F-value 1.58
0
0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80
water / (cement + slag) ratio

Fig. 3.1. Determined relationship of water/cementitious ratio and concrete compressive strength
(data from [Dun07])

The calculated k-values for this set of concrete data are plotted in Fig. 3.2 vs. the
water/cement-ratio of the reference concretes. Is has to be noted that only those k-values are
shown which are in the range of water/cement ratios where an overlapping of strength results
between ggbfs containing concretes and reference concretes occurs. Only this range is
covered by the strength test results and the linear approximation of them.

1,2

Ggbfs content
1,0
35%
k-value at 28 days

0,8 55%
75%
0,6

0,4

0,2 Slag quality

Fineness 4500 cm²/g
F-value 1.58
0,0
0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80
ωo (water/cement reference concrete)

Fig. 3.2. Calculated k-values dependent on the ggbfs content in concrete (data from [Dun07])

As already expected from Fig. 3.1, the calculated k-values for the mixes with a ggbfs content
of 35 % by mass are very close to 1.0. There is no significant influence of the water/cement
194 HÄRDTL: The k-Value Concept for GGBFS – Principles and Experiences

ratio. For higher contents of ggbfs the investigated source of slag does not show the same
reactivity and strength performance as the cement it is replacing. Thus the calculated k-values
are in the range between 0.6 and 0.8. In tendency, the k-values are decreasing with increasing
ggbfs content. As additional effect, the k-values are decreasing with decreasing water/cement
ratio.

These results are confirmed by the evaluation of other data sets (Fig. 3.3a and 3.3b). In the first
data set (Fig 3.3a) concretes with cementitious binder contents of 250, 350, 400, and 450 kg/m³
were investigated in a range of water/cementitious binder ratios of 0.40 to 0.74 [C&M08].
The used ggbfs had a fineness of 5030 cm²/g of Blaine surface and an F-value of 1.59. The
ggbfs content was 50 % and 70 % by mass. In another data set (Fig 3.3b) concretes with
cementitious binder content of 250, 300, 350, 400, and 450 kg/m³ were investigated in a range
of water/cementitious binder ratios of 0.41 to 0.72 [RMC83]. The used ggbfs with a fineness
of 3470 cm²/g of Blaine surface was coarser than in the examples presented before whereas
the F-value of 1.58 did not differ much. The ggbfs content was 40 %, 50 % and 70 % by
mass. In both cases a decreasing tendency of the k-value was determined with increasing
ggbfs content and a decreasing water-cement ratio.

1,0 1,0
Ggbfs content

50% 0,8 Ggbfs content

0,8
40%
k-value at 28 days

70%
k-value at 28 days

50%
0,6 0,6 70%

0,4 0,4

0,2 Slag quality 0,2 Slag quality

Fineness 5030 cm²/g
Fineness 3470 cm²/g
F-value 1.58
F-value 1.59
0,0 0,0
0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80
ωo (water/cement reference concrete) ωo (water/cement reference concrete)

Fig 3.3a Calculated k-values dependent on the Fig 3.3b Calculated k-values dependent on the
ggbfs content (data from [C&M08]) ggbfs content (data from [RMC83])

3.3 Influence of cement

In the cases before, ggbfs sources had been used which - according to existing experiences
and standard requirements - would be categorized in the range of medium to high quality. In
another data set [VDZ07] ggbfs was used which had been ground to a specific Blaine surface
of 3100 cm²/g which is not far from the minimum requirement of EN 15167-1 (2750 cm²/g).
The hydraulic reactivity is low indicated by an F-value of 1.34 and confirmed by practical
experiences as the slag from that source is used for cement production already for a long time.
The concretes produced with this slag had a cementitious binder content of 300 to 320 kg/m³
with water/binder ratios of 0.47 to 0.60.

In that investigation program ggbfs was combined with two different cements: CEM I 32.5 R
and CEM I 42.5 R. The cements were produced in the same cement plant; thus the chemical
composition of the Portland cement clinker was similar, the main difference was the fineness
the cements were ground to (CEM I 32.5 R: 3120 cm²/g and CEM I 42.5 R: 4110 cm²/g).
International RILEM Conference on Material Science – MATSCI, Aachen 2010 – Vol. III, AdIPoC 195

1,0

0,8 Cement

CEM I 32.5 R

k-value at 28 days
CEM I 42.5 R
0,6

0,4

0,2 Slag quality

Fineness 3100 cm²/g
F-value 1.34 Ggbfs content 30%
0,0
0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80
ωo (water/cement reference concrete)

Fig. 3.4. Influence of cement type on calculated k-values (data from [VDZ07])

Fig. 3.4 shows the determined k-value calculation for these concretes for a ggbfs content of
30 % by mass. Although the cements were only differing in their fineness, the difference in
the slag performance expressed by the calculated k-values is significant. Despite a lower level
of absolute strength the k-value of ggbfs in the concretes with CEM I 32.5 R is nearly 0.2
higher than in the concretes with CEM I 42.5 R. As there are only very limited differences in
the chemistry of the cement-ggbfs system, it seems to be quite obvious that the reasons of this
effect are related to mechano-physical changes in the structure formation of the concrete.
Nevertheless, there is no clear explanation of the monitored behaviour. But it confirms the
practical experiences that demonstrate the high sensitivity of the slag reaction in its very
complex interaction with the cement. So far there is no clear and systematic indication which
cement properties are the relevant parameters influencing the performance of ggbfs.

