FOUNOEO 1883 COPYRIGHT

TME u,M.$.
T. "'"-· SOUTHERN J...TD .• THIS P,t.PEFI
WAS ·THE l'll'IST
19 SUPPLIEO Ott
COlll'IESPONOENCE
MINING
IN THI;
SCHOOl
WOFll..0.
~Re ~~al~ SJwof: CONDITION
IT IS
TM ...T
RESEllVeo
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Lesson. LR;I.
OUTLINE OF COLLIERY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT.
ln this lesson we propose to take the student for an imaginary walk around a colliery, inspecting
the electrical equipment and drawing attention to some of its main features. This will give a general
idea of the electrical layout and 'introduce the student to a number of possibly unfamiliar technical
terms, The details will be more fully dealt with in subsequent lessons.
THE MAIN ENGINE HOUSE.

•
We will begin by visiting the main engine house which houses the generating plant, consisting
(in this case) of two turbo-alternators driven by mixed-pressure turbines, together with the necessary
switchgear and controlling apparatus.
The turbo-alternators each have an output of 1,500 kilowatts (about 2,000 HP.) and generate
3-phase alternaeing current at a pressure of 3,300 volts and a frequency of 50 cycles per second. They
are driven at 3,00(1r.p.m, by mixed-pressure steam turbines which take exhaust steam from two
steam winders and two steam-driven air-compressors, with an alternative supply of high-pressure
steam when there is insufficient low-pressure steam for the load. A third winder is electrically driven.
The turbo-alternator is probably the simplest and most robust of all electric generating machines.
Externally, there is very little to be seen, for it is entirely enclosed, but if one of themhappens to be
open, we will see that the alternator (alternating current generator) portion of the machine consists
of two main parts, namely (a) the stator, or stationary outer frame, and (b) the rotor, or revolving
member of the machine.
The stator consists of a cast iron frame TUIUllNE A.I.TE f\NATOlt
inside which a series of soft iron, or speci~l
silicon steel, stampings or laminations is
assembled. These have a number of axial
slots around their inner circumference in which
are embedded the insulated copper conductors
which form the three phases of the stator
windings. One end of each phase is brought
JJ::;::::::::::::::::J~~cl~~~~~~~~;;;;~ffi~
out to a fixed terminal whilst the other ends arc
cpnnected together to form what is called a
star point or a neutral point.
Air spaces · are provided between the
laminations so that cooling air may be forced
through the machine -to carry off the heat Fig. 1.
generated in the production of electricity. Arrangement ot Turbo·allernu.tor.

Note carefully that the 3-phase alternating current is generated in the stator windings and is
delivered to the generator switchboard from the three fixed terminals on the stator frame.
The rotor is, in effect, a revolving field magnet system in which the field windings are supplied
with direct current from a. small d.c. exciter direct-coupled to, or mounted on an extension of, the
rotor shaft. The direct current -is conveyed to the rotor windings via brushes and two· slip rings-
smooth bronze or steel rings mounted on the rotor shaft but insulated therefrom.
In a high-speed machine such as this, the revolving field magnets are not formed by salient
(projecting) poles, but the rotor ls a cylindrical forged steel drum of relatively small diameter having
deep axial slots in its periphery to receive the field windings. This construction greatly increases
the ability of the rotor to withstand centrifugal stresses. The field windings themselves are formed
of insulated copper strip embedded in the axial slots and entirely covered at the ends of the rotor by
end-bells to prevent their llying out. ·
At this point, we should make it clear that an electric current (or rather a voltage that causes
an electric current to flow) is generated whenever relative movement is caused by a prime mover
to take place between (a) a series of conductors, and {b) the lines of force produced by a magnet.
It does not matter whether the conductors move and the magnet is stationary, or whether the magnet
moves and the conductors are stationary. In a turbo-alternator, the rotor field magnets revolve and
{5206)
 L'fl../I
Outline of Colliery Electrical Equipmei1,t.

the result is the generation of a 3~p!lase alternating voltage in the fixed stator windings. This voltage
may be varied at will by varying the exciting current, either by hand-regulation or by means of an
automatic voltage regulator. ,
Further. when an electric current flows through the windings, a largo amount or heat is produced
and adequate arrangements must be made for cooling. Quite large quantities of air are required and
the air must be clean. Otherwise, dirt would be deposited in the narrow air passages, quickly choking
them and making the cooling of the machine impossible. One method of cooling is to provide an air
duct below the alternator and to fit this duct with· 'cloth filters, or water-spray filters, through which
the cooling air is drawn from the atmosphere. In another closed-circuit method, the same air is
circulated continuously through the machine and then through a cooler and back to the machine.
Note that these elaborate cooling arrangements apply only to alternators and not to motors. The
latter are usually much smaller and the method of cooling is of a simpler character.
Practically all turbo-alternators exhaust into condensers where the steam is converted to water
and advantage thereby taken of the reduced back-pressure. Condensers may be of two main types,
surface or jet. In either case, certain auxiliaries are required, namely a circulating pump for the
cooling water, an extraction pump for the condensed steam (condensate) and an air-pump for removing
the occluded air carried through with the steam. These auxiliaries may be driven by small steam
turbines, or by electric motors of the squirrel-cage induction type.
The student will note that there are two of these mixed-pressure turbo-alternators. only one of
which is running, the other being intended to act as a stand-by should this one break down. Duplica-
tion of important plant, where possible, is universal at collieries and students will meet many examples
of this, e.g. generators, main switches and feeders. Other precautions against breakdown include
periodical inspection and overhaul, coupled with the provision of automatic safety and protective devices
which shut down the plant (or part of it) when anything goes wrong due to an electrical fault or overload.

The main switchbcard.

From the fixed terminals on the stator, the alternating current generated passes to the generator
switchboard and thence to the busbars of the main switchboard from which the colliery feeders take
their supply.
Broadly speaking, the switchboard may be one of two main types :-
(a) The truck type, in which each generator panel and feeder panel consists of a sheet steel cubiclo
(about IO H. high and 3 It. wide and deep) with a movable front framework on which is mounted rhe
oil circuit-breaker and all its accessories, including protective devices and instruments. When desired,
the movable front portion of the cubicle (which is connected to the rear portion by a series of plugs
and sockets) can be completely withdrawnhorizontally, so isolating the circuit-breaker and its access-
ories from the busbars, , ·
(b) The ironclad type in which each unit is of the compound-filled, oil-immersed, draw-out type,
somewhat similar to those so largely used underground. Ironclad switchgear is the more compact,
but is generally morn 'expensive than the truck type. , , ,
ln either case, the various ,panels or units arc all interconnected to form one continuous switch-
board and spare panels are provided for future extension.

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Fig. 2. Di3gr:im of Surface Distrlbullon Systom.
 LR/I
The Universal Mining Sc/wot, Cardiff -3-

A diagram of the general layout of the surface distribution at the colliery we are inspecting is
shown in fig. 2. Some of the main features to note are as follows :-

Generator switchboard.
In this case, a separate switchboard is provided for the generators, the busbars being divided
into two by a switch and each generator having its own incoming switch to enable it to be isolated.
On the outgoing side, duplicate cables supply current to the main busbars, and each cable is fitted
with a switch at both ends, so enabling periodical inspection and overhaul of the generators and their
switches to be effected without interrupting the supply to the whole colliery system. Jn many cases,
the facilities for isolation may not be so complete as this, but the principle is sound.

Cables.
Various types of cable may be used for connecting the turbo-alternators to the switchboards,
but for high-tension (as in this case) they are .usually of the PILSDWA type (paper-insulated, lead-
sheathed, double-wire armoured).
As shown in fig. 3, such a cable consists of three
stranded copper conductors which may be either circular Copper Core
or sector-shaped. Each conductor is covered with a
wrapping of oiled paper and the three are then laid together Paper
and enclosed in a further wrapping of .oiled paper to make
the section circular. Next (in some cases} is the B.0.T. t.'1...~-- B.o:r. Sheath
(Board of Trade) earthing sheath which is a layer of con- (Irr some cases)
•• ,._,.......___ Lead
tinuous copper strips forming a protecting earthed con-
ductor; it is only used, however, when required to supple-
ment the conductivity of the armouring if that is not Jute
sufficient by itself to act as a.n adequate earthing conductor. D. W. Armour
Over the B.O.a'. sheath and in contact with it is a tube ct
lead or lead alloy to exclude moisture ; then a layer or two
of jute cord is wound over the lead sheath and covered
wjth canvas tape to form a padding for the double wire Fig. 3.
armouring or galvanised steel wires. Finally, the whole is Section of Paper-Insulated Cable
covered with a further serving of jute and tape impregnated
with a preservative compound.
The main· busbars,
1t will be seen that, in fig. 2, the main busbars supply ten outgoing or feeder panels, five on each
side of a. switch which serves to connect or disconnect one half from the other half.
One panel supplies a lighting transformer which steps down the generated voltage from 3,300 to
110 volts; two panels each supply a static power transformer which steps down the voltage to 550
volts for a series of small surface motors ; whilst the remaining panels supply current at 3,300 volts
to all the larger motors and also to two shaft cables for the underground electric power plant. Let
us follow a few of these feeders and make some comments on the apparatus supplied by them.

VENTILATING FAN.
The power taken by a Ian is quite a large proportion of the total power used al a colliery, for
it runs continuously throughout the whole 24 hours. It is therefore very necessary to pay special
attention to the selection of the most suitable fan, and to install the most efficient motor and fan
drive. The motor is commonly one of two types, namely either (a) a. slip-ring induction motor, or
(b) a synchronous-induction motor. Both types of motor are capable of developing the necessary
starting torque to start up a heavy fan from rest.
The slip-ring induction motor {fig. 4), ~ 1r.1E S.lATOf'. C.IP.C.Uo"T VAP.11'<&\.~
consists essentially of (a) a stator wound for ~l-TING
Rf~ISTAl'IC.E
3 phases (somewhat like an alternator)
and (b) a rotor also wound for 3 phases.
Alternating current Is supplied to the three
fixed terminals of the stator windings and MOTOF\
this creates a revolving magnetic field
which cuts the rotor windings and induces
an alternating current in them. Note that
the rotor only carries . .an induced current Fig. 4.
and is not connected to the supply. We Di:igram of Connections for Slip-ring JnducUon Motor.
now have the rotor .conductors carrying
current in a magnetic field and the effect is to cause the rotor to revolve at approximately (but not
quite) the speed of the rotating field, the difference being termed the "slip."
To reduce the demand for current at starting and also to increase the starting torque, a variable
stcrtlng resistance is included in the rotor circuit, being connected to the rotor windings through the
medium of brushes and three slip-rings. The resistance may be of either the metallic or the liquid
type. At starting, all the resistance is in circuit, but the resistance is gradually cut out as the motor
speeds up. Finally, in the case of a continuously running machine like a fan, or a turbine pwnp, the
brushes are raised and the slip-rings short-circuited, and the motor thereafter functions like a squirrel-
cage motor {described later).
LR/l
-·-4- Ouilrne of Colliery Electrical Eqi1-ipment.

The synchronous-induction motor {used as an alternative to a slip-ring motor for driving a large
fan} is a special type of synchronous motor having a stator like an alternator and a wound drum-type
rotor like a slip-ring motor. It can be started up exactly like a slip-ring motor with a resistance in the
rotor circuit. When full speed is attained, however, the rotor resistance is cut out and a d,c. supply
is given to the rotor windings by means of a throw-over switch, the machine then running like a syn-
chronous motor (see below).
The special advantage of a synchronous-induction motor, apart from its ability to start up against
load, is that, when the d.c. field is over-excited, the motor takes alternating current from the line at a
leading power factor and this helps to counteract a low lagging power factor and so improve the general
power factor of the system. The motor, however, is more costly .and more complicated than a plain
slip-ring induction motor and the latter is the more commonly used.
In certain cases, where a high-speed fan is used, the latter is direct coupled to the motor which
ruus at the same speed. More usually. however, the fan runs at a lower speed than the motor and
some form of gearing must be interposed between the two. This may be either (a) totally enclosed,
double-helical gearing, (b) vco-rope drive, (c) ordinary cotton rope drive, (d) belt drive, or exceptionally
(e) chain drive. All of them can be efficient and reliable, the vee-ropc drive now perhaps being generally
favoured.

AJR COMPRESSOR.
Here we have a high-speed, vertical, two-stage, reciprocating, compressor having a capacity of
3,000 cub. ft. per min. and driven by a 550 HP. motor. The latter may be either a slip-ring Induction
motor, as in the case of the fan, especially if the compressor runs intermittently so that lrequenl
starting and stopping are required. Alternatively, if the compressor runs continuously, a salient-
pole synchronous motor rnay be used because of its power-factor improvrncnt qualities.
A salient-pole synchronous motor may be shortly described as an alternator reversed, having a
stator wound for three phases and supplied with alternating current [rom the line, and a rotor with
projecting poles (field magnets) supplied with direct current via two slip rings. Scch a motor is not
inherently sell-starting and it had originally to be run up to speed by another motor, called a pony
motor. Nowadays, however, it is usually made self-starting under light load by virtue of a special
so-called " damper " winding mounted on the pole pieces of the rotor and having an induction motor
action. Once it has been nm up to speed, the synchronous motor continues running at a constant
speed (synchronous speed) depending on the number of poles in its field system and the frequency
of the supply, there being no "slip" as with an induction motor.

HAULAGES.
The colliery under review is of moderate depth and two of the main haulages arc at the surface,
the ropes passing down the shaft. This is not put forward as an ideal arrangement but has occasionally
been adopted. The method is more applicable to mines which arc entered by an inclined drift or slant
from the surface. ·
The haulages are of the double-drum, double-reductiongear type, working on the main-and-tail
rope principle. Like all haulages except those of small size, they are driven by slip-ring induction
motors which can develop the necessary high starting torque. These work on exactly the same principle
as already described for the fan motor, but there are two important differences. The first is that a
starting and reversing switch must be inserted in the stator circuit to transpose the connections to two
of the stator phases when it is desired to reverse the motor. The second is that there must be a con-
troller (either a drum-type controller or a liquid controller) in the rotor circuit in place of a starting
resistance. The controller is much more robust and massive than a starter because it is required for
speed control and must be capable of dissipating large amounts of heat.

ELECTRIC WINDER.
Although many types of equipment have been tried for electric winders, the two types in most
common use are (a) the Ward Leonard system, with flywheel, and (b) the plain A.C. induction motor
system. The former is the more elaborate and costly and is -used chiefly for deep shafts and heavy
loads where high peak loads art: to be avoided and where sensitive control is required. The A.C. system
is simpler and. meets most requirements in a satisfactory manner. It is the type installed in the present
case.
·An A.C. winder is essentially a large slip-ring induction motor, having an oil-break or an air-break
contactor-type starting and reversing switch in the stator circuit, and a liquid controller fitted with
an elaborate cooling system in the rotor circuit. In addition, some special form of overspeed and
overwind device (e.g. the Whitmore} is required to bring the cages automatically to rest if anything·
should go wrong.
We notice also that an electrical brake solenoid is provided which holds the brake off when power
is on, but which trips all the brake gear and allows a weighted lever to apply the brakes should the
electric power fail. An emergency switch is also fitted to enable the enginernan to trip the main switch
and cut off power if the need should arise.
Let us now observe the movements of the wattmeter-an instrument which indicates the power
input to the motor--during one complete wind. It may be noted that the motor in question is of
320 B.HP. output but can develop far more than this for short periods. · ·
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff,
---·----- ---

soo

400 NEXr WIND

f)
h
1-- JOO
~
0
...J
;;:200

/00

10 .20 JO 40 -'O
TIME. IN SECONDS
Fig. 5. Typical A.C. Winder Chart.
The chart in lig. S indicates graphically the variations in power input as the wind proceeds.
Immediately current is switched. on, the wattmeter needle flies to 500 kW' and remains there almost
steadily during the acceleration period (15 seconds) as shown by the line marked ·• Power Input."
During this period, however, the effective power output developed by the motor is zero at the beginning
of the wind and gradually increases with the speed to approximately. 500 kVl when full speed is attained,
as shown by, the sloping line marked " Power Output." The shaded space between these two lines
represents power dissipated as heat in the liquid controller.
When the motor has reached normal {uII speed, the wattmeter needle quickly returns to about
270 k\~ because no power is now being expended on acceleration. The needle thereafter retreats
gradually, as the wind proceeds, to about 220 kW until, at about 10 seconds before the end of the
wind, power is cut off by the engincman and the needle immediately falls to zero, remaining there
throughout the deceleration period. Thereafter, only a brief application of power is needed to bring
the cage to bank, as shown by the 100 kW peak at the point marked 40 seconds.
A special feature to note about the foregoing is the wide variation in the demand for power <luring
the wind. This variation may be reduced by fitting a balance ropP.to the cages, or by using cylindro-
conical drums,
SURFACE AUXILIARIES.
'>Ve now come to the series of smaller motors supplied through transformers at 550 volts and we
take the opportunity of referring to yet another type of motor, namely the squirrel cage induction
motor.
This type of motor operates on precisely the same Induction
motor principle as the slip-ring induction motor and resembles the
latter in that it has a stator wound for 3 phases and supplied with
alternating current from the line ; but the rotor is or much simpler
type, the rotor conductors being merely a series of stout copper
bars short-circuited at the ends by end-rings. No slip rings are
required and there is no means of varying the resistance- in the
rotor circuit. The motor is started either by being switched
directly on to the line, or through the medium of a star-delta
starter or an auto-transformer, both ofwhich reduce the voltage Rotor of Squfirg~l-~~geInduction
applied to the stator windings .during the starting period. Motor.
The squirrel-cage induction motor in its ordinary form has the disadvantage that it takes a heavy
starting current and develops only a moderate starting torque. It is therefore only suitable where
the starting load is light, e.g. turbine pumps and workshop .drivcs. Special types of squirrel-cage
motor, however, are available having what is termed a double-cage rotor, and these have a relatively
good .torque and low current-demand at starting, although a somewhat lower efficiency when running.
In consequence, squirrel-cage motors in their several forms have a wide field of usefulness for driving
coalcutters, conveyors, power-loaders, pumps, small haulages, and so on.
The slip-ring induction motor, on the other hand, takes a smaller starting current and develops
a high starting torque. 1n spite of its greater cost and complication, therefore, it is used for all the
larger motors where the load at starting is likely to be heavy or where speed control is required, e.g.
winders, haulages, ram pumps, large ventilating fans, and so on.
The boiler house.
The only electrical plant here consists of a 10 HP. squirrel-cage motor to drive the chain-grate
stokers for the water-tube boilers, and a 40 HP. slip-ring motor to drive the induced draught fan through
a belt of fair length so that the motor is well away from the heat of the flues.
Both motors are of the " enclosed ventilated ,, type, i.e .: the openings in the end-covers of the
motor framework are covered by a screen of wire or perforated metal which permits free circulation
of air through the motor but prevents clothing or other articles being drawn in. Such enclosure is
..
 Outline of Colliery Electrical Eqi"'ipmcnt.

suitable for reasonably clean situations where unskilled workmen are engaged and much work is
proceeding in the vicinity.
A simpler enclosure, termed " protected enclosure '' omits the perforated metal (although the
end-covers protect anyone from actually touching the rotating and live parts) and may be used in
places where only authorised persons have access.
Creepers, winches and picking belts.
The creepers and picking belt jibs arc driven by small squirrel-cage motors of ·5 to IO HP. Two
winches, driven by 20 HP. slip-ring motors, are provided for lowering and raising heavy apparatus
at a low speed in the shafts. The screens and picking belts are driven by belt from a 60 HP. slip-ring
motor. In dusty situations, of course, the motors must be " totally enclosed '' within a cast iron casing
to exclude the dust. In such a case, there is no circulation of air through the motor .and the heat
generated by the current in the windings can only be dissipated by radiation. This necessitates a larger
and more costly m.otor than would otherwise be necessary in order to avoid overheating.
Saw mill, mortar mill, and stone-dust plant.
In the saw mill, we have a 36-inch circular saw driven by a 30 HP. squirrel-cage motor. The
greatest care must be taken to make the apparatus around the saw mill as free from fire risk as possible"
and total enclosure of motor and switchgear is essential.
The mortar mill is driven' by belt from a 15 HP. squirrel-cage motor, with a star-delta starter.
The stone-dust mill is driven by a 40 HP. slip-ring induction motor, with a " pipe-ventilated
enclosure.'• This is a special adaptation of total enclosure in which clean air from outside the building
is led to the motor via a pipe. The motor is thus freely ventilated although the immediate surroundings
may be dusty, and a smaller motor may be used than if it were totally enclosed.
The lamp room.
At the colliery we are inspecting, direct current for charging the electric safety lamps is supplied
hy a. small motor-generator set consisting of a IO HP., 550 volt, squirrel-cage induction motor direct
coupled to a. 5 kV{ shunt wound d,c, generator. The latter generates continuous current at voltages
varying from 200 to 240, the necessary adjustment being provided to suit the number of electric
lamps being charged. These are arranged on charging racks, the lamps on each rack b~fug connected
in series and tbe several racks being connected to the supply in parallel. • •
Alternatively, direct current for the charging of accumulators may be obtained from the a.c.
supply through the medium of a mercury arc rectifier, a stationary piece of apparatus having a higher
efficiency than a. motor-generator set.
~ROM SURFAC.E.

UNDERGROUND PLANT.
\
We will now return to the main PIT FHDEI'. NO 2
engine house where we. notice that
there are two outgoing panels marked
Pit Feeder No. 1 and Pit Feeder No. 2 DUPLICATE
and supplying the cables to the D.C. SHAFT
C.AaLE:!>
shaft. The diagram in fig. 7 shows
the arrangement of the underground
distribu tion system. PUMP Na.I HQ~

OOCOMnte .SWITClll'IOI.-/ 1'. l!IOARI) ttoi/"'/

Shaft cables. i u
n. • i

.!
These are of the paper-insulated, 3000 VOLlS
'1 :!'
!~
lead-sheathed, double-wire armoured FEEDER
WEST ~II)( /1' /1' 71' ~ i /!' ~/Ii
type as previously described •. special
care being taken during manufacture llWH 1'.0AP C:.Aalo.E ' • _, 1
to drain the paper of all excess oil so as PUMPS I>
~ 4 s
-
... .
to eliminate the danger of the oil 550 VOLT$
setting up a high pressure at the
bottom of the cable, possibly bursting
the lead sheath and permitting
r
PUMPS. c..oAILIJ1TtRS, ETC.
EAST SIDE
FEEOEI\

moisture to enter. Fig. 7.

Diagram of Undeq~round Dlstrlbutlon System.

In the shaft, the cables

are supported by wooden cleats
bolted behind the shaft bun tons
(fig. 8) or suspended by two
short chains from rag-bolts let
into the shaft walling. The
cleats are usually made of well-
seasoned elm wood with galvan-
ised iron damps and may be
obtained for one, two, or three
cables placed side by side.
They arc two to three feet long,
and carry a load of about 3 cwl.
per foot or cleat, or 6 cwt. per
foot for a double deal. The
distance between successive
cleats may be 20 to 25 yards.
F1g. 8. Oleat for Sb:i.rt coble.
 LR/I
The Universal A1ining School, Cardiff. --~
7

The lodgeroom.
Half-way down the shaft, Pit Feeder No. I passes into a lodgeroom where two pumps are situated
to deal with a feeder of water tapped at this point. The cable terminates at an incoming ironcla~;
oil-immersed, switch panel which supplies the lodgeroom busbars, whilst another similar cable is
connected to the bus bars through an outgoing switch and passes out of the lodgeroom to the pit-bottom
substation. Also connected to the lodgeroorn busbars are two outgoing switch panels supplying the
pumps. ·
Fig. 9 shows in outline the main
features of a flameproof, Ironclad, drawout,
compound - fllled, oil - immersed switch
pillar so widely used underground in dis-
tribution switchgear and as main switches
for the larger pumps and haulage motors.
The incoming and outgoing cables are
connected to the pillar via trifurcating
boxes which separate the three cable cores ;
the switch contacts are broken under oil
to quench the break flash ; and the joints (l'RoNT) (!llPE.}

are all liameproof to prevent the danger Fig. 9.

of an external ignition of firedamp if this Ironclad Switch Plllar.
gas should be present. The switch is also fitted with an ammeter, automatic over-current releases,
earth leakage protection in some cases, and an earthing switch for earthing the out-going cable when
required for inspection or repair.
The pumps are of the multf-stage turbine type and are each of 100 HP. driven by squirrel-cage
induction motors running at about 1,450 r.p.m. Such motors are quite permissible for turbine pumps
(even in larger sizes) because these are always started up light, with the stop valve closed. In a system
of sufficlcntlj; large capacity, they can be switched direct on to the line by the main switch. II large
starting currents aee prohibited, however, they can be started through a star-delta starter or an auto-
transformer starter, either of which gives a reduced voltage to the stator windings when the motor
is being started up. ·we will see later that turbine pumps may alternatively .bc driven by slip-ring
lliduction motors with a starting resistance In the rotor circuit, exactly as in the case of a fan and as
shown in fig. 4.

Pit-bottom substation.
This contains the main distribution switchgear for the underground plant, the various panels
all being of the flameproof ironclad type already referred to. The whole board is still at high-tension,
between 3,000 and 3,300 volts, depending on the voltage drop in the shaft cables.
The first panel Incoming Feeder· No. 1 is similar to the last panel, Incoming Feeder No. 2, this
being another case of duplication of important plant. If a fa.ult should occur in either of the pit feeders,
the duplicate cable will continue to give supply. These two incoming panels arc of larger size than
the outgoing feeder panels.

Pit-bottom pumproom,
. The two feeder panels marked Pump No. 3 and Pump No. 4 supply the cables Leading to two
turbine pumps which deliver water to the surface. In this case, the pumps are direct-driven by 150 HP.
slip-ring induction motors of the " enclosed ventilated " type, with flameproof slip-ring covers. The
control gear (fig. 4) required comprises (1} a main switch to give supply lo the stator windings, the
switch being fitted with an ammeter, overload coils and earth leakage· protection, and (2} a. liquid
starter in the rotor circuit to reduce the starting current and increase the starting torque. The control
gear is fitted with brush-raising and short-circuiting gear whereby the slip rings are connected together
after the motor has reached full speed. so reducing brush wear and cutting out unnecessary resistance.
The feeder panel marked Pump No. 5 supplies the cable. leading to a three-throw ram pump,
this being driven through gearing by a 150 HP. slip-ring induction motor similar to those already
described and controlled in a similar way. This pump is a standby in case of breakdown or overhaul
· of one of the turbine pumps.

Pit-bottom lighting.
The lighting for the pit-bottom, pump-room, substation, and the main roads near the shaft is
provided by a 10 kilowatt, oil-immersed, self-eooled transformer which reduces the pressure from
3,300 to 110 volts. From the transformer, a cable is led to a low-tension distribution-boa.rd, consisting
of a number of switch-fusesconnected to a common busbar chamber. The whole lighting switchboard
is enclosed in flameproof cases and is equipped with armour glands for the incoming and outgoing
cables.
The lamps are enclosed in flameproof Jittings with well-glasses protected by bars, and these uttings
are provided with glands and clamps to receive the cable armouring. The wiring is carried out in
two-core rubber-Insulated cable having a serving of jute, and armoured with a single layer or galvanised
steel wires, being further protected by a tough jute braiding. The cable is carried on the surface of
walls and roofs and is secured thereto by small cleats. A special key is required to remove one of the
well-glasses, and when the glass is removed, the lamp immediately goes out.
LR/1
-8- Outline of Colliery Electrical Equipment.

West side feeder.

Turning to the panel marked " West Side Feeder " {fig. 7), we follow its cable for about 800 yards
until we come to an inbye substation containing a high-tension switchboard which supplies a 150 HP.
inbye haulage motor and also a static transformer stepping down to 550 volts for the smaller motors
inbye.
The main roadway cable is again of the paper-insulated, lead-sheathed, double-wire armoured
type and is slung by leather cable slings from the roof supports, in a position well out of the way of
traffic but accessible for inspection. Alternatively, the cable may be of the vulcanised bitumen type,
although this is not so much favoured as at one time. Yet another alternative is to use compound
insulated cables in which vulcanised rubber is used as the insulating material, in .conjunction with
other components which are more or less trade secrets. These last mentioned.cableshave the advantage
of semi-flexibility and are being increasingly used.
It will be noted that the cable carries current inbye at high tension (3,000 volts or thereabouts),
the reason being that the current required for a given power transmitted is then a minimum and the
voltage drop and heat-loss are reduced for a given size of cable. High tension current can be used
for all motors exceeding 100 HP. For smaller motors, except in special cases, it is usual to transform
down to medium pressure. At some collieries, of course, all the inbye equipment is at medium pressure,
and this must be regarded as permissible.
The haulage engine served by the West 'Side Feeder is of 150· HP. and is driven, as usual, by an
" enclosed ventilated " slip-ring induction motor with flameproof slip-ring covers. Control is effected
by a starting and reversing switch in the stator circuit and a liquid controller in the rotor circuit.

Transformer.
A static transformer, as its name implies, is a stationary apparatus whereby the voltage of an
alternating current may be transformed, up or down. as the case may require. In the present case.
the voltage is stepped down from about 3,000 volts on the . ~" ._, ~
.
primary siide t o 5·0
a voIt s on t I ie secon dar y siide. F.ig. 10 cASLt
L T LlFTIHG SlfAt:t<LES .......
CASLE
shows an external view of a 3-pbase, core-type, oil-cooled sox &O)(.
transformer suitable for mining use. '-..
Inside the tank is a three-limbed iron core on which
are mounted the insulated primary and secondary windings,
the whole being immersed in oil. The tank itself is of
boiler-plate steel, fitted with external tubes for oil-circula-
tion and mounted on wheels for easy transportation. Each
end of the tank is fitted with a cable sealing and dividing
box to receive. the incoming high-tension and the outgoing
low-tension cables. Alternatively, each end may be fitted FJg. 10· r
with a flameproof oil-immersed circuit-breaker, the trans- Mlnlng Type Trir.ns ormer. ·
former then becoming a transportable sub-station which can be moved forward conveniently as the
face advances.
The motors supplied by the medium-pressure side of the transformer may include pumps, auxiliary
fans and haulages, and also coalcutters, conveyors, etc., as will presently be described for the East
Side Feeder.

