CHAPTER - 22
Safety in Construction Industry
1 Scope of Safety in Construction Work
1.1 Basic Philosophy
1.2 Parameters of Safety in Construction
1.2.1 Studies, Statistics and Results
1.2.2 Site Planning and Layout
1.2.3 Safe Access
1.2.4 Safety Work Permit & Checklist
1.2.5 Good Housekeeping
2 Statutory Provisions
3 Indian Standards
4 Construction Machinery
4.1 Lifting Appliances and Gear
4.2 Transport, Earth-moving and
Material Handling Equipment
4.3 Plant Machinery, Equipment and
Hand Tools
5 Underground Works
5.1 Excavation
5.2 Drilling, Loading and Blasting
5.3 Shoring and Underpinning
5.4 Tunnelling and Shaft Sinking
6 Aboveground Works
6.1 Scaffolding, Ladders and Staircases
6.2 Structural Frames, Formwork and
Concrete Work
6.2.1 Erection and Dismantling of
Steel and Prefabricated
Structures
6.2.2 Cast-in-situ Concrete
Structures
1 SCOPE OF SAFETY IN
CONSTRUCTION WORK
1.1 Basic Philosophy :
Construction activity is not only an oldest
industry but also the largest one in many parts
of the world. It started with the basic human
need ‘shelter, home or dwelling house’ and is
ever expanding with the growing population
and their growing needs of residential and
commercial buildings, shops, offices, factories,
roads, bridges, dams, railways, power
1
THEME
6.2.3 Wall and Floor Openings
6.2.4 Formwork and Slipforms
6.3 Structural Steel Work and Erection
6.4 Welding and Cutting Operations
6.5 Lifting Machinery and Equipment
7 Underwater Works
7.1 General Provisions
7.2 Boats
7.3 Rescue and Emergency Procedures
7.4 Well-sinking
7.5 Cofferdam
7.6 Caissons
8 Demolition
8.1 Precautions Prior to Demolition
8.2 Precautions During Demolition
9 Movement of Materials and Men
10 Health and Welfare of Construction
Workers
10.1 Dust Hazards
10.2 Noise & Vibration
10.3 Heat and Humidity
10.4 Other Hazards
10.5 First-aid and Health Services
10.6 Welfare
10.7 Accident Reports and Records
10.8 Ergonomics
transmission lines, communication lines,
towers, columns, chimneys, silos, oil and gas
installations, air fields, hoists, lifts, many types
of underground, under-water and aboveground
works and works of excavation, foundation,
construction, alteration, renovation, repair,
maintenance, demolition, dismantling, erection,
fabrication etc.
After agriculture, construction seems to be
the second largest economic activity. If mining
and quarrying are considered as a part of or
inclusive of construction industry, it becomes
the largest of all industrial activities. Some
figures of the most advanced country, USA, are Table 22.1 makes it clear that the combined
as under : deaths and death rates of construction and
mining industries are more than even
Table : 22.1 Deaths & Death Rates, USA : agriculture. Decrease during last years indicates
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 that safety activities can certainly decrease the
DEATHS accidents. This proves the scope and importance of
Agricul- 779 842 814 723 710 safety in construction industry.
ture As per rough estimate about 2 lakh firms
Mining, 175 169 177 156 150 and more than 200 lakhs workers work in
Quarrying construction industry in India. Thus mostly it is
Constru- 889 895 1000 1043 1000 labour oriented and unorganised. Workers are
ction mobile, mostly illiterate and work on contract
Manufa- 707 698 734 638 610 basis. They work under sun and rain, cold and
cturing wind and dust and sand. Their working
Trans. & 767 753 819 822 750 conditions are mostly unsafe, hazardous and
Pub. Util. unhygienic. Their workload is heavy and
Trade 415 450 492 451 460 demands heavy muscular work. Their work
Services 601 631 676 655 610 and workplaces are not of permanent nature
Govt. 586 528 534 523 510 and therefore not governed by any law like the
DEATH RATES (per 1 lakh workers) Factories Act. The Building and other
Agricul- 24 27 24 21 21 Construction Workers Act 1996 and the Rules
ture 1998 have been passed and implemented in
Mining, 25 28 30 26 25 2006. The overall working conditions of
Quarrying majority of construction workers are, therefore
Constru- 15 15 16 16 15 miserable.
ction Basic philosophy to improve their working
Manufa- 4 4 4 4 3 conditions is the safety philosophy. It should be
cturing realised that construction is inherently
Trans. & 13 13 13 13 12 hazardous industry, , contract based industry,
Pub. Util. demands heavy work load, contributes high
Trade 2 2 2 2 2 frequency and severity of accidents, less
Services 2 2 2 2 1 protected by law, movable and needs
Govt. 3 3 3 3 3 continuous efforts to maintain safety at all
Source : Accident Facts, 1997, NSC, USA. levels. It may not be possible to completely
eliminate the hazards, but it is certainly
In our country reportability of construction possible to minimise them by enforcing certain
accidents is not known. But following figures safety precautions. The working and service
are reproduced below from Indian Labour conditions of the workers need to be improved.
Statistics, 1991-93. Peculiarity of accidents is well known. Falling
NIC Code 50 & 51 represents construction from height, struck by falling body including
and construction activities and all India fatal landslide, material and equipment, striking
accidents in this industry are as under : against object, falling on the flat or into pit,
sump, gutter etc., occupational diseases of
Year Fatal Accidents lung, skin, locomotors and nervous system,
1986 114 electrical and pneumatic tools, unguarded
1987 141 machinery, heavy vehicles and working
1988 100 without safety equipment are the major causes
of accidents. Mechanization can eliminate some
These figures are not reported for many manual work hazards. Work permit system,
years and from many States and many works. prompt supervision and first-aid, use of
Therefore this data is incomplete and personal protective equipment and proper
misleading.

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tools, training and education and project safety
committee are some of the remedial measures.
Safety philosophy for construction work
should be based on the following points:
1. Safety policy statement and strict adherence
to it.
2. Safety cannot be delegated. It is a line
function.
3. Safety is everybody’s responsibility.
4. It is an integral part of all project activities.
5. Good planning and advice, and discussion
with contractor and subcontractors are
essential at design or initial stage.
6. Safety ensures success with satisfaction.
7. Work permit system is desired for all
hazardous works.
8. All construction accidents should be
recorded, reported and investigated for the
purpose of safety and costing.
9. Standards, Codes and Statutory provisions
must be followed. Safety manuals should be
prepared for contractors, workers and
supervisors, and
10. Education, training and supervision for safe
work methods and use of safe tools and
equipment play an important role.
See Part 1 of Chapter-7 also.
1.2 Parameters of Safety in
Construction :
Peculiarities and parameters governing
safety in construction industry are, now,
discussed in the following paragraphs.
1.2.1 Studies, Statistics and Results :
Statistics and studies on construction
accidents are not much available as factory
accidents. This is mainly because of no
exclusive authority, late and poor
administration, non report-ability and no
complete compilation of such data.
In one study which lasted for 15 years,
Levitt (1987) highlighted the hidden costs of
construction accidents. He concluded that these
accident costs mostly exceeded the gross-profit
of most of the firms in construction industry.
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He also found that all managers who had good
safety records do three things :
1. Motivate their subordinates to attend to
safety.
2. Provide training for managers and workers
at all levels, and
3. Insist that work is carefully planned.
Champoux et. al. (1987) studied 357
accidents in construction industry and
identified the higher risk areas of work and
organisation as targets for prevention. High
risk tasks are crucial to ergonomist and all
those working for safety in construction.
National Institute of Training for Industrial
Engineering (NITIE), Bombay conducted a
study (1989) and after interviewing site
engineers, safety officers and labourers on site,
it was concluded that the reasons for health and
safety problems were -
1. The absence of safety rules and regulations.
2. The unorganised nature of work.
3. Almost total lack of any need for safety felt
by engineers and contractors and
4. Absence of trade unions for welfare and
health.
The main safety measures suggested were -
1. Compulsory use of safety helmets.
2. Use of safety belts for working at heights
greater than 1.5 m.
3. Provision of canvas around the scaffolding
to prevent falling objects from striking
people.
4. Good and tidy housekeeping.
5. Provision of proper tools and
6. Adequate training to new workers.
Occupational health diseases were studied
by Englund, Triebig, Duivenbooden and
Husmark (1987). Diseases of the skin,
locomotor, circulatory, respiratory and nervous
system were noticed amongst construction
workers. A few occupations handling asbestos,
showed respiratory cancer in plumbers and
insulators.
 Fatal occupational injuries in Construction, France 125 30
by type of event or exposure, in USA, 1995 are Germany 120 16
reported as under (Accident Facts, 1997) : Mauritius 70 15
Out of total 6210 fatal accidents in all Mexico 70 24
occupations in 1995, 1043 i.e. 16.79% fatal Spain 138 38
accidents took place in construction and Sweden 48 9
comparatively it is the highest in this industry. United States 70 25
Its causewise breakup is as under :
To compare with this, Accident Rates for
Fall to lower level 324 the year 1992 and 1993, given by Construction
Electric current 163 Wing of NPC (Nuclear Power Corporation,
Traffic accidents 117 India) are reported as 10.05 and 12.06
Struck by object 104 respectively. This indicates that our
Struck by vehicle, construction accidents are 5 to 14 times less
mobile equip. 079 than those of foreign (developed) countries.
Caught in or crushed in Similarly Fatality Rates for 1992 and 1993,
collapsing materials 052 given by the same NPC, India are 0.124 and
Caught in or compressed by 0.120 respectively and again these figures when
equipment or object 033 compared with ILO figures, indicate that fatal
Others 171 construction accidents in our country are 75 to
Total 1043 320 times less than those in western countries.
The reasons of this anomaly, as stated in
One study of construction accidents in our the article are as under :
country gives following figures.
1. Gross under-reporting of accidents by
Type of Temporary Permanent Permanent
Indian industry.
Accident Total Partial Total
Disable- Disable- Disable- 2. ILO figures include first aid injuries while
ment ment ment ours are reportable (48 hours absence)
% % % accidents.
Handling 24.3 20.9 5.6 3. ILO figures are old when safety efforts in
of western countries were poor.
Materials
Falls 18.1 16.2 15.9
Now some figures of recent construction
Falling 10.4 8.4 18.1
accidents in our country are given below.
object
Machines 11.9 25.0 9.1
Some 30000 workers were employed at one
Vehicles 8.5 8.4 23.0 place in Gujarat constructing various plants
Hand 8.1 7.8 1.1 during 1991 to 1997. The large civil construction
Tools and structural steelworks including fabrication
Electri- 3.5 2.5 13.4 and erection of buildings were carried out
city through competent contractors and sub-
Others 15.2 10.8 13.8 contractors. Safety Officers and safety
Total 100 100 100 supervisors were also employed exclusively for
contract workers. Record of all accidents,
Following figures were published in reportable or not reportable, was maintained,
Industrial Safety Chronicle, Oct-Dec, 1996, as ILO studied and used in further prevention of
data for Construction Sector : accidents. Its summary is as under :
From March 1994 to July 1997, total
Country Accident Rate Fatality Rate fatalities were 39. Its cause-wise percentage
per 1000 per 1000 break-up is as under :
workers workers
Austria 142 25 1 Struck by falling objects,