3.4 Influence of ggbfs fineness

It is well known that the fineness of ggbfs is one of the most important parameters influencing
the reactivity of the material. With higher fineness, a higher particle surface area is created
which is accessible for chemical reactions. Thus a higher degree of ggbfs reactivity is
achieved which results in additional structure formation and strength contribution. Concrete
strength results are available from an investigation [RMC83] in which a slag (F-value: 1.59)
has been ground to ggbfs of different specific surfaces (3470, 3800, 4370, and 4670 cm²/g).
The concretes were produced with cementitious binder contents of 250, 300, 350, 400, and
450 kg/m³ and the water/(cement + addition) ratios were in a range of 0.41 to 0.72.

Fig. 3.5 shows the calculated k-values for the concretes where 50 % by mass of Portland
cement was replaced by ggbfs of the different finenesses. As expected, with increasing
fineness of ggbfs higher k-values are calculated. For the investigated slag/cement combination
a rise of fineness by 1300 cm²/g specific Blaine surface results in an improvement of the k-
value by about 0.20 to 0.25. The overlapping of the curves for the ggbfs sample of 3800 and
4370 cm²/g in the range of lower water/cement ratios can be attributed to variations in the
strength measurement. As recognized in the examples discussed before, the k-values are
declining at lower water/cement ratio.
196 HÄRDTL: The k-Value Concept for GGBFS – Principles and Experiences

1,2

Ggbfs fineness
1,0
3470
3800

k-value at 28 days
0,8 4370
4670

0,6

0,4

0,2
Slag quality
F-value 1.59 Ggbfs content 50%
0,0
0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70 0,80
ωo (water/cement reference concrete)

Fig. 3.5. Influence of ggbfs fineness on calculated k-values (data from [RMC83])

Based on all results taken from the studied data sets it was investigated if there is any general
relationship between the fineness of ggbfs and the k-value. Therefore the k-values calculated
for all mixes containing 50 % by mass ggbfs at a water/cement ratio of the reference concretes
of 0.60 were plotted vs. the specific surface of the individual ggbfs samples (Fig. 3.6).

1,2
k-value at 28 days (w/c = 0.60)

1,0

0,8

0,6
F-value
1,35
0,4 1,58
1,58
0,2 1,59
Ggbfs content 50% 1,63

0,0
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Specific surface Blaine [cm²/g]

Fig. 3.6. Relationship between ggbfs fineness and calculated k-values (results from all studied data
sets)

A general tendency of an increase of the calculated k-values with increasing fineness of ggbfs
can be observed. However, the scatter of the data points is wide which indicates additional
influencing parameters of high relevance. In Fig. 3.6 the data points were marked with the F-
value of the respective ggbfs sample. This parameter characterises the chemical composition
relevant for the hydraulic reactivity of ggbfs. But the figure does not give any evidence of a
significant influence of that parameter on the calculated k-value. In contrast, the influence of
the used Portland cements is of much higher importance. As already shown in the chapter
before, the characteristics of the cement are superposing slag specific parameters in the
strength formation of concrete. However the available data did not allow a more in-depth
investigation of these interactions between cement and ggbfs.
International RILEM Conference on Material Science – MATSCI, Aachen 2010 – Vol. III, AdIPoC 197

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

For the evaluation of k-values for ggbfs independent investigations were used in which the
compressive strength performance of concretes containing ggbfs from different sources had
been tested. None of these studies was originally planned to be applied for k-value
investigations. Nevertheless the results of the investigated data sets showed the same
principles and tendencies in the development of the k-value for ggbfs. Thus the k-value
calculation concept could be applied to ggbfs without any major problems.

The evaluation showed that the size of the k-value can vary over a wide range. As only a
limited number of cement/ggbfs combinations has been investigated in this study, the real
range would be much wider taking into consideration the huge number of possible
combinations with all kinds of ggbfs fulfilling the requirements of EN 15167-1.

With higher slag content in a mix of cement and ggbfs the amount of reacted slag is
increasing but the weight-specific degree of slag reaction is decreasing. This well-known
effect is also reflected by k-value evaluation. The k-values for ggbfs are decreasing with
increasing slag content replacing cement in the concrete mix. The same effect has been also
observed for other additions like fly ash [Sch93].