East Side Feeder.

We here take the opportunity of illustrating the supply of
electric power to a double-unit coalcutting face. There are, of course,
many possible variants of the arrangements.
In this case, the high-voltage supply is brought inbye to a
transformer substation which is moved forward periodically as the
PLIA~LE=-
face advances. For this purpose, the cables connecting the trans- ARMOUREO
former to the switch panels and also the main cables themselves C:.A8LE
are fitted with detachable cable and dividing boxes or Ilit plugs in
AIR•.&REAk
place of the usual trifurcating boxes. Flit plugs are bolted connec- SWITCJ<C.EAfl
tions which can be fitted lo the cables at the surface, so obviating
the unsealing and uncoupling of cable tails when the switchgear
is moved up. Alternatively, where the complete substation can be
advanced as a unit, the high and low voltage circuit breakers can
be mounted on the transformer itself, so fanning a transportable
substation.
From this point, supply at medium pressure is taken inbye to
the gate-end switchgear which controls the face machinery. All
this switchgear is of the ironclad, flameproof air-break type, this H.T. AAMOVRtO
being usually considered more suitable than oil-immersed switchgear C.A.l!.lE
for use near the face because it is frequently moved and difficulty Fig. 11.
would be experienced in maintaining the correct oil-level. Layout ol Double-unit Face.
The armoured cable connecting the substation to the gate-conveyor panel may be of the paper
insulated or compound-insulated type, similar to the cable on the high-tension side so that the sub-
station can be moved forward without changing the cables.
 LR/l
Mining School, Cardiff g-
·~ :~. . .~~~.~:~?t.:.)·
Tbe se~~ ., .. ~~ecting the air-?r~k switchgear to the various conveyors may be
of the· 4-core"OW lib'ie"armoured type, being insulated by a sheath o[ tough rubber, protected
by a layer ?(~~e,.J~~(~~el\vires, and sheathed overall with. tough rubber or wit!: a fire, oil and
weather-resIS1::4:!g.,p:9UhCl··known as polychloroprene. They are connected to their apparatus by
means of tlit ~l~.~~::~.~'.;· ·
The flexibfe~tiies supplying the coalcutters are of the 5-core vulcnntsed-rubber-lnsulated type,
having three;poy/~·-;:ores, one earth ~or~, _and one pilot core f?r remote control. In addition, the cores
are either collectively screened, or in~1vtdu~y screened, \\:1th a copper _earth ~creen to reduce the
risk of shock by accidental contact with. a hve conductor if the outer. insulating sheath of poly-
chloropreue should be damaged. The flexible cables are connected to their apparatus at both ends by
detachable !Jameproof plugs and sockets.
Gate-end switchgear. · .
The various panels of this switchgear control the supply to coalcutters, conveyors, drills, and
.. power loaders and are mounted on skids for ease in moving forward. They may be either hand-operated
or remote-con trolled. -
Hand operated gear consists of a circuit breaker fitted with overload coils and time-lags, no-volt
release coil, and sometimes earth leakage protection, all mounted in a welded steel case.
Remote control gear is additionally fitted with an electro-magnetically operated main contactor,
a voltage transformer for the pilot circuit, and the necessary choke coils and relays. By their means,
all switcliing operations for starting or stopping the various motors are performed, in so far as the
power circuit is concerned, not at the motor, but at the gate-end box, and the control switch on each
motor only operates a low-voltage pilot circuit at 25 to 30 volts.
The motors tor coal face machinery are usually of the squirrel-cage induction type, sometimes
fitted with a double-bar cage in order to give an increased starting torque. Coalcutter motors may be
intermittently rated, whilst conveyor- motors should be continuously rated in order to avoid over-
heating. All such motors are switched direct on to the line, without special starting gear such as
star-delta starters. Flameproof enclosure, of course, is essential .
•
ELECTRIC SIGNALLING SYSTEM •
• Along the sides of the haulage-roads, two bare galvanised iron wires will be noticed, supported
on small porcelain insulators. At one end these wires are open and at the other they lead to the haulage
engine room where a battery of primary cells (porous pot Leclanche type) and a trembler bell are
installed. When a signal has to be sent to the haulage-room, the connection is made and the bell rung
simply by touching the two bare wires together or bridging them with a piece of metal. Such a system
is simple and inexpensive and has the advantage that signals can be sent from any point along the
haulage. road. ·
It is important to note, however, that only certain kinds of circuit are permissible where there
is any risk of igniting firedamp, and that all bells and relays used lo a bare wire signalling system must
be intrinsically safe, i.e. they must be inherently incapable of creating a spark of sufficient intensity
to ignite firedamp.
The windings of an ordinary hell, 'and of magnetic apparatus generally, possess a property called
"self-inductance " whereby a voltage is induced in the circuit whenever the circuit is broken and the
current interrupted. This induced voltage may greatly exceed the working voltage and so set up a.
dangerous spark, not only at the bell contacts but also at any point where signals are given.
To avoid this danger, " intrinsically safe " apparatus incorporates a safety device which provides
an alternative path for: part of the induced energy. Such a device may consist of sleeves or thin copper
over the bell bobbins, or layers of tinfoil between the lavers of insulated wire on the bobbins. The
effect is, not to suppress sparks altogether, but to render them harmless.

TEST PAPER LR/1.

I. How is electricity transmitted from a colliery power
station to an underground sub-statron ? H the
voltage o( transmission is 3,000, 11.escrioothe trans-
mis.sion line, its situation near the pit-top, a method
of supporting it in I.he shaft, and the way in which a
joint would be made in the type chosen. Sketch the
cross-section of the cable. · (a) squirrel-cage, (b) slip-ring or wound rotor,
2. Three-phase a.c. electricity is generated at a power
station on the surface, at 3,300 volts. The power
required underground near the shaft-bottom is as
follows: 3 haulage units, each of 100 B.HP. ; 1
haulage unit o[ 250 B.HP.; 1 pump of JOO B.HP.
Hal! a mile from the shaft bottom·, in each of three
districts, there are a 75 B.HP. haulage unit and a
20 B.HP. pump. (a) At wha.t pressure would you
transmit underground lo the shaft-bottom ? (b)
What, pressure would you use at ,the various motors ~
(&) If a reduced pressure is lo be used at any or aU oi
the motors. where would you place your transformer
sub-station or stations ?
3. Bridl.y describe the underground distribution system
and plant necessary for supplying the motors
referred to in the previous question. Illustrate
your answer by a nea.t sketch,
4. 'What is the function of alip-rtngs {a) in an alternator
with revolving field magnets. and (b) in a 3·phase
induction motor with ·wound rotor?
5. tn the case o! electric motors for 3-phasc current,
distinguish briefly between the following types :
{c) synchronous motor with salient poles, (d} syn-
chronous-induction motor, 'Vbieh types would you
use for (c) a 100 HP. direct haulage, (f) a IO Hl?.
centrifugal pump. (g) a large continuously-running
fan, and (If) a large air-compressor ? Give reasons.
6. A 300 HP. motor running at 750 revs. per min. is to
be installed to drive a mine ventilating fan which is
to run at 100 revs. per min. Describe three methods
of coupling this motor to lhe fan.
7. How ;u:e d~ctric motors affected by (11} heat. (b) dust,
and (c) moisture, and what measures arc necessary
to enable them to operate in hot, dusty, or damp
si tua tions )
8. Give a list of the chief types of enclosure Ior electric
motors, mentioning their main features and the
purposes for wbich they are suitable.
 FOUN OEt>
THe v.M.t:.
1883
rr. .A.. SOUTHERN LTD.~
COPYRIGHT
THIS PAPER

~me G/in;.,~af. ~
WAS •TH!S FlllS't 18 SUPPLIEI> Ok
CORRESPONOEHCE
MINING SCHOO~
IH THE WORLD.
~-eftoof; OONDITION
IT 1$
1'MAT
RESEll\/90
'EXOLU91VELY FOl't
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINING ELECT.RI CAL ENGINEERING.

Answers LR/I.
COLLIERY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
1. How is electricity transmitted. from a colliery power station to an underground SHb-statio1i?
If the voltage of transmission: is 3,000, describe the transmission line, its situation. near the pit-top,
a method of s"pporting it in the. shaft, a1zd the way in which a [oint would be made i1t the type
chosen .. Sketcl: the cross-sectdo» of th« cable.

POWER TRANSMISSION IN SHAFT.

Power is transmitted from a colliery power station to an underground sub-station by means of
cables, these consisting of the required number of stranded copper conductors or cores, each provided

Type of cable.
..
with its own insulation and laid up together .

•
A suitable cable for 3,000 volts would be a paper-insulated, lead-sheathed, double-wire armoured
came, jute served and compounded over all, the conductors being of sufficient size to carry the current
without over-heating and' the paper insulation being of sufficient thickness to withstand a pressure
of 3,000 volts. (The student should here include a sketch similar to fig. 2 of the Lesson). The paper
insulation. is impregnated with oil during manufacture but any excess oil must be carefully drained
ior a shaft cable to prevent an excessive oil-pressure being built up at the bottom, with consequent
bursting of the lead sheath. The latter serves to exclude moisture, whilst the armouring gives mechanical
strength and also acts as an earthing cond~cfor.

Situation and method of support.

,
At' the surface, the cable may be secured by brackets or cleats to the wall of an adjacent engine
house and thereafter suspended by leather slings from a catenary wire, thence being taken into the
shaft through a pipe or a wooden trough to a point below the surface activity. Alternatively, the
cable may be laid on brackets above floor level in a brick culvert leading to the shaft.
In the shaft, the cable would be supported at intervals of 20 to 25 yds. by wooden clamps which
would either rest on buntons {preferably behind them} or be suspended by chains from rag-bolts grouted
into the shaft sides.

Joint in shaft cable.

. This should always be housed in an inset, as shown in the adjoining
sketch, so as to relieve the joint-box of strain and facilitate subsequent
inspection and repair. In this type of box, the two sections of cable are
arranged to enter and leave the box at the same end. The upper length
of cable should be bent downwards so as to allow water to drip off, clear
of the joint-box.
To make the' joint, the three conductors are bared and corresponding
cores of similar colour are " sweated " (plumbed} into tubular connectors
or firmly secured by mechanical connectors. They are then insulated with
impregnated tape and arc enclosed in a water-tight cast iron joint box,
which is filled with a bituminous substance called "compound." The lead
sleeve of the cable is " wiped " (soldered) to cones provided on the box for
'the purpose. Sometimes, lead-wool packing is used for joints underground
where soldering is not possible. Over the lead joints is fitted an armour
clamp to grip the wire armouring. Finally the armouring of one cable is
bonded· to that of the other by a: copper earth bond to maintain continuity of
the earthing system.
Cabla Joint in Shaft.

(5206)

: .-
 · LR/I
A/2 .Ansuiers on Colliery Electrical Equipment.

2. Three-phase a.c. electricity is generated at a po1oer staiiow 011 the surface, ·at 3,300 volts. The
power required scnderground near lite shaft-bottotn is as follows : 3 haulage twits, each of 100
]).HP.; 1haulage1t11it of 250 B.HP.; 1 pump of 100 B.HP. Half a milefrom the shaft
bottom. in each of three districts, there are a 75 B.HP. haulage w1it mid a 20 B.HP. pump.
{a) At what pressure would you transmit underground. to the shaft-bottom ? (b) What pressure
would you use at the various 1110/ors ? (c) If (l reduced prcsmre is to be used at any or alt of the
motors, where would you. place your transformersub-station. or stations ?

VOLTAGES USEJ) UNDERGROU~D.

(a) Shaft transmission. Current would be transmitted to the shaft bottom at the generator
pressure, namely 3,300 volts.

(b) Pressure at motors. All the motors near the shatt-bottorn are of 100 B.HP. or more, and
such motors can be satisfactorily designed for high pressures. They would therefore be operated at
- about 3,000 volts, depending on the voltage drop in U1e shaft cables ..
Smaller motors (i.e, of less than 100 HP.) can be more satisfactorily designed for medium pressures,
and it would therefore be advisable to transform down to, say, 550 volts for the Inbye haulages and
pumps. Actually. there is a range of sizes, between GO HP. and 100 HP. which can be designed for
either high or medium pressure, but, as smaller motors are involved here, all the inbye motors can
conveniently be at medium pressure.

(c) Transformer sub-stutlcn.

If Iurther inbyc developments are anttcrpated.. it would be ad
visable to place the transformers
inbye, one to each district, the main road cables then transmitting current inbye at high pressure.
This would reduce the voltage drop and the heat loss in the line, ••
ll the demand for power Inbye was not llkelY to increase, the transformer ;ub-station might be
.placed near the shaft bottom, i.e. in the vicinity of the principal existing power-using apparatus.
The general tendency nowadays is to take the high-tension current as far as possible inbyc, and
.
to transform down to medium pressure near the inbye motors, e.g. by a transportable sub-station.

3. Briefly describe the undergroun.i dislributi(-m system. asui pumt necessary for supplyi11g lite motors
referred to in the preoioe« question, Ill1~rate your 1mswer by a neat sketch.

UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM.

It is assumed that a transformer substation is to be
placed inbye in each district. lltOl'tCLl'IO .
OIL" l,...hl\EASCO
OUPl.ICATt
~HAl'T
\ $WITC.M C.A61.f;$
Shaft-bottom.
Duplicate 3-ccire shaft cables termiunte at a 3,000
"../
i . SHAFT SOTTOM
sue>!:>TAT10....
/
i
well-lighted substation.
volt distribution switchboardThis
placed in a iswell-ventilated,
board of the- unit, ·..,-::1' /1'_M_.r' ..T. s·!r_.,,.·T"'-::/r•G£1'
r I ,_ r- _!, ARI' t_1~~..
ironclad, flameproof, draw-out, oil-break type, provided ~
with eleven switch panels, i.c, one for each incoming ~
cable and also for each outgoing feeder. including the 0 100 "P ii zsoHP ~ s ~
lighting transformer; Each panel comprises a 3-pole. ~ t1.o.u1.A<>cs ~. KAl1LM.l :; ~ ~
oil-break, circuit-breaker arranged with isolating features /. ~ 1oo11P
and earthing .'device. and fitted wit~_cable sealing and ~ ... _ vJ....,
7 · Pv"'P v).,..,
7
dividing boxes and protecti ve devices, including overload ·
and earth-leakage protection. · From the appropriate
panel, a 3-core cable leads t_c;>. each motor control panel ss» -+ v:
l~o ~-
T
T........ ~FoR,..lR'
·. s-•oJ v.
3~
T
nt;..Hs~ ... c't}.
s-s-o~ v.
near the shaft bottom and also to _each of the three· -, 'T"":""T 1~n I I 01sT1t1c.Ts I }
districts. { ·{ ·
t tPUMI'·
{ -
t t p..,tf\p f
f i1p·-·_...,...
{
lnbye district.
Each inbye substation will contain (a)' incoming Undorgrouod ·Distribution System.
high-tension switch panel, of similar type to that at
the shaft bottom ; {b) a 3,000/550 volt step-down transformer of the oil-immersed, self-cooled type ;
and (c) 550 volt switchgear for the outgoing feeders supplying.the haulage and pump motors. .
In each case, the haulages would be driven by slip-ring induction motors controlled by (i) a main
circuit breaker, (ii) a· .s~ar.ting and reversing switch, and (iii) a controller in the rotor-clrcuit. The
pumps (turbine type) )v9uJd be driven by squirrel-cageinduction motors switched direct on to. the line .

.,.··-·. _.... -- ·-·- ..... ----- -· - - ---.

 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff LR/I
A/3

4. What .is tlie fm1clion of stip-ri1igs (a} fo an alternator with reuoluing field magnets, awl (b) in a
3-pllase induction motor with wound rotor ?

FUNCTIONS OF SLIP-RINGS.
(a) In an alternator.
In this case, two slJp-rlngs are mounted on the rotor shaft, but-insulated from it, and arc connected
to the field windings of the alternator. Brushes rest on the revolving slip-rings and arc connected
to a small d.c generator or exciter. In this way direct current is supplied to the revolving field windings,
so setting up lines of magnetic force which cut the stator conductors and generate in them an alternating
voltage. Variation of this voltage may be obtained by varying the exciting current.

(b) Jn a 3-phase induction motor with wound rotor.

In this case, three slip-rings are mounted on the rotor shaft and are connected to the 3-phase
winding or the rotor. Brushes rest on the revolving slip-rings and are connected via a 3-corc cable
to a variable external resistance, which may be of either the metallic or the liquid type. These arrange-
ments enable the resistance of the rotor circuit to be varied at will. At starting, the whole resistance
is in circuit, so cutting down both the induced rotor current and also the current taken by the stator
from the line, whilst increasing the. starting torque. As the motor speeds up, the resistance is gradually
cut out, until finally, in the case of a constantly.running machine like a fan or a pump, the brushes
may be raised altogether and the slip-rings short-circuited to reduce the rotor resistance to a minimum.
[N.B. It is incorrect to State, US Some Students do, that the three slip-rings Oil an induction motor
enable alternating current to be supplied to the motor from the line. Actually, of course,
alternating current is supplied direct to the stator windings via fixed terminals on the stator.
..
Only an induced current !lows In th~ rotor eireult-c-hcnce the name " induction " rnotor.]
•

•
5. In the case of electric motors for 3-phase current, distingHish briefly betioeen the following types :
(a) squirrel-cage, (b) :;lip-ring or wo1md rotor, (c} synchronous motor with salient poles, (d) syn-
chronous-induction motor, W Inch: types would you iese for (e} a 100 HP. direct haulage, (() a
10 HP. centrifugal pump, (g) a large continuously-running Jan, and (h) a large a fr-compressor?
Give reasons.

VARIOUS TYPES OF 3-PHASE A.C. MOTOR.

{a) Squirrel~cage induction motor. .
This is the simplest type of A.C. motor consisting inerely of (i} a stator wound for threo phases
and supplied with alternating current trom the line, a rotating magnetic field being thereby created,
and (ii) a rotor fitted with a number o! short-circuited copper bars which only carry induced currents.
Such a motor takes a heavy starting current and develops only a moderate starting torque. It may
be started by being switched direct on to the line, or, if the starting current is then too high, the voltage
applied to .the stator may be reduced by means of a star-delta starter or an auto-transformer starter,
the starting torque, of course, being further reduced at the same time.

(b) Slip-ring induction motor with wound rotor.

This resembles a squirrel-cage motor so far as the stator is concerned, but it has·a rotor wound
for three phases and one end or each winding is brought out to three sllp-rlngs, These are connected
via brushes and a length of cable to a variable external resistance whereby the resistance of the rotor
circuit can be varied. At starting, the resistance is high, and this reduces both the current induced
in the rotor and also the current taken by the stator Crom the supply. It also greatly increases the
starting torque. The resistance is gradually cut out as the motor speeds up. The variable resistance
may also be used for speed control.

(c) Synchronous motor with _salient poles.

This again has a. stator like the two previous types, but it has a completely different rotor which
·here consists of rotating field magnets supplied with direct current from an exciter mounted .on the
shaft, It is a constant speed machine. If is not inherently self-starting and must be run up to speed
by a pony motor except when it is provided with· a special additional winding on the rotor to make
it self-starting by induction motor action. Only a low starting torque is developed in this way. When
over-excited, the motor runs at a: leading power factor, so that it can be used to counteract the adverse -
effects of a low lagging power factor such as may be caused. by induction motors.

{d} Synchronous-Induction motor.

This resembles a slip-ring motor in that it has a wound rotor which can be connected up to a
variable resistance for starting up, and it resembles a synchronous motor in that the rotor windings
can be suppUed with direct current .waen full speed has been attained. The motor can thus develop
a high starting torque, and has the constant speed and power factor improvement qualities of a syn-
chronous motor.
LR/1 Answers on Colliery 'Electrical Equipment.
A;4

(e) 100 BP. direct haulage.

This obviously requires a slip-ring induction motor, with a controller in the rotor circuit, because
of the high starting torque required and the need for speed control from creeping to full speed.
(f) 10 HP. centrifugal pump.
A squirrel-cage motor, which is the cheapest, simplest, -and most robust type of A.C. motor, may
be used here because the load at starting is light and the efficiency of ·the motor is high at constant
full speed. It may be switched dire.ct on to the line, no special starting gear being needed. .
(g) Large continuous-running fan. .
Where it is desired to effect power-factor improvement, this fan would be driven by a synchronous·
induction motor which develops an adequate starting torque and also runs at constant speed and with
a leading power factor. Otherwise, a slip-ring motor may be used, fitted with brush-lifting and slip-ring
short-circuiting device. .

(h) Large nir..compressor.

An intermittently running machine may be driven by a slip-ring induction motor with a variable
starting resistance in the rotor circuit, and a continuously running machine by a salient-pole syn-
chronous motor, advantage being taken of its power factor improvement qualities.

6 .. A 300' flP. motor running at 750 revs. per minute is to be installed to drive a mine ve11tilati"g
..
fmi which is to rim at 100 reus, per minut«. Describe three methods of couplt'.ng this mot-Or to the fa11 .
•
VARIOUS TYPES OF GEARING FOR FAN-DRIVE.
As the fan and its motor run at different speeds, some form or gearing in the ratlo of 7 ·5 .to 1
must be interposed between the two. Three possible arrangements are as follows :- •
(1) Vee-rope drlve.
This consists of a. number ol .ropes or narrow belts of V-
section which run in specially shaped grooves on two pulleys
having the required gear ratio. In this case, the motor pulley
should be at least 20 ins. diam. and the fan pulley 150 ins. diam.,
giving a rope speed of about 4,000 feel per minute.
The construction of Vee ropes varies with different makers,
but they consist essentially oi strong canvas fabrlc impregnated
with rubber and moulded to shape, being thereafter vulcanised
to form a strong endless rope of trapezoidal section. They range .
up to I! inch wide by 1 inch, deep and transmit up to about Fig·. 1.
30 HP. per rope. About 10 or 12 such ropes would be required Section ot Vee rope Drive,
here.
The Vee-rope drive is positive in character, noiseless, and highly efficient, even with short centre
drives where space is limited. A further advantage is that, if any rope ·should fail, the fan can be
run with the remaining ropes until repair is possible.

{2) Belt drive with Lenix tightening device.

This consists of a broad flat belt running around two smooth,
slightly cambered, pulleys of the diameters previously mentioned.
The belt would be either or solid leather, or of woven cotton
impregnated with balata, a vegetable gum similar to rubber.
For a belt speed of 4,000 ft. per minute, transmitting 300 HP.,
· a 7-ply balata belt 30 .ins. wide and capable of transmitting
11 HP. per inch width, would be suitable: . .
The Lenix tighte~ng dfwice consists of. !I- weighted jockey-
pulle.y which. bears ~gai!)St the slack side of the belt t.o give the , Lenix D~lt Drive. .
required tension and to mcre;,se the m-c of contact. This arrange- · . . ·· · · · ·
ment is desirable f.o: a large ~e::tr ratio like i ·5 to I and it enables the driving and driven pulleys to
be placed closer togeth~r than with an open drive, .
(3) Double·bellca.l machine-cut gonring.
In cases where space is very cramped, a double-helical toothed gear drive may. beused. For a
gear reduction of 7 ·5 to 1, single stago gearing of this type would be adequate, the gears being:totally
enclosed and lubricated either by an ·on-pump and spray, or by a splash system. The ge_atjngwould be
a separate unit, with flexible couplings connecting itto the motor on· oneside and tbefancn the·..other,
Such a drive is highly efficient and runs with· little noise but, j.f damage .should occri~,,·tlie· installation
is completely out of commission uritil 'repairs are completed. . · _ _:__._· ·. : .· · · · · ·
' . :~:~,~~~.-:~!·.. :···~·~~· ·:·:~:?_;.:.~;. ·...
". ,·. '.. • ' ..• : •... ·.... "·· t~- .
··-·
-, : . _.: .
 The Universal lv.lining School, Cardiff

7. How are electric motors affected by (a) heat, (b) dust, and (c) moisture, and what measures are
necessary lo enable thein to operate in hot, dusty, or damp situations ?

EFFECT OF HEAT, DUST, AND MOISTURE ON MOTORS.

(a) Heat.
Heat, if excessive, chais and cracks the insulating covering of th~ conductors and may eventually
cause fire to break out In the motor. To safeguard against this, the motor windings must be large
enough to carry the required current without overheating, whilst air ducts are also provided to enable
cooling air to ventilate the motor, fan blades being mounted on the end of the rotor shaft for this
purpose. In cases where free ventilation is impracticable (as in dusty or gassy situations) and the
motor is totally enclosed, all the heat must be dissipated by radiation and a larger motor must be
installed. In hot situations, a pipe-ventilated motor may be used, the cooling air being led to the
motor from a point some distance away.
(b) Dust.
This chokes the air ducts and impairs the ventilation of the motor. It also settles on the insulating
covering of the windings and, being a poor conductor of heat, tends further to make the windings
hot. If the dust is of an abrasive character, it damages the bearings and slip-tlng gear. To safeguard
against dust, it must .be removed regularly, e.g. by compressed air jets. Alternatively, the motor
may be pipe-ventilated or totally enclosed.
(c) Moisture.
This may penetrate the winding and slot insulation, especially if this is of hygroscopic material
like paper or tape, so reducing its insulating properties. It. may also condense on the surface of the
insulation, causing surface leakage. In a bad case, moisture may cause a short-circuit and render
the motor unworkable. Normally, the heat generated in the windings is sufficient to keep a motor
dry whilst it is running, but motors which have stood for some time must be dried before being started
up. Where tlrere is dripping water, motors of the " drip-proof " type may be installed, having canopies
or shield'sto shed the water. Alternatively, a totally enclosed motor may be used.

•
8. Give a list of the chief typ11s of enclosure for electric 1110/ors, mentioning their main. features and
the purposes far which. they arc suitable,

TYPES OF MOTOR ENCLOSURE.

(1) Open Pedestal Motor. This has a framework with open ends, the pedestal bearings being
· separate from the stator frame. It is suitable for clean dry engine houses at the surface where only
authorised competent persons have access.
(2) Open End-bracket Motor. This is open li,ke the above, but the bearings arc supported by
end-brackets bolted to the stator frame, this construction being suitable for the smaller motors. It
is used in similar situations to the previous type.
(3) Protected Motor. In this type, the end-covers attached to the stator frame are provided with
openings for ventilation but they protect the rotating and live parts from being accidentally touched
or damaged. Such machines arc used in clean dry situations at the surface frequented by persons
who are not authorised competent electricians.
(4) Enclosed-ventf)ated Motor. In this type, the openings in the end-covers are fitted with a
screen of wire or perforated metal which prevents clothing, cotton waste, ropes, rags, etc. from being
drawn in by the air current and also prevents accidental contact by anyone carrying parts of metal
structures in the vicinity. Such motors are suitable for places where much work and activity is
proceeding, e.g. workshops, cramped engine· houses, stoker-drives, and so on. They may also be used
underground in well ventilated main engine houses where danger from Iircdarnp is not liable to occur.
(5) Totally enclosed Motor. This type is so enclosed that no circulation of air from outside to
inside of the machine takes place, apart from " breathing " at the flanges. Such a motor is required
in dirty or dusty situations, a larger and more costly motor being installed to prevent excessive tem-·
perature rise. At mines, a totally enclosed motor is usually of the flameproof type, as below.
(6) Flameproof (F.L.P.. ) Enclosure. This is defined as one which will withstand, without injury.
any explosion of prescribed· inflammable gas that may occur in practice within it, and will prevent
the transmission of flame such as will ignite the prescribed inflammable gas which may be present in
the surrounding atmosphere. Such motors must be used in all places where danger Crominflammable
gas is liable to occur, in mines, cotton mills, chemical works, etc. In the case of slip-ring a.c. motors
situated in well-ventilated places, it is usually sufficient to have flameproof enclosure of the slip-rings
and brush-gear only.
(7) Various. Other Less frequently used types of enclosure include (a) drip-proof enclosure which
is provided with shields or canopies to shed water, (b) P,ipe-ventilatcd enclosure whereby cool clean
air is delivered to the motor through a pipe leading from a. suitable source, and (c) forced-draught
enclosure which is a pipe-ventilated enclosure fitted with. <L fan to render it suitable for use in hot
situations, e.g. a boiler fan drive.

-·- -··--~--~- ~~~ ~ ---

FOUNOEO 1883
COPYRIGHT
THE V.M.5. T. ..A.. SOUTHERN LTD.~-
WAS·THE Fll'IST THIS PAPER

gge ~U;;af £.Jwof;

CORnESPONOENCE 16 SVPPL.IEO ON
MINING SCHOOi.
IN THE WORLO.
~ CONDITION
IT IS
THAT
F:ESERVEO
!EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Lesson LR/2.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Just as a fl.ow of water through a pipe system can only take place if a pressure or "head" is
developed, either naturally, or artificially by means of a pump, so a fl.ow of electricity in a system of
conductors can only be produced if a pressure or "voltage., be created either naturally, or artificially
by means of a generator of some kind.