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 structures, plant, mobile
construction equipment etc. 37.5 %
2 Fall 32.5 %
3 Electrical 12.5 %
4 Traffic accidents 07.5 %
5 Others 10.0 %
Total 100 %
Comparing above figures with the same
causation figures of USA, UK, Germany,
Sweden, Japan and Canada (from Safety &
Health Journal of USA - 1994), it is deduced
that, all over the world, the first two major
causes of fatal accidents in construction activity
are :
(1) Fall from height and
(2) Struck by falling objects.
Therefore safety work to eliminate these
causes need first priority.
Statistics of nonfatal accidents of above
mentioned construction during 1995 to 1997,
gives following figures :
1. Types of Accidents - Fall from heights 15 to
22%, struck by falling objects 13 to 33%,
struck by others 21 to 38%, Electric shock 2
to 7%.
2. Agency / Activity - Material handling 27 to
41%, Work at height 14 to 21%,
Hand/Power tools 10 to 12%, Fabrication &
erection 12 to 13%.
3. Body parts injured - Hand, Fingers & arms -
22 to 35%, Head & scalp - 16 to 18%, Foot &
toe 12 to 15%, Leg & thigh 9 to 17%.
As a summary from various such records,
general classification of hazards at construction
can be drawn as under :
Hazards at Construction :
1. Fall of Persons – Fall from height, fall
through opening, collapse of scaffold,
structure failure , tripping.
Fall from height may be due to non-
use or failure of safety belt, lack of proper
access, non-use of proper ladder etc.
Fall through opening may be due to
unguarded opening or poor guarding.
5
Collapse of scaffold may be due to its
improper design, no toe board, no means
of access. Minimum dimensions are :
Board width 6”, thickness 1” and guard
rail height 30 to 36”.
Tripping may be due to loose
object/cables etc.
2. Fire : Due to welding, gas cutting,
smoking, gas cylinders, scattered wooden
material/ rubbish, paints/thinners,
temporary shed etc.
3. Electrocution : Electric shock, burns,
damaged cable, no earthing, no ELCB, no
use of 3 pin plug/socket, work by non-
qualified electrician etc.
4. Material Handling : No training, excessive
weight lifting, improper or failure of
lifting tackles, slings etc.
5. Transport Accidents : Untrained driver, not
obeying traffic rules, reversing without
signalling, over-speed, speed-breakers,
poor brakes, poor lighting etc.
6. PPE : Not using helmet, safety shoes, hand
gloves, safety belt, respirators etc.
7. Others : Noise, vibration, dust, gas, fumes,
cave in, night work, overtime, intoxication
etc.
This suggests the direction of accident
prevention work in construction activity.
1.2.2 Site Planning and Layout :
In construction activities, scope of site
selection is less though not zero. Mines are at
fixed places and cannot be shifted. Builders or
organisers generally purchase the site where
land is available at low price and where
contractors and workers have to work. In a
fixed factory premises, construction is to be
carried out in a limited space. In dense
population, construction of high rise (multi-
storeyed) building needs working at height.
Gutters and underground piping have fixed
tracks available. Underwater work has fixed
destinations and long pipelines are passed
through the shortest possible distance for
economic reasons. Therefore in a limited scope
of site selection, planning and layout becomes
most essential on the available site.
 Refer part 6 and 7 of Chapter 7 for
planning, layout and design.
First, plan for the whole and then for the
detail. Plan site layout, plot layout and
equipment layout as per requirement. Alternate
layouts should be prepared for selecting the
best one. Process flow diagram and stages or
sequence of work should be decided. Each work
should be subdivided in steps accounting for
safety precautions and responsibilities. and egress from all workplaces should be
Facilities for water, fire fighting, first-aid, tools provided, maintained and indicated where
and equipment availability, roads, vehicle
movement, parking, smoking booths, sanitary
blocks, crèche, canteen, control room, safe
entry, exit and escape route etc. should be
properly planned. Topography, geology,
weather, environment, separation distances,
service corridors, overhead work (pipe bridges,
tanks, slabs etc.), segregation etc. should also be
considered. Special precautions should be
encountered for working at heights or depths
(See Chapter 16).
Planning, layout and designing of steel
structure, tall towers, metal tanks, vessels,
reactors, utilities, piping etc. need Hazop,
hazard identification, risk and reliability
assessment, strength and stability criteria,
inventory reduction, process safety, fail-safe
design, emergency shut-down procedure and
emergency planning.
Appointment of safety and health
personnel, trained supervisors and requirement
of adequate first-aid and fire fighting facilities
and personal protective equipment should be
1.2.4 Safety Work Permit & Checklist : A format of such permit is given as Table 22.2 .
considered at the stage of planning and
budgeting for safety at work.
1.2.3 Safe Access :
For the safety of workplaces and avoiding
risk of injury to workers, safe means of access to
necessary.
Section 32 of the Factories Act requires that
all floors, steps, stairs, passages and gangways
shall be of sound construction and properly
maintained and shall be kept free from
obstructions and substances likely to cause
persons to slip and where it is necessary to
ensure safety, steps, stairs, passages and
gangways shall be provided with substantial
handrails. Safe means of access are required at
all working places. To prevent fall, fencing or
other devices are required.
Rule 66A of the Gujarat Factories Rules
specifies access for fire fighting and requires
unobstructed layout of plants and building and
doors and windows on external walls for easy
access inside the building.
Means of access may be a ladder-portable
or fixed, ramp, runway or stairway. They
should conform to the code or standards
prescribed.

Table 22.2 : Safety work permit (swp), at construction site

Date : SWP NO. :
-------------------
SWP Requested by / Issued to : Project / Location of SWP issue SWP Expiry
Section the work to be Date & Time Date & Time
done
Name of the Designation Company
person

Description/Nature of Equipment/tools to be Probable Hazards

the work used Tick  Tick 
 Cranes  Fall of persons from height  Suspended load
 Chain pulley blocks  Falling objects/ overhead  Failure of slings/tackles
work
 Slings & other lifting  Fall below ground level  Toxic dust/fumes
tackles

6
  Electrical equipment  Electrical shock  Fire
 Power hand tools  Moving machinery  Poor illumination
 Others (Write)  Ionising Radiation  Other causes (Write)
  Eye injury (flying 
objects/arc)
  
Following safety measures/precautions Following safety measures/ Remarks/special
are necessary and have been precautions to be taken/ensured instructions, if any by issuing
taken/ensured. during execution of the job. authority (pl. specify)
Tick  Tick 
 Proper means of access (Ladders etc.)  All workmen use safety helmet. viz., display of warning signs
 Proper scaffolding/work platform with  Workmen use safety belt & to warn against overhead
hand rails anchored properly. hazards, etc.
 Static (Rope) lines  Use of safety goggles and safety
shoes by the workmen.
 Safety net  Safety belt  Provision of shoring/bracing in
deep excavation.
 The crane is in good working condition.  Guards on moving machines are in
place.
 The crane operator is competent & has  Static lines are provided and used
licence. by the workmen at height.
 Electrical equipment provided with  Cordoning off deep excavations/
proper earthing. hazardous area with warning
signs.
 Power supply to hand tools thro’ ELCB.  Hand lamps (24V) to be used with
safety guards.
 Hazardous area barricated/protected.  Power supply to lighting through
ELCB.
 Condition/capacity of lifting tackles  Specific work procedure
ensured. adhered/Tool box talk given.
 Specific work procedures is  Workers possess the required
necessary/available. skills.
 Area below hazardous overhead  Others (Write)
activity cordoned off.
Signature of the permittee: Signature of the site engineer/Permit issuing authority:
Signature of the site engineer: Name & designation

A checklist for construction safety is given as Table 22.3.

Table 22.3 Construction Safety Checklist

Name and address of the Construction Company ___________________ Working at_______________

Audited by ______________________ Audit date ____________

No. Check Points Comments

1. Helmets used by all.
2. Safety belts used by all during work, if height is more than 2 meters.
3. Static lines are provided to facilitate hooking of safety belts.
4. Safety nets are provided where scaffolds not feasible.
5. Scaffolds are in good condition, ladders are used.
6. Hand tools are of standard type and maintained properly.
7. Power tools are in good condition and supply through ELCB.
8. Grinding machines are with guards.
9. Welding machine and cables are in good condition.

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10. Gas cylinder of cutting sets are protected from spark.
11. Hose of cutting sets, pressure regulators and pressure gauges are in
good working condition – leak free.
12. Good insulation, earthing and ELCB are maintained in electrical
installations.
13. Cranes are in good working condition.
14. Lifting tackles are in good working condition.
15. Crane is operated by competent operator.
16. Standard signalling and rigging practices are followed.
17. Area where heavy erection is done is barricaded.
18. Area where load is lifted or suspended by crane is barricaded.
19. Fire hazards are taken care of combustibles removed from site of hot
work.
20. Fire extinguishers are provided.
21. Floor openings are protected/covered/guarded.
22. Procedure for critical job is available and followed.
23. Persons employed on job possesses required skills.
24. Vessel entry permits are taken for confined space entry.
25. Safety permits are taken to work at height.

Signature of Auditors ___________________________

1.2.5 Good Housekeeping : 9. At least at the beginning and end of a shift,

See Chapter-8 for details.
Good housekeeping programme should
include -
1. Speedy removal of scrap, waste, debris,
loose and unused materials at regular
intervals.
2. Proper storage of materials, tools and
equipment. Removal of nails from lumber
before stacking.
3. Cleaning of floors, passageways, stairs etc.
to remove oil, water, dust etc. Sand, ash,
sawdust and proper absorbers can be used.
4. Containers should be provided for
collection and separation of waste.
Flammable/ hazardous waste should be
covered and safely disposed off.
5. After completion of any job, excessive
materials, tools and equipment should be
lifted and placed in their proper place.
6. Piles of materials should be stable and
properly supported.
7. Throwing of material should be avoided. If
it is to be thrown, warning signals should be
given.
8. Proper painting and colour-coding should
be followed.
supervisors should take round to check
above points.
2 STATUTORY PROVISIONS
See Part 2.49 of Chapter-28 for the Building
and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of
Employment and Conditions of Service) Act,
1996 came into force from 1-3-1996, and Part
2.50 for Central Rules, 1998 under this Act.
These rules came into force from 19-11-1998.
Out of 252 rules, 200 are pertaining to safety &
health of construction workers and prescribe
much detail. Henceforth it will be referred as
‘BOC Workers Rules 1998’ for brevity’s sake.
The above rules prescribe for safety
committees (for workers 500 or more), Safety
Officer (for workers 500 or more), reporting of
accidents, medical examination of building
workers, occupational health centre,
construction medical officer, ambulance room,
ambulance van, stretchers, occupational health
services, notice of poisoning or occupational
diseases, first-aid boxes, emergency care
services, provisions for working hours, rest
interval, spread over, weekly holidays, notices

