Optical Telescopes

 Optical Telescopes -- The purpose of a telescope is to collect light and then to have the image magnified.
The larger the telescope's main light-collecting element, whether lens or mirror, the more light is
collected. It is the total amount of light collected that ultimately determines the level of detail. All optical
telescopes fall into one of three classes (see Figure 01). In the refracting telescope, light is collected by a
2-element objective lens and brought to a focal plane. By contrast the reflecting telescope uses a concave
mirror for this purpose. The mirror-lens, or catadioptric, telescope employes a combination of both
mirrors and lenses, resulting in a shorter, more portable optical tube assembly. All telescopes use an
eyepiece (located behind the focal plane) to magnify the image formed by the primary optical system.
Other instruments can be placed in the focal plane for various purposes, e.g., a photo-electric cell to
measure the luminosity, the slit of a spectrograph to analyse the light, or a thermo-couple to measure
temperature. The advantage of reflecting telescope is that it has no chromatic aberration. Moreover,
mirrors can be manufactured to much larger dimensions than lenses. Reflectors can also be made from a
great variety of materials, because all that matters is the reflecting surface, whereas lenses have to be
made from special types of glass. However, it has the problem of "spherical aberration" - light from
different parts of the spherical surface do not focus at the same point. The problem persisted until 1721
when technique developed to grind

non-spherical mirror. Refractor has it own problem of chromatic

aberration causing color fringes around the image. The problem
was resolved with doublet lens in 1729, and triplet objective in
1765. Large lens has other problems with imperfections, such as
bubbles and streaks, it also sage in the middle and distort the
received image - creating a limit on the maximum size of about 5
meters for the refractor.

Radio Telescopes

Radio Telescopes -- It is an instrument for collecting radio waves from celestial objects.
The radiation is reflected from a parabolic dish to an aerial (dipole), situated at the focal
point, from which the signals are led to a radio receiver. Because the wavelength of radio
waves is very large (from 0.3 mm to 30 cm), a radio telescope with an aperture
comparable to the optical telescope would have a very poor resolution according to Eq.
(2). A considerable increase in resolution can be obtained by using the technique known
as interferometry (or VLBI for the very large scale by using hundreds of radio dishes
and/or intercontinental links). The method involves linking the antennas together
resulting in an effective diameter equal to the largest separation (baseline) between the
individual antennas. Such method also effectively increases the collecting area of the
receiving antenna thus increasing the sensitivity. Figure 03 shows a two dishes
implementation which records the signals with magnetic tapes (or hard disks or via optical
fiber). The arrival time of the signals (and hence the time difference) are kept in another
tape on the same device. Then they are brought together to a processing center to produce an image (in false
colors).

Infrared Telescopes

 Infrared Telescopes -- Infrared radiation (wavelength between 1 and 1000 mm) from space is mostly
absorbed by the atmosphere (see Figure 04): so the largest infrared
telescopes are built on the tops of high mountains, installed on special high
flying aircraft or balloons, or better yet on satellites orbiting the earth.
However, atmospheric absorption is not the only obstacle to analyse this
type of radiation on earth: the main problem, which also occurs in space, is
to distinguish the signal collected from the "background noise", i.e., from
the enormous infrared emissions of the Earth or of the instruments
themselves, since object which is not at absolute zero, emits infrared
radiation. So everything around the instruments (including the telescope)
produces "backround noise". Therefore, special photographic film is used to
produce a "thermograph" of a celestial body, and the instruments must be
cooled continuously by immersion in liquid nitrogen or helium (Figure 05).