In the ease of water, the flow consists of the movement of a vast number of molecules of water
flowing in a current and impelled by the pressure developed. · The quantity of water passing in a
given time is measured in gallons ; the rate of flow in gallons per minute; and the pressure .in ·lbs.
per sq. inch or in feet o! head.
In the ease or electricity, the flow consists of the movement of a vast number of electrons (particles
of negative eleotriclty which enter into the constitution of the atoms of which all matter is built up)
this movement being'induced by the electrical pressure developed. The quantity of electricity passing
in a given time is measured in coulombs, or sometimes in ampere-hours ; the rate of flow is measured
in apiperes (equivalent to so many coulombs per second) ; and the pressure is measured in volts.
Further, just as water flowing through pipes encounters frictional resistance which depends on
the length and size of the pipes and on the roughness of their internal surfaces, so an electric current
flowing in a conductor encounters a resistance which depends on the length and size of the conductor
and on the material of which it is made. The unit of electrical resistance is termed the ohm.
The analogy between water and electricity, however, must not be carried too far because a flow
of water represents a transmission of matter plus energy, whereas a flow of electricity is a transmission
of energy only. Water flows at a variable speed, often only a few feet per second. Electricity flows at
a constant speed equal to the velocity of light, namely 186,000 miles per second (i.e. 7 times round
the earth in one second). This is a fundamental difference.
Direct current and alternating current.
A' direct current (D.C.} is one which is constant in magnitude and direction and may be represented
on a graph by means of a straight line. A pure direct current is produced by a primary cell or by an
accumulator. 'Where greater currents are needed, a sensibly direct current may be produced by
electro-magnetic means through the medium of a dynamo or generator.
An alternating current (A.C.) is one which varies with cyclic VCLT.Sl
- MA~IMUM Oi:t PEAK
regularity and may be represented on a graph by means of a sine VAC.0£
wave as shown in fig. 1. During each cycle, the voltage (and the +
current) rises to a maximum positive value, then falls to zero,
reverses in direction, rises to a maximum negative value, and then
falls to zero again. The frequency (or periodicity) of the current 'is
defined as the number of complete waves or cycles per second.
The sketch illustrates a single phase alternating current, as used
for lighting and heating, but, for power purposes, it is usual to ·
use three phase alternating current in which the pulsations of the ·I
three currents arc separated from one another by intervals of Fig. 1.
time corresponding to one-third of a cycle. Sine Curve of Voltage (A.C.)

AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT.
Fig. 2 shows a simple D.C. circuit which will enable us to
pursue these ideas .further.
G is a D.C. generator whose function is to create an electrical
pressure or voltage (or a difference of pressure between its
two terminals) which will cause a flow of electrons around the S
circuit when this is made continuous by closing the switch S. It .,... :;::!]
is conventional to assume that the current flows from positive· to Flg. 2.
negative around the circuit, as shown by arrows, although the An Electric Circuit.
electrons themselves (which are negative) actually flow in the reverse direction.

(5003)
 LRi2
2
General Principles.

When the switch S ls open, the generator is said to be "on open circuit." No current then flows
but the generator is still developing a pressure or voltage between its terminals and this can be
measured by a voltmeter V connected across the two leads. The current through the voltmeter may
be regarded as negligible.
Note that, on open circuit, the voltmeter will measure the total pressure developed by the
generator, for none of it is being used up to cause a fl.owof current. To this total pressure acting in
a circuit, the term electromotive force is applied.
Now let us assume that switch S is closed. The circuit is then continuous and immediately a flow
of electricity occurs right around the circuit through the resistance R, the motor M, the conductors
joining them, and also internally through the generator G itself. All these components are said to be
connected io series and the same current flows through all of them. The magnitude of the current in
amperes may be measured by an ammeter A, also connected in series (as distinct from the voltmeter
V which is connected in parallel or " in shunt").
Note that, when current is flowing, a certain amount or the tolal pressure or E.M.F. developed is
used up in overcoming the resistance of each part of the circuit. Some of it is used up inside the
generator to cause the current to flow through the generator windings and so the voltmeter V no longer
registers the total E.M.F. The difference of pressure between the two terminals is then Jess than the
E.M.F. and it is referred to as the "potential dilference " or P.D·. between the terminals. It is this
P.D. that is available for sending the current around the whole of the external circuit. Similarly, if a
voltmeter were connected across the terminals of the resistance R, it would measure the P.D. between
those terminals and this would be the " fall of pressure " or "drop in voltage" across the resistance.
There is also a P.D. between the terminals of the motor M, representing the pressure required to pass
current through the motor windings and to overcome the bac~ E.M.F. developed by the motor.
It should now be clear that the ·term electromotive force refers to the total pressure acting in a
circuit, whilst the term potential difference refers to the difference of pressure between any two points
in a circuit. In either case, the pressure is measured in volts.
•
..
PRIMARY CELLS,
A primary or voltaic cell forms the simplest device for generating an E.1'1.F. and producing a
small electric current. Its action depends on the principle, demonstrated by Volta, that when "dis-
similar substances arc brought into contact, a small difference of electric potential is set up between
them. This is termed" contact action '•and it has been (1) Sodium.
found by experiment that the contact series of a (2) Magnesium.
number of well-known substances is as shown in the (3) Aluminium.
adjoining list. Each substance may be regarded as (4} Zinc.
eleetro-posltive in relation to all those below it. in the (5} Cadmium.
list, but eleetrc-negative in relation to all those higher (6) Nickel.
in the list. The further apart the substances are in the (7) Hydrogen.
contact series, the greater is the difference of potential (8} .Lead.
between them. (9) Tin.
(IO) Iron.
A liquid and a metal in contact also exhibit a (11} Copper.·
P.D., especially if the liquid be such that the metal {12) Mercury.
tends to dissolve in it chemically, the resulting E.M.F. (13) Silver.
actingfrom the metal towards the liquid. (14) Gold.
(15) Platinum.
Sjmple cell. (16) Carbon.

If we take a rod or plate of pure zinc and one of pure copper and place them in
a 10% solution of sulphuric acid (H2S04), we will find that, on.open circuit, there
will be a P.D. of about 1 · l volt between the terminals, this being the E.M.F. of
the cell, irrespective of the size of the 'cell or the bulk of its components.
In such a cell, the copper and zinc are termed the elements or electrodes and
the liquid is termed the electrolyte, The upper ends of the two electrodes are
the terminals of the cell.
It will be seen from the Table previously given that zlne is electro-positive
in relation to copper. which is relatively electro-negative. The term anode is Fig. 3.
applied to the electro-positive el~ent, and cathode to the electro-negative. Simple Cell.
· When a closed circuit is provided, current flows internally· through the electrolyte from anode to
cathode, but, in the external circuit, the current flows from the cathode to the anode. For this reason,
and because we are normally concerned with the direction of fl.ow in the external circuit, the upper
end of the copper plate (the cathode} is marked{+) and is known as the positive terminal, pole, or
electrode of the cell, whilst the zinc plate (the anode) is marked (-) and is known as the negative
terminal, pole, or electrode.
Chemical reactions in simple cell.
When current is flowing through the cell, the electrolyte H2SO 4 is considered as being broken
up into two components called ions, namely H2 ions which carry a + charge, and SO" ions which
carry a - charge. The positive H 2 ions travel with the current and are attracted towards the copper
cathode (which is electro-negative) whilst the negative SO 4 ions ate attracted towards the zinc anode
(which iselectro-positive]. A! the· cathode, the +charges are given up andthe gaseous hydrogen is
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.

set free. At the anode, the - charges are given up by the SO 4 ions and the latter then attack the
zinc lo form zinc sulphate which is dissolved by the water present.
In brief, the sulphuric acid is broken up and the zinc anode is gradually consumed to form zinc
sulphate. The copper cathode remains unaffected and the hydrogen previously contained in the acid
is setIree. The action may be expressed by the equation :-.Zn+ H2SO~ = Zn504 H2• The cell+
becomes exhausted when all the zinc has been consumed.

Polarisation.
In all primary cells, there is a tendency for the mJnute bubbles or hydrogen to collect and Corma
mm around the cathode and, when this happens, the positive hydrogen ions cannot reach the cathode
to give up their +charges. This has the effect of blocking the flow of +
charges and reducing the
E.M.F. developed until finally the E.M.F. falls almost to zero and the current ceases. A cell in this
condition is said to be polarised. Alternatively, we might say that the hydrogen sets up a back E.M.F.
towards the zinc which reduces the E.M.F. generated by the cell.

De-polarisation.
Although polarisation of a cell cannot be entirely prevented, it can be reduced by incorporating
in the cell an .oxidising agent known as a depolariser, which is a substance rich in oxygen, and there-
fore capable of combining chemically with the hydrogen to form water when the hydrogen is liberated.
Even so, some degree of polarisation still occurs if current is taken continuously from the cell, and it
follows that a primary cell can only 1~ used intermittently, e.g. for signalling purposes.
In mining, the commonest type of 'primary cell in use is the Leclanche cell, This utilises an anode
of zinc (-terminal) and a cathode of carbon(+ terminal), immersed in an electrolyte of ammonium
.l.: chloride (sal-arnmoniac). The carbon rod, around which hydrogen would tend to collect, is placed
inside a porous pot (or sometimes a canvas sack) containing powdered manganese dioxide which acts
as a depolariser. A ·•dry" form of the cell is also available in which the electrolyte is in paste form.

"Some particulars of well-known primary cells are given in the following Table:-

-
Cell Anode Cathode Electrolyte Depolariser E. .M.F.1 Internal Resistance
-
Leclanche Zinc Carbon Ammonium ~1anganese I ·55 II 0 ·S--1 ·4 ohm
(wet) chloride dioxide
Leclanche Zinc Carbon Ammonium Manganese 1 ·55 i 0 ·l-0 ·4
(dry) chloride dioxide
l
Daniell' Zinc Copper Sulphuric Copper 1 ·l 0·5-10
I Acid Sulphate

Weston Cadmium Mercury Cadmium Mcrcurous I ·018 -

Sulphate Sulphate

Clarke Zinc Mercury Zinc Mercurous I ·434 -

Sulphate
I Sulphate

The Weston and the Clarke cells are used only as standards of E.M.F. and are not designed for
sending a current. They must always be connected in series with a high resistance, say 1000 ohms,
as they will be mined if any appreciable current is taken from them.
Cells in series and parallel.
A group of cells connected together to supply the same external circuit is called a battery, and
the cells may be connected either in series or in parallel.
In series connection, the positive.pole of one cell is connected to
the negative pole of the next, and so on! as shown in fig. 4 where ~e
positive poles are denoted by long thin strokes and the negative
poles by shorter thick strokes. The E.M.F. produci:d .by such a
battery is equal to that produced by one cell multiplied by the
number of cells. The current produced in a given circuit is also Fig, 4. Cells in series.
increased, but not in the same ratio because of the increase in the
internal resistance.
In parallel connection, all the positive poles are connected
together to one terminal of the external circuit, and all the negative
poles to the other terminal, as shown in fig. 5. The E.M.F_ produced
by such a battery is only the same ~ that of one cell, but the inte~al
resistance is greatly reduced and an increased current can be supplied FJg, 5. Cells lo Parallel.
because of this.
 General Principles.

EFFECTS PRODUCED BY AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.

o{ them can be conveniently explained by reference to fig. 6. .

In the sketch, B is a battery of primary cells connected to
r--~fl
r
.
These may be divided into (a) heating effects. (b) magnetic effects, and (c) chemical effects. All
--==::.....--
C.i. re. I
various pieces of apparatus by the wire WW. The vessel 0 is an
oil-bath containing a heating coil of Ime wire and a thermometer -= B
p..p;:~-l
Ell--:-~ -·~
Pb-·:
T. The rods M11 M2, M3 are bars of soft wrought iron around
,fvhichhthe\)vireWW is coiled without touching them (or insulated
rom t em . E is an electrolytic cell containing two copper plates
.! N is - US _..J

or electrodes immersed in an electrolyte of copper sulphate. w RT ~ \v

. 11 l ,. M, Mz M) :
C 1 an cl C ~are two magnetic neec cs paced close to the wire WW , ·.·--:-:-=: .J~ g -.§ I
as it proceeds back to the battery. It is assumed that the circuit ·. . \\'?O ~
is closed and current flowing. s N N
Fig. 6.
HEATING EFFECTS. Illustrating EUects or a current.
That an electric current has a heating effect is shown by the rise in temperature of the oil in the
<lil bath 0 owing to the heat given off by the coil of fine wire immersed in the oil. lf the current be
increased, the temperature of the wire will also be increased. A thick wire or conductor will earn·
a large current without undue heating, whereas a thin wire would melt, or become incandescent.
These principles arc utilised in an electric radiator in which the aim is to convert as much as possible
oI the electrical energy into heat, and in a fusible cut-out which fuses or melts (and so breaks the
circuit) when the current exceeds a pre-determined maximum.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF A CURRENT.

When a current is passed along a wire or conductor, it sets up a magnetic field around the conductor
and, if this is a straight conductor (as at the top of fig. 6) the path of the lines of magnetic force will
resemble a corkscrew whose point is directed the same way as the flow of the current. In other words,
the path of the Linesof force is spiral and concentric with the conductor, proceeding in a clockwise
direction (looking in the same way as the current flows). '
If a magnetised needle, freely suspended or pivoted, is brought near to a current-carrying
conductor, it will be deflected from its normal position by the influence of the magnetic field created
by the current and will lend to turn at right angles to the .conductor as shown at C1 and C 2• The
degree of deflection will depend on the proximity of the needle to the conductor and on the strength
of the current.

Right-hand rule for now of current in a conductor.

The direction of deflection of a magnetised needle affords an
easy means of ascertaining the direction of now of a continuous Cvrrcn(
current in a conductor, by the aid of a rule called U1e right-hand =--~~~C!l:IS:SZ:~~~~
rule. If the needle is above the conductor, place the open right hand
above the wire, palm downwards (i.e. palm towards the conductor
always) and with the lingers pointing in the direction to which the
N end of the needle has been deflected ; then the thumb will indicate 7•
the direction in which the current is flowing. If the needle is below _Fig.
the conductor, as in fig. 7, place the right hand below the wire, with The R1ghl Hand Rule:
the palm upwards and the fingers pointing in the direction of deflection of. the N pole of the needle, as
before ; then the thumb will again indicate the direction of the current in the conductor. If the
current be reversed, then the deflection of the needle will also bereversed.

The coiled conductor or " solenoid.'•

. If a conductor be coiled into a spiral or helix, each tum being separated or insulated from
neighbouring turns, the current will be obliged to follow the spiral path of the conductor and the
lines of magnetic force, created by the current in the several turns of the coil, will be ad~cd toge!l1er
and will run axially through the coil, out at one end, called the North end, around outside and 1_nto
the coil again at the South end. A coil such as this is called a solenoid and, when current is flowing,
it possesses in some degree the properties of a magnet.
The electro-magnet.
- · The· magnetic-effocts of-a.sirnplc-solenoid.ma.y_be_v:cr.y_gr.eatly_in_creascd
by~yirn!~~g_i!_on 51~_!t _
iron core, as shown at M1, M2, and Ma, in fig. G. Any solenoid coil wound upon {but insulated_from)
an iron core like this is called an electro-magnet, and, if current be passed through the coil, the
magnified power of attracting iron and steel will be vested i~ the iron core.
Note that no current flows through the iron, but the latter has great " magnetic permeability ''
by virtue of which the number of Lines of_ magnetic force (o_r the density ?f the magnetic flux) is grca~ly
increased for a given current. Further, if the current be increased, or if .the number of turns of wire
be increased, there will be a corresponding increase in the strength of the magnet until such time as
the iron core is "saturated " with flux.
If the conductor be coiled as shown at M1, with the current travelling as shown by the arrow,
.the upper end of the electro-magnet will be the N pole of the magnet. On the other hand, if the wire
 LR/2
The Universal Mini·ng School, Cardiff.
5

be coiled as shown at M 1 and M2, the lower ends will become N poles and the upper ends S poles.
If, instead of reversing the coil of wire, the direction of the current be reversed, the poles of the
electro-magnet will also be reversed.
Electro-magnets enter into the construction of all kinds of electrical apparatus, including bells,
electrical instruments and automatic indicating and safety devices, and, on a larger scale, for creating
the magnetic field of generators, motors, and transformers. All these are referred to as " electro-
magnetic ' ' apparatus.
Although wrought iron (soft iron) has been much used for making electro-magnets, either low
carbon steel, or silicon steel, may be used instead, both of them having high magnetic permeability.
Permanent magnets.
These differ from electro-magnets in that the latter only remain magnetised whilst current is
flowing, whereas permanent magnets retain their magnetism more or less indefinitely. Permanent
magnets are made of high carbon steel, or of tungsten or cobalt steel. They are used in telephones,
shot-firing magnetos, electrical measuring instrnmcnts and surveying instruments.
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF A CU,RRENT.
\Ve have seen that, in a primary ccJI, an electric current may be produced by chemical means.
lt is also true that chemical effects may be produced by electrical causes. ·
At E in fig. 6 is shown in plan an electrolytic cell containing a solution of copper sulphate, CuSO4,
and two plates or electrodes of copper (pp). The current passes into the first or positive plate, called
the anode, then through the electrolyte to the other plate, called the cathode. During the process, the
electrolyte CuSO4 is split up into positively charged ions of Cu which travel towards the cathode, and
negatively charged ions of SO 4 which travel towards the anode. The SO~ ions give up their negative
charge and the SO~ (which cannot exist alone when uncharged) thereupon combines with some of the
copper anode to form copper sulphate, CuSO 4• At the same time, the Cu ions give up their positive
charge to the cathode and are deposited on the cathode as a film of metallic copper. The whole process
.
is called electrolysis.
The foregoing is the principle of electro-plating, and many other metals besides copper may be
used as electrodes, with a. suitable electrolyte. The quantity of metal deposited on the cathode is
proportional to the quantity of electricity which has flowed through the electrolyte and it follows that
the strength of an electrical current itself may be defined or measured in this way.
dECONDARY CELLS OR ACCUMULATORS.
A secondary cell or accumulator is a group of materials which have the power to receive electrical
energy, to transform and store it as chemical energy, and afterwards to re-transform it into electrical
energy and give it out as such.
It differs from a primary cell in that, in the latter, the electrical energy is derived from the wasting
away of the active materials of the·cell (the anode and the electrolyte) and the only way to restore
the activity of such a cell is to renew the spent materials. By contrast, an accumulator can be
"re-charged" by passing a cu_rre~t throl~gh it from some other source, in a direction opposite to the
flow of current when the cell is discharging.
Lead-acid accumulator.
This consists of a number of composite lead plates immersed in a 30% solution of pure sulphuric
acid, H '!SO4, in distilled water. A number of positive and negative electrod~s arc arranged alternately
with insulating separators between them, the number of negative plates being always one more than
the number of positive. Their size and number determine the ampere-output capacity of the cell but
do not affect its voltage (about 2 volts}. The specific gravity of the acid should be about 1 ·185 whict
increases to about 1 :21 when the cell is charged.
There are various ways of making the plates, varying with the size of the cell and the manufacturer,
but they are commonly formed of lead (or lead-antimony} grids having their interstices filled with a
paste as follows:-
Positive plate (anode) containing a paste of red lead, Pb 30 4, mixed with sulphuric acid.
Negative plate (cathode) containing a paste of lead oxide or litharge, PbO, mixed with sulphuric acid.
After. being assembled, the plates are "formed " by a prolonged first charge, the + terminal of
the cell being connected to the like terminal of a D.C. supply. The effect of the charging current is to
produce a chemical charge in the plates, as follows :-
Positive plates, converted to lead peroxide, PbO 2, having a brown colour.
Negative plates, converted to spongy pare lead, Pb, having a white-grey colour.
When the action is complete, it isfound that there is a P.D. of about 2 ·6 to 2 ·S volts between the
terminals, but this falls almost immediately to 2 ·2 volts at the commencement of discharge.
During discharge, both the positive and negative electrodes are coated with lead sulphate PbS04
and the voltage quickly falls to 2 volts and then more gradually to 1 ·85 volts, below which it must
never be allowed to fall to avoid permanent sulphating of the plates. The chemical reaction during
discharge may be expressed as follows:-
Pb01 + 2 H2S04 + Pb PbSO, + 2 H~O + PbS04
Positive Electrolyte N egaJ.ive Positive Electrolyte · Negative
 LR/2
6
General Principles.

During subsequent recharging, the process is reversed, the positive. plate being re-converted to
Pb02 and the negative to Pb. Towards the end of the charging period, the material available for
reaction is small and some of the water in the electrolyte is decomposed by the charging current,
hydrogen being evolved at the negative plate and oxygen at the positive. This" gassing " is a sign
that the charge is nearing completion but it also causes acid to be sprayed over adjacent metal work
with injurious results. The battery charging room must be well ventilated to prevent the accumulation
of an explosive percentage of hydrogen.

Capacity of an accumulator.
This may be defined as the quantity of electricity the accumulator is capable of giving out on
discharge down to a specified voltage and it is expressed in ampere-hours. It depends on the weight
and area of the electrodes and on the rate of discharge in amperes, and is normally based on a JO-hour
rating. Thus, if a cell has a capacity of, say, 20 ampere-hours, it is capable of supplying a current of
2 amps for 10 hours. If a larger current is taken, the capacity is reduced, and conversely, if a smaller
current is taken, the capacity is increased.
Efficiency or an accumulator.
The "efficiency " of any mechanical, or electrical, appliance is always a ratio of output to input,
expressed as a fraction or a percentage and, in the case of a.Ii accumulator:-
ampere-hours given out on discharge.
Ampere-hour efficiency =
ampere-hours input during charge.
watt-hour output.
Watt-hour efficiency
watt-hour input.
The ampere-hour efficiency of a lead-acid accumulator is of the order of 85%• tr> 90%. whilst
the watt-hour efficiency is about 70% to 75%. •

Tbe alkaline accumulator.

This type has oxide of nickel for the active material of the positive plates, and either finely divided
iron or a mixture or cadmium and iron for the negative plates, the electrolyte being a 20% solutionof
caustic potash {potassium hydroxide) having a constant S.G. of 1 · 19. The voltage per cell when fully
charged is about" 1 ·4 but this falls to 1 ·3 volts at the beginning of discharge, after which there is a
gradual fall to 1 ·2 volts and finally to about 1 volt, at which point the cell can be regarded as discharged.
Actually, the cell can be discharged down to zero voltage without causing damage, but it is not normally
allowed to do this in practice. . · .
Alkaline accumulators have a higher first cost than the lead-acid type, but they are much more
robust and have a lower maintenance cost and longer life. Their efficiency· is somewhat lower than
the lead-acid type, being about 75% to 80% on an ampere-hour basis and 60% to 65% on a watt-hour
basis.

DEFINITIONS OF ELECTRICAL UNITS.

We are now in a position to define and explain in greater detail some oi the principal practical
units that are in common use in electrical work.
(1) The ampere (symbol I, or sometimes C) = the unit of rate or now of current.
In the practical definition of an ampere, use is made of the fact that, in an electrolytic cell, the
weight of metal deposited on the cathode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passing
and is not affected bv any other factor. An ampere can therefore be defined as the unvarying electric
current which, whenpassed through a specified solution of silver nitrate in water, deposits silver upon
":he cathode at the rate of 0 ·001118 gramme per second. ·. ·
(2} The coulomb = the unit of quantity of electricity. ·
When a current of 1 ampereflows for 1 second, the quantity of electricity passed is 1 coulomb.
In· effect, it is an ampere-second which is a very small quantity of electricity. In practice, a larger
unit is used, _namely the ampere-hour, meaning 1 ampere flowing for 1 hour = 3600 coulombs.
(3) The ohm (symbol w = Greek omega} = the unit of resistance,
This is the resistance offered at 0 °C by a column of mercury 106 ·3 cm. long and of uniform
cross-section of 1 sq. mm., weighing 14 ·4521 grammes. The resistance of 10 feet of copper wire 0 ·01
inch diameter is about I ohm. In dealing with small resistances, the microhm ( = one-millionth of an
ohm) is often used. In dealing with large resistances the megohm (= one million ohms) is used.
(4) The volt (symbol E or V} = the unit of electrical pressure.
The volt is the potential difference between the ends of a conductor having a resistance of 1 ohm,
when a current of 1 ampere is flowing. An alternative definition is that it is the potential" difference
which does 1 joule of work (equivalent to I watt-second or 0 ·.'7372 it. lb.) in transmitting l coulomb
of electricity.
 LR/2
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff, 7

(5) The watt (symbol W) = the unit of power.

This is the practical unit of electrical power or rate of doing work. It is defined as the power
developed in a circuit when a pressure of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow. Hence, in direct
current calculations :-
Watts = volts x amps.v
In practice. a larger unit. known as a kilowatt (kW) is more convenient.
1 kilowatt = 1 kW = 1000 watts.
Conversion into mechanical units may be effected as follows:-
1 Horsepower = 746 watts = 0 ·746 kW = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute = 550 rt. lbs. per second,
1 watt = 33,000 ~ 746 = 44 ·24 ft. lbs. per min. = 0 ·7372 ft. lbs. per sec. = 1 joule per sec.
1 Kilowatt 1 k:W = 1000 watts -:- 7-lG = 1 ·34 HP. (approx.).
(6) The kilowatt~hour the practical unit of electrical work or energy.
This is equivalent to 1 kW maintained for 1 hour = 1000 watt-hours and is also called a Board
of'Trade Unit (B.T.U.). The followihg conversion factors should be noted:-
1 B.T.U. - 1000 watts maintained for 1 hour.
1000
1000 watt-hours = 1 kW - hour ·= 1 ·HP. - hour x
746
2,654,156 ft. lbs. of work or energy.
3,410 British Thermal Units. (B.Th.U.}.
"[Note. Id 3·phase A.C. calculations, the true power in watts is not given by the simple product
of " volts x amps,', because this takes no account of the three phases, or of the "power factor"
whereby the current may be out of phase with the voltage so that they do not act together in step.
Ths true power is given by the following formulae :-
In 3-pbase A.C., watts -v'3 x volts x amps x power factor (!)

y'3 x volts x amps x power factor

kW -·---·--·--·-···----·-·······-·--(2)
1000

HP
v3 x volts x amps x power factor
.......................... - ........................ (3)]
746

TEST PAPER LR/2.

l. (a) Sketch and describe any primary cell with which
you are familiar and state Ior what purposes the cell
is used. {b) "\\'hat is meant by "polarisation " and
how is it remedied in the cell you describe ?
2. Give a concise account of the chie( effects of an
electric current under the headings of (a) Heating
effects (b) Chemical effects, and (c) Magnetic effects.
3. Distinguish cnrefully between (a) a permanent mac·
net and (b) an electro-magnet and give examples of
the use of each.
4. (a) Describe any type of accumulator with which you
arc familiar, stating its construction and mode of
action. (b) What is meant by the terms "capacity"
and " efficiency •• in relation to accumulators ?
5. A D.C. motor takes a current 100 amps from the
supply at a v.oltage of 500. (a) What is the HP
input to the motor and {b) what will be the cost of
running it for 1 year a.<;Suming that it operates 12
hours per day throughout the year and that the cost
oC a. unit is 0·625d. ?
6. I! an electrically driven pump takes 15· )3 amps at
220 volts (D.C.) from the supply and the overall
efficiency of pump and motor is 76%. what is the
work done by the pump in it. lbs. pt:r min. ?
7. The voltmeter and ammeter on a 3·pba.se A.C. motor
read 3,000 volts and 50 amps respectively, the power
factor being 0. 8. c ...iculatc the input to the motor in
(a.) kilowatts and (b) in HP. (c) H the efficiency of
the motor is 80%, what is the B. HP. output?
S. A motor develops 63 B.HP when supplied with
3-phase alternating current at 550 volts. The
efficiency of the motor is 90% and the power factor
O·S. What current in amperes will be taken by tbe
motor?
FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
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THIS PAPER
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MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Answers LR/2
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
I. (a) Sketch mid describe a11y primary cell with whiclt yo:i arc familiar and state for what PHrposes
the cell is used. (b} H1fiat .is meant by " polarisatioH " and: how is it remedied in the cell you
describe]

I
THE LECLANCHE PRIMARY CELL.
. (a) The eJe1;~nents in this cell are ztne
and carbon and the. electrolyte is a satur- ~ICA~ING

ated solution of ammonium chloride (sal '""°'. ----lt1H1:'~T;.t

ammoniac, NH 4Cl) in water .
•
The zinc, Z I\• constitutes the anode
of the cell and forms the negative pole or
terminal. 1 t is either a rod or a cylindrical
plate and is placed in a glass jar with the
electrolyte.
The carbon rod constitutes the cathode
and forms the positive pole or terminal.
lt is placed inside a porous pot of unglazed The Leclanche' Cell.
earthenware (or sometimes a sack of calico
fabric) containing a tightly packed mixture
of manganese dioxide, M~O!• and broken gas coke which acts as a depolariser.
• The ·E.M.F. of the cell, i.e. the potential difference between its terminals on open circuit, is about
1 ·5 volts, but this falls away rapidly i( a strong current is allowed to flow by connecting the cell to a
low resistance. The chemical reaction that takes place is :-
2 NH4.Cl + Zn11- -:- 2. ZnCl1 2NH~ + H~
( Ammonimn Chloride) ( Z1'11c) ( Zi11c Cltloridt) (A mmo1Lia) (Hy&ogen}

The zinc is gradually " eaten away " and the cell is exhausted when the zinc has been sufficiently
consumed. ·
In the dry form of Leclanehe cell, the zinc plate acts as the container and the liquid electrolyte
is teplaced by a paste of plaster of Paris, flour, water, zinc chloride, and ammonium chloride. The
carbon rod is packed round with the depolarising material in paste form, and the two pastes are separated
by calico fabric.
The wet form of cell is largely used in mi.Ding for signalling purposes where only an intermittent
current is required. The dry form is used for shot-firing batteries.
(b) Polarisation refers to the condition in a primary cell where bubbles of hydrogen, set free from
the electrolyte, accumulate as a film around the cathode and so reduce the E.M.F. developed by the
cell until such time as the hydrogen has escaped or has been removed by an oxidising agent embodied
in the cell.
In the Leclanche cell, the depolarising agent is the manganese dioxide which combines with the
hydrogen to form water, the reaction being :-
H.. + 2 MnO! Mn!03 + ::ELO
(Hydrogen) (Mang. Dioxide} (Ma11g. Sesquioxidc) (Water)

15003)
 LR/2
A/2 General Principles.