8
and registers, latrine and urinal, canteen for
workers>250 and payment of wages.
Its Chapter-VI, rules 34 to 54 prescribe for
excessive noise, vibration, fire protection, on-
site emergency plan (for workers>500), fencing
of motors etc., excessive weight, health and
safety policy, overhead protection, dust, gases
and fumes, eye and head protection, electrical
hazards, vehicular traffic, structural stability,
stacking of materials, disposal of debris, use of
safety helmets and shoes etc.
The other provisions are regarding
registration, responsibilities and duties, lifting
appliances and gear, runways and ramps, work
on or adjacent to water, transport and earth
moving equipment, concrete work, demolition,
excavation and tunnelling works, steep roof,
ladders, catch platform, safety belts and nets,
structural frame and frame work, stacking and
un-stacking, scaffold, cofferdams and caissons,
explosives, piling and powers of Director
General and Inspectors.
See Part 2 of Chapter-7 for provisions
under the Factories Act and Rules. Some
provisions regarding construction of a factory,
plant layout, lighting, ventilation, safety aspect
and preparation of plans stated therein are
useful for general construction work also.
3 INDIAN STANDARDS
The Indian Standards on Construction are
most useful and must be followed. Some of
them are mentioned below :
Safety in excavation 3764, scaffolds and
ladders 3696 (Part 1 & 2), 4014 (Part 1 & 2), code
of practice for design and construction of pile
foundations 2911 (Part 1 to 4), blasting and
drilling 4081, underground blasts 6922,
demolition of buildings 4130, tunnelling work
4756, piling and deep foundations 5121,
structural steel work 7205, concrete framed
structures 8989, cement manufacture 12770,
construction machinery 7293, handling and
storage of building materials 7969, additional
construction and alteration to existing buildings
13430, hazards prevention 13416 (Part 1 falling
material hazards, Part 2 fall prevention),
working in compressed air 4138, floor and wall
openings, railing and toe boards 4912, wooden
flush door shutters 2191 (Part 1 & 2), use of hot
9
bituminous materials 5916, fibre rope slings
9944, dress divers 10291, river valley projects
10366 (Parts 1 to 10), sewerage system 11972,
protective barriers in and around building
13415, reservoirs, guidelines for operation 7323,
shallow foundation 1904, masonry walls 1905,
loading standards 875, underground air raid
shelter 5499, bucket elevators 7167, conveyor
belting 6687, conveyor safety 7155, fire
resistance test of structures 3809, fire safety of
buildings (general), details of construction 1642,
fire safety of industrial buildings; cotton textile
mills 3079, fire safety of industrial buildings,
storage and warehousing 3594, noise reduction
in industrial building 3483.
Glossary of terms relating to corrosion of
metals 3531, design practice for corrosion
prevention of steel structures 9172, cathodic
protection of steel structures 8062 (Part 1 to 4),
fire precautions in welding and cutting 3016,
approval tests for welding procedures 7307.
See Chapters 7 (Table 7.1 & 7.2), 9, 10, 12,
15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25 and 26 for the
relevant Indian Standards pertaining to
construction, building, working at heights and
depths, material handling, tools, fire safety,
other hazards, PPE and first-aid.
See Parts 6 & 10 of Chapter-23 for other IS.
OSHA Safety and Health Standards for the
Construction Industry (29 CFR Part 1926) may
be referred for more interest.
4 CONSTRUCTION
MACHINERY
Construction machinery can be classified
into three categories as under -
1 Lifting Appliances and Gear :
Pulleys, chain pulley blocks, winches, hoists,
derricks, gin poles, cranes (fixed ad mobile),
lifting ropes, slings etc.
2 Transport, Earth-moving and Material
Handling Equipment :
Power shovels (excavators), bulldozers,
scrapers, pavers, road rollers, pile drivers,
mobile asphalt layers and finishers.
3 Plant machinery, Equipment and
Handtools :
Concrete mixers and vibrators, pneumatic
compressors, pneumatic tools, cartridge
 operated tools, electric tools, hand tools,
conveyors, crusher plants, power
generators, engines and silos.
Some salient safety features of these
machines/equipment are explained below :
4.1 Lifting Appliances and Gear :
Pulleys : Select the pulleys as per
requirement. Steel and nylon rope should not
be used together. Grooves should be uniform
and smooth and the rope (wire or fibre) should
run free. Sheaves, shafts, hooks and pins (with
locking) should be checked before use and
lubrication shall be provided where necessary.
Sheaves should rotate freely on the shaft. The
shaft should be free from any defect or crack.
Worn out shafts should not be used. Anchorage
should be firm and strong. Anti-twister should
be used to prevent rubbing of the ropes with
one another.
Chain Pulley Blocks : Refer Sec. 29 of the
Factories Act. Select the lifting capacity
depending on the maximum load to be lifted.
Verify its test certificate. Check for slipping of
load, jamming of links and free operation. The
chain should not come out of pulleys. It is
better to lubricate before every use. It should be
tested periodically by a competent person (see
Rule 60, and Form No. 10, GFR). The anchorage
should be strong and rigid. It should be
checked for cracks, wear and tear, elongation
etc. Opened out hooks and tampered
block/puller should not be used. No
cannibalising should be done on chain pulley
blocks.
See Chapter-VIII, Rule 55, 56, 74, Schedule-
I and Forms V to X of the BOC Workers Central
Rules, 1998, for statutory details. See
subsequent Part 6.5 and Part 2.50 of Chapter-28
for further details.
Winches : Safe working load with gear
arrangement should be marked on the winch
stand. A winch should be placed on a firm base,
properly anchored and should not be
overloaded. Brake, ratchet arrangement, gear
and pinion, meshing, wire rope and its
clamping, rope drum and tie rods should be
10
checked before every use. Tie rod should be
adjusted to prevent clutch arrangement to slip.
Ratchet arrangement should be kept in position
while hoisting a load.
See Rule 59 of the BOC Workers Central
Rules, 1998, for statutory details.
Hoists : Refer Sec. 28 of the Factories Act.
Design should be as per standard code.
Outdoor hoist towers should be erected on firm
foundation, securely braced, guyed and
anchored. Ladder way should extend from
bottom to top. Hoist shaft (way) should be
enclosed with rigid panels or fencing at all
landing platforms, access or where any person
is liable to be struck by any moving part. The
shaft enclosure, except at approaches, should be
of 2 mt (minimum 1 mt) height above the floor
or platform to prevent any person falling down
the hoist way. Hoisting engine or motor should
be capable of controlling the heaviest load.
When the cage or platform reaches its highest
point, it should be stopped automatically (no
overrun).
Hoist platform or cage should be capable
to carry the maximum load. It should have a
safety gear to hold it if the rope breaks. At the
ground floor coil springs should be provided to
arrest any accidental fall. Cage or platform
should have toe-boards or enclosures to
prevent fall of material inside. Counterweights
should run in guides. Interlock door should be
provided where any worker has to enter the
cage.
Notices of carrying capacity (weight/
persons) should be displayed.
Factory hoists/lifts should be thoroughly
examined by a competent person at least once
in 6 months with report in Form No. 9 (Rule 58,
GFR). See Rule 65 & 78, Form VI of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998 for more details.
Derricks : They are of two types : Stiff-leg
derricks and Guy derricks.
Stiff-leg derricks should be erected on a
firm base to withstand the weight of the crane
structure and the maximum load. Masts should
be prevented from lifting out of their seating.
The jib length should not be altered without
consulting the manufacturer. Counterweights
should be so arranged that they do not subject
the backstays, sleepers or pivots to excessive
strain. Electrically operated derricks should be
properly earthed.
In case of wheels-mounted derricks the
correct wheel distance should be maintained by
a rigid member and struts should be provided
to give support if a wheel brake fails or the
derrick is derailed.
The mast of guy derricks should be
supported by six equi-distance top guys and the
guy spread angle from the mast should be less
than 450 from the horizontal. The restraint of
the guy ropes should be ensured by fitting
stirrups or anchor plates in concrete
foundations. Guy ropes should have a device to
regulate tension. Pins and bearings should be
lubricated frequently. When not in use, the
derrick boom should be anchored to prevent it
from swinging.
The derrick should be tested by a
competent person and should not be
overloaded. The mast, guyropes, wire ropes,
swivel hook, rope clamps etc. should be
checked before erecting the derrick. Welded or
bolted joints/parts should be checked for crack,
defect and tightness.
See also Rules 67 & 68 of the BOC Workers
Rules, 1998.
Gin Poles : They should be straight, made
of sound metal or straight timber without
knots, of sufficient strength and adequately
guyed and anchored. They should be
adequately fastened at their feet to prevent
displacement. Before their re-erection, the pole,
ropes, guys, blocks etc. should be inspected and
tested under load.
Cranes (Fixed & Mobile) : Refer Sec. 29 of
the Factories Act and Rule 60, GFR.
The crane capacity should be ascertained
and brakes checked before lifting a load. Mobile
crane should be parked on hard soil and not
near any pit or excavation.
Safe working load of any crane depends on
(a) condition of the ground (b) boom length (c)
inclination of boom to the vertical (d) radius of
rotation while lifting the load (e) out rigger
blocked or free and (f) operator’s skill.
The safe working load should be displayed
in the crane. It should be derated (lowered) due
11
to defects in welding, bend in angle, bracing
and conditions of clutch, brake etc.
Devices should be provided to prevent
load being moved to a point where the
corresponding safe working load of the crane
would be exceeded.
Standard signalling code, understood by
the operator and trained signalman, should be
followed. See figure 22. The crane operator
shall respond to signals only from the
appointed signaller, but shall obey a stop signal
from anybody.
Tag lines should be used while hoisting
heavy and bulky load. The crane and its parts
(brakes, boom, hook, wire ropes, pulleys etc.)
should be checked regularly and maintained in
good condition.
The load should not touch the boom and
the boom should not touch any live electric line
or structure. Quality of packing should be
checked before lifting. Nobody should stand
below the boom or load. The operator should
be able to see the hook and the load, should
keep his wind shield clean for clear vision and
deck clean of any oil, mud or dust.
When the hooks are lowered to the lowest
point, at least two dead coils should remain on
the rope drum. Makeshift methods to increase
the capacity of a crane are unsafe.
During storm, the hook block should be
anchored firmly and swing lock be released. At
the end of work, the load should be removed
from the hook and the hook should be raised to
the maximum height.
The mobile crane should have horn, head
lights, side lamps, rear and stop lights and
flashing direction indicators. Jib crane should
keep the job lowered while travelling without
load.
While travelling up a slope, the load radius
should be decreased and while travelling down,
that radius should be increased as shown in fig.
22. Constant watch on the radius is necessary
while travelling on uneven surfaces.
Air pressure in the tyres should be equal,
otherwise tilting is possible as shown in fig. 22.
While operating tower cranes, wind loads
should be considered and trained operators
should be employed to sit in cabs at height.
Wind speed indicator should be provided in the
driver’s cab.
 Where two or more cranes work side by
side, direct communication system should be
provided in the cab to alert the other driver
about danger zone. Minimum distance between
two approaching cranes should be maintained
by limit switches.
See Rule 57, 58, 63, 64, 74, 80 & 81 of the
BOC Workers Rules, 1998 for other details.
Lifting Ropes, Slings etc. : Safe working
capacity of the lifting ropes must be known
beforehand. Ropes, slings, rings, shackles,
tackles, chains, hooks, swivels etc. should be
installed, maintained and inspected as per Sec.
29 of the Factories Act and Rule 60, GFR.
Repaired ropes should not be used in hoists.
Where multiple independent ropes are
used to lift a load, each rope should be capable
of carrying the load independently.
See also Rule 71 of the BOC Workers Rules,
1998.
4.2 Transport, Earth-moving and
Material Handling Equipment :
All vehicles and earth-moving and
material handling equipment should have
following general provisions.
They should be of good design, sound
material and construction, adequate strength
and maintained in good working order.
Principles of safety and ergonomics should be
considered in design and operation.
Operators/drivers should be well trained,
medically examined, physically fit and above 18
years of age. They should be competent, reliable
and follow the signalling code. Help of
authorised signaller must be taken while
driving backwards or the view is restricted.
They should be protected against weather, dust,
load being lifted and possible accidents.
All vehicles should be equipped with
proper lights, horns, silencers, power and hand
brakes and reversing alarm. Their motors,
engines, brakes, gears, chassis, blades, tracks,
wire ropes, sheaves, transmission parts and
pneumatic, hydraulic systems should be
checked daily before use.
The vehicle or machine should not be left
unattended with the engine running. Deck
plates and steps should be kept free from oil,
12
grease, mud etc. The cab should be kept at least
1 m away from a face being excavated. Bucket
excavators should not be used at the top or
bottom of earth walls with a slope exceeding
600. Gross laden weight, tare weight, maximum
axle weight and ground pressure in case of
caterpillar should be indicated.
When not in use, the boom should be in the
direction of travel and scoop, shovel or bucket
be raised and without load. Safe parking place
should be provided where more vehicles have
to work. Nobody should be allowed to rest or
sleep under the vehicle.
Power Shovels (Excavators) : They should
be equipped with emergency stop device and
two independent locking devices for brake
pedals. The bucket teeth should not come
nearer the boom than 40 cm. Safe working load
of the lifting gear should be displayed in the
cabin and its indicator should be fitted. The
boom should be prevented from swinging
during transport. The boom should not be
pulled tight against the emergency stop while
supporting a load. The wire ropes should be of
specified diameter and construction. The safe
operating radius shall not be exceeded.
The shovels should be so operated as not
to loose their stability. The driver should see
that no person is under or near the raised
bucket or grab. When not in use, the bucket
shall be kept resting on the stable ground and
not hanging. Truck to be loaded should be
stationed at 60 cm. or more from the excavator
even when it turns. Earthing and fire
extinguisher should be provided where
necessary.
Bulldozers : While moving uphill, the
blade should be kept low. The blade should not
be used as brake except in emergency. The
blade suspension arrangement, wire rope or
hydraulic system should be inspected weekly.
At the close of work, the bulldozer should
be left on level ground and before leaving it, the
operator should apply the brakes, lower the
blade and ripper and put the shift lever in
neutral.
Scrappers : The tractor and scrappers
should be connected by a safety line when in
operation. Scrappers moving downhill should
be left in gear. Scrapper bowls should be
propped when blades are being replaced.
Pavers : Guards should be provided to
prevent workers from walking under the skip.
Road Rollers : The land should be
checked for bearing capacity and general safety
before using a road roller. While moving
downhill the engine should be in gear. When it
is not in use, the brakes should be applied, the
wheels should be blocked, the contact should be
switched off and the engine should be in
bottom gear if the roller is facing uphill and in
reverse gear if it is facing downhill.
Pile-drivers : All pile-driving equipment
should be of good design and construction and
properly maintained. Ergonomic principles
should be considered. Pile-driving should be
carried out under the supervision of a
competent person. Underground services
should be located and rendered safe before
starting piling. Pile drivers should be firmly
supported on sound foundation. If necessary,
they should be guyed also. If two pile-drivers
have to work nearby, they should be separated
by a distance at least equal to the longest leg.
If electrical conductors are in proximity,
they should be made dead. When leads have to
be inclined, they should be counterbalanced
and tilting device should be secured against
slipping. The hoses of steam and air hammers
should be securely lashed to the hammer so as
to prevent them from whipping if a connection
breaks. Overturning of a pile-driver has to be
prevented. Out coming of the rope from the top
pulley or wheel and missing of hammer from
the pipe should also be prevented.
Pile lines and pulley blocks should be
inspected before the beginning of each shift.
Only trained operators should be employed.
Use of suitable signals, ear protectors and safety
helmet is necessary. Piles should be prepared at
a distance at least equal to twice the length of
the longest pile from the pile-driver. When not
in use, the hammer should be blocked at the
bottom of the leads.
When pile-drivers are working over water,
a suitable boat should be kept readily available
13
at all times. Whistle, siren, signals, fire fighting
equipment and sufficient sheaves should be
provided, the weight of machinery should be
evenly distributed and water-tight
compartments should be provided with
siphons to remove water seepage.
Mobile Asphalt Layers and Finishers :
The mixer elevator should be within a metal
enclosure with a window for observation,
lubrication and maintenance. Bitumen scoops
should have covers. The sprayer should have
fire resistant shield with an observation
window. Non-foaming products are preferable.
Reflective jackets should be provided to
workers working on public roads.
The fire extinguishers are necessary near
spreader and others in readiness. No naked
flame should be used to see the level of asphalt
in the tank. Thinners should not be heated on
open flame. Inspection doors should not be
opened if there is any pressure in the boiler.
If a burner flame is extinguished, the fuel
supply should be cut off and the heating tube
should be thoroughly blown out by the fan to
prevent backfire.
See Chapter-X, Rules 88 to 95 of BOC
Workers Rules, 1998, for statutory details of the
above equipment.
4.3 Plant Machinery, Equipment and
Hand Tools :
All such machinery, equipment and tools
should be of good, ergonomic and safe design,
maintained in good working order and
operated by trained operators with necessary
personal protective equipment. Safety
instructions from manufacturer and safe
operating procedure should be followed.
Power driven equipment should be
properly earthed, stop switch provided in close
proximity, adequately guarded, speed
regulated and when not in use, switched off
(de-energised) and isolated before any major
adjustment.
Concrete Mixtures : All gears, chains,
rollers and open revolving blades should be
guarded or fenced. Hopper should be protected
by side railing to prevent workers from passing
under the skip. Hopper hoisting wire rope,
brake, skip hoist clutch and blocking (fixing
when raised) device should be checked and
adjusted regularly. Double earthing and
insulation of electrical part is necessary. Before
allowing a person to enter the drum for
cleaning or repair, electrical connections (fuses)
should be removed.
Concrete bucket towers and masts with
pouring gutters or conveyor belts should be
erected by competent persons and inspected
daily. The winch operator should be able to see
the filling, emptying and lowering of bucket,
otherwise a banks-man should direct the
operator. Guides for bucket should be correctly
aligned to prevent the bucket from jamming in
the tower.
Structure or scaffold carrying a pipe for
pumped concrete should be strong enough
(factor of safety 4 or more) to support a filled
pipe and all workers on it. Such concrete
carrying pipes should be securely anchored at
the ends and at curves, provided at top with air
release valves and securely attached to the
pump nozzle.
Concrete Vibrators : Vibrating unit should
be completely enclosed and belt be guarded.
Electrical vibrator should be protected by
overload relays and earthed. Cable length
should be sufficient. Needle load should be
firmly locked. Needle inner core should be
lubricated.
See Chapter-XI, Rules 96 to 107 of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998 for Concrete Work.
Pneumatic Compressors: Testing by a
competent person is necessary. Air receivers
should be equipped with a safety valve,
pressure gauge, drain cock and openings for
inspection and cleaning. It is safer to provide a
PRV, a stop valve and an oil separator between
the air receiver and the compressor.
Compressors should be equipped with an
automatic device to control the safe discharge
pressure, a quick release valve and suitable
arrangements to prevent or remove
contamination in a confined space. Where
explosive gas mixture may be formed in
compressor, it should be protected against
sparking.
14
Water flow should be ensured in water-
cooling jackets. Inter and after coolers should be
able to withstand the maximum pressure in the
air discharge piping. Such piping should be
provided with a fusible plug and insulation to
protect workers against burns and fire risks.
Where stop valves are installed in air-
discharge piping, they should be easily
accessible for inspection and cleaning and one
or more safety valves should be installed
between the compressor and the stop valve.
Pneumatic Tools : Operating triggers on
portable pneumatic tools should be so placed as
to minimise the risk of accidental starting of the
machine and so arranged as to close the air
inlet valve automatically when the pressure of
the operator’s hand is removed. Air hoses and
their connections should be equipped with
safety clips or retainers to prevent dies and
tools from being accidentally expelled from the
barrel. Before any adjustment or repair, power
should be disconnected and pressure in hose
lines be released.
Cartridge-operated Tools : Preferably low-
velocity tool should be used. Such tools should
have a cover (guard) which cannot be opened
without rendering the tool inoperative, devices
to prevent from accidental firing, to prevent
firing if the muzzle is not pressed and to
prevent firing if it is not perpendicular to the
working surface.
The recoil should not be capable of
injuring the user. The tool should be inspected
for all safety devices and to see that the barrel is
unobstructed.
Cartridge-operated tools should not be
stored or operated in explosive atmosphere.
When not in use, it should be kept in its special
container for the purpose of safety.
Electric Tools : Portable electrical tools
should be operated at low voltage and with
ELCB to avoid risk of shock. The tools should
be properly earthed with metallic cases. All
insulated or double insulated tools need not be
earthed. Periodic inspection and maintenance
should be carried out by a competent
electrician. Proper fuse and insulated handle
are necessary.