With decreasing water/cement ratio of the concrete the calculated k-values are decreasing.
This effect was detected in the evaluation of all data sets. This general tendency is more
pronounced the higher the ggbfs content. The reason is that in the lower range of
water/cement ratios (i.e. at higher strength level) the difference in the absolute strength
between reference concretes and concretes with ggbfs is higher than in mixes with higher
water/cement ratio (see Fig. 3.1). In concretes containing fly ash as concrete addition the
contrary effect was determined [Sch93]. Up to now there are no clear indications to explain
the background of this different behaviour.

The contribution of ggbfs to the strength development depends on its physical, chemical and
mineralogical properties. Despite granulated blast furnace slag is used in cement and concrete
already for long time, the slag performance cannot be predicted satisfactorily by a single
parameter. Accordingly, it was not possible within this study to identify a significant
correlation of calculated k-values to any parameter characterising ggbfs properties. For the
fineness, tendencies were visible, but the effect was superposed by other parameters.

The interaction of ggbfs with the individual cement it is combined with is one of the most
important parameters. The used cement has a very strong influence on the performance of
ggbfs indicated by the k-value. But there are still no generally accepted relationships and
sometimes contradictory experiences in which way clinker and cement properties are
influencing the reaction of ggbfs and its contribution to concrete performance [Ehr08]. The
high influence of cement is also the reason limiting the suitability of the activity index
(described in EN 15167-1) as a parameter to indicate the reactivity and performance of ggbfs
in concrete. The test result is strongly influenced by the used test cement. Depending on the
selection of the test cement (even within the limits of the standard), the size of the activity
index could be manipulated.

The results of this study explain the problem to elaborate general valid correlations between
any parameter describing the properties of ggbfs and the k-value. Only within very restricted
boundaries some relationships are apparent (e.g. for fineness). Thus the efficiency of ggbfs
expressed by k-values varies over a wide range. In a prescriptive concrete design concept like
the k-value approach, limits for k have to be defined which allow the general applicability of
198 HÄRDTL: The k-Value Concept for GGBFS – Principles and Experiences

the concept without further specific approval procedure. Thus the k-value defined within a
standard must be orientated to ggbfs and cement/ggbfs combinations in the lower range of
performance possible within the given framework. Consequently, a k-value defined in the
prescriptive approach must be rather conservative to have a concept on the safe side.

By using a conservative k-value based on lower limits of ggbfs properties and other
boundaries there are indeed cement/ggbfs combinations which show significantly higher
performance in concrete. This effect is in the nature of a reliable prescriptive concept. On one
side higher safety margins are resulting. But on the other side uneconomic solutions could be
the consequence. Therefore as an alternative a performance orientated concrete design
concept could be applied. Here the real performance of a cement/ggbfs combination could be
tested and proven by regulated procedures taking into account the individual quality of a
ggbfs source.

REFERENCES

[Bij03] Bijen, J.M.J.M.; Selst van, R.: Cement Equivalence Factors for Fly Ash. - Cement and
Concrete Research 23 (1993), Vol. 5, pp 1029-1039
[C&M08] Civil&Marine: Monthly routine concrete tests, Data for samples of August 2008. Internal
report
[Dun07] Concrete Technology Unit, University of Dundee, Prof. R. Dhir: R&D project
“Innovative Cement Combinations for Concrete Performance”, Document CC/31
“PC/GGBS Concretes”, Dundee, 2007
[Ehr08] Ehrenberg, A.; et al.: Granulated blast furnace slag: reaction potential and production of
optimized cement. – Cement International 6 (2008), Vol. 2, pp 90-96, Vol. 3, pp 82-92
[Keil54] Keil, F.: Slag Cements. – Proceedings 3rd Int. Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement
1952. Cement & Concrete Association, London, 1954, pp 530-571
[RMC83] Ready Mixed Concrete (Eastern Counties) Ltd. (former Ready Mix Group, today
Cemex), Internal test program, 1983
[Sch93] Schießl, P.; Härdtl, R.: Fly Ash in Concrete – Investigations on Performance and
Efficiency. – Beton 43 (1993), Vol. 11, pp 576-580, Vol. 12, pp 644-648 (in German)
[Smi67] Smith, I.A.: The Design of Fly Ash Concrete. - Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers,
London, 1967, Vol. 36, pp 769-790
[VDZ07] Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (VDZ): Effciency of GGBS in Concrete, Internal test
program, Düsseldorf 2007
[Vis98] Vissers, J.L.J.: K-value determination for type II additions – Background and
recommendations”, KEMA report 99-6597, Arnheim/NL, 1998, 26 pp
[Wes84] Wesche, K.; Schubert, P.; Weber, J.W.: On the strength and durability of concrete with
the addition of fly. - Betonwerk und Fertigteil-Technik 50 (1984), Vol. 6, pp 367-374 (in
German)