2. Give a concise account of the chief effectsof an electric current 1111der the headings of (a)
Heating effects, (b) Chemical effects, and (c) Magnetic ejf.:cts.

EFFECTS OF A CURRENT.
(a) Heating effects.
Heat is set free in all conductors through which an electric current is passing, the amount of
heat varying as the square of the current. In a cable, the heat lost in this way must be reduced to a
minimum by installing a cable of suitable size, or by transmitting at a high voltage to reduce the
current flowing. In a radiator or an electric furnace, the aim must be to convert as much electrical
energy into hea_t as possible. With suitable conductors, e.g. very. fine wires, light is also given out.
Heat at very high temperature {about 3C00°C) is also produced by an electric arc in which the con-
ducting material is formed by the carbon vapour Conned between ·the electrodes.

(b) Chemical effcots.

When an electric current is passed through certain kinds of liquids, known as electrolytes, the
result is to split up the liquid into its component parts and the process is called electrolysis. Aqueous
solutions of many salts, acids, and bases can be thus electrolysed.

Electrolysis is much used in industry for (J) electroplating in silver, gold, copper, and chromium
(2} the production of electrotype used in printing, and (3) the production of very pure metals, e.g.
copper and aluminium. The secondary cell or accumulator is a further application of electrolysis.

(e) Magnetic effects.

When an electric current flows in a straight conductor, it produces magnetic lines sof force which
form circles around the conductor in a plant at right angles to the current and their direction is that
in which a right-handed screw must he turned in order to drive it in the direction of the current. The
magnetic effect is shown by the deflection of a compass needle when brought near to the c:oncluc!or.

H the conductor itself be coiled into a spiral, it forms a solenoid coil and the magnetic lines of
force are then concentrated within the coil, flowing axially through it to the N end and around outside
it back to the Send. If, now, a soft iron core is placed within the coil, it affords an easier path for the
magnetic lines of force (not for the current) and the arrangement is termed an electro-magnet.

The magnetic effects of an electric current are made use of in all kinds of electrical apparatus,
e.g. motors, generators, and transformers, and all such apparatus is therefore referred to as electro-
magnetic apparatus.

3. DisiingHish carefully beuoee« (a) a permanent -magnet and (b) a1i electro-magnet and givt'
examples of the use of each,

MAGNETS.
{a) A permanent magnet is one which, after having been magnetised, retains its magnetism more
or less indefinitely. It is made of hardened high carbon steel(!% to I ·5% carbon), or alternatively,
of alloy steel containing up to 6% tungsten or up to 40% cobalt. It is used in telegraphy and telephony,
in electrical measuring instruments, in surveying instruments, and for creating the field in small
generators such as are used for shot-firing or internal combustion engine ignition.
{b) An electro-magnet consists o[ a piece of soft iron or steel; called the core, which is placed
within a solenoid, i.e. a coil of insulated copper wires or conductors through which an electric current
is passed. It differs from a permanent magnet in that the core only remains magnetised whilst ~he
current is flowing, and it loses its magnetism (except for a little residual magnetism) when the current
ceases.

The core must be made of a material which is easily magnetised, i.e, it must have high permeability
to magnetic nux. Such materials include pure soft wrought iron, or low carbon steel, or silicon steel
containing up to 4% silicon,

Electro-magnets are used for creating the magnetic field of generators, motors, and transformers ;
for lifting awkward loads ot iron by crane ; and for ma,ny automatic electrical devices.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardif],

4. (a) Describe any type of accumulator witll which yo1~ ar.: familiar, stating its construction.
and mode of action, (b) What is meant by the terms " capacity " and " efficie'ltcy " i1i relation
to accumulators ?

THE NICKEL-ALKALINE ACCUMULATOR.

(a) (Note. The Lead-acid type of accumulator has been fully described in the Lesson and we here
take the opportunity of dealing with the alkaline type.]
The nickel-alkaline accumulator consists of a number of composite steel plates or tubes of thin
perforated nickel steel containing the active materials and separated by ebonite rods, the + and -
plates being arranged alternately. The electrolyte is a 20% solution of potassium hydroxide or caustic
potash, KOH, having a constant S.G. of 1 ·19 and contained in a steel case.
The active material in the positive plates is nickel hydroxide, whilst that in the negative is· finely
divided iron (Edison type negatives) or a mixture of cadmium and iron (Jungner type negatives).
Sometimes, flake nickel or graphite is added to reduce the internal resistance.
The chemical reactions cannot be expressed by a chemicai equation, but it is known that, during
discharge, the positive electrodes give up oxygen, forming a lower oxide of nickel, whilst the negative
electrodes receive oxygen, forming oxides of iron, or cadmium and iron. During charge, the reverse
action takes place. The electrolyte remains unaffected except that, during charge, oxygen and hydrogen
are liberated as with lead-acid cells. No gassing takes place during discharge.
At the beginning or discharge, .an alkaline cell has a voltage of about 1 ·3 volts, but this falls gradually
to 1 ·2 volts and thereafter to about 1 volt when the cell can be regarded as discharged. In practice
two cells (or sometimes three cells) are connected ·in series, e.g. in electric safetylamps, and the voltages
mentioned then need adjusting to suit the number of cells.
During charge, at constant current, the initial voltage across the cell terminals is about 1 ·4 volts
per cell, but this J'ises to about 1 ·75 volts per cell at the end of the charging period.
As compared with the lead-acid accumulator, the alkaline type have a much higher first cost,
but this is balanced by a longer life (7 or 8 years as compared with 12 or 18 months} and a lower
maintenance cost. No sulphating occurs. Neither over-charging,nor charging in the '"rong direction,
nor rapid discharge, does serious harm. Further, an alkaline cell can be left for months, or even years.
in a charged or discharged state without damage. On the other hand, an alkaline cell has a hig!ic:J"
internal resistance and its efficiency is lower than that of the acid type.
4, (b) The capacity of an accumulator is the quantity of electricity, measured in ampere-hours,
"::...

- which it is capable of giving out on discharge down to a specified voltage.

The ei!iciency of an accumulator may be expressed into two ways :-

Ampere-hour amp-hour output Watt-hour \Vatt-hour output

efficiency or efficiency
amp-hour input Watt-hour input

5. A D.C. motor takes a current 100 amps from the supply at a voltage of 5CO. (a) 'What is the
HP input to the motor and. (b) what will be the cost of ruwning it for I year assuming that it
operates 12 hours per day throughout the year and. that the cost of a unit is 0 ·625d. ?

COST· OF RUNNING A MOTOR."

volts x amps 500 x 100
(a) BP Input to motor = 67HP.
746 746
(b) Number of kW-hours or units per year= 50 kW x 365 days x 12 hours per <lay = 219,00(>
kW-hours .
. ·. Cost per year = 219,000 x 0 ·625 = 136,875 pence = £570. 6s, 3d.

6. If a1~ electrically drioen. pump takes 15 ·13 amps at 220 volts (D.C.) from the supply and the
overall efficiency of pump and moior is 76%, what is 'the work done by tire pump in ft. lbs. per min ?
POWER OUTPUT OF PUMP.
Input to motor = 220 volts x 15 ·13 amps = 3328 ·6 watts = 4 ·462 HP.
Output of pump with an efficiency of 76% = 4 ·462 X 0 ·76 = 3 ·39 HP .
. ·. Work done by pump = 3 ·39 x 33,000 = 111,900 ft. lbs. per min.
·_LR/2_
A/4
General Principles,
-------······- -------------
7. Tire voitsncter and ammeter on a 3-phasc A. C. motor read 3,CCO volts and 50 amps respectively,
the power factor being 0 ·8. Calculate th« i1iput to the motor 1·1~ (a) kilowatts and (b) i1t HP. (c)
If the efficiency of the motor is 80%. what is the B.H P. 01ctp11t?

THREE-PHASE A.C. MOTOR PROBLEM.

y3 x E x 1 x P.F. 1 ·732 x 3,000 x 50 x 0 ·8
(a) kW input 207·84 kW.
1,000 1,000
1,000 1,000
(b) HP input kW x 207·84 x 278 ·6 HP.
746 746
(c) B.H.P. output= input x 0 ·8 278 ·6 x 0 ·8 222 ·88 B.HP.

-
;;..
zCf.
S. A motor develops 63 B.HP. uihen. s11pplied with 3-plutsc alternating current at 550 volts. The <
efficiency of the motor is 90% and the power factor 0 ·8. What current fo amperes will be taketi U•
r=-:
0 ::::0
by the motor ? . ~ :.r.
0

r-
CURRENT TAKEN BY 3-PHASE A.C. MOTOR. ~
1:i

Output of motor = 63 B.HP.: Input to motor = G3 0 ·9 70 HP.

Watts input to motor = 70 X 746 = 52,220 watts.
But watts input = v3 x volts x amps x P.F. = 52,220
..
Watts 52,220.
Hence- current = --------- 68·5 amps.
v:f x volts x P.F. 1 ·732 x 550 x 0 ·8
tAiternatively, we might say :-
......
y3 X volts X amps x P.F.
HP. input to motor 70 HP.
746
70 x 7-16
Current = es ·5 amps (as before) ]
1 ·732 x 550 x 0 ·S

Pri.!llecl by <'~ P<111wn L14.

 LR/3
1
COPYRIGHT
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THE U.M.S.
188:>.
T. A. SOUTHERN L'rD.,.
THI$ P1'PER

g~e ~(llM>al
WAS THE FIRST

£J'wof,
IS SVPPLIEO ON
CORAESPON~ENCE
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IT IS f;£!'ERVEC>
THAT

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MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING·

Lesson LR/3.
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT-OHM'S LAW

We have seen that, when a difference of pressure or potential exists between two bodies, an electric
current will flow from the body at higher potential (voltage) to that at lower potential if there is a con-
ducting path between them. The question now arises, what will. be the magnitude of the current?

OHM'S LAW.
Just as the rate of flow of water through a pipe depends on the pressure causing flow and on the
resistance offered by the pipe, so the rate of flow of electricity through a conductor depends on the
voltage or P.D. between its ends and on the resistance offered by the conductor. The relationship
between the three factors, current, voltage and resistance, have been defined by Georg Simon Ohm,
as follows :- • •
The current I flowing in a conductor between two
points wblch are at a. different potential varies
directly as the dlUerence of potential E and inversely
as the resistance R of the conductor. ·
E E
In symbols, I = - (1) ; from which E = IR........ . (2) and R = (3}
R I
These three formulae should be carefully remembered. They apply to any direct current circuit
where only ohmic resistance has to be considered. Other factors also have to be taken into consider-
ation in alternating current circuits. •
Formula (1) gives us the current flowing when the P.D. and the resistance are known. Formula.
(2) gives the "pressure drop" or "voltage drop" which occurs in a D.C. circuit (or in any given parlofit)
when current flows in it, and it is because of this voltage drop that the voltage available at the end of a
cable is always less than the voltage applied to it. Formula (3) enables us to calculate the resistance of
any circuit when we Jrnow the voltage drop and the curr~nt. .
Now the product of the voltage expended on overcoming the resistance of a circuit multiplied by
the current gives us the power in watts expended on overcoming that resistance, i.e. :-
Power expended = volts x amps = Ex I = IR x I = PR watts (4)
E E2
(or) = Exl = Ex- = - watts (4a}
R R
· This power is dissipated in the form of heat and (except in a circuit whose prime purpose is for
heating) such heat losses are termed I za losses. It will be seen that the heat loss varies directly as the
resistance and as the square 'of the current and it is therefore desirable for transmission purposes to
reduce the current flowing by transmitting at as high a voltage as possible.
It is sometimes necessary to convert units of electrical energy (Board of Trude Units) into equiv-
alent hedt units (British Thermal Units) and for this purpose the following conversion factor may be
used:-
2,654,155 ft. lbs.
1 Board er Trade Unit= 1 kw-hour - ------ =· 3410 B.Th.U,s (approx} (5}
778 •
The application of Ohm's Law can best be shown by a few examples :-
r
Example 1. What P.D. is required to produce a current of 200 amps against a resistance of 5 ohms?
Answer. By formula· (2}, voltage required = E .= IR = 200 x 5 = 1,000 volts.
(470!l)
LR/3
'I The Electr.ic Circuit-s-Ohm:« Law
2.

i;;xample 2. If the P.D. is 650 volts and the resistance 10 ohms, what will be the current?
E 650
Answer. By formula (1), current= I= - = - = 65 amps.
R 10
Example 3. What is the resistance of the filament of a radio valve if 0 · l amp. flows through the
:filament when 3 volts are applied?
• E 3
Answer. By formula (3), resistance= - = - = 30 ohms.
I 0·1
Example 4. 1000 HP is expended in a heating circuit whose resistance is 10 ohms. Find the voltage
drop and the current.
Answer. By formula (4), power expended = 1,000 x 746 = I ZR = Iz x 10 watts.
746,000
Hence r~ = and current = I ...;74,600 273 amps.
10
By formula (2), voltage drop = E =IR = 273 x 10· = 2730 volts.
Example 5. A 220 volt electric kettle has an efficiency of 90%. Calculate the resistance of the heat-
ing coil and the current necessary to raise the temp. of 2 pints of water from 59°F to
.boiling point in 10 mins. (8 pints = 1 gallon -' IO lbs.) -
Answer. Weight of 2 pints of water= 2·5 lbs.; temperature rise= 212---; 59 = 153°F.
Heat to be imparted to the water= 2·5X153 = 382·5 B.Th.U's.
provided by kettle = 382·57{)·9 = 425·0 B.Th.U's.
425

..
B.T.U's. ., = -- = 0·1246 kw-hours= 124·6 watt-hrs.
3410
Ii the time were 1 hour, the.power required would be 124· 6 watts, but, as the ti.me is only 10 rnins.
six times th~ power is required to give the same heating effect = 6x124· 6 = 747 · 6 watts.
Current required = watts 7 volts = 747 · 6 7 220 = 3 · 4 amps.
Resistance of coil = Volts 7 current = 220 7 ~ · 4 = 64 · i oh ms.
To calculate the resistance al a conductor.
· The resistance of a conductor is dire.ctly proportional to its length, i.e. if one conductor is twice as
long as another of the same material and size, it will offer twice the resistance. The resistance is also
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, i.e. if one conductor has twice the area of another
(other things being equal) it will offer only one-half of the resistance.. Further, the resistance varies
with the kind of material of which it is rriade.vs.e. with its"specilic resistance," symbolised here bv
the letter s. These three factors may be combined in the form of an equation :- · ·
sL
Resistance or conductor in ohms=R=-- · (6)
A

where L = length of conductor in ems, inches, or other unit, depending on how the" specific resistance"
)s expressed.
A = sectional area of conductor .in sq. ems, or sq. ins ; and' S=spccific resistance.

Specific resistance (sometimes called the" resistivity"}.

To compare the resistances of conductors made of Table 1. •
different materials, it is necessary to know, in respect of Specific reslstances in microhms at 0°C.
each material, the· resistance offered by a conductor o!
unit length and unit cross-section. It is usual to con-
sider a conductor either lcm long and 1 sq. cm. area,
or 1 inch long and 1 sq. inch area, and the resistance of
Material · I Per inch cube Per cm cube
this unit conductor is called the "specific resistance" of Silver 0·579 1·47
the material. Copper· 0·625 1·588
In otherwords, the specific resistance of any mat- Aluminium 1·048 2·665
erial is the resistance between two opposite faces of a cm. Brass 2·83 7·2
cube, or an inch-cube, of the material. Note carefully Iron 3·57 9·0i
that an" inch-cube" is not the same thing as a" cubic Platinum 4·299 10·92
inch." The former canonly be a cube with one inch Tin 5·14 13·05
sides. The latter may have any length and area (and Lead 8·03 20·4
therefore any resistance) so long as its volume is 1 cubic
inch. We cannot therefore calculate the resistance of
a conductor from its volume. We must in all cases
Manganin
Carbon I 18·4
2750
46·7
7000
apply formula (6).
 LR/3
The Universal Mining· Schooi.. Cardiff
3

In practice, the specific resistance of a conducting material in ohms is so small that it is usually
expressed i!l mlcrohn;is,_-arnicrohm being one-millionth of an ohm. See Table 1 for approximate value of
specific resistances 'at 0 °C.

Example 6.· Calculate the resistance in ohms of a copper conductor l,OOOyardslong and 0·06 sq. inch
area. Assume s==O · 634 microhrns per inch cube.

sL 0·634X-100x36
Answer.·· Resistance of conductor = R = -- = ------ 0·38 ohm.
A 10° X 0·06

The temperature eo-etttelent.

The effect of a rise in temperature is normally to cause a proportional increase in the resistance of a ·
conductor and the ''temperature co-e!flclent" of a substance may be defined as the change in its re-
sistance caused by a rise in temperature of l degree, and expressed as a fraction of its resistance at O °C.

. For example, the temperature co-efficient of copper is 0 · 00426 at 0 °C, meaning that for each degree
G rise in temperature, the resistance of a: conductor increases by 0 · 00420 of its resistance at 0 °C. The
temperature-co-efficient for aluminium is 0·00435 and for iron about 0·006. Some alloys, e.g. man-
ganin, have a negligible temperature co-efficient and are used in testing appliances, whilst carbon has a
ne~at'ive co-efficient of 0 ·0005, meaning that its resistance decreases as the temperature increases.

Let R, = the resistance in ohms at t°C; ex: = temperature co-efficient.

~ o ,,

' .
Ro = .. ., 0°C; t = temperature in °C.

Then reslstenee at t° C · Rt - Ro (1 + o::t)......................... . _ .. (Ga)

a
Example 7. The resistance of coil of copper wire at 0°C is 125 ohms. What is its resistance at 100°C
assum~g 0::=0·0042 per degree C?

Answer: Resistance at 100°C=R 1=Ra (1+ oct)=l25 (I+O ·42)=125 x l ·42=177 · 5 ohms.

Although it is not strictly correct to do so,formula (6a) can be applied with sufficient accuracy for
ordinary purposes even when the initial temperature is not 0°C, provided that we take t as the rise in 0

temperature from the initial temperature.

Conversely, we can apply formula (6a) to calculate the rlse in temperature of a conductor if we know
the 'initial and final resistances, for :-

Rt = Ro (I+ cx:t) and R, = Ro +R 0 ex: t

. R~Ro
Hence rise in temperature = L = (7)1
Ro x o::

RESISTANCES IN SERIES.
Other things being equal, the resistance oi a conductor two miles long is double that of a conductor
only one mile long. Further, the total resistance of any number of conductors connected in series is
equal to the ~um of their separate resistances. Thus :-

Total resistance o! conductors In serles = R = r1+rs+rs etc :.: (8)

CONDUCTORS IN PARALLEL OR ''IN SHUNT."

· Other things being equal, the joint resistance of two conductors one mile long: and connected in
parallel is only half of that of one conductor of similar length;, the resistance of three conductors is
only one-third of that of one conductor.; and the resistance or n conductors in parallel Is only 'kth of that
or one condu_c.~or~, This is self-evident but the matter· is not quite so simple when conductors of
different resistances are connected in parallel. . ··
::-~·:~ ."T:-··~~.'.:-;•rr.~~:!"~!" .-"-· ~~~-~-.~ . . ~.~~)~~~
·· .iLR/3 ··. ·.
-.-4- ", '. · · ;.·i · ·· TJ:z.~:··Ele~f:ric-.:Oitf cWi~Olvm/ s Law
C•35amps._
Consider the adjoining sketch in which three re-
sistances R1 =5 ohms, ·R:=4 ohms, and R3=2 ohms are
connected in parallel. . It is desired to know their joint
or equivalent resistance and also the total current fl.owing
when a P.D. of 100 volts is applied to the circuit, assu m-
ing the line resistance to be negligible. Note that the
P.D. across each resistance is 100 volts.

Fig. 1.
Three resistances in parallel.
The first point to note is that, just as a number of pipes connected in parallel have a greater water-
carrying capacity than any one of them alone, so a number of conductors in parallel have a greater
current-carrying capacity than any one of .the conductors. In other words, the three conductors have a
greater joint "conductance'' and therefore a. smaller joint resistance. ··
The conductance of an electrical conductor clearly varies inversely as its resistance. Conductance,
is, in fact, the reciprocal of resistance and its unit is termed the MHO (symbol G). A conductor has
unit conductance when its resistance is 1 ohm. The conductance of R ~in fig. 1 is ! mho because its
resistance is 4 ohms.
The joint or eq utvalent resistance of conductors in parallel is the effective resistance of the whole
group of conductors. It may be likened to the resistance of an imaginary single wire cable, under the
same P.D., to pass a continuous current numerically equal to the sum.of the actual divided currents.
To find the equivalent resistance ot conductors In parallel, it is evident that we cannot add together
the separate resistances, but we can add the separate conductances and so obtain the total conductance.
Finally we can invert the numerical result so obtained to find the equivalent resistance. Thus, referr-
ing to fig. 1 :-
1 I 1 19 20
Total conductance = -+-+- = - mho : and equivalent resistance .- . 1 ·05 ohm.
5 4. 2 20 to
1. 1' 1 1
Hence, for conductors in parallel, - = -+-+.......:. ................... {9)
R rl r , r3
Note that the figure l ·05 ohm is less than the smallest single resistance in the circuit (R3=2 ohms).
This principle is true in general, namely that the equivalent resistance or any number or conductors in
parallel is always less than the resistance of any one of them alone.
E 100
The total current flowing in the circuit {fig. 1) = I fF - = 95 amps.
R l·05
The problem may be looked at in another way, remembering that, whether a number of resistances
are joined up in series or in parallel, the resistance of each is the same as if it stood by itself. Let the
currents flowing separately through R 1, R z, and R 3, ·be I 1, It• and I 3 respectively..
E 100· E 100
Then I1 - 20 amps. I:s - - 50 '\mps.
R1 5 Rs 2

E 100
12 25 amps. . ·. Total current I 95 amps.
R~ 4

E 100
Hence, the equivalent resistance = R = = 1 ·05 ohm (as before).
I 95
Example 8. Resistances of 20, 15, and 5 oluns are connected between the terminals of a generator of
100 volts. What current will flow when they are connected (a) in series, and {h} in
parallel?
E 100
Answer. (a) In series. R=r 1+r2+r 3=20+ 15+5=40 ohms, . ·. Curreni= l =-=-·-=2 · 5 amps.
R 40
1 l 1 1 l l 1 19 60
(b} In parallel. -+-+-
-+-+-
20 15 o 60.
.·.R=
19
ohms ..
R
E' '19
and Current I .100 X-:-- 81·67 amps.
R 60
 ·· f,R/3
The -Uwioersai Af:ining.·,S.clioot; Cardiff
5

-COMPOUND CIRCUITS.
It may happen that a system consists of several

l
groups of parallel=circuits, the groups being connected c
together in series. . . :i R,
· Consider fig. 2 where two groups of two resistances ~
-each are connected in series.ithe individual resistances of
each group being in parallel. Let usinvestigate what is 400 l'OlC$

I
(a) the total resistance of the circuit, assuming the
straight lines to have no resistance; (b) the total line ...,a a
ID
-currerrt flowing; (c) the voltagedrop across each group;
and (d) the current in each resistance, when a P .D. of 0~~--~<~--------''---~
400 volts exists between the terminals. Fig. 2. A Compound Circuit.
(a) To find total resistance of cir euit,
I 1 l 10
Conductance of R 1and R: = ..... - -+- - -- and R = 2·4 ohms.
R 4 6 24

1 1 l l
"
n, and R - 4 -+- - - and R - 2·0 ohms.
R 3 6 2
Total equivalent resistance of these two groups in series = 4· 4 ohms.
E 406
(b) To find the total line current. By Ohm's Law. I = 91 amps.
R
(c) To flnd the voltage drop across each group.
Inzhe first group, we have a current of 91 amps and a resistance of 2 ·4 ohm .
. ·. By Ohm's Law, voltage drop=E1=IR-=91 x2·4=218 volts.
In the second group .. .. =E 1=IR=91x2 ·0=182 volts.
Thus the whole of the applied voltage is accounted for=218+182=400 volts.

(d) To find the current in each resistance.

E1 218 218
CurrentinR1 = - = - = 54·5 amps.· Current In R 2 = - = 36 · 5 amps.
R 4 6
Total current through R1 and R2 = 54·5+36·5 = 91 amps (as before).
Es 182 182
CuuentlnR. =- = - = 60·7 amps. Current in R. = - = 30 · 3 amps.
~ R 3 6
Total current through R:i and R, = 00·7+30·3 := 91 amps (as before).

GROUPING OF PRIMARY CELLS; ·

It is often necessary in practice to group a number of primary cells together, either in series or in
parallel, or partly one and partly the other, in order to obtain an appropriate value of the voltage and
current. Let us therefore consider the various cases involved.
A single cell.
When a single cell is on" open circuit" so that no currentfiows, it dcvelopes an E.M.F. of E volts
which may be measured by a voltmeter across the terminals. When the circuit is closed, however, and
a current I flows, the E.M.F. is expended partly in overcoming the external resistance Rand partly in
overcoming the Internal resistance B of the cell itself. In such a case, the P.D. across the terminals will
be that required to overcome .the resistance of the external circuit only(= IR), and it will be less than
the E.M.F. by an amount equal to the internal drop in volts= I xB. Hence:- ·
P.D. across the terminals=~= E - IB volts : ,(10)
Now the total resistance of the .circuit·= R+B ohms. Hence:-
E
Current produced by one cell = I = amps (11)
. R+B
Cells In series. ..
If we connect ·~.n~•
similar cells in series, the E.M.F. developed will be increased to nE volts; the
external resistance R will remain unaltered; but the internal resistance will be increased to nB. We
will then obtain a greater current I, but not one equal to nI because the total resistance of the complete
circuit has been increased. The new current will then be :-
nE
Current"produced by "n,. cells in series= I = amps _ (12)
R+nB
 LR/3
The Electric ·Circuit-Ohm's Law
r 6

Cells In parallel. .
If we connect "n'' similar cells in parallel, the E.M.F. developed will be the same as that produced
by one cell ; the external resistance R will remain unaltered ; but the internal ,Tesistance will be·
reduced to ~n. . The current then obtained
. wilJ be :- .
E nE
Current produced by "n' • cells in parallel= I = --- ---- amps. ........... (13).
R nR+B +~
Ii
Whether a greater current will be produced by cells in series, or by cells in parallel, depends on the
relative values of the internal and external resistances. This is evident from formulae (12] and (13}'.
for the numerator nE is the same in each case and the value of the current depends on whether R+nB·
is greaterthan, equal to, or less than nR+B. The position may be summarised as foHows:-
(1) If the external resistance R ls equal to the Interna! resistance B of one cell, if does not matter
whether we couple up in series or in parallel. The same increase of current will be obtained in either
case.
(2) If R ls greater than B, it is better to connect the cells in series because, if we multiply any
resistance at all, it is better to multiply the smaller of the two ( = nB).
(3) H B is greater than R, it is better to connect the cells in- parallel..
Cells in series-parallel.
If n cells are placed in a row in series, and there are p such rows in parallel to form-a battery, then
the total number of cells = N = n~ and :- . .
E.M.F. of battery= E.M.F. per row-:- nE volts.
resistance per row nB
Internal resistance of battery = = -- ohms,
number of rows p
., c
nB
Total resistance of circuit = R+--. ohms.
p
ne pna
Current ----amps . ............... (14}
nB pR + nB
R+ -
p
Arrangement for maximum current.
It can be shown that the maximum possible current is produced when the internal resistance of a
. . · rrB. pR pnR NR
battery is equal to the external resistance, that is, when -- = R, or n = --, or n:: = --=~
· p B · .. B B
. NR'
Hence number of cells in series per row = n = / --....... .. ....... .. .. .................... · (15}
B v
Example (9). lf the internal resistance of al ·5 volt cell is 1 ohm·, and there arc 20 such cells, (a)
How should they be arranged to give the maximum current through a resistance of 5.
ohms ? (b) What will then be the current ? And what will be the current (c) from
one cell. (d)from 20 cells in series, and (e) from 20cells in parallel ? . ·

Answer. . (a) 'The condition for maximum current is that n :-

. ~
I NR
--
8
·.=
/20x5
-·--
~-
·
....:... IO.
·
I

There must therefore be 10 cells ln series and 2 rows in parallel.

pne
(b} Maximum current = ---- .2x iox· 1·5
· · · · · · · · 30
~ · ·cs ~mps.
·. pR + nB. (2~5) + (lOxl). 20 .... · .....
E 1:5 .
(c) For one cell, current = I = , = -- = 0 · 25· amp.
R+B 1+5 .. :·: .
... (~~
nE 20 x 1 . 5 ·ao·
(d) For 20 calls in series, current-. I= =. -· =.1 :.2.a.tai) •.
'R+nB 5-f-20 25 ··
·· ·· ·.. · ·.riE. :·. ·2o:xr-5·· ":·~il'"'·w: : ..
(e) For 20 ·cells in parallel, · current = I = = ~ = .Q: 3· amp. :
nR+B. 100+1 101· .
 LRf3
The U nivp-sal · Mi-rJ,ing $ chooi; Cardiff 7