Hand Tools : They should be tempered,
dressed or repaired by a competent person.
Cutting edges should be kept sharp. Heads of
hammers and other shock tools should be
dressed or ground as soon as they begin to
mushroom or crack. When not in use or while
carrying or transporting, they should be kept in
suitable containers.
Insulated or non-conducting tools should
be used near live electrical installations. Non-
sparking tools should be used near flammable
vapours.
See Chapter-17 for more details.
Conveyors : Conveyors should be smooth
running. Nip between tight belt and
pulley/roller and other transmission parts
should be guarded. If they are not entirely
enclosed, at cross over places, bridge with
hand-railing should be provided. Emergency
stop-devices (e.g. cord or cable) should be
easily accessible. Stop buttons should be
provided at drive and take-up ends. Where two
or more conveyors operate together, control
devices should be so arranged that no conveyor
can feed on to a stopped conveyor. When a
conveyor is discharging into a bunker or
hopper, the feeding conveyor should be
provided with an overload switch.
Screw conveyors should always be kept
covered. The cover should not be opened
without stopping the conveyor.
See Part 3.6 of Chapter-15 for more details.
Crusher Plants : They should be located
away from construction area to keep away dust,
sand, gravel, noise and vibrations. Extra
isolation switch should be provided to prevent
accidental starting during repair or
maintenance. Electrical motors, switches and
instrumentation should be dust and moisture
proof. Access roads to the crusher hopper and
screens should be cleaned by water spraying.
Power cables should be laid underground or at
safe elevation. All equipment, plant and
machinery should be cleared daily of dust and
sand.
Power Generators: They should be
housed in a concrete room or insulated area to
15
minimise noise effects. Silencers and exhaust
pipes should be provided. Extra isolation
switch should be provided to avoid accidental
starting during maintenance.
Engines : Maximum safe speed should not
be exceeded. Remote control device should be
provided to stop or limit the speed. For internal
combustion engines, exhaust ventilation should
be provided and while fuelling, spark should be
avoided and fire extinguisher should be kept
ready. Secondary fuel tank should be provided
outside the engine room.
Silos : Silos should be erected on sound
foundation and capable of withstanding
stresses without any deformation of walls,
floors and other load-bearing parts.
Safe means of access (stairs, fixed ladders
or hoists), quantity/level indicator, notices,
blockage remover and fire extinguishers should
be provided.
In silos where explosive mixtures are
possible, all electrical equipment and hand
lamps should be flameproof, non-sparking tools
should be used and explosion vents should be
provided in the walls at safer points.
Before allowing workers in a silo, work
permit should be made, charge (filling) opening
should be closed and safety belt with lifeline in
the hands of another person outside, should be
provided if they have to work on loose
material.
5 UNDERGROUND WORKS
Underground work includes excavations
in surface soil or rock, drilling, blasting,
trenching, shoring, strutting, tunnelling, piling,
shaft sinking, haulage and underground
pipelines. It requires due considerations of
underground lighting, ventilation, electricity,
dust control, inrush of water, oil or gas and
continuous safety of people at work. Some
provisions are explained below :
See Chapter-XIII, Rules 119 to 168 of the
BOC Workers Rules, 1998, for excavation and
tunnelling works including warning signs and
notices, illumination, stability of structure,
pilling, shoring and bracing, safe access,
trenches, tunnelling operation, shafts,
pneumatic tools, inflammable oils, coupling
and hoses, storing of oil and fuel underground,
use of gases underground, water for fire
fighting, flooding, steel curtains, exposure
limits of chemicals, ventilation, air locks, man-
locks, medical lock, emergency generators etc.
Similarly see Chapter-XXIII, Rules 214 to
222 of the same rules for piling.
5.1 Excavation:
Foundation or underground support is
required for most of the constructions and
method of reaching earth or rock stratum
suitable for foundation is excavation. It may be
with or without dewatering the site and out of
many methods a suitable method of excavation
should be selected.
General precautions for any excavation or
underground work are : survey of hazards of
fall of persons, soil, material etc., inrush of
water, oil, gas etc., adequate lighting and
ventilation to supply fresh air inside,
controlling gas, vapour, dust etc. within safe
limits, fire precaution, safe means of access,
stability of the ground, position of public utility
services such as electric or telephone cables,
water, gas or sewers line etc., effect on
adjoining building, structure, roadways,
bridges etc. A competent person should make
this survey and give permission to work.
If necessary, isolation of underground
utility services should be effected by due
permission or otherwise be protected. Chemical
waste and contamination should be safely
removed.
No load, vehicle or material should be
moved or stacked near the edge of excavation
unless shoring or piling is done to prevent the
sides from collapsing. All support work such as
props, wedges etc. should be regularly checked
for deflection or distortion. All sides should be
fenced by barrier at least up to 1 m and a
danger notice and red signal and light be
provided.
Sides of all excavation must be sloped to a
safe angle not steeper than the angle of repose
of a particular soil. See Table 22 of Chapter 32
for such angle of repose.
Cutting shall be done from top to bottom.
No undercutting of side shall be allowed. In
16
narrow trenches a ladder should be extended
from bottom to top and 1 m above the ground
surface. Erosion of soil over excavated pits,
trenches etc. should be prevented from running
water by dewatering pumps etc. Road-barrier at
a distance should be provided if road is to be
blocked. Helmets and gum-boots should be
given to all workers working inside.
In large scale excavations for dams, huge
buildings, highways, railways etc., accidents
occur mostly due to the vehicles, dumpers,
trucks etc. Therefore such vehicles must be
checked for warning sirens, horns, lights,
signals, reverse alarm etc. Rules of driving
should be enforced. Sufficient lighting should
be provided for night work.
5.2 Drilling, Loading and Blasting:
Drilling and loading are required before
blasting.
Before starting drilling, any presence of
unfired explosives should be carefully checked.
No drilling should be allowed in the butts of
old holes. Before drilling, loose or disintegrated
rock should be removed by hand tools or
pneumatic jack hammers to protect drillers
against falls of material. Where this is not
possible, a protective canopy or overhead
screen should be provided.
Holes are drilled by pneumatic hand-hold
drills to a specific pattern. Compressed air
hoses should have self locking couplings.
Drillers should wear helmet, hand gloves and
gumboots.
After checking the drilling pattern and
depth, the drilling crew is withdrawn from the
site with all drilling equipment and accessories.
The blasting foreman will check all the holes to
be loaded by explosives and detonators for
blasting. Transportation, storage, handling and
use of explosives are governed by the
Explosives Act and Rules. See Part 2.9 & 2.10 of
Chapter-28. No smoking or open flame is
allowed in explosive loading area. All the
workers from this area are withdrawn to a safe
place. Only suitable battery lamps should be
used during loading shot holes.
No holes should be loaded except those
which are to be fired in the next round of
blasting. Holes loaded during one shift should
be fired in the same shift. Diameter of the hole
should be at least 3 mm more than the dia of the
cartridge. To avoid misfires, the detonator
should be completely inserted length-wise in
the cartridge and fastened in such a manner
that it cannot be pulled out accidentally. The
cartridges are not forced into the holes. Cap
crimpers of proper design should be used for
crimping the blasting caps into fuse. A knife or
teeth shall not be used for this purpose.
Intensity of charge to be loaded must be well
calculated and safe enough to prevent damage
to nearby structures due to shock and vibration
resulting form explosion.
Tamping of cartridge in the hole is done
by a wooden (or non-sparking metallic) stick
gently. If dynamite is to be removed from
cartridge, loose dynamite should not be
tamped. Primer shall never be tamped. During
tamping care should be exercised to avoid
injury to fuse or cap wires. The holes are filled
with clay and sand sticks at the top. Detonators’
wires should not be damaged or pulled out.
Then the continuity of the entire circuit is
checked by a blasting circuit tester and the
resistance of the circuit is also measured. No
other electric circuit should be allowed in that
area or it should be de-energised. Radio, TV
and Radar transmitters can detonate electric
cap. Hence minimum safe distance should be
maintained. The lead wires are connected to the
exploder whose firing switches are kept ‘open’,
locked and keys with the blasting foreman. The
surplus explosives/detonators are returned to
the magazines.
Then follows the warning procedure.
‘Warning’ and ‘All clear’ signals should be
established and made known to all concern.
Trained persons are posted at all approaches
with red flags to stop all traffic and by passers.
The blasting foreman, then, sounds a
warning siren to drive away all persons from
the danger area and not to allow anybody to
enter in the blasting area. After being satisfied
with the readiness of blasting, the blasting
foreman will fire the shots by closing the switch
of the exploder. After dispersion of gases and
dusts, the foreman will return to the area and
check for any misfire.
Misfire can be minimised by using good
quality explosives, testing each electric cap with
17
a blasting galvanometer before loading or by
testing the complete circuit before firing. The
safest way to deal with misfire is to re shoot it
by new primer. If there is no misfire, then he
gives ‘All Clear’ signal and allows the removal
of blasted materials. Loose rock should be
scaled down.
Haulage i.e. pulling and shifting of
material after blasting is carried out manually
or mechanically. Vehicles (train or trucks)
should have head-lights, tail-lights and loud
horns. Hauling by winch should be done under
the supervision of a competent person. Workers
should not be transported along with the
material.
Blasting record should be maintained. Date
and time of blast, number of holes, type of
explosives and detonator used, amount of
charge per hole, firing pattern and sequence
should be recorded.
5.3 Shoring and Underpinning:
Shoring and underpinning are required to
stop settlement of a weak foundation, to
strengthen the foundation to carry added loads,
to provide support because of adjacent
operations and to prevent deterioration of the
foundation materials.
Shoring refers to removal of temporary
supports after completion of job and
underpinning refers to providing permanent
supports which remain in place even after
completion of job.
Shoring requires skilled workers and
cordoning off the area due to hazardous nature
of the job. It is to be carried out under constant
supervision and control of qualified and
experienced engineer. The jack, needles and
temporary supports should be of adequate
capacity and strength to raise the structure.
Types of shores available are raking,
flying, needle beam and post. The shores and
needles to be underpinned must be designed to
withstand the anticipated load.
Underpinning is useful to stop settlement
of the structure, or to give more support by new
foundations to withstand added load of the
structure. This work is to be done rapidly, in a
limited space and with great care, to the
existing structure. Adequate lateral bracing
helps obviate the need of underpinning interior
walls or columns.
If damage results during underpinning and
repairs required, it is best to wait till all
settlement and lateral movement are ceased.
Generally two methods are available for
underpinning - the pit method and the steel
cylinder or caisson method. The pit method is
used where new foundation is not to be very
deep. In the other method, the steel cylinders of
caissons are placed under the existing footings
and sunk to the rock. Skilled workers are
required due to restricted availability of
working space and headroom. The shoring of
the column is removed at the end.
5.4 Tunnelling and Shaft Sinking:
Tunnels are required for road-ways and
railways through mountain, hydro-power
station underground, irrigation of water,
drainage, mining of minerals, storage of
hazardous wastes and defence installations
(underground shelter) etc.
Tunnelling may be in soft ground (clay,
sand, gravel or soft earth) or in rock. Soft
ground tunnelling is carried out by fore poling,
needle-beam and timber, liner plates, shield and
liner plates and plenum process or compressed
air-lock. Rock tunnelling is carried out by
drilling, blasting, mucking or by machines
which may be full face boring machine or the
header with rotary milling head on a telescopic
boom.
Safety measures include well maintained
equipment and tools, their testing by competent
persons, speedy removal of debris, refuse and
trash, safe and adequate walkway, proper
drainage and water pumping if required, good
lighting, use of helmet, gumboots and goggles
by the workers, jumbo platform with guard
rails and toe-guards to work near the entire
face of the tunnel to be drilled, pneumatic drills
with pusher legs, wet drilling for dust control,
pneumatic coupling with self locking
couplings, separate transport vehicles for
explosives and detonators and their separate
magazines, safe handling of explosives and
detonators, avoidance of spark, no smoking in
explosive area and all precautions mentioned in
18
foregoing Part 5.2 for drilling, loading, blasting
and haulage.
After blasting, rock falls can cause major
accidents. Therefore inspection of walls and
roofs, scaling of loose rock, bolting and
supporting of weak spots, checking of weak
seams and planes by a hand hammer and
supporting of roof and sides are essential.
Mechanical loading of muck and haulage
are required for speedy construction in tunnel.
Muck (dirty thing) cars should be loaded
evenly and not piled above the sides. Vehicles
in tunnel should not run overloading and
overspeeding. Rail-tracks should be safe and
sound. Smokeless locomotives should be used.
Dump cars should be with locking device to
prevent accidental tipping.
When tunnelling is done through a shaft
(vertical rod or stem), the tunnel musk is
hoisted through the shaft and brought to
surface for disposal. Hoisting machines should
have automatic brakes to stop and hold the
conveyance (cage or car) if the hoisting power
fails. It should have a depth indicator. Rules for
hoist/lift should be followed as mentioned in
foregoing Part 4.1.
Mechanical ventilation is necessary in all
tunnelling work to supply fresh air to the
working crew and removal of dust, fumes and
gases including methane, CO2 etc. Rock dust
containing silica and quartz may cause silicosis.
Ventilation ducts should be airtight and should
have reversible duct blowers to operate in both
directions.
The tunnels are lined with plain or
reinforced concrete or steel forms to support
the surfaces and to prevent any rock fall.
Scaffolding carrying pipeline of pumped
concrete should be strong enough. The workers
should wear face shield or safety goggles.
Safety precautions for shaft sinking are
mostly same as stated above. The shaft which is
not sunk through solid rock should be cased,
lined or otherwise made safe. Workers should
be provided with cradles from which they can
work safely. The shaft top should be protected
by fencing or guard-rails, toe-boards and gates.
Means of escape and ladder from bottom to top
should be provided in addition to any
mechanical means of ingress and egress.
Winches at shaft tops should provide easy
replacement of bucket. All landings in shaft
should have gates that close the opening to a
height of at least 2 mt.
All shafts of over 30 mt in depth should
have an adequate head frame strong enough to
withstand the maximum load. It should be open
steel work, fire-resistant and protected against
lightening.
Shafts should have a signalling system that
warns the hoisting man when a conveyance
passes beyond the safe limit of travel. The
signal code should be posted in the hoisting
machine room and at each landing.
No combustible material or structure
should be allowed within a shaft, tunnel mouth,
engine house or fan house. Lubricating oils,
grease and rope dressings should be kept in
closed metal containers and away from shafts.
Electrical installations in shafts and tunnels