Eyepiece Filters

Several different types of filters are available for use with telescope eyepieces.
These filters generally work by blocking wavelengths of light that may be
interfering with the object you are trying to view. Light pollution filters work by
blocking the scattered light from mercury vapor lights and other terrestrial light
sources. Colored filters can both block unwanted wavelengths of light and
enhance details in an object. For example, observing the planet Mars through a
red filter will increase the contrast of the image and make surface details easier
to see. A yellow or blue filter will make the Martian polar ice caps more visible. Observing the planet Jupiter
through a yellow, blue, or green filter will enhance the details in the cloud bands and make the famous red spot
easier to see. These filters are not very expensive. You may want to consider investing in a set of 4 to 6 assorted
color filters when your budget can handle it. If you do your observing from areas that are plagued by light
pollution, you may want to get yourself a good light pollution filter as well.

Solar Filters

Solar filters are specially designed to allow safe viewing of the Sun. They are
typically available in two different styles. The first style is the eyepiece filter.
These filters fit directly onto the eyepiece and are typically included with some
low-priced telescopes. Because of the intense amount of heat that can build up
at the point of focus, these filters are considered to be quite unsafe. They can
crack, allowing a sudden rush of light and searing heat into the eye. Eyepiece
solar filters should be avoided at all cost! The second style of solar filter is
known as the full-aperture filter. These filters fit directly over the aperture of
the telescope. Since they block the light at the point where the light initially enters the telescope, they are much
safer if used correctly. Full-aperture filters are available in two types. The first type is the optical glass filter. These
filters are made from darkened glass that blocks almost all of the light from the Sun. The image rendered by these
filters is generally very good. They deliver a natural yellow-orange look to the Sun and provide a comfortable and
safe viewing experience. These filters can become quite expensive, however. For large apertures of 6 inches or
more, the cost of the filter can easily exceed a hundred dollars. The second type of full-aperture solar filter is the
mylar filter. As the name implies, mylar filters are made of reflective sheets of mylar. The advantage of these filters
is their low cost. Mylar filters can be obtained for about one third the cost of their optical glass cousins. The
disadvantage of mylar filters is that they render an unnatural blue or green image to the Sun. If you are planning
on observing and photographing the Sun, purchase the best filter your budget can afford.

Telescope Eyepieces

The eyepiece is the part of the telescope that focuses the image to your eye.
Eyepieces can also be used to magnify the image up to several hundred times.
However, it is important to remember that as you magnify an image, you will
lose sharpness, detail, and brightness. Beginners are always tempted to
magnify that image of Jupiter or Saturn until it is a large as possible in the field
of view. The more experienced observer learns that there is often more detail
to be seen in a smaller, brighter image. Magnifying the image also reduces your
field of view, basically the area you can see through the eyepiece. When
observing large objects such as nebulae or star clusters, a wide field of view is
needed. Special wide field eyepieces are also available. These eyepieces can provide a nice, bright image full of
details on large objects. Eyepieces are labeled by their focal length, in millimeters. Typical sizes are 25mm, 17mm,
10mm, and so on. To determine the magnification of an eyepiece you simply divide the focal length of the
telescope by that of the eyepiece. For example, if the focal length of your telescope were 1000mm, then a 25mm
eyepiece would give you a magnification of 40 times. The smaller the focal length rating of the eyepiece, the higher
the magnification. Again, it is recommended that beginners start out with a few low-power eyepieces at first.
Many people are disappointed at how bad the image actually looks with at high magnifications. Low-power
eyepieces also make objects easier to find, due to their wider field of view. Work your way up to higher power
after you have a little experience under your belt. A low-cost device useful for gaining additional magnification is
the barlow lens. This is a long tube with a lens in it that extends the focal length of the eyepiece and increases the
magnification by a factor of 2 or 3. For example, a 2x barlow lens used with our 25mm eyepiece from the example
above will increase our magnification from 40x to 80x. The image quality is not quite as good as what you would
get with a 12.5mm eyepiece by itself. But adding a barlow lens is an affordable way to effectively double the
number of eyepieces in your collection.