CONDUCTORSAND INSULATORS.
A conductor is a material which offers a low resistance to the passage of current, and an insulator
is one that offers a high resistance, There is no such thing as a perfect conductor, or a perfect insulator,
nut most materiaJs can be classed as either one or the other.
Desirable qualities in a. conductor.
(1) Low specific resistance. (4) High ductility to permit the material
{2) High tensile strength. being drawn into wires.
(3) High resistance to corrosion. · (5) Reasonable cost.
Most metals are good conductors, the three in most common use being copper, aluminium and brass.
Copper is used for the windings of all kinds of electrical apparatus, and for cables and overhead
"lines. It has a specific resistance of about O· 625 microhm per inch cube, a specific gravity of 8 · 9, and <L
·tensile strength of about 60,000 lbs. per sq. inch.
Aluminium is sometimes used for busbars in generating stations and for bare overhead trans-
-mission lines instead of copper, being much lighter than copper (S.G. = 2·7} and less liable to corrosion.
Its specific resistance, however, isl ·05 microhm per inch cube (about 65% more than that of copper)
and its tensile strength is only about half that of copper so that more supports per mile are required.
The latter disadvantage may be overcome by using steel-cored aluminium in which the steel provides
the necessary tensile strength.
Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is a harder metal than copper and is used for the wearing and
·contact parts of electrical apparatus, e.g, slip-rings, contact-fingers, controller-studs, and sometimes
. switch-arms and brush-gear. Its specific resistance, however, is more than 4 times as great as that of
-copper, · , ·
Iron and steel have nearly 6 times the resistance of copper, but they have the advantage of cheap-
ness and mechanical strength. They are used as conductors in bare-wire signalling systems, in tram-
-way systems where the rails act as a return conductor, and for the armouring of permanent cables where
the armouring acts as an earth conductor.
InsuJators. .
An insulating material, sometimes called a dielectric, is used to surround or support a conductor so
that, under normal working conditions, we can say that no current flows through the insulator. I£ is
.chiefly needed to prevent electrical contact with (and consequent leakage to) earth, but it also serves, as
in a cable, to separate two or more conductors and to prevent persons coming into contact with" live"
-conductors.
• Insulation resistance is the resistance obtaining between two conductors or systems of conductors
-scparated by an insulating material. It is normally so large that it is usually stated in megohms (i.e.
·millions of ohms). ]ts magnitude depends on the specific resistance of the material used and on the
length of the insulated conductors from which leakage of current can take place. Thus the insulation
resistance of 2 miles of cable (whether in series or in parallel} is only half that of l mile or cable and the
insulation resistance of Jr. mile of cable will be doub]ethat of one mile. The amount of current that will
·"leak" from such a cable is governed by Ohm'sLaw, I = E 7 R, where Eis the voltage and R the
insulation resistance.
Desirable qualities in an Insulator.
(1) High specific resistance (S.R.}. (:~} Ability to resist high temperatures.
(2). High resistance to tearing or fracture. (4) Unaffected by acids, gases, or water.
{5) High disruptive or dteleetrtc strength, i.«l. a very high voltage must be required to break Clown
-or puncture a thin sheet of the material. The disruptive strength is expressed kilovolts per mm or in
volts per mil ( = 0 · 001 inch}.
Generally, non-metals are good insulators but in' very varying degrees. The following are the
most important. · ·
Air is a good insulator and is used as such in bare overhead transmission lines. An air path of
.about a. foot is quite sufficient insulation for 30,000 volts, but it obviously cannot prevent contact and
.must therefore be supplemented by other substances.
Pure rubber is one of the best moisture-proof insulators, having a specific resistance of 11 megohms
per cm cube and a. disruptive. strength of 40 to 50 kilovolts per cm, but it is used only as a thin layer
next to copper to protect it from the effect of the sulphur in vulcanised compounds.
Vulcanised rubber is rubber which has been subjected to heat treatment with sulphur and is cx-
tensi.ve]y used for trailing and semi-flexible cables. Its specific resistance varies from 2 to 16 megohms
.and its disruptive strength from IO to 30 kilovolts per cm. The maximum safe temperature for both
pure and vulcanised rubber is 40°C.
Mica.is used in electric apparatus ie.g, commutators) and especially for high voltages. It is in-
-cornbustiblc, non-hygroscopic, and mechanically strong in compression ; its S.R. is 5 to 100 megohms,
.and its disruptive strength 10 to 40 kilovolts percm. Mica flakes arc frequently cemented together
·with shellac to form micanite which can be moulded to any desired shape, e.g. for slot insulation.
Paper is largely used for cable insulation, being wound in successive layers to the required thick-
ness. Before being used, it must be impregnated with oil and. being still hygroscopic, it must be
-shcathed with lead or vulcanised bitumen to exclude moisture, The disruptive strength is about G
kilovolts per cm. The maximum safe temperature is about 60 °C.
Cotton, impregnated with varnish to exclude moisture, is Jargly used as a covering for wire which
.has to be made up into coils. Its S.R. is about 2.-5 megohms per cm. cube and the disruptive strength
.about 3 kilovolts per mm. .
Porcelain is used as an insulator and support for bare conductors, fusible cut-outs etc. Its S.R. is
about 2 megohms per cm cube and its disruptive strength about 15 kilovolts per nun.
Vulcanised bitumen (so-called} is obtained by vulcanising the distillation products of certain oils
and is used for cable insulation. It is waterproof but is adversely affected by high temperatures .
.Bitumen itself is an asphalt product and, when mixed with petroleum products, is used for filling cable
· j.oint boxes.
LR/3
The Electric Circuit-Ohm's Law
8

Other insulating materials include fibre compounds (e.g. presspahn) impregnated with varnish and
used for low-voltage coils ; bakelite {a. compound organic substance unafiected by hot oil and much
used in· static transformers) ; . pure mineral oil {used in transformers and oil-immersed switchgear) ;
slate and marble (for low-voltage switch boards} ; and ebonite, vulcanite, shellac, and silk {for electrical
instruments).
EARTHING OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
We have seen that all current-carrying conductors must be carefully insulated from .each other
and from the earth, and from any parts of electrical apparatus (e.g. the outer frame) which are 'in contact ·
with earth or which may be touched by persons handling the apparatus .
.If however, the insulation should break down, so that a" Jive" conductor makes contact with'the
frame, the latter immediately becomes electrically charged at the potential of the conductors and
therefore liable to give a dangerous shock to anyone who comes in contact with it.
As a safeguard against this danger, it is essential that all the metal parts of electrical apparatus
(other· than the live conductors themselves) must be "earthed," i;e:" connected to the gencr.al mass of
earth in such a manner as to ensure an immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger." The
parts of the apparatus that must be earthed are laid down in the electrical regulations, butfhey include
the frames and bedplates of generators, motors, transformers, and switchgear, jolnt boxes, instrument
covers, and all metallic sheaths, coverings and handles. A further point to be earthed is the neutral
point of the secondary winding of' a transformer, the purpose here being to prevent the secondary .....
windings being charged at the primary voltage if a fault should develop between the primary and '\%t
secondary windings. en
Ul
Method of earthing. ~o
Note carefully that all earthed parts of electrical apparatus, even at the working face underground,
must have a continuous metallic connection right from the machine or apparatus concerned to an
earthing system at the surface of the mine where the earth plates can be properly installed, inspected,
-
oZ
::0

tested, and maintained.

Earthing plates at the surface take various forms, but they must be durable and of low resistance,
and have a largeareaofcontactwithcarth. Oncgoodforrnconsists of severalcasttron pipes, some 9ft.long
sunk vertically in a specially dug pit in clayey ground with a retaining wall around its mouth. The pit
a{1d pipes are filled with coke, leaving the top foot of the pipes exposed. The pipes are ~o,pnectcd at
the top by a fiat copper busbar which is riveted and soldered in position. A supply Qf waste water. is
turned into the pit unless the situation is naturally.a damp one.
The metallic connection from the machine to the earthmg plates at the surface is provided in
various ways. Considering, however, the earthing of a coalcuttcr at the face, connection is made to"
the frame of the machine by the plug of the trailing cable ; thence by the earth core and copper screen .
embodied in the cable to the socket on the gate-end switch; thence by the steel wire armouring of the
permanent cables back to the district sub-station housing the transformer with its controlling switch-
r;ear, and thence back to the pit-bottom sub-station, and so to the surface.
At each point where armouring glands arc provided, e.g. at joint-boxes, the glands must be bridged
by copper bonds. At the sub-stations, all the units of the switchboard are connected together by an
earthing busbar from which, at the surface, a connection is taken to the earth plates buried in the
ground. . ..
·---·-----
TEST PAPER LR/3
-- ---···----· ·------ -----
1. (a) State Ohm's Law. 7. A Lcclanche dry cell has an E.M.F. oI l · 5 volt
(b) The name plate of an electric radiator slates and an internal resistance of O· 2 ohm. What
that the resistance of the radiator is tiO ohrns, will be iU; terminal P.D. when delivering
and that t he current must, not exceed 4 amps. current, to an external circuit ol 5 ohms
Will it be safe lo connect this radiator to the restatancc ?
supply at a house where the voltage is 200, 8. II 'the E.M.F. o1 a Leclanche cell is I· 5 volts, and
and wbat current will then now ? the internal resistance is 0 · 75 ohm, how many
2. (a) On what factors docs the resistance of a such cells joined in series will be required to
conductor depend ? send a current of I.amp through an external
(b) A copper conductor 1,000 yds. Jons consists of resistance of 6 ohms ?
19 strands each o{ O·OG4 inch diameter. 9. A shalt is 300 yds. deep and electrical power is
"What is the resistance of this conductor in t.ransmitted to the bottom by direct current.
ohms ? Assume the specific resistance to be · Each conductor of the two core cable has a..
0·668 ruicroum per inch cube. resistance ol. 0 · 176 ohm per mtle, Find (a)
the voltage drop in the cable ; [b] the loss in
3. ~a) What is meant by the insutation resistance ol watts; and (c} the loss in H.P., when 250
a circuit ? amps is passing.
(b) II the insulation resistance of a circuit is O· 033
megohm and the voltage is GOO volts, what is 10. An electrically driven pump delivers 400 galls per
the leakage current ? • min: against a head of 1,000 feet. Calculate
(a) the HP in the water, (b) the HP input and
4. Resistances of S and 12 ohms respectively arc k\V input to the motor; and (c) the cost of
connected in parallel across two points, the running the pump for 24 hours. The overall·
P.D. between the points being UO volts. efficiency or -tbe plant is GO per cent: and
What ill the total current flowing 1 electricai energy is O· 76 d per B.T.U. ·
Optional Question.
5. Name (a) three materials that are good conductors 11. A 2·4 volt miner's eleetzic lamp, having an.
and (b} four materials that are good msulators, alkaline accumulator. requires to be charged
stating for what chief purposes the various with -' amps current. A lamp room is
malerials are used. equipped . lot charging 360 such lamps,
arranged m parallel groups each comprising
6. Three lamps of 10, 20, and 30 candle-power re- 24 accumulators in series. Assume tha.t th.,.
spectively are connected in parallel across !HO masdmum E.M.F. of each accumulator
volt mains. The lamps each take 3·5 watts during charge is 3 · 6 volts and that its internal
per candle-power. Calculate the watts taken and contact resistance is O·25 ohm. What-is
by each lamp, the current taken by each lamp, the total cw:-cnt required from the supply aud
the tot.al watts, and the total cuu:cut. at what maximum voltage must it be ~u~plied ?-
 LR/3
A/l
FOUHOEO
Tli~
188~1_~
V M 6.
T. A. SOUTHERN l . .zrr», COPYRIGHT
THI!: PAPER

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MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Answers LR/3
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT-OHM'S LAW

1. (a) State Ohm's Law. (b) The name plate of an electric radiator states that the resistance of the
radiator is 60 ohms, and that the current must not exceed 4 amps. Will it be safe to connect this'radiator
to the s1ipply at a house where the" voltage is 200, and what current will then flow ?
PROBLEM ON OHMS LAW.
(a) Ohm's Law states that· the current Ilowing through a circuit varies directly as the electro·
E
motive force and inversely as the resistance of the circuit, or I = -.
R
{b) P.:O. requlred to cause 4 amps tofiow = E =IR= 4 x60 = 240 volts.
It wll) be sate to connect the radiator to a supply at 200 volts.
E 200
Current flowing = I = - = - = 35- amps.
R 60
2. (a) On what factors does the resistance. of a conductor depend ?
(b) A copper coudacior 1,000 yds. long consists of 19 strands each of 0 ·OM inch diameter. What is
th~ resist mice of this conductor in ohms ? Assm11e the speci.j1'c resistance to be O · 668 microhm per i11cli
cube.

RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR.
(a) The resistance R of a conductor depends on three main factors, namely, its length, L, its cross-
sectional area, A, and its specific resistance, s, the latter being the resistance between two opposite faces
of a unit cube of the material (either a cm cube or an inch cube, according to the units used}. In
symbols:- sL .
Reslstance of conductor = R = - ohms.
A
A fourth factor governing the resistance is the temperature of the conductor.
(b) Sectional area of conductor =·19 x0·78~X (0 ·064) ~ = 19 xo · 003217 = 0·0611 sq. inch,
0 . 668x1000 x 36
. · . Resistance = =· 0 · 393 ohm.
1ooxo-0611
3. (a) What is meant by the imulati<m resistance of a circuit ? (b) If the insulation. resistance of a
circuit is 0 · 033 megohm and the ooltage is 500 volts, what is the leakage current ?
INSULATION RESISTANCE.
(a} This term refers to the resistance existing between two conductors or systems of conductors which
are separated by an insulating material. It is usually measured in megohms (millions of ohms).
E 500 volts 1
(b) By Ohm's Law, Leakage current = I = - = = - amp = O · 0152 amp.
R 33,000 ohms. 66
4. Resistances of 8 and 12 ohms Tespec#vely are canneckd i1t parallel across two points, the P.D. between
the points being 110 volts. Wlzat is the total curren; flowing?
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL.
1 I I 5 24
For conductors in parallel, - = - + - = - and R=-ohms.
R S 12 24 5
. E 5 550 275
Current flowing = I = - = 110 x 22·92 amps •
.R 24 12
·-· --~-·--·-------- ~·~·--·-------- ·---· ··----·---·
LR/3
The Electric Circuit-Ohm's Law
A/2
-- -------------·-------------
5. Name (a) three materials that are good conductors a.1td (b) four materials that arc good insulators
stmingfor what chief p1~rposes the various materi«ls are used, ·
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.
{a) Conductors.
In general, all metals are good conductors, but three of the more important are copper, aluminium
and brass.
Copper is used more extensively than any other material for electrical paths, including the wind-
ings of generators, motors and transformers, cables, and overhead lines. It has a specific resistance,
of about 0 · 62 to 0 · 67 michrom per inch cube and a tensile strength of some 60,000 lbs per sq. inch.
Aluminium is sometimes used for overhead transmission lines because of its lightness and re-
sistance to corrosion. Its specific resistance, however, is about 65% greater than that of copper and
its strength is only about half that of copper.
Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is harder than copper and is used for wearing and contact parts
e.g. slip-rings, contact fingers, controller studs, etc. It has about four times the resistance of copper.
(b} Insulators.
For cables, the two most extensively used insulating materials are paper and vulcanised rubber.
In electrical apparatus, the two chiefly used are mica and cotton.
Paper is made from manila hemp, wood pulp, cotton rags, etc., and, after impregnation with oil, it
is wound on in spiral layers to give the required thickness. Being hygroscopic, it is sheathed with
lead, or vulcanised bitumen, to exclude moisture. Paper insulation is used for permanent shaft and
roadway cables and is specially suitable for high tension work.
Vulcanised rubber of tough quality; commonly known as cab-tyre sheathing, is la-sglyused in
trailing cables for portable coal-face machinery. It is strong, waterproofand flexible;
Mica, either in its natural state, or in the form of mlcamte (flakes oI mica cemented with shellac) is
used for separating live parts of apparatus, e.1:. for the insulation of commutator-segments and brush~
gear, and for slot insulation.
Cotton is chiefly used for insulating wire which has to be made up into coils, e.g. the shunt coils of
dynamos and motors. For small wires, it may be a single covering S.C.c. or a double covering (d.c.c.),
whilst for large conductors, it may he in the form of a braiding or tape. It is usually impregnated with
an insulating varnish to exclude moisture.
6. Three lamps of 10, 20 and 30 casulle-pouer respec!.ively are connected i1~ parallel. across 210 volt mains.
The lamps each take 3 · 5 watts per candle-power. Calculate the teau« taken by each lamp, the current
taken by each lamp, the total watt.~, aud the total current.
LAMPS IN PARALLEL.
watts 35 l
Power of 10 c.p, lamp = 10 x 3 · :5 = 35 watts, and Current= --- =- = - = 0·17 amp.
volts 210 6.
watts· 70 1
Power of 20 c.p, lamp = 20 x 3 · 5 = 70 watts, and Current = =- = - = 0 · 33 a.mp.
volts 210 3
watts 105 I
~ower of 30 c.p, lamp = 30 X3 · 5 = 105 watts, and Current =- = - = 0 · 50 amp.
volts 210 2
Total power = 210 watts, and Total Current = 1·00 amp.
7. A Leciancii«dry cell has au E.M.F. of l · 5 volt and an internal resistanco of 0 · 2 ohm. What will be
its ierniinai P.D. when dclivcri11gcurrent to an external circ1tit of 5 ohms resistance?
TERMINAL P.D. OF CELL.
E 1·5 1·5
Current flowing in circuit =I=~= = - = 0·288 amp.
R 5+0·2 5·2
Iuternal drop in volts= ra = 0·288x0·2 = 0·06 volt.
.·.Terminal P.D. =E- IB = l ·5 -0·06 = 1·44 volts.
Or, terminal P .D. = currcnt x external resistance = JR = 0 ·.288 x 5 = 1 · 44 volts.
·-----·~~----
 LR/3
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
A/3
·.:·.

:S. If the E.M.F. of a Leciancbe cett is l · 5 volts, and the internal resistance is 0 · 75 ohm, Itotu many such
cells [oiued in series will be required to send a current of 1 amp through. 1111 external resistance of 6 ohms ?
:NUMBER OF CELLS IN SERIES FOR GIVEN CURRENT.
nE 1·5n
By formula (12), I = --- or 1 = ----- Hence 1·5n = 6+0·75n.
R + nB 6 + 0·7an
. ·. O ·75n = 6, and Number of cells= n = 6 - O · 75 = 8 cells.
9. A slzaft is 300 yds. deep and electricat power is transmitted to the bottom by direct current. Each
conductor of the two cote cable has a resistance of 0 · 176 ohm per mile. Find (a) tile voltage drop i1i the
cable ; (b) the loss i.1~ watts ; aml (c) the loss iti H.P .• wJum 2f>O amp.~ is pa.~si'llg.
VOLTAGE DROP AND POWER LOSS IN CABLE.
2x300
(a) Resistance of cable = R = 0 · 176 X = 0 · 06 ohm.
1760
.·.Voltage drop = E =IR= 250 x0·06 = 15 volts.
{b) Loss in watts = I !R = 250 x 250 x 0 · 06 = 3750 watts.
Loss in H.P.= :-1750 7 74ti.= 5 H.P.
10. An electrically drioe» p11111p delivers 400 galls. per mi». against a head of l,000 feet. Calculate (a}
the H.P. i1t Ute water, {b) the H.P. inp11t attd kW input to the motor, and (c) the cost of rmmingtliepm11,P
for 24 hours. The overall ejficieiir.yof the pla;rt is 00 per cent a11<l electrical wagy is 0 · 75 d per
B.T.U.

·COST OF RUNNING PUMP.

lOGH 10x400x t,000 4,000
(a)• B.P,,ln the water = = 121·2 H.P.
33,000 33,000 33
• (b) H.P. input to the motor= 121·27 0·6 = 202 H.P.= 202x0·746 = 150·7 kW •
(d) Cost or running pump= 150·7kWx24 hrs. x0·7;3d = 2,713 pence= £11 Gs. 1d.
Optional Question.
11. A 2·4 volt miner's electric lamp, having mt alkaline accumulator, requires to be charged with 4 amps
current, A lamp room is eqHipped for eluirgfog 360 such. lamps, arranged in parallel groups each
comprising24 accnntulators in series. Assmnc that the maximwn E.M.F. of eacli accumulator dttring
charge is 3 · 5 volts and that its internal and. contact resistance is 0 · 25 ohm. Wit at is the totat current
reqitired from the s~1pply (md at whflt maximun« voltage must it be s11pplii:d?
ACCUMULATOR CHARGING PROBLEM.
(a)To rind the total current: ·
There are 24 lamps in series in one row, and 15 rows in parallel. Now the current per lamp is 4
) .<impsand this is also the curre.nt per row of 24 lamps in series.
Current required for 15 rows in parallel = 4 x Hi = 60 amps.
(b) To Ilnd the voltage required.
The applied voltage must be sufficient to overcome (i) the E.M.F. of 24 cells in series, and (ii) the
ohmic resistance ol 24 cells in series, having an internal and con tact resistance of 0 · 25 ohm per cell, or
6 ohms per row of 24 cells.
Volts to overcome J<;.M.F. of 24 cells in series = 3 · 5 x 24 = 84 volts.
resistance of 24 cells in series = 4 X 6 = 24 vol ts.
Maximum voltage required = 108 volts.
This voltage of 108 volts is applied to each of the H:i rows in parallel.
LNOTE. The total resistance of 15 rows in parallel = 6 ohms per row 7 15 rows = 0 · 4 ohm.
volts to overcome resistance 24
·By Ohm's Law, total current= = 60 amps. =-
total resistance 0·4
Note also that the voltage required is that necessary to charge each accumulator, multiplied by
the number in series. The current taken from the supply is.that taken by each row, multiplied by the
number of rows in parallel. In practice, a variable supply voltage is required (assuming charging at
-constant current) because the counter E.M.F. of each cell increases during charging. Such variation of
supply voltage is obtained either by using a generator specially controlled, or by inserting a variable
resistance in the supply mains.]
--------------·- .. -
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·CARDIFF (o·r. BRl'rAIN.) \'OUR OWN USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Les.son LR/ 4.
TRANSMISSION OF POWER.
Electric power may be transmitted from one place to another either (a) by overhead line, or
(b) by cable, or by a combination of the two. In a cable, of course, the conductors are separated from
one another by insulating material throughout their whole length, and they are protected from external
injury by a suitable protective covering. An overhead line, on the other hand, consists of bare conductors
mounted on suitable insulators and spaced far enough apart to prevent danger.

OVERHEAD LINES.
Overhead transmission is usually adopted where the generating station is situated at some distance
from the mine, because of the lower cost of bare conductors, insulators, supports, and installation as
compared with cables. Air itself is almost a perfect insulator, an air-path of about one foot being
quite sufficient insulation for 30,000 volts. · .
The conductors of such a line are usually of hard-drawn copper wire, a single wire being used for
small sizes, anfl.stranded conductors for the larger sizes because of the greater heat-radiating surface
of. the latter. A stranded conductor is also more flexible and stronger than a single wire.
The conductors are supported in the air on wooden poles or steel masts spaced at such distances
t\}at the tensile stress in the conductor docs not exceed a safe figure. Conductors arc mounted on
the poles in various ways. For high voltages, cross-arms are fixed to the pole, and bolted to these
cross-arms are spindles carrying porcelain insulators, known as pin type insulators. The conductors
lie either in a groove on the top of the insulators or in a groove at the side of the insulators and are
bound to them with soft copper wire, or patent fasteners. For low voltage work, the insulators may
be mounted on the side of the pole by angle brackets or curved spindles.
The type or pole varies with the voltage of transmission. For very high voltages (say 100,000
volts) the supports consist of lattice steel masts having long cross-arms, the conductors being suspended
from the cross-arms by a chain of suspension insulators. For ordinary high-voltage transmission (say
10,000 to 30,000 volts) lattice steel masts are again used having somewhat shorter cross-arms, the
conductors being carried on pin type Insulators. For moderate voltages {say 500 to 10,000volts) wooden
poles are generally used, the pin insulators carrying the conductors being mounted on short oak, or
mild steel, cross-bars. For low voltage work (below 500 volts) wooden poles are again used, the
insulators being often mounted one above the other on the side of the pole.
The number of conductorscarried on each pole varies according to the nature of the power, two
conductors being necessary for D.C. transmission or for single-phase A.C., and three conductors for
3-phase A.C. transmission. The spacing of the conductors naturally depends on the voltage.
The voltage or transmission is usually arranged to be as high as possible so as to reduce the current
to be transmitted for a given power. This, in its tum, enables smaller conductors to be used and
therefore reduces the amount of copper or other metal required. It also reduces the resistance loss,
which varies as the square of the current. At the same time, it must be remembered that the cost
of terminal equipment (i.e. the apparatus necessary for connecting the switchgear in the various
substations to the line) and the. cost of insulators, masts, etc., all increase with the voltage, and the
cost of transformers has also to be taken into account. As a result of these and other considerations,
a voltage is selected which will entail the lowest net cost.
In ordinary mining practice, a voltage of 3,300 is quite suitable for transmitting power (A.C.)
between the various pits of a group, but the voltage is frequently raised to 6,600 or 11,000 volts if
the distance to be covered exceeds 4 or 5 miles. A rough and ready rule is to arrange for 1,000 volts
per mile of overhead line. In the case of D.C. transmission, the voltage rarely exceeds 650 volts, and
long distance transmission is not therefore economical.

CABLES.
The main types of power cable used in mines include (a) permanent shaft and roadway cables;
(b) flexible cables for coalcutters, drills, and other portable machinery ; (c) semi-flexible cables for
conveyors, loaders and other semi-permanent machinery.
. ,, PERMANENT CABLES IN SHAFTS AND ROADWAYS •
'i
I
These are always armoured cables and ma.y be either {a) paper-insulated, or (b) vulcanised-bitumen
insulated, or (c) compound insulated cables. Of these, paper-insulated cables are now by far the most
widely used ancl. almost invariably so for high pressures ; compound-insulated are favoured in certain
areas for roadways ; whilst vulcanised-bitumen insulated cables were widely used at one time but
arc now much less popular.
(5207)
LR/4
-2- Transmission of Power
-·------------·-----
(a) Paper-insulated, lead sheathed, double-wire-armoured cables.
This is conveniently referred to as a PILSDWA Cable, a section
of a typical 3-core cable being shown in Fig. 1. The cores or conductors
are made of stranded plain annealed copper wires (6 around I, or 12
around 6 around 1, and so on according to the size of cable and the LEAD
degree of flexibility desired). Each layer of wires is coiled or "Taid " SHEATH
spirally around the central conductor, alternate layers being laid in PAPER
opposite directions to prevent "bird-caging." The cores may be either
circular or sector-shaped, the latter being more compact.
The size of the cable may be denoted by the total cross-sectional Fig. 1.
area of the wires in each core (e.g. 0 ·25 square inch)•. or by the number Double-wire armoured Lead-
of wires and the diameter of each (e.g, 37/0 ·093, meaning 37 wires, sheathed Paper-Insulated Cabtc.
each of 0 ·093 inch diameter).
Each core of the cable is insulated by means of paper-strip, the latter being wound on each copp.er
conductor to the required thickness, depending on the voltage to be resisted. The three insulated
cores are now laid together, with fillings of jute (or, in special cases, with specially shaped strips of
colloidal bitumen) to fonn a circular-shaped cable which is wound with more pa.per to the required
thickness. Thereafter, the cable passes to the impregnating shop where it is vacuum-dried at 275°F
to remove moisture, and pressure-impregnated at 250°F with a paraffin-base mineral oil of good quality.
For a cable which is hung vertically, as in a shaft, it is important to specify that it shall be of
non-draining or non-bleeding type for otherwise the head of oil may be sufficient to burst the lead sheath.
To prevent this, the impregnating compound must be of a suitably viscous character and the method of
impregnation modified to suit. It is probable that, in future, all paper-insulated cables will be of the
non-draining type.
OHcdpaper is a splendid insulating material and is invariably used for extra-high tension trans-
mission (up to as much as 33,000 volts}. Moreover, it can withstand higher temperatures than other
cable insulating materials and can therefore be loaded to a higher current density (about 50% more
than a bitumen insulated cable and 30% more than a compound insulated cable). •
The chief disadvantage of paper is that it is hygroscopic in character, Le. it absorbs moisture
readily, and great care must be taken to exclude even the merest trace of moisture. This is done by
means of a lead sheath.
The next step, therefore, is to cover the insulated cores by a. seamless tube or lead, or lead alloy,
which, in a semi-plastic state, is drawn through dies directly on to the paper covering of the partly
formed cable. The lead, of course, is in no sense an insulating material. Its sole purpose is to exclude
moisture. Occasionally, a sheath of vulcanised bitumen is used in place of a lead sheath.
To protect the lead-covered cable irom mechanical damage, the lead sheath is first covered by
(1) a layer of compound-impregnated jute which acts as a bedding for (2) either single or double wi.re
armouring, which is itself protected by (3) an outer serving of braided jute cord and compound.
The armouring consists of galvanised steel wires laid in a continuous spiral over the bedding of
jute and serves, not only as a protection against damage, but also as an earthing conductor, so that
the framework of all apparatus to which the cable is connected may be earthed by a continuous metallic
conductor leading to the earthing system at the surface.
For mining purposes, it is usual to have double-wire armouring in which the two layers, separated
by a serving of jute or hessian tape, are laid.in opposite directions and somewhat finer wires are used
than with single wire armouring. This· results in a more flexible cable whilst providing additional
strength and greater conducting capacity. Cables protected by steel tape armouring are not used in
mining because the tape offers too high an electrical resistance for earthing purposes.
The purpose of the compound-impregnated jute is to protect .the armour against corrosion and the
term " compound " in this connection refers to an impregnating substance having a base of petroleum
pitch or coal tar. Where fire-resisting protection is required, the outer jute covering may be impregnated
with compound having a base of white or red lead ..
The final process consists of painting the cable with whitewash so that the coils will not adhere
to each other as they are coiled on the cable drum. "The ends of the cable are sealed or capped with a
lead "pot-end," plumbed _on to the lead sheath ready for despatch.