should comply with rules and regulations.
Lightening arresters should be provided on the
surface. Emergency lighting to function for a
long time (to escape safely) should also be
provided.
6 ABOVE GROUND WORKS
Most of the construction works in the form
of concrete, steel, wood or mixed structure are
found just on the ground. Basic requirements to
work at height as the work proceeds, are
scaffolding, ladders, staircases, centring,
formwork, wall and floor openings, structural
steel work and machinery and equipment for
the movement of material and men.
6.1 Scaffolding, Ladders and
Staircases:
See Part 5 of Chapter-16 for working at
height.
See Chapter XV, Rules 172 to 174 for
ladders and Chapter XIX, Rules 188 to 205 for
scaffold, of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998. See
Part 2.50 of Chapter-28 for their details.
6.2 Structural Frames, Formwork and
Concrete Work
19
All such works require trained workers
and the supervision of qualified and
experienced engineer. Temporary work
(formwork, slip form, shuttering, false work,
shoring etc.) should be safe enough to
withstand loads on it and working platforms,
ladders, bracing etc. can be attached to it. Safety
of workers from temporary, unstable or weak
structure has to be foreseen.
See Chapter XVII, Rules 181 to 185 for
structural frame and framework and Chapter
XI, Rules 96 to 107 for concrete work of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998. See Part 2.50 of Chapter-
28 for their details.
6.2.1 Erection and Dismantling of Steel
and Prefabricated Structures
Safety of workers should be ensured by
providing sound scaffolds, platforms, ladders,
gangways, boatswain’s chairs, safety belts, fall
arrester nets and lifting appliances including
power driven mobile working platforms. All
such platforms must have safety railing (at least
1 mt high), hand rails and toe-boards. Free end
of the safety belt must be tied with a fixed and
strong support. Helmets, goggles, gloves,
aprons and other equipment should be worn by
the workers. Floors, stairs and platforms should
be dry, clean and non-slippery. This can save
many injuries.
Hooks for lifting and transporting
prefabricated parts or material should be of
self-closing type and withstand load and
stresses. Precast concrete parts should be
allowed to set and harden for its full strength.
Stores and racks of steel and prefabricated parts
should be on firm ground and so arranged as
no part should fall or overturn. Lifting
appliance should be suitable and tested at 20%
more load. Tongs, clamps etc. should be
capable of securing grip and marked with
maximum permissible load. Lifted structure
and wall units should be so placed that they do
not fall by wind, jerk or other factors.
Adequate instructions should be given to
the workers for safe erection. If due to high
wind, rain, snow or reduced visibility, it
becomes unsafe to work, the work should be
interrupted. Parts to be erected at a greater
height should be assembled on the ground.
While lifting prefabricated parts, area
underneath it should be barricaded. Steel
trusses being erected, should be firmly shored,
braced or guyed until they are permanently
secured in position and no workers should be
allowed to work under them at that time. A
boom or any moving part of a crane (including
the load lifted) should not touch such trusses. In
absence of such precautions, six workers died
in one accident when trusses fell down on
workers working underneath. No load-bearing
structural member should be weakened by
cutting, drilling etc. Open-web steel joints
should be directly placed in position and
secured against dislodgement.
6.2.2 Cast-in-situ Concrete Structures :
The planning of construction of cast-in-
situ, large span and multi-storey concrete
structures should provide information on
specifications of materials to be used, methods
of safe placing and handling, reinforcement
design and load-bearing calculations. During
construction, a daily progress report should be
maintained, stagewise erection procedure
should be prescribed, defects watched
continuously and loads should not be dumped
or placed on setting concrete.
6.2.3 Wall and Floor Openings :
Walls should be on sound footing,
perfectly vertical, properly joined and of
sufficient thickness for strength and load-
bearing. Brick joints should be properly
aligned, cemented and pointed if required.
Plastering and colour coating give extra
protection. Support of the wall under
construction should not be taken but a scaffold
should be used. Doors, windows, ventilators
and other openings in walls should be provided
as per requirement and drawing. As per Rule
18A, GFR, they should be at least 15% of the
floor area. Bottom of a window should begin
within 1 mt from the floor.
Floor construction uses a variety of
material depending on choice. Earth filling with
cement or cement concrete is necessary for
strength. Wooden planks, steel grate (grill) or
20
plates, tiles, stones, marble, cement concrete,
asphalt etc. are some of the flooring materials.
Floor openings are required for erection of
hoist or lift way, tank, vessel or reactor, piping
etc. Till these floor-gaps are not occupied by
their proper fittings, they pose danger of falling
from height. Therefore Section 33 of the
Factories Act requires that all such floor
openings should be securely covered or fenced.
If any gate is provided at any landing platform,
it should be kept locked (not simply closed and
openable) when any person has to work near it.
In absence of such unlocked gate, a worker fell
from a 30 mt height and died on the spot.
Temporary floors should be securely
covered with close planking or other covering
until it is replaced by a permanent floor. Parts
of protection should only be removed to the
extent required for the progress of the work. In
skeleton steel structures, permanent floor filling
should be installed as the erection progresses.
6.2.4 Formwork and Slip forms:
Tubular steel frames used as staging to
support concrete form-work should have a
safety factor of at least 2 and be used as per
manufacturer’s recommendation. Struts and/or
diagonal braces must be in proper position and
secured for frames to develop full load carrying
capacity. As erection progresses, all connecting
devices should be in place and fastened for full
stability of joints and nuts. As height increases
above two tires, suitable planking should be
used as a working platform. During concrete
pouring operation, staging system should be
constantly watched and corrected if necessary.
Concise procedures to cover all stages of
work should be prepared and supervised by a
competent person. Foundations should be
checked for ground conditions. Drawing or
sketch for shuttering should be explained to
workers. Shoring should be provided for
support and should not be removed until
authorisation and the concrete has acquired
sufficient strength. Shoring should be braced or
tied together to prevent deformation or
displacement. Mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic or vacuum lifting devices should
have automatic holding device in case of power
failure.
 Workers placing reinforcement rods and
unloading concrete above the slipform platform
should wear safety belts and lanyards to protect
from falling. Slipform floor where
reinforcement rods are being lifted should have
temporary barricades. While lapping/joining
vertical reinforcement rods, the projections
should be tied to prevent their falling off
inadvertently.
6.3 Structural Steel Work and
Erection:
A fabrication yard should be well away
from a rail-track, road, overhead transmission
lines, boiler house and source of ignition. While
unloading structural steel wagons or trucks by
crane, wheels should be made stationary by
fixing wedges and nobody should stand under
a hanging load. While putting heavy structure,
supports (props) should be given to prevent
toppling. At both ends of a gantry crane,
stoppers should be provided. Leather gloves,
goggles etc. should be used as per requirement.
Portable tools should have guards, proper fuse,
earthing and ELCB in power connection.
In erection work load should be
ascertained for centre of gravity and its transfer
at the slinging point. Lifting machines, ropes,
slings, tackles etc. should be checked for its
good working order and safety. Eye bolts
should be provided at correct slinging points
while lifting heavy machinery such as motors,
turbines, generators etc. No sling should be
overloaded. Signalling code should be known
to all. Proper tag line should be used for
guiding while lifting loads.
Stack of structural members should be
such that light members should be at the top
and in sequence of erection and not in a
position to roll down or slide while handling.
Clear passages should be allowed. Hands
should not be jammed against any object. Bolts,
nuts, tools etc. should be kept in boxes and not
loose on the structure. Vertical column should
be tied by 4 guy ropes and only after bracing or
fixing, the ropes may be removed one by one.
Precautions in placing trusses are explained in
foregoing Part 6.2.1. CGI sheet should be lifted
manually by proper system. It should not fall.
21
They should be kept tied on top and bolted or
stitched ultimately.
6.4 Welding and Cutting Operations :
See Part 7.1 of Chapter 20, and Schedule 24,
Rule 102 of the Gujarat Factories Rules.
6.5 Lifting Machinery and Equipment:
See Part 3.5 of Chapter 15, and also
foregoing Part 4.1.
See Chapter VII, Rules 55 to 81 including
Schedule I and Forms V to X, of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998, for statutory provisions of
lifting appliances and gear. This chapter
prescribes details of construction and
maintenance of lifting appliances, their
examination, automatic safe load indicators,
winches, buckets, safe working load,
operational safety, hoists, means of access,
derricks, ropes, heat treatment, vacuum and
magnetic lifting gear, attachment of loads,
tower cranes and qualification of operator,
signaller etc. See Part 2.50 of Chapter-28 for
their details.
7 UNDERWATER WORKS
Work under or over water is required for
deep foundation, well sinking, river dredging,
underwater pipelines, tunnelling, concreting,
cofferdam, floating structure and special
operations pertaining to irrigation and marine
purposes.
7.1 General Provisions:
Main safety measures necessary are (1) to
prevent workers from falling into water (2) to
rescue them in the event of drowning and (3)
safe and sufficient transport and life saving
equipment.
Life buoys, life jackets, manned boats,
fencing, safety nets, safety harness and
protection from reptiles and other animals are
also necessary.
Bridges, footbridges, pontoons, walkways,
gangways and workplaces should possess
sufficient buoyancy, strength and stability, be
wide enough to allow safe movement of
workers, free from nails, bolts, knots and
tripping hazards, boarded over, lighted
sufficiently, be provided with life saving
equipment, toe-boards, guard-rails, hand ropes
etc., be kept clear of tackle, tools and other
obstructions, be made non-slippery by spraying
sand, ashes etc., be anchored to prevent run
away, be provided with ladders with safety
hoops.
Floating structures should have shelters,
lifelines, gaffs, ring buoys. Rafts (logs), if used,
should be strong enough to carry loads,
securely moored and have safe means of access.
Iron decks should be studded with non-
slip surface and deck openings should be
fenced. Floating pipelines should have safe
walkway. No person should enter a hydraulic
dredge gear room without informing the
leverman and without being accompanied by a
second person. Hoist lines, drag lines, buckets,
cutter heads and bridles should be inspected
daily. Workers should be embarked and
disembarked only at safe and suitable landing
places and counted regularly.
7.2 Boats:
Boat used to transport workers by water
should comply with legal requirements if any.
It should be manned by an adequate and
experienced crew and be equipped with life-
saving appliances.
The number of persons that can be
transported safely should be marked as clearly
visible and no more person than that must be
allowed.
Tow-boats should have a device to quick
release tow-rope. Power driven boats should
carry suitable fire extinguishers. Row-boats
should carry a spare set of oars. Rescue boats
should be properly constructed and of
sufficient length and beam to afford stability.
For work in tidal waters or fast flowing rivers a
power-driven craft should be provided with a
fixed self-starting device on the motor. When
not patrolling, their engines should be run
several times a day to ensure full efficiency.
7.3 Rescue and Emergency
Procedures:
22
Buoyancy-aid like life-jackets should be
provided to rescue crew. Operatives should not
work alone and they should be trained for
emergency procedures.
Rule 36, BOC Workers Rules, 1998,
requires emergency action plan to handle
emergencies like drowning of workers, sinking
of vessels, fire and explosion, collapse of lifting
or transport equipment, building, shed,
structure etc., gas leakage, spillage of
dangerous goods, land slide, floods, storms etc.
It should be approved by the Director General.
7.4 Well-Sinking:
Shaft-sinking operation for digging well or
tunnel pose various hazards like wet and
slippery footing, cramped working space,
insufficient lighting, unknown weakness in
rock or soil, handling of explosives and
detonators, hoisting and haulage of muck and
accidents due to machinery and mistakes in
working methods. Dewatering pumps, shoring
machine guarding and control devices, use of
personal protective equipment, training and
supervision are useful remedial measures.
7.5 Cofferdam:
Underwater excavation is carried out by
(1) Pumping out the water if inflow is not
excessive (2) Isolating the site by a cofferdam
(temporary bund) (3) Sinking caisson (box) with
or without compressed air or (4) Chemical
consolidation.
The cofferdam is a temporary structure to
exclude water from water-logged soil, river or
the sea to enable the excavation and
construction to be carried out in the dry. The
cofferdam can be made out of earth, concrete,
sheet piles or sheet cell.
The earthen cofferdam is possible in
shallow water with low velocity of current. The
earthen bank is constructed 1 mt of the top
water level. Due to water seeping and leaking
such dam can fail. Therefore constant watch is
necessary.
Sheetpiled cofferdam can be constructed
by using a floating structure with machinery
and crew. All members of floating pile-driving
crew should be trained to handle boats. The
interlocking sheet piles and bracing in a cellular
form are placed through water. Fuel tanks
below deck of a floating pile-driving equipment
should be vented to the outside air with flame
arresters. Workers handling piles should wear
leather gloves. A competent person should
constantly supervise.
After erecting the cofferdam, inside water
is pumped out. The excavation is done in dry
soil up to a sound strata, the foundation is laid
down and the structure is built. The cofferdam
is dismantled thereafter.
7.6 Caissons:
A caisson is a box type structure to be used
as a part of foundation. Unlike cofferdam, it is a
permanent structure and forms an integral part
of the bridge or building foundation.
The caissons are of three types (1) A box
caisson which is closed at the bottom but open
at top to the atmosphere (2) An open caisson
which is open at both the ends and (3) A
pneumatic caisson which has a working
chamber with roof in which air pressure is
maintained to prevent the entry of water and
soil into excavation.
The box caisson is possible where no much
excavation is required under water. The box is
prepared of concrete or stone masonry on a dry
dock, floated out to the location of sinking,
sunk at the place of foundation bed and filled
with mass of concrete or sand.
The open caisson is a hollow cylinder or
rectangular hollow shaft made of timber,
masonry or RCC. Its bottom edge is V-shaped
(pointed) and known as cutting edge. On
reaching foundation level, mass concrete is
placed to plug the cell after which any water is
pumped out and further concrete is placed to
form the final seal. Such open caisson is
possible on soft soil and not suitable on hard or
irregular rock surface.
Where piles driving or open caisson is not
possible, the pneumatic caisson is created by
compressed air to drive water out of the
working space for men and voids in material
which is being excavated and thereby making
the inside dry for easy working. More than 1 m 3
or 285 litres of fresh air per minute per person
23
should be supplied in the chamber at a
pressure below 2.5 bar. During compression
initial pressure is kept about 0.25 bar until it is
ascertained that no person is feeling discomfort,
and thereafter it may be raised at a rate not
exceeding about 0.5 bar/min. Standby power
should be available to the air compressors. To
improve the working condition and to reduce
the incidence of caisson sickness, the air should