Dobsonian Mount

The third type of telescope mount is known as the Dobsonian mount. This is
actually a version of the altazimuth mount typically used on camera tripods. It
was developed by John Dobson in the 1970s and was designed as a low-cost,
easy-to-use mount for large Newtonian telescopes. Dobsonian mounts are
generally constructed of wood and sit low to the ground. They are easy to
build, which makes them a favorite of the do-it-yourself telescope maker.
These mounts are ideal for large telescopes because they are strong and
sturdy. They can also be easily moved and adjusted from the eyepiece end
(front) of a large Newtonian reflector. The disadvantage of this mount is that
it is not possible to track objects as can be done with the equatorial and fork
mounts. This makes them unsatisfactory for astrophotography. Dobsonian
mounts are typically used by those who observe galaxies and other deep-sky objects with their large Newtonian
telescopes.
Equatorial Mount

The equatorial mount is the most common type of mount available with
today's telescopes. It is pretty much standard with both reflectors and
refractors. This mount consists of two perpendicular axes. One axis
rotates the telescope in Right Ascension (R.A.), and the other controls
Declination (Dec.). When the R.A. axis is aligned parallel to the Earth's
axis, objects can be tracked by adjusting slow motion controls that
move the mount on the R.A. axis. These mounts are available with
motors attached to the R.A. axis that enable automatic tracking of
objects in the sky. To accomplish this, the mount will rotate the
telescope in the opposite direction as the rotation of the Earth. This
allows an object to remain centered in the telescope for prolonged
periods of time. These mounts also contain coordinate markings called
setting circles. These coordinates enable objects to be located by their celestial coordinates using the
R.A. and Dec. setting circles.

Binoculars

If you are looking to get started with amateur astronomy, binoculars are the
ideal instruments for the beginner. Their low cost makes them affordable to
almost anyone. Binoculars are available in a variety of sizes and magnifications.
Because of their wide field of view, they are also a necessary and popular tool
for the experienced astronomer as well. Binocular sizes are expressed with two
numbers, such as 7x35 and 10x50. The first number is the power, or
magnification. A pair of 7x35 binoculars will magnify the image 7 times. The
second number represents the aperture size, or diameter of the objective
(front) lenses in millimeters. When selecting binoculars for astronomical
viewing, larger apertures are always better. Choose the largest aperture you
can afford and comfortably hold on to. Larger apertures will yield brighter images, but they will also be heavier. If
the binoculars are a bit too heavy to support for long periods, most can be mounted onto a camera tripod. Make
sure you get a pair with a tripod mount. As far as magnification goes, smaller is usually better, believe it or not.
Binoculars with high magnifications will be shakier when held in the hands. This can become annoying during an
evening of observing. Again, sturdy tripod will help to alleviate this problem. Some astronomy suppliers carry
devices that can help stabilize the binoculars by propping them up against your body. Lower magnification will also
provide a wider field of view. The best advice for choosing a pair of binoculars is to get what you feel comfortable
with. Remember you may want to use them for bird watching or camping as well.

Schmidt-Cassegrain

The Schmidt-Cassegrain is a relatively new design that manages to catch the

best of both worlds. It contains elements of both the reflector and the
refractor. This design uses two mirrors to bounce the light up and down the
tube and then through an opening in the back where the eyepiece is located.
The front of the tube contains a glass lens known as the corrector plate. Light
enters through the corrector plate where it strikes the primary mirror in the
back of the tube. It is then reflected to a small secondary mirror attached to
the front corrector plate. From there it is then reflected through a small hole in the back of the primary mirror.
Because the light path is essentially folded in half, the tube is much shorter than it would be in a reflector of the
same aperture size. Schmidt-Cassegrains have become increasingly popular with amateur astronomers because of
their small tube size to aperture ratio. With their motorized fork mounts, these telescopes are ideal for
astrophotography. They cost a little more than reflectors, but much less than a refractor of the same aperture size.
These telescopes are popular in 8 and 10-inch apertures, and can be found as large as 14 inches. Many of the
newer models have built-in computers that can locate objects by entering their coordinates onto a keypad. The
Schmidt-Cassegrain is a great all-around performer for both planetary and deep-sky observing.