(b) Vulcanised bitumen insulated cables.

In the manufacture of this type of cable (fig. 2) the stranded conductors must be made of tinned
copper wire, the tinning being required to protect the copper from the sulphur used in the vulcanising
process.
Each core is insulated by a sheath of vulcanised bitumen. The cores are then laid up together
around a central cradle of bitumen and the whole is sheathed with a tube of bitumen so as to give a
circular cross-section. The cable thus becomes, in effect, a cylinder of solid bitumen in which the
conductors are embedded. Thereafter, the usual outer coverings of impregnated tapes, braids, lappings,
and armourings, each served with preservative compounds, may be applied as required.
 _
LR/4 -·
The Umiuersal M ining School, Cardiff. 3
-------·-· -... ,._.

Vulcanised bitumen has an advantage over paper in that it is im-

pervious to moisture and the chance of the cable breaking down in wet
situations is more remote. On the other hand, it possesses several dis-
advantages :-
(1) It is adversely affected by high temperatures (above 110° F.) for
the bitumen may become plastic and the conductors decentralised, so
possibly causing a breakdown of insulation between conductors, or between COPPER
a conductor and the wire armouring. COR!:

(2) It is adversely affected by low temperatures e.g. due to frost, for the Fig. 2.
bitumen then tends to become brittle. Any attempt to bend a bitumen Double-wire :irmoured Vulcnn-
cable in frosty weather may lead to cracking of the insulant. tsed-bttumen insulated Cable.
(3} It is somewhat larger in overall diameter for the same duty.
· It is stated that a bitumen cable is impracticable for sizes above about O ·4 sq. inch. conductor
section, as the heat generated by the passing of the full load current cannot be effectively dissipated
by the available area of radiating surface.
(c) Oompound-insulated cables, compound sheathed and wire armoured.
In construction, these resemble the bitumen insulated cable (fig. 2) but the bitumen is replaced
by an insulating covering and sheath of " compound ,, which in this case is a combination of rubber
and other patent materials. Sometimes, the cores of such a cable arc insulated with vulcanised rubber,
being then sheathed with " compound " and finally armoured..
Compound insulated cables are suitable for permanent, or semi-permanent, situations in main
roadways, or even in shafts. They have an advantage over paper-insulated cables in that they arc
non-hygroscopic and rather more flexible, and over bitumen-insulated cables in that they are less
affected by high and low temperatures and have a somewhat higher current-carrying capacity.
TRAILING C~BLN:S FOR PORTABLE COAL-FACE MACHINERY.
The essential features of a trailing cable arc that it shall be (1) reasonably light in weight, (2)flexible,
(3) mechanically strong, and (4) so built up that no risk of shock or fire shall occur even if the cable
be pierced and the conductors exposed.
A trailing cable is essentially a vulcanised-rubber insulated cable, this material being strong,
waterproof, and flexible, and possessing first-class insulating properties. An essential (cnture is that,
being unarmoured, it must incorporate an earthing core so that the apparatus to which it is connected
may be earthed. Thus, a D.C. cable must have 3 cores, and a 3-phase A.C. cable must have 4 cores.
Furthermore, if the apparatus is to be operated by remote control, or if leakage protection is to be
provided, an additional pilot core is also needed.
Still further protection is affordedby an earthed screen or tinned copper wires,placed either collectively
around all the conductors, or individually around each power core. I ts purpose is to reduce the risk of
shock by accidental contact with a live conductor if the outer insulating sheath should be damaged.
In each case, the screen is earthed by being connected in parallel with the earth core and, if it should
become "live" by contact with a power core, the resulting fault current will trip the gate-end switch
and so protect the operator.
The advocates of collective screening maintain that it is simpler and cheaper, less liable to break
down, and easier to repair than individual screening and adequately serves its purpose. The advocates
of individual screening maintain that it is safer to have each core protected separately and it is also
possible to ascertain the state of the insulation of each live conductor separately by making a test
between the conductor and its screen whereas, with collective screening, it is only possible to test
between conductors.
Finally, the cable has an outer sheath, formerly of tough vulcanised rubber, but now made of a
compound called polychloroprene, more familiarly known as "neoprene," or P.C.P. This is basically
a synthetic rubber and has the advantage that it is a fire, oil, and weather resisting compound.
The size o( the power cores for coalcutters and similar apparatus is usually 0 ·03 sq. in. (117 wires
each of 0 ·018 inch diam.) but both 0 ·0225 and 0 ·04 sq. in. cores arc also used, having 91 and 163 wires
respectively. A smaller conductor (0 ·01 sq. in.) may be used for the pilot core. The standard colours
are red, white, and blue for the power cores, green for the earth core, and black for the pilot core.
Fig. 3 illustrates a number of standard designs.
Types of Trailing Cable for Coalcutters.
(a) s-eore D.C. (Individually
screened). This has two power
cores vulcanised rubber in-
sulated, screened with tinned
copper strands and sheathed
with tough rubber ; and an
unscreened earth core insulated
with vulcanised rubber. The
three cores are laid around a
rubber centre and sheathed
overall with fire, oil, and Fig. 3. St:indard Types of Coalcutter Cable.
weather resisting polychloroprene compound.
 LR!4
4 ..
Transmission of Power
-----·------------
{b) 5-core A.C. (Collectively screened). This has three power cores, one earth core, and one pilot core,
all of equal area, each vulcanised rnbber insulated and laid in the same pitch circle around the cradle
centre. The whole is then sheathed with tough rubber, collectively screened, and sheathed overall
with polychloroprene compound.
(c) 5-core A.C. (Collectively screened). This has three power cores and one earth core of equal size,
each vulcanised rubber insulated and laid around a rubber cradle centre containing a smaller central
pilot conductor. The whole is then sheathed with tough rubber, collectively screened, and sheathed
overall with P.C.P. compound.
(d) 5-core A.C. (Individually screened}. This has three power cores, each vulcanised rubber
insulated and copper screened, together with an insulated but unscreened pilot core. These four cores
arc laid around and in contact with a central bare earth conductor and sheathed overall with P.C.P.
compound. ·
(e) 5-core A.C. (Individually screened). This has three power cores, each vulcanised rubber
insulated and copper screened, together with insulated but unscreened earth and pilot cores. AU five
are of equal conductor area and are laid around a rubber centre, being sheathed overall with P.C.P.
compound. If desired, all five cores may be screened.
Drm Cables.
These are lighter than coalcutter cables and operate at 125 volts, 3-phasc. They are normally
unscreened as accidents at this voltage arc unlikely to be serious. Two types arc shown in fig. 4.
(a) Five-core (short lay). This has three sector-shaped power cores
and one pilot core, all of 0 ·007 sq. in. area (162/ ·0076) each vulcanised
rubber insulated and laid in a close spiral around a rubber-covered
earth conductor of 0 ·0225 sq. in. area. The whole is P.C.P. sheathed
overall. The cable is intended for use in short lengths between drill
and coupler.
(b) Five-core (normal lay}. This has three insulated power cores, c~) (b)
earth core, and pilot core all of 0 ·01 sg. in. area (140/ ·010) laid around Fig. 4. Drill Cnbles.
a cradle centre and P.C.P. sheathed overall.
PLIABLE ARMOURED CABLES.
.
' .
These cables are intended for use with conveyors, loaders, or other temporarily fixed apparatus
where a lower degree of flexibility is permissible and a greater degree of protection against mechanical
damage can be given. They can also be used for extending main gate feeder cables to enable the
gate-end switchgear to keep up with the advancing face, so avoiding the need for excessive lengths
of coalcuttcr trailing cables.
A 3-core pliable armoured cable for 3-phasc A.C. is shown in fig. 5.
It has three vulcanised rubber insulated power cores (commonly 0 ·03 Cf\AOLE
or 0 ·04 sq. inch) laid around a cradle centre, the whole being tough CENTRE
rubber sheathed, pliable armoured with galvanised steel strands and
sheathed overall with tough rubber or with polychloroprene compound. ll'INER
Pl..lABLE
The purpose of the armouring is to give mechanical protection $HEATH T. R.
ARMOUR
and also to act as an earth conductor when connected to fixed apparatus.
It must have a conductance not less than 50% of that of one of the Fig. 6.
Pliuble Armoured Cable.
power conductors.
Alternatively, the cable may have four cores. one being used as an earth core or as a pilot core;
Qr it may have five cores, one being an earth core and one a pilot core. Such cables enable the associated
apparatus to be operated by remote control and they may, if desired, be used with portable apparatus,
being connected thereto by a free plug and socket like an ordinary tlcxible trailing cable.
JOINTS IN CABLES.
When two lengths of armoured cable have to be joined, the joint must" be made through the
medium of a joint box of which there are various types. The joint box must fulfil the following
conditions :- ·
(1) It must effectively protect the conductors from injury.
(2) It must preserve the efficiency and continuity of the insulation and exclude moisture.
(3) It must secure the cable armour and bond it in such a way as to maintain the continuity of
the earthing system.
Straight-through Joint-box. ARl'.OtJR OUTE11 <:OM POV NO
WIRE CLAMP F lLLlt<G PLUG!>
Fig. 6 illustrates a non-disconnecting .I
joint box for a 3-core wire armoured cable.
The box is of cast iron (or sometimes of
pressed mild steel), split longitudinally to
give access to the conductors, and assembled
after the work is finished.
The actual joint between the respective
conductors is made by a mechanical connector
consisting of a brass sleeve fitted with fiat-
based pinching screws, or a clamp-type of
connector. Alternatively. a cone-grip type
of connector may be used, as in fig. 7, the
action of this being self-explanatory. The
cone-grip connector has the advantage that
it is a mechanically strong joint which has a
conductivity claimed to be equal to that of COPPE.R EARTH ~OMO
the unbroken conductor. Fig. 6. Straight-through Non-dtsconuectiog Joint-Bos:.
 LRl4
The Universal i\.1ining School, Cardiff -~ I

At the surface, or in other places where a blow-lamp is permissible, 5Pt..lT

co~e.
the joint in the conductor may be made by slipping the two ends into
a split copper sleeve and soldering them solid. Sometimes thev .are
wrapped round each other and bound with line wire, again being
soldered solid.
When the joint has been completed, it is covered with several
Fig. 7.
layers of impregnated tape, care being taken that the latter unites Cone-grip J'ilech::inlca\ Connector.
well with the bevelled ends of the original core insulation. Each
core is similarly treated and the several cores are spaced by porcelain
spreaders.
Each end of the box is provided with an armour clamp and sealing gland which seal!'.the cable
sheath (whether lead or otherwise) at its entry into the joinrbox, and effectively secures the steel
wire armouring. The armour wires are gripped between an outer conical clamp and an inner conical
gland and the whole is drawn tightly together by screwed studs, as shown on the left of the illustration
in fig. 6.
When all connections have been made, the box is filled with a special bituminous compound,
air-vent plugs and filling plugs being provided in the upper half for the purpose. The compound is a
solid at normal working temperatures and has to be heated until it is sufficiently fluid to pour. The
correct grade of compound and the pouring temperature should always be ascertained from the makers
and a thermometer used to guard against over-heating. Where compound cannot he heated on the
spot, as in a mine, it must be carried in a molten state from the surface, specially constructed buckets
being used for the purpose. ·
Finally. it is most important that a copper bond be provided to form a continuous electrical
connection between the armouring at one side of the box and that at the other so as to maintain the
continuity of the earthing system. The conductivity of an ordinary cast iron or steel joint box must
never be rcli~c?upon for this purpose. The bond should be of strip copper and may be either outside
the box, as in fig.'6, where it can be examined periodically, or inside the box, where it is less liable
to injury or removal.
There are several other kinds of joint box which are assembled in somewhat the same way as
that described. but are modified in shape and arrangement to suit the purpose in view. For example,
where shaft cables are joined in an inset, both sections of the cable
are commonly arranged to enter and leave the box at tbe same
end, as shown diagrammatically in fig. 8.
Altematively. where a secondary circuit is to be joined to
a main cable, a three-way junction or tee-box may be used.
Yet another alternative is a link disconnecting joint box
in which the cable conductors are joined up to terminal pieces
which arc bridged by detachable metal connectors or Unks. These
are placed above the level of the compound filling and can be Fig, 8.
removed {after the current has been cut off) in order to isolate Inset Joint Box.
temporarily a section of the transmission system.
To obviate the difficulty of having to take molten compound underground, a cold-pourtng com-
pound may be used. This consists of two ingredients which when mixed arc fluid at normal temperatures,
but quickly set into a plastic condition, because of chemical reaction, after pouring into the cable
sealing box. This type of compound, however, is more costly than the ordinary type and, when once
it has been mixed and has set, it cannot be re-heated and used again.
Bolted Flameproof Couplers or Flit Plugs.
In machine mining, where· semi-fixed coal face electrical machinery (gate-<md switchgear, con-
veyors, etc.) must be moved tip from time to time, an ordinary joint box is an inconvenient means of
connecting two lengths of armoured cable together, or of connecting the cable to the. apl?aratus. The
alternative is to use detachable cable end boxes or "mt plugs '' in which the connection is made by a
bolted plug and socket coupling.
A flit plug (fig. 9) consists of two end boxes or hall-couplers,
in which the cables arc sealed. Two coupled together form a :::.A&L~ Gt.ANo ... 11 l!OLTEe>
straight-through joint. ~11~u1•: c.11iP -,o~NT

Each half-coupler consists of a fiat or a cylindrical casing

,
to one end of which is bolted an armoured cable type mechanical
grip gland. The other ends butt together in the middle of the
joint, one half being fitted with contact pins and the other half F' 9 Flit Plu~.
with corresponding sockets. The two halves are drawn tightly ig. •
together by bolts. Within the casing are housed moulded insulators which carry the cable terminals
and the contact tubes, all embedded in compound. ·
The casing may be of cast iron, in which case a copper earth bond must be used, or of gunmetal,
in which case no bonding is required. All flanges are wide and accurately machined to render the
boxes flameproof. All bolts should be shrouded to prevent unauthorised tampering with bolt heads
or nuts. Adaptors may be used to couple end boxes direct to motors, transformers, and switchgear.
 Transmission of Power

Flit plugs have the advantage that they dispense entirely with unsealing and uncoupling cable
tails when distribution and gate-end gear is moved Iorward ; all connections and compound fillings
can be attended to when the cable is at the surface ; and, below ground, the removal and replacement
or a few bolts enables them to be coupled together or to other apparatus easily and safely. Standard
lengths of armoured, or pliable armoured, cable may be inserted as desired, and the length of trailing
cable needed is reduced to a minimum.

Terminal boxes.

When cables a re connected lo fixed apparatus, e.g. motors,

switchgear, transformers, ctc., the cable conductors should not be
directly connected to tho internal leads, but indirectly connected
throngh the medium of a compound-tilled cable scaling and dividing box
ttrilurcating box) aiul a terminal box, somewhat as shown in fig. 10.
In this case, the dividing box seals off the cable insulation, clamps
the: armour, a1111 separates the cores, more or less resembling half a
st raight-Ihrough joint box. It is hotted to the terminal box.
The cable conductors arc each sweated solid to separate outgoing
mils consisting of single-core rubber insulated conductors, or ofcopper
strip, which lead into the terminal box through bushed holes.
The terminal box itself is bolled to the frame of the apparatus,
connections lo the internal conductors being brought out through
bushed holes. The joint between the internal and external leads is Fig, 10.
effected inside the terminal box wbich is either air-insulated or some- connectlen o( Armoured
times lilied with a solid insulating compound. An access door is fitted
to the terminal box and all bolled joints are metal to metal, the whole
structure being flameproof.
..
Cubie to Fixed Apparatus.

Outdoor terminal boxes.

When cables are to be connected to overhead lines, a terminal box
may be mounted on the final mast of the line, the ends of the line conductors
being led in to the box through porcelain insulating bushes, and there
connected to the ends of the cable conductors by means of a lug sweated
to each o.h. conductor and bolled lo a similar lug sweated to each cable-
conductor. The porcelain insulators point downwards, being shielded by a
metal hood to shed rain. The box is filled with compound in the usual way. Fig. 11.
Outdoor Terminal Box.
Connections for Trailing Cables.

Trailing
for use with
the normal
apparatus is
cables are essentially designed and intended
portable apparatus such as coalcutters, and
manner of connecting the cable to the
by means of a flame-proof plug and socket.
The general arrangement is shown at (a) in fig. 12.
_a r]
(a.).
ERMANENT ARMOURED ROA0\-1-'\'t CABl..E
STANQ.C;llPISED DETACHA~e. CAeLE EMC>eo«

t-i
~
GATE END SWITCH
'-~-'
r:
LTERMINA1..eo~
(
r11.t.1L1HC. CABLE
~

coA1..-
1t will be seen that the arrneurcd roadway cable is joined oi: SWITCH WITH PLUGS C.VTTER

to the switch terminals by means of a "flit plug."

i6:
E.ARTH
Actually, one or more lengths of pliable armoured cable, (
titted with flit plugs, may be interposed between the
CASLE
roadway cable and the switch.
!
The trailing cable itself has a plug at each end, and
these fit into corresponding sockets on the switch and 6
the coalcutter. In each case, connection is made by (b)
contact pins and tubes, the tubes being usually in the
Fig. 12,
plugs, but sometimes in the socket at the switch end, -Connoll!lons for Trailing Cable.
and in the plug at the machine end.

A plug (fig. 12) for use with remote control carries four pin and tube contacts, arranged as in
fig. 3 (15), three being main or phase contacts, ~ inch diam. and the fourth, smaller in diameter, being
used for the pilot circuit. The barrel is of gunmetal and the contacts arc carefully insulated by a tough,
non-ignitable and non-hygroscopic material. The earth core is brought through to the outside of the
case, the earth connection thus being rendered visible and easily checked.

Mounted in the socket is a ring made of hard tensile brass, arranged as a scraper on the outside
of the plug barrel. This constitutes the earth connection between plug and socket and is so arranged
that the earth circuit is made first and broken last. When assembled, the plug and socket arc secured
together by a retaining device (fitting into the recess at L) operated by a wing nut or a special key
or spanner. The device is also used for releasing the plug from its socket.

A cable gland is provided on the plug and firmly grips the outside of the cable, making a water·
tight joint.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. LR/4
-7-

SITUATION AND INSTALLATION OF CABLES.

At the surface.
Cables may be laid or supported at the surface in a. variety of ways:-

(I) By suspending them from a steel catenary w1re where they are visible and accessible and well
away from hot steam pipes or danger of mechanical injury.
(2) By brackets, cleats, or suspension hooks fixed to the surface building".

(3) By laying them in a. brick culvert, well ventilated and properly drained, opening into the
power house, at one end and into the shaft at the other, the cable being supported above floor level.
(4) By hanging the cable on posts and trestles, e.g. across rubbish tips where there may be danger
of corrosion, fire, or burial.

It is undesirable to lay the cable in open ground, but sometimes the cable may be laid in earthen-
ware troughs filled with pitch, or threaded through steel pipes, e.g. under railway sidings where heavy
traffic is passing.
In underground roadways.

The important point here is that the cable should as far as possible be laid in roadways out of the
way of traffic so that damage due to derailed tubs or trams may be avoided. The cable may be slung
by canvas slings from the roof supports where it can be seen and readily inspected, and in such a way
that the support will give way in the event of a fall of roof. Joint boxes should rest on a brick pillar
placed in a recess at the side of the roadway, out of harm's way..
• •
At the face.
• Trailing cables (orrn the most vulnerable part of an electrical transmission system and damage
may be caused by falls of roof. by shotfiring, and by tubs or portable machinery running over the cable.
The first safeguard against serious accident is to use screened cables with pilot core and remote
control, so that current is at once cut off if an electrical fault occurs.
Secondly. the length or trailing cable should be kept down to the minimum by making use of standard
lengths of pliable armoured cable and keeping the switchgear well up to the face. If the length of
trailing cable can be kept down to, say, 125 yards, so much the better.
Thirdly, the operators must exercise all possible care, by hanging up the cable when possible,
by not dragging it about unnecessarily by the machine, by coiling it in a figure of eight and not spirally.
and by seeing that it is not run over qr otherwise damaged by sheer negligence.

In shafts.

In shallow shafts, if there are no buntons, and the cable "is not too heavy,
it may be suspended direct from the top by means of the cable suspender shown
in fig. 13. In this case, the cable armour wires are bent back and held firmly
between an inner cone and an outer conical sleeve, both of cast steel. The top
of the suspender is filled with a waterproof compound to prevent corrosion of
the wires, and eyebolts are provided to enable the suspender to be slung from
cha.ins. This method ot single suspension should only be adopted with a cable that
is strong enough to support its own weight and after consultation with the makers. FJg, 13.
Shatt Cable Suspender.

In most cases, cables are supported in shafts by suitable cleats placed at intervals of 20 to 30 yards,
each single cleat supporting not more than about
7 cwts. of cable. The cleats or clamps are about ~ '!!;)
2! or 3 feet long and are made oI creosoted "!!..-, . .
hard wood. The straps, bolts, and angles are : f! -: ~1 ·fl/\ ·
of mild steel. A sheet iron cone or hood is :.fl' '~t 1~-.
fitted at the top to shed water and deflect ~ l ~ ,:
objects which may fall down the shaft. Several ' '
methods of arranging the cleats are shown in
fig. 14.

At (a). the cleat is secured to the walling

by rag bolts; at (b), the cleat rests on a pair of
short joists fixed in the walling at one end and
resting upon a bunton at the other ; at (o) it
is secured to a bunton by bolted straps ; and
at (d) it is suspended by chains from eye bolts ~ Fig. 14. Shatt Cable Cleals.
grouted into the walling.
 1 'rasismissiou of Power

Installing shaft cables.

The method of handling shaft cables depends on the size of the cable, the depth of the shaft,
and the appliances available. In all cases, the cleats should be secured in their proper positions
beforehand.

(a) Paying out from the cage.

If the cage is Iarg« enough, the complete cable on its reel. which should be provided with some
form of brake gear, may be mounted inside the cage, or on top of or underneath the cage, and the
cable is then paid off as the cage is steadily lowered. The cable is clamped in position, section by section,
as the work proceeds. The method, of course, cannot be adopted iI the cable has to be installed behind
the bunions.

(b) Lashing to wire hawser.

If the cable is to be fixed behind the buntons, the safest wayis lo lash the cable at intervals to <L
wire rope which is controlled by a haulage engine fitted with adequate brakes. The lashings should
.
(.J
consist of a series of half-hitches put on at intervals of 4 or 5 yards. The cable drum, controlled by CJ
c...
plank brakes, should he mounted close to the shaft top and the cable fed over a pulley of large diameter ...:,;.
..:. "'
(at least 20 times the diameter of the cable) with a wide rim or groove to avoid pinching the cable. .:;; ~
0

When the whole cable, securely lashed, is hanging in the shaft, it is disconnected from the haulage ;:
rope, one section at a time, starting from the top, and is permanently fixed to the cleats. ..:.
~
ln cases where a cable is installed in two or more lengths, each Ienglh may be lowered into position "
in a similar way, the lengths being afterwards joined together by joint. boxes placed in one or more
insets in the shaft side.

(c} Direct suspension.

.. .
In some cases, after consultation with the makers to ensure that the cabJe i~ sufficiently strong,
it may be wound on the drum of a winch and then lowered down the shaft, being allowed temporarily
to take its own weight and being guided in its proper course by men in the shaft. Alternatively, the
cable, mounted on its reel, may be taken to the shaft bottom and then pulled up the shaft by a st~el
rope, preferably of the locked-coil tyf>{~ to avoid spinning. In either case, the cable is thereafter secured
to the cleats, starting from the bottom and working upwards.

TEST PAPER LR/4.

l. What type, or types, of cable would you use !or
transmitting 3-pliase electric power :-(u) In a.
vertical shaft at high tension ; {b) along an under·
ground level, at high tension ; (c) between the
switchgear and the motor of a rubber belt conveyor
at medium tension ; (d) to supply a travelling coal-
cutting machine at medium tension : and (c) to
supply an electric coal drilling machine.? Comment
upon each item,
2. Describe carefully the work o! making a joint
between two sections of a 3,300 volt, paper-insulated,
lead -shcathed , sirrgle-wire armoured surlaco cable.
Deal with {a) preliminary work, (b) tool'> and equip·
ment required, and (c) fhe manner of making the
joint.
3. Give a derailed account of the procedure in installing
a paper-insulated, lead-sheathed, and double-wire
armoured cable in a shaft 2,000 ft. deep, the cable
being situated behind the buntons. The cable is in
two lengths and is to be joined in an inset,
4. Enumerate likely sources of clanger and describe
suitable means to prevent damage to cables installed
in the following situations :-(a) across. the pit top
to the shaft ; (b) across a rubbish tip to a travelling
crane : (c) across a bridge ; and (d) across a colliery
siding.
5. {a) \Vrite an account of lhe care and treatment of
trailing cables for portablo: apparatus at the coal
face, and (b) describe fully how you would propose
to repair such a cable which has been found damaged
or defective.
FOUNDED 1683 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,. THIS PAPER
WAS •THE FIRST rs SUPPl.lEO e ..
~OR .. E6PONDENCE
MINING SCHOOi.
'" THE WORl.D.
~~e ~<n6a£ ~ £,Jwof; CONDITION THAT
IT 16 RESERllBO
'IEXCL.U81VELY FOR

1 .. - .. 0WATIO 1081. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Answers LR/ 4.
TRANSMISSION OF POWER.
1. What type, or types, of cable wo1tld yow «se for transmitting 3.phase electric power :-(a) In a
vertical shaft at liiglt tensiow ; (b) along an underground. level, at high tension. ; (c) between the
switchgear a11d the motor of a rubber belt conueyor at 11u:dimn tension ; (cl) to s1tpply a traueliing.
coalcuttiug machine at 111cdi1111i tension. : and (e) to supply an electric coal drilling n1aclii?tt! ?
Com111e11t 11po11 each item.

APPLICATION OF TYPES OF CABLE.

(a) In a vertical shaft.
I would here install a paper-insulated lead-sheathed, double wire armoured cable or the non-draining
or non-bleeding type. Such a cable has adequate mechanical strength ; greater current-carryingcapacity
than other types; and greater resistance to extremes of heat and cold. The lead sheath affords almost
perfect protection against moisture. The double-wire armouring provides protection against damage
and acts as an earthing conductor. The cable should preferably be installed in duplicate.
(b) Along an underground level.
Here again, I would prefer to install a slmllar type o[ cable (PILSDWA) to the above, especially
as the cable is to be at high tension for which paper-insulated cables are generally favoured. Great
flexibility is .not required in a permanent roadway cable, but reliability and the capacity to take an
overload current 0J1 occasion are important. Careful jointing is essential to prevent access of moisture,
but this is not difficult on a main 'roadway, or the ends ma.y be sealed off at the surface and use made
of bolted flameproof couplers. Alternative types of cable include the vulcanised bitumen and compound
ifisulated cables, both armoured, but these are less frequently used.
(c) To supply a belt conveyor at medium tension.
In this case, I would use a pliable armoured cable-essentially a vulcanised rubber insulated cable
protected by galvanised steel wire armouring and sheathed overall with fire, oil, and weather resisting
polychloroprene compound. Such a cable may have either 3, 4, or 5 cores, according to whether or
not the apparatus is to be operated by remote control and, in each case, the armouring is used as an
earth conductor. The cable also has a fair degree of flexibility, well suited for temporarily fixed apparatus.
It may be connected to the apparatus by a bolted flameproof coupler (flit-plug) or, if fitted with 4 or
5 cores one of which is an earth core, by means of a free plug and socket.
(d} To supply a. eoalcutting machine,
In this case, great Ilexibility is essential and it must be possible to disconnect the cable readily
from the apparatus at both ends, or to connect it thereto at any time with complete safety. Further-
more, its construction.must be such as to prevent shock to workmen if the outer insulation is pierced
and to permit the coalcutter to be operated by remote control, so transferring the main switching
operations to the gate-end switch. These conditions are met by a 5-core vulcanised rubber insulated
unarmoured cable (one core being used as an earth core) in which the cores are either collectively or
Individually screened by an earthed screen of tinned copper wires, the whole being protected by an outer
sheath of polychloroprene compound. It is connected to apparatus at both ends by a flameproof plug
and socket.
(e) To supply an electric coal-drilling machine.
The cable required for this is of much lighter construction than the above and is essentially a
5-core vulca.nised rubber insulated flexible cable protected by an outer sheath of polychloroprene com-
pound. It is normally unscreened as a drilling machine operates at only 125 volts. The short lay type
is used in short lengths between drill and coupler because of its high flexibility. The normal lay type is
intended for the main drill cable.
2. a
Describe carefully the u:ork of making joi1tt between two sections of a 3,300 volt, paper-insttlated,
lead-sheathed, si1tgle-wire armoured surface cable. Deal with (a) prelimiitary work, (b) tools and
equipment required, mid {c) lite snannter of making the joi·11t.
MAKING A JOINT IN A SURF ACE CABLE.
(a) Preliminary work.
The first step, of course, is to make perfectly sure that the cable Is dead before any work is started
on either section of it, and that there is no possibility of current being switched on until the work
is completed.
It is assumed that the two sections of cable are already laid in a brick culvert with a manhole
where the joint box is situated. The preliminary work includes collecting all necessary tools and
equipment and providing a shelter from rain. If the cable ends are cut, and must then be left, they
should be sealed, either by plumbing over the lead sheath, or at least by bending over the exposed
ends to dip into a bucket of hot compound which should be allowed to solidify over them.
(5207)
LR/4
Aj2
Transmission of Power.