be warmed in cold weather and cooled in hot
weather. In tropical climate, it should be
dehumidified to keep the wet bulb temperature
below 25 0C. In air and water tight chamber,
openings for men and materials are provided at
top in the vertical shafts with air-locks. The
shafts (and openings) extend from the roof of
the caisson to a level well above the water level
outside. The man-lock should be of sufficient
size and equipped with pressure gauges,
communication system and man-lock attendant.
Every caisson, shaft, working chamber,
medical lock and man lock should have a
minimum internal height of 1.8 mt. The door
between the working chamber and the man lock
leading to a lower pressure should be kept open
when any person is working inside and the lock
is not in use. Air supplied to the caisson from a
compressor should be clean and non-polluted.
All air lines should be in duplicate and with
non-return valves to prevent the air escape
from the chamber if pressure in the lines fails.
There should be a standby compressor for
emergencies and two separate power supplies
for each compressor. There should be two
independent sources of electrical supply for
lighting. Exhaust valves should be provided on
chamber for clearing the air when necessary.
Reliable means of communication such as bells,
whistles, telephones etc. should be maintained
at all times between the working chamber and
surface installations. An adjustable safety valve
should be fitted on the outside of the bulkhead
to a separate pipe leading from the working
chamber through the bulkhead to the outside
air. Every caisson and shaft containing
flammable material should have water lines,
hose connections and fire extinguishers.
In all tunnels 5 mt or over in diameter or
height, a well-guarded overhead gangway
should be provided from the working surface to
the nearest airlock with an overhead clearance
of at least 1.8 mt.
Effects of air pressure on human body may
be light (known as bends) or severe resulting in
paralysis or death. Pain in ears, stomach and
joints (like rheumatism), profuse cold
perspiration, dizziness, giddiness, double
vision, incoherence of speech, heat and feeling
of resistance to move owing to density and
pressure of air are reported. Rapid lowering of
air pressure (decompression) causes severe
effect as the nitrogen comes out from the body
fluid (mostly blood). Therefore it must be
ensured that the depressuring must be carried
out slowly.
The workers should be physically fit (not
fat, and with normal lungs, kidneys and good
heart rate), above the age of 20 and medically
re-examined at least every 2 months or earlier.
A first-aid box should be kept in the working
chamber.
To counteract the effect of cold, the air-lock
should be warmed, the men coming out
(emerging) should be given hot drink and they
should dress warmly. The best cure for ‘caisson
disease’ is recompression with slow
decompression. This is achieved by putting the
patient in a medical air-lock for this purpose.
The trained lock keepers and medical lock
attendants should be employed in the works.
The medical lock should have two
compartments so that it can be entered under
pressure.
See Chapter XX, Rule 206 & 207 of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998, for cofferdams and
caissons.
8 DEMOLITION
Demolition of very old, life-ended, weak or
unsafe construction becomes necessary.
Sometimes it is required for a new construction,
alteration, addition or repairs on the same site.
High risk is involved due to falling or flying
material, working at height or on a structure
being broken, use of heavy hand tools and
heavy blows and vibration or sudden collapse.
Not only the workers but the public passing by,
have also to be protected. Proper planning,
permit, procedure, sequence of work, training
of workers and safety supervision by a
24
competent person are some of the basic
requirements.
See Chapter XII, Rules 108 to 118 of the
BOC Workers Rules, 1998, for demolition. See
Part 2.50 of Chapter-28 for their details.
8.1 Precautions Prior to Demolition :
A definite demolition procedure should be
worked after studying the entire structure and
carrying out a survey of its drawings, load
bearing members, type of foundation, walls etc.,
chemical contents if any, previous use,
structural problems, ground characteristics,
condition of roof trusses, type of framing used
in framed structure, equipment sensitive to
noise, vibration, dust etc., radioactivity, utility
or service lines, gas and power lines, joint with
or effect on adjacent building, climatic
conditions etc. A help of structural engineer is
advisable.
A method of demolition should be
formulated after above survey and recorded in
a method statement after identifying the
problems and their solutions.
All electric, gas, water and other service
lines should be shut off or safely protected
against damage. The plant or building should
be isolated from all other plants or buildings.
For protection of the public, all the roads
and open areas surrounding the work (i.e.
danger or safety zone) should be fenced off
(fence height at least 2 mt) and caution boards
and danger signs should be displayed in the
local language, Hindi and English at prominent
places. Unauthorised entry into it shall be
effectively controlled. If a swinging weight
(ball) is to be used for demolition, width of the
safety zone should be 1.5 times the height of the
structure. If a clamshell bucket is to be used for
demolition, safety zone of 8 mt from the line of
travel of the bucket should be maintained.
8.2 Precautions During Demolition :
Only trained workers should be employed
(new or unskilled may cause more accidents).
They should wear helmet, safety belt, safety
shoes, safety goggles and gloves.
A part which would destroy the stability of
other parts should not be demolished. To
prevent danger, parts of structure should be
adequately shored, braced or otherwise
supported. Foundation walls serving as
retaining walls to support earth or adjoining
structures should not be demolished until the
adjoining structure has been underpinned or
braced and the earth removed or supported by
sheet piling or sheathing.
Where a deliberate controlled collapse
technique is to be used, expert engineering
advice should be obtained. It should be used
only where enough surrounding space is
available to withdraw men and equipment at a
safe distance. Structure not carrying its design
load may be pre-weakened before a deliberate
collapse, but in such cases the pre-weakening
should be carefully planned and dead load
should be reduced systematically.
When equipment such as power shovels
and bulldozers are used for demolition, type of
building, its dimensions and the power of the
equipment should be considered.
Where explosives are used to demolish key
members, the blast protection and safe
distances should be agreed in advance. The
work should be carried out by experienced
personnel in a controlled manner.
Sometimes catch platforms (at least 1.5 mt
wide) are provided along the outside of the
outer walls to catch falling materials. The outer
edge of such platform should be higher than the
inner edge (i.e. inclined to wall side) and the
platform should be lowered as the demolition
work gets lowered.
Sequence of Demolition: Glass panels of
doors and windows should be removed first.
Then loose objects and projecting parts
including balconies should be removed. Work
should start at the top of the structure and
proceed downwards. When work is going on at
upper level, workers should not be deployed at
lower level. Broken material should not be
thrown but lowered safely. It should not be
allowed to be accumulated to disturb stability.
Dusting should be minimised by watering.
Stairs with hand railing should be kept in place
as long as practicable to provide access and
egress.
25
Scaffolds used for demolition, should be
independent of the structure being demolished.
Travelling mechanical ladders can be used.
AC sheet roofing requires careful
consideration of points of support before
planning its demolition. A firm ladder resting
on such point should be given to workers to
climb to the roof. Then they should use a cat
ladder or a crawling board supported on ridge to
stand and remove the sheet. In no case, they
should be allowed to walk or stand directly on
the AC sheet. Underneath nearby fall arrester
net should also be used.
Walls should be demolished storey by
storey and starting from the top. Unsupported
walls should be prevented from falling by
shoring and ties.
Floors should be demolished by using
planking or walkways to stand or move when it
becomes weak to withstand the load. Openings
through which material is dropped should be
fenced or barricaded.
Tall chimneys should not be demolished
by blasting or overturning unless the sufficient
open area is available for its safe fall. Workers
should not stand on chimney wall. Thrown
down material should be removed during
breaks in the work or under controlled
conditions.
Structural steelworks should be
demolished by cutting its parts in such a way
that it should not collapse, twist or spring
suddenly. It should be demolished tier by tier.
Cut parts should not be thrown from a height.
They should be lowered safely.
Industrial structure such as a nuclear
power plant, hazardous chemical or
petrochemical plant or a plant containing a
plenty of asbestos material (e.g. insulation, AC
sheets) should be demolished only after
consulting their respective experts or specialist
engineer and taking all precautionary measures
against their specific hazards. General rules are
as stated earlier.
9 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS
AND MEN
Construction materials being heavy, long
or varying in size, pose hazards in handling,
loading, unloading and transportation. Railway
wagons, motor trucks, tractors, trailers etc. are
used depending on the weight, size and
distance to be travelled. Training of handling of
such materials and use of lifting appliances for
them is a basic requirement. See Chapter-15 and
16 for material handling and working at heights
and depths. See Part 2.41 to 2.43, 2.49 and 2.50
of Chapter-28 also.
Some general precautions are as under :
1. For selecting transportation by railway
wagons, the route should be surveyed. The
material should not foul with any fixed
structure object or another wagon while
negotiating bend or turn. The material
should not project outside and height
should not reach electromagnetic field of
overhead traction line. Railway rules should
be followed. Identification, marking and
proper packing are necessary.
2. Motor trucks must have valid RTO permits
and efficient brakes, lights, horns, side and
reverse signals, jacks, tools etc. They should
be in good working condition. Only trained
and licensed driver should drive and not the
helper or cleaner. While driving an Ethylene
oxide tanker by a cleaner, it was dashed
against a structure resulting into breaking of
the main valve and the whole factory shed
and the tanker were burnt into ashes.
3. Drivers should strictly follow the speed
limit on highway and inside any factory
premises. They should observe utmost care
while turning, overtaking, crossing railway
level crossing and applying brakes. They
should have ‘tremcard’ while carrying
hazardous chemicals.
4. The transport vehicle should not be
overloaded. No material should project
above or beyond the side panels. Backward
projection should not be more than a meter.
Bending bars (rods) should not touch the
road. Liquid should not be leaking. Lime,
cement, gravel or dusty material should not
throw continuous dust. They should be
covered. Red signals (flag or light) should be
displayed on the projected end.
5. Material should be properly loaded
considering weight, dimension, centre of
gravity of the load, carrier capacity, safety
26
distance and working clearance. Load
should be properly packed and lashed. In
rainy season, waterproof cover should be
provided.
6. Men should not sit on the load or side
panels or on the driver’s cabin. They should
not walk on a moving vehicle.
Necessary fire fighting arrangement
should be kept ready. Engine exhausts shall not
open near any flammable material. Vehicles
carrying highly flammable liquids or gases
must have spark arrester on their exhaust pipe.
Explosives, detonators and combustible
material shall be separately stored with safety
precautions. It should not be piled over 2.5 mt
height. See Chapter 13 for fire & explosion
safety. For electrical safety see Chapter 11. See
Chapter 28, Part 2.41 and 2.42 for Motor
Vehicles Act and Rules.
10 HEALTH AND WELFARE OF
CONSTRUCTION WORKERS
Occupational hazards and diseases relating
to construction work are mainly dust hazards
(Silicosis due to silica dust, Siderosis due to iron
dust, Anthracosis due to coal dust and Cement
Pneumoconiosis due to cement dust), noise and
vibration, heat and humidity, electricity,
hazardous chemicals, work at heights and
depths (in a confined space), material handling,
lifting machinery, transport vehicles, radiation
hazards, biological hazards etc. First-aid boxes
and occupational health services at workplace
or nearby are most desirable.
10.1 Dust Hazards :
While handling building materials,
workers can be exposed to four types of dusts
which by inhalation can cause following lung
diseases (Pneumoconiosis) :
Silicosis : Silica (SiO2) dust (respirable size
0.5 to 3 micron) causes fibrotic changes,
modulation in both lungs, shortness of breath,
decreased chest expansion, reduced capacity for
work and in advanced case impairment of total
lung capacity. The effect is irreversible and no
effective treatment is available. It is a notifiable
and compensable disease under the law.
The effect of exposure, varies with the
concentration of dust, time period, working
conditions, body resistance, control measures
etc.
Chest X-ray shows a snow storm
appearance in lung fields. But it should be
confirmed by a history of prolonged exposure
of silica dust and symptoms of dry cough,
dysponea, chest tightness and difficulty in
breathing. Regular medical examination of
workers and engineering controls to minimise
exposure are necessary.
Siderosis is caused by inhalation of iron
dust (Iron oxide). Electric arc welding, dry
grinding of iron, buffing, polishing and shot-
blasting produce iron dust. It seldom causes
serious symptom unless there is co-existent
silicosis.
Anthracosis (Coal workers’
pneumoconiosis) is caused by inhalation of coal
dust. Foundry workers, coal handlers. couple
collie, boilermen (scalers), furnacemen, railway
firemen, graphite workers etc. are exposed to
coal dusts. The first phase (requires about 12
years of work) causes little ventilatory
impairment, but the second phase causes
progressive massive fibrosis (PMF) resulting in
severe respiratory disability and tending to
death.
Early diagnosis and change in occupation
offers the best hope. Other treatment like
chemotherapy should be as per doctor’s advice.
Cement (Benign) Pneumoconiosis,
silicosis with associated pulmonary
tuberculosis, bronchitis and emphysema are
possible with cement or cement and free silica
dust (e.g. acid resistant cement).
In addition to these respiratory disorders,
other health hazards are as under :
Skin Cement eczema due to alkalinity
or presence of chromium,
Furuncles, Pyoderma, Cellulitis,
Asbestosis
Vision Conjunctivitis
27
Nervous Muscular pain, Back pain,
system Neuralgia, Spondylosis, Arthritis
and Rheumatism
Digestive Peptic ulcers
system
Ear Hearing loss due to high noise
Others Radiant heat, High temperature
near furnace, CO gas and
Asbestosis due to asbestos cement
products
Prophylaxis (Control measures) are
engineering control and medical monitoring.
Engineering control includes methods of
elimination or minimisation of dust exposure.
Local exhaust (suction hood), cyclone dust
collector, unit dust collector, electrostatic
precipitators, substitution of wet grinding for
dry grinding and hydro-blasting for sand
blasting and built-in devices with grinding and
polishing machines etc. are generally used.
They should be maintained in good working
conditions. Workers should wear dust
masks/respirators and eye protection also.
Medical monitoring includes appraisal of
dust generating places or processes, area
monitoring and analysis, medical examinations
including X-ray and sputum test, lung function
test and clinical tests.
See Chapter-24 also.
10.2 Noise and Vibration :
Crushers, grinders, compressors and heavy
lifting machinery in construction industry
cause high noise. Continuously working near
such high noise causes hearing loss, deafness,
annoyance, change in heart rate, blood
pressure, sweat rate, work performance etc. and
also psychological and psychomotor effects.
High frequencies are more serious than low
frequencies. Noise level should be kept below
90 decibels by using quieter machinery and
processes, enclosures and silencers. If this is not
possible, workers should be given ear plugs or
muffs of good quality.
For details see Chapter-12, Part A and B.
10.3 Heat and Humidity :