(b) Equipment and tools. These will at least comprise the following:-
For cutting away bedding, armouring, lead sheath, and paper insulant, a strong sharp lmifP., hacksaw
and spare blades, half-round file, and cutting pliers.
For making the joints in the conductors, the necessary connectors, black impregnated cotton
tape, soft solder in bars, flux, blow-lamp and spirit will be required, together with a supply of clean
mg (not waste).
For plumbing the lead sheath, a brazier or large blow-larrip and a ladle will be needed. with a
supply of sufficient lead. The brazier will also be needed for heating up the compound, which should
be done in a bucket provided with a lip and cover. A funnel for pouring the compound will also be
needed.
Other equipment includes a hammer, a screw-driver, a set of spanners about 9 ins. long, ·and an
efficient shifting spanner; also miscellaneous items such as binding wire for the armour, spare nuts
and studs, white cotton tape, string, and wedges.
(c) Procedure in making the joint.
The cable ends will have been left overlapping by at least a foot when they were first installed.
First of all, the bottom half of the box is placed temporarily under the cables and the position of the
glands marked thereon. The jute serving and the armouring are bound with wire to prevent fraying
and the compounded outer covering is cut away, the glands being then placed under the wires and the
latter clamped by bolting up the gland flanges before work is begun on the cores. Care is needed to
see that the armour wires are scraped clean of all compound so that they make good electrical contact
with the clamping gl:md and with the earthing bond presently to be attached.
The lead sheath and its jute covering are now cut away, and the paper insulant is cut back to a
sufficient distance, being bound temporarily with tape to protect it from moisture. dirt, and hot
solder. The insulation of one core of each section of cable is treated in the same way, and the bare
conductors arc slipped into either end of a split copper sleeve into which they are soLd~rcd, using a
resinous flux.
When the corresponding cores of each section of cable have been joined up, the individual con-
ductors are insulated either by paper sleeves, or by impregnated cotton tape. (Both these substances
are somewhat hygroscopic and should preferably be boiled in paraffin wax to drive off moisture
immediately before use). The thickness of taping over the connector should equal twice the thickness
of the original core insulation and should be carried well over the bevelled ends of the latter. The
several cores are then separated by porcelain spreaders.
The joint box may now be assembled and, if due care has been taken, the glands will fit into their
positions at each end without trouble. The top of the box is placed in position and bolted down, the
filling plugs then being removed and the box filled up with hot compound. It is preferable to warm
up the metal with the lamp before pouring, all vent plugs being removed. When the compound flows
out of the vents, these are replaced andmore compound is added until the box is full.
Finally, the copper earthing bond is clamped in position, care being taken that good contact is
made with the cable armouring. Next day, when the compound has cooled and contracted, the box
should be " topped up ·• to fil\ any remaining cavities.

3. Give a dttailed account of the proced1tre ·fo installing a paper-in.sulat.:d, lead-sheathed, aiui double
taire-arntoured cable in a shaft 2,000 ft. deep, the cable being situated behind th» buntons, Tiu
cable is in two lengths and is to be joined fa an. i1iset.
INST ALLING A SHAFT CABLE.
The method to be adopted consists in lashing each length of the cable in turn to a wire hawser,
or haulage rope, long enough to reach the shaft bottom. The preliminary work includes a survey of the
shaft to decide on the position and manner of fixing the cable cleats, these either resting on short joists
between the main buntons and the shaft sides, or being secured lo the buntons by bolted straps. The
cleats will be of some hard wood, such as oak or elm, and they should be placed at such a distance apart
(usually 20 to 30 yards) that they safely and securely support the cable without risk of being overloaded.
It is essential that a haulage or capstan engine should be available near the sha[t top, having
sufficient power to raise the weight of each 1,000 feet of cable plus some 2,000 feet of wire rope. The
latter must be strong enough to take its own weight and that of one length of cable with a generous
margin of safety. The drum of the engine should be of sufficient size to take the full length of rope,
and it must have efficient brakes, powerful enough to hold the combined weight of rope and cable.
The cable itself, on its drum, is mounted on a temporary framework and axle near the shaft top,
the drum being provided with a simple and reliable brake, strong enough to hold the weight of a few
unsupported yards of cable in the shaft.
To lower the cable, the haulage rope is gradually run out into the shaft over a pulley and the
cable is simultaneously paid out from the cable drum, over a pulley with half-round grooved rim,
into the shaft and adjacent to the haulage rope. The rope and cable must be securely lashed together
at intervals of 4 or 5 yards by a series of half-bitches. Some engineers recommend that a mild steel
clamp be added every ten lashings or so in order to prevent possible slipping of the lashings. 'When the
whole length of cable is hanging in the shaft, men, working from the cage and starting from the top,
free the cable from the rope a few yards at a time and fix it firmly and finally in the cable cleats.
 The Universal 1vlining School, Cardiff,

The next section of cable with its drum is then mounted near the shaft top and the operations
are repeated until this section "is lowered into place and fixed in its cleats.
To make the joint, the two cable ends are led into the small landing or inset already (ormed for
the joint-box, the box itself being mounted horizontally on a brickwork seating. The top length of
cable is looped downwards in such a way as to shed water [rom the cable, and both ends of the cable
enter and leave the box at one end. This method of arranging the joint has the following advautages i=-
(l) The [olnt-box is not subject to strain such as would occur if it were hung vertically in the
line of the cable.
(2} The box is out of harm's way from shaft accidents and falling materials.
(3) The box is more accessible for making the joint, or for subsequent inspection and repair.
(~) The jointing can be carried out in dry surroundings, an import au t matter with paper-insulated
cables.
4. Enumerate lihely sources of danger, aml.describe means to preuen: damage to cebles installed in
the following situations :-(a) across the pit top to the shaft; (b} across a rubbish Up fo a travelling
crane : { c) across a bridge ; . and (d) across a colliery siding,
LAYING CABLES IN VARIOUS CIRCUMSTANCES.
(a) Across the pit top.
This situation is usually one of great activity, both of men and traffic. Cables should not be run
on the ground-surface or near it, as tram derailments and the passage of bulky loads may cause damage.
It is not advisable to lay the cable in the ground near the pit top, as the constant passage of men, and
sometimes water, causes gulleys. which may unearth the cable. In any case, this method is difficult
as a pit top is usually surrounded by rails, steel plates, etc. Two preferable methods are :-
(1) To.~ad the cable up the wall of an adjacent. engine house and hang ii from a catenary wire
to the headgear frame, thence passing it through a pipe or a wooden trough to a point in the shaft
below the surface activity.
• (2) To lay the cable in a brickwork tunnel similar to a fan drift but smaller, leading into the shaft
and well ventilated. The tunnel may also serve to carry water pipes and air columns to the shaft.
(b) Across a rubbish tip.
This provides a very bad set o[ conditions for cable-laying. Ground movements are almost certain,
and there is a likelihood of corrosion if boiler ash is tipped in addition to pit rubbish. Spontaneous
combustion may occur. The cable may be tipped upon and buried. The cable should be hung in loops
across the tip, being supported on trestles every ten yards or so. The trestles should be stout enough to
resist high winds. By this means, the cable is out of danger from ground movement, corrosion, fire and
burial.
(c) Across a bridge.
Danger to a cable on a bridge arises chiefly from traffic over the bridge, and it is common practice
to run a cable on the outside of, oz: underneath the bridge. It is supported by clamps and protected
by D-shaped steel troughing, or by a boxing made of 2 inch creosoted boards. The supports may be
bolted to the bridge. The clamps need not be tight on the cable.
(d} Across a colliery siding.
Colliery sidings carry very heavy traffic and cables buried in the ground under the rails may be
subjected to serious crushing. At the same time, it is not often possible to take the cable overhead
unless there is a convenient bridge, and not advisable as it is difficult to foresee what loads may pass
over the siding, e.g. a crane high· enough to cause damage to a suspended cable. A common method is
to dig a trench under the rails about 3 or 4 feet deep, and thread the cable through a bell-mouthed
steel pipe which serves both as a conduit for the cable and as an extra protection.

5. (a) ·wrile an account of the care and tr.eat.m.mt of trailing cables for porwble apparatus at the coat
face, and {b) describe f11Uy !tow you would propose to repair such a cable which has been. found
damaged or def 'ectiue.
CARE, TREATMENT, AND REPAIR OF TRAILING CABLES.

,
It may be taken that the cable, when installed, had been manufactured according to standard
specifications and complied in every respect with the requirements of the safety regulations. There-
after, the duty of the colliery manager and officials is (I) to see that the cable does not suffer damage
bv carelessness or negligence, (2) to have it examined and tested regularly, and (3} to have it with-
drawn and repaired or replaced if found to be defective.
Flexible cables are liable to be damaged by wheeled traffic, by machinery in motion, by shotfiring.
by falls of roof, or by being dragged about by the machine. The remedies lie largely in the hands of
the operators who should see that the cable is placed out of danger or is suitably protected from injury.
Except when ex.tended during the working shift, the cable should be coiled on a drum, or " flaked ''
in a figure eight so that the cable is· untwisted when drawn out ; and it should be removed altogether
from the 'face when not required for immediate use.
LRt4
A/4
Transmission 'of Power.
---------------------------~------------ ·------
The cable should be examined and tested by an electrlcian when first installed and thereafter at
least once every 24 hours. It should also be examined by the machine operator in each shift, immediately
before it is put into use. If any defect is found, the cable should be withdrawn at once from service.
The length of trailing cable in use should be kept down to a minimum by introducing one or more
lengths of pliable armoured cable fitted with standardised detachable cable end boxes (flit plugs} between
the main armoured cable and the gate-encl box. The latter can thus be kept well forward near the
working- face.
Spare cables ready for immediate use should be kept in reserve in the mine so that a defective
cable may be replaced without delay, before minor damage develops into major injury or causes a
serious accident.

Repairing a flexible trailing cable.

It is a contravention of the regulations to repair a flexible cable underground -. It must be brought· c-
to the surface and repaired in well-lighted, clean, and dry surroundings, preferably in a workshop zUl
reserved for the purpose~ and provided with the necessary materials, apparatus, and testing equipment. =E
If the cable is so badly damaged that the conductors have to be cut and repaired, it would be pre- ~~ t=l
~
~ (J:
ferable to scrap the cable and use up the short lengths for other purposes. Although a joint can be made
in a cable that is completely severed, the resulting joint is so bulky, owing to the connectors necessary
for joining the conductors, that the Jlexibility of the cable is seriously impaired.
:;_l
-
.....
~
""Z::
If, however, only the rubber sheathing, and possibly the copper screen is damaged, a completely
satisfactory repair can be made by replacing the insulation, repairing the screen, and vulcanising the
new rubber sheath. The first step is to cut away the rubber sheath and copper screen for about a foot
-z
on either side of the damage and to force apart the insulated cores by wooden blocks and weclges.
The damaged insulant of each core is then cut away for a few inches and the core sheath bevelled down
~
at an angle of 45°. The bevelled surface is· cleaned with a naphtha· rag and covered wilh,..a.special flux
supplied by the makers.
Vulcanising compound consisting of rubber supplied in sheets with a linen backing, is cut into
strips about one inch wide and the backing removed. Alternatively, the rubber strip may be supplied.
in tape form of the required width. Each core in turn is bound tightly with this, care being taken to
ensure that no air is imprisoned between the layers. The layers should be applied in alternate directions,
and each layer should b~ carefully tooled to shape with an electrically heated tooling iron to ensure
scaling the laps together and to the scarfed surface of the original sheathing. Calipers should be used
to ensure the correct radial thickness being applied. The repaired cores are then each bound with a
layer o( proofed tape long enough to overlap the original insulant on either side.
The whole of the repair is now placed in a vulcanising bath of which there arc several types. One
type consists of a welded steel trough, 5 ft. long, 9 ins. wide, and 10 ins. deep inside, mounted on a
metal framework. In the base of the trough and extending along its full length are three 3 K\V heating
units protected by a perforated tray above. The remainder of the trough is filled with paraffin wax.
which can be heated to a temperature of about 300° F. When the repaired cable has been placed in the
bath, it is kept there at the correct temperature (about 300° F) and for the appropriate time (about
30 to 45 minutes} depending on the type and thickness of vulcanising compound used.
Arter being vulcanised, the cable is taken out of the bath, the proofed tapes and wooden blocks
and wedges arc removed, and the repair of the outer sheath is proceeded with. The edges of the sheath
arc bevelled, roughened and cleaned with a naphtha rag, and the flux applied as before. Binding with
strips of compound is then carried out, care being taken to press the material well down into the spaces
between the cores and firmly against the bevelled edges of the original sheath. It is important to guard
against air being entrapped between the layers of compound. The whole repair is now covered with
proofed tape and the cable is placed in the vulcanising bath and vulcanised as before.
To repair the copper screen, a common procedure has been to insert a new section of screen, formed
of copper repair tape or braiding, or of pre-Iorrned cages, and to solder the new section to the under-
lying original screen at the points where the overlaps occur. Alternatively, the necessary length of
cord and copper repair tape may be wrapped spirally around the cable, commencing with a 3 inch
overlap at one end and finishing with a similar 3 inch overlap at the other. Temporary wire binders
arc used to secure the ends. Thereafter, the outer rubber sheathing may be built up with layers of
compound strips in the manner already described, the whole being bound with proofed tape.
Finally, the repaired part of the cable is once again placed in the vulcanising bath and the outer
sheath vulcanised as before. It only remains to remove the outer tape and the cable is ready for service
again. If the job has been well done, the new rubber will be found adhering perfectly to the old ; if
not, it is a sign that the surfaces were not sufficiently clean and dry. If the new rubber is spong~', it
shows that air has been entrapped with the layers of compound.

C.ao1PP PA111nu•s L-ro.

 FOUNQEO 188!1. COPYRIGHT
THE U M.6.
T~ A. SOUTHERN L'l"D•~
TMIS PAPER
WAS THE FlllST

fil'~e ~C/Uaf ~ £.Jwof,

1$ SUPPLIEO 'ON
CORRESPON~ENCE CONDITION THAT
l.AINING SCMOOI.
IT 1$ l:E!<ERVEO
IN THE WO~l.0.
EXCl.USIVELV FOR
CAH.DII-'"l-' (GT. IlRITAl'.'d. YOUR OWN USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Lesson LR/5.
MAGNETISM AND FLUX.
·Magnetism is an invisible force inseparably associated with an electric current and also with
certain substances [chiefly iron, steel, nickel and cobalt) by virtue of which other pieces of these
materials are attracted or repelled. These substances arc said to be magnetic, and when the property
of magnetism has been conferred on them (either naturally, or artificially from another magnet or by
means of an electric- current) the portion concerned is said to be· magnetised, and is called a magnet.
The poles of a magnet are the ends from which the magnetic force may be regarded as radiating. and it
is corrvent ionally assumed that the force flows in one direction. leaving the magnet at the N pole and
re-entering at the S pole. Materials such as air, wood, or copper, which do not possess magnetic
properties, arc termed non-magnetic.
Polarity. Either end of a magnetised bar will attract an unmagnetised piece of iron, e.g., a nail,
but if another magnetised object such as a compass needle, mounted on its spindle, be approached by
one end of the magnet, it will be seen that one end of the needle is attracted to the magnet. If however
the other enc] of the magnet is brought near the same er.d of the needle, this end will be .repelled by the

.
magnet. The end which attracts the N end of the needle is called the south pole of the magnet, and the
end which repels the N end of the needle is called the N pole of the magnet. In other words like poles
.
repel and unlike peles attract one another.
THE MAGNETIC FIELD.
. .
Magnetism, though itself invisible, is capable of causing visible results; e.g. a horse-shoe magnet .
. familiar to all, will draw to itself another piece of iron, say a nail. As force is necessary to produce
motion, it is evident that one of the properties of a magnet is to exert force. We can, in fact, say that
lines of Iorce spread out from the ends of the magnet into all Ute space beyond. The region within
which any magnetic effect can be detected is called the magnetic field.
Fig. 1 shows the direction and
grouping of t.hesc lines of force in the case
of two shapes of magnetised bars. It will ~

~~==:: :~
be seen that the lines of force are closest
together or most dense at the ends of the

~~=====~~~~~
magnet and become less dense as the ~
distance from the magnet increases. · It is N
obvious that the greater the magnetism of
the magnet and the less the distance from
it, the greater wiU be the magnetic force
exerted by the magnet on any magnetic <,
material in its vicinity.
STRAIGHT BAR MA6NeT BENTBARMAGNeT.
A unit magnetic pole is defined as one
that will repel another equal and similar
pole, at a distance of l cm. in air, with Fig. 1- .Magnetic Fields of Two Forms of Magnet..
the force of 1 dyne.*
Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the lines of force in the cases of (a) two bar magnets attracting
one another, and {b) two bar magnets repelling one another. Lines of force always form closed curves
and they never intersect. In case (a) the
lines of force from the N pole seem to join
up with those from the attracting S pole:
in case (b} they seem to be bent against
one another as if they were springy wires
tending to force the two poles apart. ·
. It is found that the Iorce exerted by
one pole of strength m units on another
pole oI strength .n units varles directly
as the product of their strengths and
Inversely as the square of the distance•
. d, between them, i.e., force exerted
mxn
varies as ---

•• Fig. 2. Magnetic Fields of Two Bar Magnets.

• (The dyne is a unit of force in the C.G.S: (centimetre-gram-second) system of .units. It is that
force which will cause an acceleration of 1 cm. per sec. per sec. when acting on a mass of l gram.
Jt is equal to ah of the weight of a gram and is related to the poun<l weight as follows :-
1 Jb.-wt. = 453·6 grams= 453·6x981 = 445.000 = 0-445x106 dynes.]
(-i70D)
LR/5
Magnet-ism and Flux.
2

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT.

'When a straight conductor is carrying a current, a magnetic field is produced around the conductor
(whether insulated or not) and it is customary to regard these lines o(. force as flowing in a circular
direction, i.c, as rotating in circles having the conductor as centre. This is shewn in Fig. 3 where the
( +) denotes a wire carrying
current away from the
observer and the ( ·) denotes
one carrying current towards
the observer. The direction of
the lines of Iorce is the same as
the direction or rotation of a
corkscrew when its point is
being driven in the direction of
the current, i.e, it is clockwise
for an observer looking in the Fig.- 3. Magnetic Field of a Straight Conductor carrying Current.
direction of flow of the current.

If now the conductor be bent to form a single loop, as in Fig. 4, it will obviously produce a field
which is most intense (i.e. it will contain the largest number of lines of force per .!>q. cm.) at the centre of
the loop : wl k lst if
the conductor is coil-
ed several times round
to form what is term-
ed a solenoid coil, or
simply a solenoid,
some of the lines of
force w111 combine to D •
form an axial fieklfle\,
running through the
coil from end to end,
(in at the S end and
out at the N end) each SOLENOID COIL
~INGLc TURN.
turn adding its quota
to the total number Fig. 4. Magnetic Fields of Coiled Conductors.
of lines of force. The greater the number of turns and the greater the current, (i.e. the greater the
number of ampere-turns) the greater is the strength of the resulting field.

Strength or intensity of marnene Ileld,

The strength of a magnetic field at any point is equal to .the number of magnetic lines of force
which pass through a square centimetre at that point, in a plane perpendicular to the lines of force. It
represents the magnetic force, in dynes, exerted by the field on a unit magnetic pole situated at the point
considered.

If the force experienced by the uniform magnetic field in air is one dyne, the field strength is unity
and it is assumed that there is one line of force per sq. cm. (The lines arc sometimes called maxwells
and a density of one line per sq. cm. is called a gauss.)

Tn the case of a straight conductor, the field strength, H, at a distance of rems from the conductor
and when a currcn l of I amperes is flowing is :-
I
Field strength = H lines per sq. cm. ..................... (1)
5r
Jn the case of a circular loop (Fig. 4) of radius r, the field strength at the centre of the loop is:-
2 nl I
H = -- = 0 · 628 x - lines per sq. cm. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. (2)
10 r r

1n the case of a solenoid coil (without an iron core) the field strength H is called the magnetising
force and we have seen that it depends on the number of ampere-turns (NxI). The vaJue of Hat the
centre of a long straight solenoid, the radius of whose turns is small compared with the length, is:-
4 r. NI NI
H = "= 1·257 x - lines per sp. cm. .. (3)
10 l . 1

where I = current in amps ; N = no of turns ; and l = axial length in ems.

The product of the field strength. H and the length l of a magnetic circuit is a measure of the total
magnetising influence establishing the magnetic field and is called the magneto-motlve force (M.M.F.)
It represents the ability of the system to magnetise. The .M.M,.F. is given by t~e equation:-:-. '
41rNI
Magneto-motive torce = :_ 1 · 257 x NI : (4)
10
 LR/5
The Uniuersa; Mi1ting School, Cardiff.
3

Magnetic Induction.
When a solenoid coil has only air within it, many lines of force continue to encircle each
conductor and fail to unite to form an axial field ; but if a core of iron is introduced into the coil, so
forming an electro-magnet, a larger number of lines of force appear to be drawn into the axial field
(being as it were concentrated or focussed by the core) thus increasing the force exerted by the magnet.
The iron core, being a magnetic material. affords an easier path for the flux than does the non-magnetic
air. Moreover, the iron itself becomes magnetised and seems to add its quota to the total number of
l incs of force.
Thi!'.is best understood by a consideration of the molecular theory of magnetism, which suggests
that all iron molecules arc themselves magnets by nature, and that the absence of magnetic action by
iron in its ordinary slate is clue to the molecules not being arranged in a regular order with the result
that they mutually neutralise one another. But, under the magnetising influence of a solenoid or
another magnet, the molecular magnets arrange themselves in parallel directions with consecutive N
and S poles, and thus their magnetic effects are added together instead of neutralising one another.
This phenomenon is termed magnetic induction and the iron is said to have acquired induced magnetism.
When the magnetising force is great enough to cause all the molecular magnets to be parallel. to
one another (or nearly so) the iron is said to be saturated with magnetic flux, and thereafter <l further
increase of magnetising force by the solenoid does not produce a corresponding increase of lines of force
due to magnetic induction .. When the magnetising force is removed, the iron molecules tend to revert
to their original condition of mutual neutralisation, this process being easier and quicker with soft iron
than with hard steel. Hard steel is said therefore to have greater retentivity than soft iron. It resists
both magnetisation and demagnetisation to a greater degree. But even the softest iron, after being'
magnetised, retains some of its magnetism and this is termed residual magnetism.
Flux densit.y.
in the case of an electro-magnet, where the field strength is many times greater fora given magnet-
ising force H, th.; strength of thefield is called the magnetic flux density and is symbolised by B. Th;
ratio of the flux density B to the magnetising force His called the magnetic permeability of the material
.
and is symbolised by /.t.
lt follows that :-
4;rNI1-i
Flux density'= B = ,n x H = lines per sq. cm. .. ........ (5)
10
B
Permeabillty = /L .... . . . .{())
H
The permeability or air is unity, because B = H. The permeability of other non magnetic
materials is very little less than unity'; in other words, there is .no such thing as a magnetic insulator,
The permeability of iron and steel varies with the nature of · •eO?O
the material and the magnetising force H. The curves con- ~ •booo
necting B with H for cast iron, wrought iron, and cast steel ger:~
have the shape shown in Fig. 5. 1t will be seen that the Hux :r 12000
produced rises rapidly at first with increasing values of H, ~ ~~~-...-r--1-
showing relatively high permeability ratios which may reach as 3 10000 t+t-~-+---+--+-
much as 2,400 to l in the case of wrought iron. Thereafter, ::
the curves bencl over, at a point known as the "knee"of the ,_ 6000
curve, after which large increases in H only produce small ~ t.ooo tt--+--+::,.;:to=t-i---!--+--'--1
increases in the flux B. The iron is then almost "saturated" z
with flux and the permeability ratio rapidly falls again. "'o4.000 ~~-+--f--+-+-+---+--'--1
"The practical limit of the Hux density Bin good wrought ~ ~000H-+--+--+--l-+-+-~-'--1
iron.is about 16,000 lines per sq.cm. and in cast iron about D,000. u, o .._...__,___,___._....__._....1....__.1._J
o 10 20 3o 4o so 6o -,., eo 90
The total number of lines of force traversing a gi,•en area is Mll~>1ET•sor•<> FoFtcE H
called the magnetic flux F, and is equal to the product oi the flux Fig. 5• Typical Magnetisation Curves.
density B and the cross-sectional area, A of the core. In
electrical apparatus, the total flux may be several million lines and therefore a megaline (= one million
1 ines) is often used as a unit.
\-Ve may here.dr;nva co'.nparison b_etwee1~ the clectri~ circuit and the magnetic circuit; for just as a
conductor has a gtven resistivity (specific resistance] which is a measure of its resistance to the flow of
current. so does every material possess reluctivity [specific reluctance} which is a measure of its resis-
tance to lines of magnetic force ; and just as conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity so is perme-
ability the reciprocal of reluctivity, '
1 1· }{
i.c. reluctlvity = .
= - =- (7)
permeability µ B
. -...,ve mar go still further an·<l s~y that the re1u~tan~e s (or magnetic resistance) of a magnetic circuit,
like the resistance ~ of an electric current, v~1es directly as the length of the magnetic circuit and
inversely as the sectional area A, measured at right-angles to the Jines of force.
l
i.e, reluctance = S = --- . .. .. (8)
µXA
 LR/5
Magnetism, and Flax.
4

E
In the same way, just as I = - in the case of an electric circuit, so, in the case of the magnetic circuit,
R
Magneto-motive Force
Total Flux ....... {9~
Reluctance

PRINCIPLE OF D.C. MOTORS.

Let us consider what happens when a conductor carrying an electric current lies in a magnetic field.
(here termed the 'applitJd field"), between the poles or a magnet, as shown in Fig. 6(a), where the current
is assumed to be going a.way from the observer (through the paper).
In the case illustrated, the licld induced by the current is clockwise, and is in the same direction as
the applied field on the right of the con-
ductor and in the opposite direction on the
left, It is not possible, however, for the
N.
·lines of force to intersect as shown, and the N
result is that they are re-distributed as in ,. '/£LDS I
Fig. 5(b), to form a. resultant field which is a~D ~~
stronger on the right (where the two fields v ~ ~~ ~ I'
are united) and weaker on the left (where
the two fields are opposed). Now lines of a.'RECTION ~ ~ ~~
force act as though they were in tension ~ MOTIVE~ ~ ~ ~ UNIT~t:J.
1""1.et..OS

and, as shown in Fig. 6(b), they are stretched

Ce.
r-
~~
around one side of the conductor somewhat
like the elastic of a. catapult. This causes S. s
the conductors to be subjected to a motive
force (i.e. a force tending to produce
.._motion) which acts at right-angles both to Fig. 6(l1). ~ig. 6(b).
the applied field and Lo the current and Force acting on Conductor carrying Current in a
tends to produce motion towards the Magnetic Field.
weaker Iield, i.e. to the left in the case
considered. The greater the current. and tbe greater the strength of the applied field, and the greater
the length of the conductor between the poles, the greater will be the motive force acting on the
conductor. This force is given by the expression i-c-
.Bll BJl
Motive Force on Conductor r-rr f = -- dvncs = lbs. wt. . (10)
10 ~ -!·45xl06
Where B =flux density in line .. sper sq. cm. 1 = current in amps; l = length of conductor in ems.