Steel mills, forge shops, furnaces, boilers,
hot asphalt, tar, steam, hot water, damp clay,
under-water work etc. expose heat or humidity.
In dry hot atmosphere, thermal balance can
be maintained by evaporation of sweat but in
moist hot atmosphere as in cotton mills, process
of perspiration (sweat evaporation) slows down
due to humidity and workers feel great
discomfort and their productivity gets down
due to heat stress. Main three types of heat
stresses are heat stroke, heat exhaustion and
heat cramp.
Insulation of hot processes and parts,
lagging of hot pipes, shielding against radiant
heat, local exhaust ventilation, improvement in
general (natural or mechanical) ventilation,
spot cooling of hot object, isolation or
segregation of hot processes, replacement of
workers near furnaces or giving frequent
recesses and adequate supply of drinking water
are some of the remedial measures.
See Chapter-10 and 24 for further details.
10.4 Other Hazards :
Use of solvents, thinners, paints, varnishes
etc. cause fire hazards. See Chapter-13 for fire
safety. Use of chemicals, pigments, radioactive
substances and biological agents pose peculiar
types of hazards. Their effects and control are
explained in Chapter-24. Work permit and
special precautions are required when workers
have to work at height or in a confined space.
See Chapter 16 for details. For electrical hazards
and controls see Chapter-11.
10.5 First-aid and Health Services :
At all work sites, first-aid boxes containing
prescribed medicines, antidotes and equipment
are most essential. Trained first-aiders should
also be employed. They should be proficient in
the use of resuscitation and other life-saving
techniques and in rescue procedures. Necessary
equipment including stretchers should be
readily available.
All workers should be subject to health
surveillance. Work area monitoring should be
carried out. Health services should be available
28
at workplace or nearby. See Chapter-24 for
further details.
See Chapter XXIV, Rules 223 to 232 of the
BOC Workers Rules, 1998, for medical facilities.
It requires medical examination, construction
medical officer, OHC, ambulance room,
ambulance van, stretchers, FAB, emergency
treatment, notice of occupational diseases etc.
10.6 Welfare :
At or near work site, adequate supply of
drinking water, sanitary and washing facilities
or showers, change or cloak room, lunchroom
or canteen, rest room or shelter, facilities for
food and drink and suitable living
accommodation should be available to workers.
The size and number of such facilities may vary
according to the number of workers. Where
necessary separate facilities should be provided
for male and female workers.
See Chapter XXVIII, Rules 242 to 247 of the
BOC Workers Rules, 1998, for statutory
provisions regarding above welfare facilities.
10.7 Accident Reports and Records :
Where prescribed, as in case of factory
premises, all accidents to construction workers
should be reported to the authorities where
absenteeism due to accident lasts for more than
48 hours. All fatal accidents should also be
reported to police and the family of the
deceased. Where format is prescribed (e.g.
Form 21, GFR), it must be reported in that form
only.
Record of non-reportable accidents
including near-misses should be maintained for
internal use.
All accidents should be thoroughly
investigated by a team of concerned officers
including Safety Officer and their conclusions
should be used as remedial measures to prevent
future accidents.
Non-factory construction sites should
report their accidents to the authorities
prescribed.
A good record of all such accidents and
their costs should be maintained for a long
time. It may be useful to draft a law or to make
internal rules and regulations. See Part 9 of
Chapter-5 and Part 3 of Chapter-19.
Safety Committee should be constituted
and a Safety Officer should be appointed in
every establishment wherein 500 or more
construction workers are employed as required
by Section 38 of the Building and Other
Construction Workers Act, 1996.
See Rule 210, Form XIV for accident report
and Rule 230, Form XIII for notice of poisoning
or disease, of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998.
10.8 Ergonomics :
Different postures while doing
construction operations, seat and control
arrangement in lifting and shifting material,
equipment and vehicles, use of hand tools etc.
require ergonomic considerations.
In a study conducted by NITIE (National
Institute of Training for Industrial Engineering,
Bombay), in 1989, on construction workers, 10
different tasks were evaluated for their severity.
The tasks of excavation/digging, plastering,
climbing with 15 Kg weight, bending
29
reinforcement bars and concreting were found
to be severe. The energy expenditure for these
activities ranged between 8 to 10 Kcal/min and
the heart rate between 130 to 150 bpm. Others
like casting, painting, mixing cement and
aggregates with water and masonry work were
placed in the category of light and moderate
work. The energy expenditure in that case
ranged between 2.5 to 8 Kcal/min and heart
rate between 90 to 135 bpm.
In plastering, a stooping posture was
found to be harmful. It would be better to adopt
a squatting posture for plastering the wall area
below the hip level.
The workers reported acute pain in
elbows of the arm holding the working pan. A
simple use of a stool or stand to put the pan can
reduce the pain. The use of a longer handle for
the patella can be resorted to reduce stooping.
Thus application of ergonomics in
construction industry can be used to redesign
work pattern for comfort and efficiency and
improvement of health conditions.
 Exercise

1. State, Explain, Mention or Discuss - 5. Derricks.

1. The reasons for health and safety 6. Precautions prior to demolition.
problems and safety measures based 7. Winches or Hoists.
on NITIE Study (1989). 8. Excavators or Road rollers.
2. The main provisions under the 9. Concrete mixtures.
Building and other Construction 10. Pneumatic compressors.
Workers Act 1996 or Rules (1998) 11. Duties of a Construction Safety
thereunder. Officer or a Construction Medical
3. What are the precautions necessary Officer.
to run – 12. Role of a Construction Welfare
(1) Crusher plants (2) Power Officer.
generators (3) Engines (4) Transport 13. Ergonomic aspects in construction
equipment. work.
4. Safety precautions required for – 14. Siderosis or Anthracosis.
(a) Excavation work (b) Drilling, 15. Caissons or Cast-in-situ concrete
Loading & Blasting (c) Mobile structures
asphalt layers (d) Crusher plants 16. Site planning and layout OR
5. The safety measures necessary while Precautions for movement of
carrying out tunnelling and shaft materials and men.
sinking OR Safety measures for wall
and floor openings. 3. “Fall from height and struck by falling
6. Sequence of demolition OR objects, are the two major causes of fatal
Precautions during demolition. accidents in construction activity.”
7. At length the health and welfare of Justify this statement with statistics or
construction workers. actual case studies.
8. The difference in hazards and 4. Design a safety work permit at
control measures while doing under construction site OR A construction
ground, above ground or under safety check-list.
water works. 5. Classify the construction machinery and
explain in detail any two of them.
2. Write Short Notes on - 6. You are deputed as a construction
1. Basic philosophy. supervisor for structural steel work and
2. Dust hazards. erection. Narrate what precautions you
3. Cofferdam. will observe.
4. Shoring & Under pinning.

Reference and Recommended Reading :

1. Safety and Health in Construction, ILO,
Geneva.
2. Safety in Construction Industry, NSC,
Mumbai - 22.
3. Safety Manual of Essar Projects Ltd. (EPL).
4. Industrial Safety & Pollution Control
Handbook, NSC & ADP.
5. The Building and other Construction
Workers Act, 1996 and the Central Rules,
1998.
6. The Factories Act, 1948 and the GFR 1963.
7. Indian Standards on Civil Engineering.

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