If either the direction of the current in the conductor be reversed, or if the polarityol tho applied
field be reversed, the direction of the motive force will also be reversed : but if both the current and the
applied field be reversed, the motive force will still act in the original direction. ·
The foregoing principles govern the operation of all electrlc motors.
MAGNETIC SYSTEM -OF D.C. MOTOR.
Fig. 7 shows diagrammatically the field
magnet system of a. -t-pole d.c, motor. The
·poles are fixed to a circular iron framework,
called a yoke. Between the poles is mounted
the rotor (armature) which is made of iron and
is cylindrical in shape. The rotor is carried by
a shaft resting in bearings, so that it can rotate
between the poles. A small clearance is
allowed between the rotor and the pole-tips and
this is termed the air-gap. The magnetic flux
passes from one of the north poles of the field
magnet system through the air-gap, then
(dividing) it passes through the rotor, through
the air-gap again to the two adjacent south
poles and back through the yoke lo the north
pole, as shown by the arrow-heads. This is
called the magnetic path of the motor. The
magnetising force for the poles ·or the
motor is provided by a large number of
turns of insulated wire in the form of a . cNO VIEW.
solenoid coil mounted. on each pole. A Fig. 7. .MagneLic System of 4-Pole D.C. Motor.
current is passed through these coils, the •
direction of the wire and the current being so arranged that one pole is 'a north pole and the next a south
pole alternately around the yoke. ·
· Fig. 8 shows diagrammatically a motor whose magnetic; circuit comprises the yoke, two poles,
air-gaps, and rotor. Through this. magnetic circuit pass most of. the lines o,f magnetic force in the
direction shown by the small arrows, these lines being most dense at the pole-tips and in the air-gaps
between the pole-tips and the rotor or armature. · ·
 LR/;)
The Universal JV!ining School, Cardiff.
5
----------

SIDE V/£W OF ROTOR

PART-SECT!ON£0.
£ND VIEW. [nro.]
Fig. 8. Arrangement o! 2-Pole D.C. Motor.
The rotor or armature is in the form of composite iron cylinder mounted on a shaft. Embedded in
-slots in the periphery of the rotor are conductors each o( which proceeds axially from one end of the
cylinder along the periphery to the other end, across that end diametrically and back again along the
opposite side of the cylinder to the end from which it started, thus forming a loop. For simplicity,
only one looped conductor (usually refereed to as two conductors) is shown in Fig.S, being situated in the
slots directly under the pole-tips. Current is passed through this conductor, with the result that, being
situated in an applied magnetic field, a. motive force acts on the conductor in a direction mutually at
right-angles to the direction of the field and of the current, and tending to produce motion towards the
weaker field. As the conductor ii; embedded in slots in the armature-drum which is mounted on
bearings, the armature will tend lo rotate in the direction shown, namely anti-clockwise.
Assume that the conductor and armature have turned half a revolution. Both conductors wil]"
then: be under a pole of opposite pol:irity to the former pole, and therefore the direction of the motive
force acting on them and the direction of movement will be reversed. To prevent this it is arrangl~d
that the direction of current in the conductor shall be changed each time it comes under the influence of
another pole. This is effected by what is known as a commutator which usually takes the form of a
-composite drum mounted on an extension of the armature shaft.
The commutator-drum is built up from copper segments insulated from the armature and Irom
each other. usually with mica or mican itc. The armature normally carries a large number or conductors
which arc connected in groups, one group to each of the commutator-segments. The current.required
for the armature-conductors is supplied through the commutator segments by carbon contacts called
brushes which are lightly pressed to the face of the commutator by springs, and the commutator-
segments pass consecutively under these brushes. Thus when the armature has turned through half a
revolution, the segment which was under the first brush now comes under the second brush and vice
versa. and the current is therefore reversed progressively in the conductors. Ilere ·wehave the direction
of the field being changed and also the direction of the current ; consequently the motive force continues
to act in the same direction and the armature rotates. It will continue to rotate as long as the magnetic
field is maintained and current is flowing in the conductors, provided that the direction of the armature-
current is changed every time the conductor carrying it comes under the influence of a pole of opposite
polarity.
MULTI-POLE MOTORS.
An obvious disadvantage of a 2-pole machine is that the conductors, for the larger part of their·
circular path, do not come under the influence of any magnetic field. To overcome this deficiency poles
are generally provided all around the yoke. \Ve can thus have 4-pole, G-pole, 8-poleand other multi-pole
machines (depending on their size and speed) but as there must be a north and a south pole for each
magne_ticpath, the number of polesis always _even. POLe
Fig. 9 shows a 4-pole d.c. motor with a W/N.O/NCiS.
number of conductors on the face of the armature.
The poles arc arranged alternately. north and
south, and the lines of magnetic force pass from a
• north pole, through the air-gap, through the
armature and. anotherair-gap to the two adjacent
south poles and so through the yoke back to the
north pole in the manner shown in Figs, 7 and 8.
The direction of the current in each conductor is
changed by the time it comes under the influence
of the next pole. In order that the greatest
number of .conductors shall be carrying current
while they are under a pole, two pairs of brushes
are resting on the commutator, each pair of
brushes supplying a gronp of conductors under a
pole. The observant student will note that the
direction of the current in the armature con-
ductors is the reverse of that in Fig. 8 and that
therefore the armature will rotate in the opposite
direction, namely clockwise. Fig. 9. Arrangement of 4-Pole D.C~Motor.
LR/i5
NIagnetism and Flux.
6

GENERATION OF ALTERNATING E.M.F.

'We will now consider what happens when a conductor that is not supplied with current is moved by
some external mechanical means across a magnetic field in such a manner that the conductor cuts the
lines of magnetic force. It is found that a difference oI potential is generated or induced between the
ends oI the conductor. This method of generating an E.M.F. is called dynamical electro-magnetic
induction.
Note carefully that no currentwill flow unless a closed circuit, is provided, but that if the circuit is
closed, then the p.d, between the terminals of the conductor will cause a current to flow around the
circuit. its value depending on the resistance of the whole circuit.
The E.M.F. induced depends on the ra te at which the Jines of force arc ent and this depends on the
density of the magnetic flux and also on the rate at which the conductor moves. The maximum
instantaneous voltage is generated when the conductor is cutting lines of force at rtght-angles and, for a
single conductor, is given by the expression :-
Blv
Maximum Induced voltage = E = -- volts.... (ll}
108
'Where B =flux density in lines per sq. cm. ; I = length of conductor in ems.
v = velocity of conductor in ems. per second.
It will be seen later that the instantaneous voltage generated when the conductor has moved
through an angle of d" from its position of zero voltage is equal to the maximum voltage multiplied by
sin d, that is :-
·Riv sin d
Instantaneous voltage =- - volts . C' •••••••••••••• (12}
108

Fig. 10 shows a single turn of wire rotating about an axis at right-angles to the magnetic-Held.
The lines of force are shown running downward from the north to the south pole and we will assume
that they form a field of uniform intensity, Le. one which has the same flux density over the whole field.
Let \JS assume also that the coil is being rotated at a uniform speed in a direction anti-clockwise.
When the coil (of which an eudwise view is shown) is in the position marked "start•• the two active
sides of the coil arc cutting the field al right-angles and are therefore cutting the lines of force at the
maximum rate. The conductor marked A is moving to the left and that marked B to the right, and
the voltage in conductor A will act upward (through the paper) hut in conductor B the voltage will act
downward. At the ends of the coil, there will therefore be a potential difference or voltage equal to
twice the rise of voltage in each active Jimb of the -coil.

START. ~Tl/RN.
A
l
Fig. 10. Lines of Force cut by a Coil Rotating rn a Magnetic Field.

The direction in which the induced voltage acts may readily be ascertained by remembering that,
whereas in the case of a conductor carrying current in a magnetic field (seeFig. G) the conductor tends to
move away from the stronger field, in the case of a conductor being mechanically moved a=ross a
magnetic field (as in fig. 10). for the purpose of creating a potential difference, the conductor must be
moved or driven against the stronger field, i.e, against its natural inclination.
Lens's Law should bl! remembered in this connection. It states that "in all cases o[ electro-
magnetic induction caused by mechanical movement, the induced currents have such a direction that
their reaction tends to stop the motion which produces them."
The voltage in conductor B therefore acts downwards so that its current creates around the con-
ductor a circular magnetic field whose lines of force run in a clockwise direction and thus provide a
strong united field on the right of the conductor. This has the effect of establishing a force tending to
oppose motion. Conversely, the voltage in conductor A acts upward; (i.e. in the reverse direction from
that shown in Fig. (),although the direction of movement is the same, viz., to the left). Fig. 6 is analog-
ous to the case of a motor, whereas Fig. 10 is analogous to the case of a generator. The two cases should
be carefully distinguished. Certain" rules" c,rrc often quoted, giving the relative directions of the field,
current, and conductor, but it is always better to reason the matter out from first principles. Rules
are apt to be forgotten or applied incorrectly. ·
When the coil has rotated one-quarter turn, the conductor Ais moving in the same direction as the
lines of forceand conductor B in the opposite direction. They arc then no longer cutting lines of force
but, as it were, sliding along between them, and so no voltage will be generated in this position.
 LR/5
The Uwiuersal llt[ining School, Cardiff.
7

. When the coil has rotated one-half turn. the conductors arc a~ain moving al ri~ht-angles to the
r eld and arc generating the maximum voltage but its direction has been changed because conductor A
tl.at was initially under the north pole is now under the south pole, and B the one initially under the
south pole is now under the north pole. When the coil has moved through three-quarters of a turn,
the conductors arc again sliding along between lines of magnetic force without cutting thern, and no
'voltage is generated,

Tims we find that in the initial position, a maximum voltage is generated ; after a quarter-turn,
no voltage is generated; after a half-turn, a second maximum voltage is generated but in the opposite
direction; after three-quarters of a turn, no voltage is generated; and after a full turn, the initial
maximum voltage is again generated. Note once again that it is an E.:M.F. that is genera tell or induced,
not a current, although an alternating current will tlow if a dosed circuit is provided.
ln intermediate positions the voltage falls progressively from its maximum positive value lo zero
and then continues to be built up in the opposite. direction, as stated, until it reaches its maximum
negative value. The values of this rising and falling voltage at any number of instants (i.e. the
instantaneous values) when plotted to scale produce a curve known as a sine wave curve. such as that
.rnarkcd "E" in Fig. 11 (b). This curve may be plotted as follows.

The voltage is repre-

sented to scale by a vector Y.
... E"· : (a vector is a line or
pointer pivoted at one end
and free to rotate through a.
anv angle). The vector
"E," is pivoted at "F" and
· is rotating a{\ti-clockwise.
When it is in the v~rtical
position, m line with OEGRccSOF
YY Wig. 11a) its height,
measured from the line of
zero voltage XX, represents
the maximum value of the
voltage (also known as its
peak or crest value). Iu the
position E 1 it has moved VECTOR DIAGRAM. CURVE rOLLOWINCi
through 8 degrees and if a THE SINE LAV.i.
line be projected back to YY Y. Y.
the right-angled trianglePFE (a) (b)
is formed, from which we Fig. 11. Alternating Voltage Fluctuations.
find that

.FP FP
cos 8 = --·= .·. FP =FE cos 8
FE1 FE

ln other words, E 1 = E cos 9 ···-··. -····· : . . .... (13)

Where E 1 = instantaneous value of the voltage measured from the datum XX (= FP).
E = maximum value of the voltage.

Thus the projection of E on the axis YY, when E makes an angle 6° with YY. represents the in-
·stantaneous value of the voltage generated by a coil rotating in a magnetic field when it has moved
through 8° from the position of maximum voltage. .

The voltage curve plotted in Fig.11 (b} shows the value "E cos (}"·for various values of B. When 8
is O", cos 0 =land the voltage is equal to E (maximum). When 9 is DO", cos 8 = 0 and E = 0, which
corresponds to the conclusion already reached, for here the conductor is sliding through between the
lines of force without cutting them. When 6 equals 180°, the voltage is - E (max.)- i.e. it has a
negative value and is shown below the datum XX. When 8 is 2i0° the voltage is again zero, and at
3G0°, one complete revolution has been made and the voltage is at its initial maximum positive value.
Now if instead of considering the angle 8 through which the conductor has moved from its position
or rnaxlmum voltage, we consider the angle" cl" between the conductor and its position ot zero voltage
·we find that

Instantaneous voltage = E cos 8 = E sin d . . .... . ..... ..... . .. . .. . ... . .. (H)

A curve of the shape depicted in Fig. 11 {b) is termed a "sine wave" curve, or ry," sinusoidal"
curve. A voltage which is fluctuating from positive to negative to positive in this manner is called an
.alternating voltage, and when such voltage is applied to the ends of a conductor forming a closed
circuit, a current will flow in the conductor corresponding to the voltage and fluctuating in the same
way. These fluctuations will resemble the dotted curve marked "ccc" in Fig. 11 (b) and such a current
is called a stngle-pbase alternating current, written A.C.
 LR/5
M agnetism. and Flux,

l
GENERATION OF CONTINUOUS E.M.F.
Reverting to the diagram of a two-pole d.c.
motor, Fig. 8, Jet us investigate what happens if its
armature, instead of being supplied with current. is .
rotated by external means, e.g. by a steam cngine.
The conductors around the periphery of the arm-
ature are forced to cut the magnetic flux produced
by the pole-windings and there will consequently be
induced in them an alternating voltage. But the ..,,
effect of the commu tater is to prevent the voltage ~
passed on to the external circuit from ever be- 5
coming negative, because each time the direction of ~ '\
\
the E.?ILF. generated is changed. the commutator- \ '
\ I
segment to which the conductor under the magnetic \ I
\ I
influence is connected comes under an opposite \ I

brush and applies the changed E.M.F. lo the \

\ I
I

opposite terminal of the external circuit. In a two- \

' ', I
I

pole machine with two conductors and one pair of ...... ..,,-'
,f

brushes as illustrated in Fig. 8, the voltage generated

would rise and fall as represented by the curve Fig.
12, the second (negative) half of the wave being Fig. 12. Voltage induced in a Single Coil
merely reversed (made positive). as Rectified by the Commutator.
In practice, a large number of armature conductors arc employed, connected in series. The voltage·
at the terminals then consists of a large number of these waves all out of phase with each other by an
angle corresponding to the angle between the •
conductors, and the resultant of these waves is COMfJINED vol.TAG~. '
the potential difference between the term~al~ of ( b)
the dynamo. Fig. 13 shows at (a) a combination
of three such curves and at (b) the curve of the •
voltage variations at the terminals, i.e. the re-
sultant of the voltages generated. by three con- ::SI
ductors and consisting of a more or less steady ~
-· (a)
ripple. lf a very large number of conductors arc c'1
employed, a voltage is obtained which has only a :::>
slight ripple, and if such an E.M.F. is applied to a
circuit a steady, or nearly steady, direct or ROTATION
continuous current is produced. Fig. 13. Rectified Voltage induced in Three
Coils of D.C. Dynamo,
D.C. GENERATORS AND MOTORS.
The construction of D.C. generators is very similar in principle to that of the D.C. motors already
described, the pole systems and windings of both being alike. We arc now in a position.however, to
refer to several further points.

The armature.
The construction of the armature of a D.C. machine depends on its size and speed. In a low speed·
multi-pole machine which is of large diameter, it has a "flywheel" or." spider" construction and is of
short axial length, the laminated core being mounted on the periphery. In a high speed two or four-
pole machine which Is of small diameter and greater axial length, the armature consists of shaft,
laminated core and end clamping flanges, there being no spider, or only a small one. In both cases,
slots to receive the armature windings are cut through the laminations axially across their periphery.

The purpose or the laminations is to minimise eddy currents in the core caused by the rotation of
the iron in a magnetic field. These currents do no work and merely heat up the core, this heat re·
presenting a loss of power. Insulating material, usually composed of very thin paper or varnish, is
inserted between the laminations to increase the resistance of the core and split it up into a number of
thin electrically independent sections_. ·

Armature windings.
These consist of a large number of turns of copper conductors of round, square, or rectangular
section, insulated usually by cotton impregnated with varnish or shellac. The conductors are embedded
in slots which are themselves insulated with 'presspahn. leatheroid, or micanite.

The armature conductors may he wound in one of two ways, namely either (I) Lap or multiple
circuit winding (sometimes called a "parallel" winding) and (2) Wave or two-circuit winding (sometimes
called a" series" winding). It is not proposed here to discuss the details of these two methods, but it
may be noted that :-

(J) With lap winding, the number of parallel paths for current through .the armature and the
number of brush spindles are always equal to the number of poles. The induced voltage is equal to
that generated in one parallel path and is not affected by the number of poles. The total current is.
equal to that carried in one path multiplied by the number of poles.
 LR/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
9

(2) With wave winding, the number of parallel paths through the armature is always 2, no matter
how many poles there may· be. Only two brush spindles are essential, but if desired there may be as
many brushes as poles without altering the winding. The induced voltage is equal to that generated in
one parallel path and is increased by increasing the number of poles and the number of conductors in
series. The total current is equal to that carried in one path multiplied by 2, irrespectiveof the number
of poles.

For a given size of machine, and a given total number of conductors, a wave winding will give the
largest possible E.1\1.F. and the smallest current output. Conversely, a lap winding will give a reduced
E."?rl.F. and a correspondingly increased current. Up to about 50 kW, a wave winding is ~enerally
used if the E.M.F. exceeds (300 volts. Larger machines are usually lap wound because a sufficient
number of conductors can be arranged in series in each path to give the required E.M.F., no matter how
many poles (and parallel paths) there may be in the machine.

Voltage generated.
The voltage generated in a D.C. dynamo (and also the back E.M.F. induced in a D.C. motor)
depends on the number of lines of magnetic flux cut by the rotating armature conductors ; the rate
of cutting ; and the number of conductors in series between positive and negative brushes.
For a lap winding, it is given by tlie expression:-
0 ZN
Voltage generated= --- volts . . .- (15}
60 xl08
where 0 =fl.ix per pole : Z "'="No. of armature conductors; N =r.p.m.
For a. wave winding, the generated voltage is equal to that given by formula (15) multiplied by the
'number- of pairs of poles .

.Brush position.
The current flowing in the windings of a D.C. generator or motor is an alternating one although in
. each case the current flowing in the external circuit is a continuous current. The change is effected
through the medium of brushes bearing on the commutator and the process is called commutation.
Reversal of the current in a coil always takes place when the coil concerned is short-circuited by a
brush, and during this short period the current has to die down to zero, reverse, and rise to its full value
in the opposite direction if no sparking is ·to occur as the coil leaves the brush. To ensure this, the
brushes must be mounted so that they are always connected to conductors lying in the neutral zones
between the poles, i.e. where there is no magnetic flux.*
At first sight, the neutral zone would seem to be exactly midway between the poles, but this would
only be true if the armature conductors themselves did not create a magnetic flux which modifies the
pole flux and so distorts the field.

Armature reaction.
When the armature conductors are carrying current, they act like a solenoid and create a magnetic
field, termed. the" armature reaction field," which acts at right angles to the main field. The two fields,
however, cannot have a separate existence and so they combine to form a resultantIleld which (in the
case ofa generatorjcauses the Ilux density to be weakened under the entering pole tip (having regard to
the direction of rotation) and strengthened under the leaving pole tip. At the same time, the neutral
zones arc shifted round so that. in the case or a. generator, the brushes must be moved round in the
directlon ol rotation. The converse applies to a motor, in which the brushes must be moved backward
to bring them into the neutral zones.
The adverse effect of armature reaction may be reduced somewhat by increasing the size of the air
gap between the poles and armature and increasing the number of ampere-turns on the main poles to
keep the main field flux at its normal value.
A great drawback of moving the brushes to ensure that the conductors they serve are lying in the
neutral zones is that it necessitates a new brush position for every change in the armature current.
Moreover, with a reversible motor, the brushes would require to be moved through a large angle each
lime the motor is reversed.

[Note. The brushes themselves may be mounted in line with the main poles so long as the
commutator segments under the brushes arc connected {by diagonal wires at the end of
the armature) to con<luctors lying in the neutral zones..)
LR/5
Magnetism and Flux.
10

Reactance Voltage.
Even when the brush position is modified as described, sparking may still occur owing to the effect
of "self-induction"whereby an induced voltage is set up in the coil of wire underneath a brush. This
voltage opposes and delays the reversal of the current in the coil with the result that sparking occurs as
the coil leaves the brush.
The foregoing difficulties may be reduced by using wide, hard-carbon brushes pf high resistance,
and by moving the brushes still further forward in a generator (or backward in a motor) but the modern
method is to fit the machine with interpoles.

Interpoles or Commutating poles.

These are auxiliary poles mounted on the yoke, midway between the
main poles, so that they produce a field equal and opposite to 'the arm-
ature reaction field and therefore neutralise it, as shown in Fig. 14.
In a. generator, each interpole has the same polarity as the next main
pole ahead in the direction of rotation. This has the effect of inducing in
each short-circuited coil an E.M.F. acting in the same direction as the
next main pole ahead, and therefore in the same direction as the reversed
current. The rcactance voltage is therefore neutralised and sparkless
commutation is ensured at all loads. ·
In a. motor, each interpolc must have opposite polarity to the next
main pole ahead. Fig. 14
lnterpolesfor D.C. Genera.tor.
In order that the in1.erpole field shall overcome the armature re-
action field at all loads, the interpoles are wound with coils connected in
•
.•
series with the armature coils.
When interpoles arc used, the brushes have a fixed position so that they arc connected to con-
ductors lying geometrically midway between the main poles, i.c, directly in line with the interpolcs.
No adjustment of the brush position is needed at any time,

TEST PAPER LR/~

I. {a) Outline in your own words the principle
underlying the operatron of an electric motor, (b) Ex-
plain how a continuous turning motion is ensured in a
D.C. molar.
2. \Vhat is meant by the terms (a) magnetic induction,
(b) ~ux density, and (c) permeability ? · 7. A 6-polc D.C. generator has a flux of 3:2 megalincs
3. An armature having conductors of aerive length
20 Ins., each carrying a current of 30 amps, has an
average air gap field strength of G,000 lines per sq. cm.
Find the mechanical force acting on each conductor.
(l inch = 2· 54 ems).
4. A solenoid GO ems long consists of l,200 turns and
the current passing through it is I· 5 ampere. Calculate
the strength of the field inside the solenoid.
5. Describe the magnetic system of a 12-pole D.C.
motor. What is the object of having so many poles
and for what purpose woulcl the molar be suitable ?
3,000 r.p.m. in a field whose fiux density is 10,000 lines
per sq. cm., the longer limbs of the coil being parallel to
the axis of rotation. What. is the maximum voltage of
this coll and (c) how docs this voltage change as tne
coil rotates ? ·
per pole and runs at l,000 r.p.m. There arc altogerhcr
·106 armature conductors. Calculate the total
generated E.M.F. il the armature is {a) lap wound, and
(b) wave wound.
8. Give a general description ol the construction of a
small 4-polc, 500 volt, D.C. generator of, say, •lO I{\\'
output, running at ll50 r.p.m. How may such a
generator be driven ?
9. (a) . What is the ov ..rall efficiency of a power
sta.tion, which requires 2-lbs. of coal, of a calorific value
o! 12.000 B.Th.U. per lb.,·to generate l Board of Trade
Unit? .

Q. (a) 011t1in1: in your own words the principle under- (b) The station has an average load ol 2,000
lying the operation of an electric generator. (b) A kilowatts. If the coal consumption be rmproved lo
continuously wound rectangular coil of SO turns l ·!>-lbs. of coal per kilowat.t-hour. how _many tons of
measuring 100 ems long by SO ems wide is rotating at coal will Li" _saved per year ?

A, ~le Lay & Co., Lid., c.-.rdiU.

 LR/5
Al
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T. A~ SOUTHERN L'T'D.~ COPYRIGHT
THIS PAPER
WAS THE FIRST

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MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Answers LR/5
MAGNETISM AND FLUX

l. {a) 011tli11e in your own words the principle 2mderlying the operation. of an electric motor.
(b) Explain how a continuous turning motion is etis21red i?t a D. C. motor.
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRIC MOTOR.
(a) The operation of an electric motor depends on the fact that, when a. conductor carries current
In a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the conductor which tends to move it in a direction at right
angles both to its own length and to the lines of magnetic force:
In a D.C. motor, the conductorson the rotor (armature) create a magnetic field around themselves
which acts i.,._' the ~"\me direction as the pole flux on one side of the conductors and in the opposite
direction on the other side. The result is that a strong resultant field is formed on that side where the two
fields are united, and a weaker field on the other side where the fields are opposed. The conductor
therefore tends to move towards the weaker field.
Jn a D.C. motor the poles are fixed and the conductors are mounted on a rotor which is free to
revolve. The force acting on the conductors thus tends to cause a rotary movement of the armature.
The force causing movement is proportional to the product of the current and the flux density.
(b) To ensure a continuous turning motion in one direction, say clockwise, in a D.C. motor, it is
essential that the direction of the current in each conductor shall be reversed eaeh time it passes out of
the range of one pole and comes under the influence of a pole of opposite polarity. This is ensured by
means of a device known as a commutator.

2. What is meant by the terms (a) magnetic ind1tctio1t, (b) flux density, anti (c) permeability?
MAGNETIC INDUCTION.
(a) The term "magnetic induction" refers to the phenomenon whereby a piece of iron which is
unmagnctised becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field. Not only so, but the iron itself
adds its own quota to the number of lines of force so that the total number i:. much greater than when
the iron was not there. The total field strength is now, in fact, equal to that produced by the original
field plus the field due to the induced magnetism in the iron.
The term "magnetic induction" may also be used as synonymous with "flux density," described
below.

(b} The term "ilux density'' is applied to the total number of lines of force produced in the iron per
square centimetre of cross-sectional area and it is symbolised by the letter B. This number, as we have
seen, is very much greater than H, which is the strength of the original field .in lines per square cm.
when no iron was present.
(c} The term "permeability'' is the ratio of the flux density B to the corresponding value of Hand
is symbolised by the Greek letter µ. It is a measure of the magnetic quality of the iron (or other
material used) for the higher the ratio of B to H, the better will be the material from the magnetic point
of view. Actually, the ratio is not a constant one but varies with the magnetising force H, and, when a
piece of iron becomes" saturated" with flux, its permeability falls rapidly to a relatively low value.

(4700)
 LR/5

A2
M agne:tism and Fla»

3. Att armature having conductors of active .length 20 ins. each carrying a current of 30 amps, has an
average air gap field strength of 6,000 lines per sq. cm. Find the 111-Ccl1M1:ical force acting on each conductor,
{l inch= 2·54cms.)
FORCE ACTING ON A CONDUCTOR.
B I l 6,ooox30x20x2·54
Force = -·---- 2 lbs. wt.
4, · 45X10° 4·45Xl0'
4. A. solenoid GO ems, long consists of 1,200 turns and the current passing through it is l ·;) ampere.
Calculate the strength of the fieldin.side the solenoid.
MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE SOLENOID.
471' NI isoox 1·5
Strength of field = H = --- 1·257x---- 37 · 71 lines per sq. cm.
10 l GO
5. Describe the ntagnetic system of a 12-Pole D. C. motor. What is the object of having so mcmy poles and
for what p11rpose would the motor be s1titable ?
MAGNETIC SYSTEM OF 12-POLE D.C. MOTOR.
The magnetic system of the motor consists of :-

(a) The yoke which forms the outside frame of the motor and carries the 12 poles, fixed equi-
distantly from each other on the inside of the frame. .

{b) The poles, which consist of a large number of soft iron sheets, called lamlnattons, bolted
together and pta:~d at righ! an~lcs to the axis of the motor: The poles are firmly.fixed jo the yoke,
either by dove-tailing them into it or by bolts from the pole tips and through the yoke.
{c) The pole-tips, or pole shoes, which are pieces of solid iron, flat on one side next the poles, anti
curved on the other, next to the armature. In some cases, the laminations of the poles arc themselves
shaped to form shoes.

(d) The air gap, between the pole-tips and the armature, through which the magnetic flux must
pass. It is kept as small as possible, compatible with safety frorn.t he risk of rubbing.

(e) The armature which, like the poles, consists of laminations at right angles to the axis of the
motor. If the diameter is small, the armature will consist of circular laminations clamped tightly
together between end-plates, by bolts running right through, the whole being keyed on the shaft. If
the armature be of large diameter (as in the present case} the laminations will be in the form of rings,
or sections of rings, fastened to a cast steel spider by bolts or dove-tailing, end-rings being provided to
clamp the laminations together.

The field poles are wound by coiled conductors, mounted to encompass the poles, in such a way
that they are alternately North and South right around the yoke. The magnetic flux issues from a
North Pole and passes through the air gap. It there divides, one half passing through the armature
towards one adjacent south pole, and the other half passing to the other adjacent south pole. Each
portion then passes through the south poles and back to the north pole through the yoke.
Reason for many poles.
If the yoke be of large diameter, a single pair oI poles would take J?P little of the circumference of
the yoke arid only a small proportion of the armature winding would come under the influence of the
magnetic field. To reduce the number of idle conductors and develop a Iargertorque, a large number
of poles are spaced around the yoke, so bringing as many conductors as possible under the influence of
the field.
Purpose for which suitable. .
As there are 12 poles, it is evident that this motor has an armature of large diameter. The speed
(revs. per min.} at which such an armature can safely run is limited because of the centrifugal forces
set up. The motor is therefore probably of fBlrly low speed. Moreover, a large armature has a fly·
wheel effect and this is uesful in the case of motors driving reciprocating machinery, such as air
compressors.

In short the motor is essentially a. large, low-speed machine, suitable for driving a compressor, a
winder, or a large, low-speed centrifugal fan.

6. (a} Outline i1~ your own words the principle 1mderlyingth« operation.of an electric generator. (b) A
contim101isly uiowud rectangular coil of 50 t1im.s 1Jieas1,ring 100 ems, tong by 80 ems. wide is rotatiug at
3,000 r.p,»). i1~ a field whoseflux de1~ity is 10,000 lines per sq. cm., the longer timbs of the coil being paralle.l
to tlze axis of rotation. What is the 111axim1m~voltage of this coiJ and (c) how does this voltage change as the
oil rotates ? .
 LR/5
The Umioersai /l!Iining School, Cardiff.
A3

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC JNDUCTION.
(a) The operation of an electric generator depends essentially on the fact that an E.M.F. is induced
in a conductor when it is moved in a magnetic field in such a manner as to cut the Jines of force at right
an~les, or with a right-angle component 0£ its velocity.
Precisely the same effect is obtained if the conductor remains stationary and the magnetic lines of
force are moved across the conductor, or merely if the strength of the magnetic field changes, due to a
·Change in the current producing it.
The value of the E.M.F. produced depends on the effective rate at which the lines of force are cut
and this depends on {1) the speed at which the conductor moves, {2) the density of the magnetic flux,
and (3) the angle d between the direction of motion of the conductor and the direction of the lines of
force. It is given by the expression :-
Blv sin d
Induced E.M.F. = volts.
108
(b) Maximum voltage of con.
This is.produced when the coil is cutting the lines of Iorce at right angles, in which case sin d = l
Then B = flux density = 10,000 lines per sq. cm.
l - active= length of conductor= lOOcms. x2conductors per turn x :30 turns= 10,000cms
v = velocity of conductor in ems. per sec.
= circumference of coil X revs. per sec. = (80x3·1416) X 50 = 12,570 ems. per sec.

• (Only the longer limbs of the coil parallel to the axis of rotation cut the lines of force and are active
in producing a voltage).
' Btv 10,000 x 10,000 x 12,570
Maximum Voltage = -- 12,570 volts.
10 8 1Q8

(c) Changes of voltage.

At the end of one -quarter turn, when the conductors arc moving in the same direction as the field,
they are not cutting lines of force and no voltage is generated. A quarter-tum later still, they are
cutting lines in the opposite direction and a maximum voltage is again generated, but in the opposite
-direction from at first. At three-quarter tum, no voltage is generated and finally, after a full turn, the
maximum voltage of 12,570 volts is generated in the original direction.
The voltage wlll therefore be an alternating one, and 50 Qycles will be completed every second. The
voltage will follow a sine wave law and the voltage at any position of the coil will be proportional to the
sine of the angle that the coil makes with the position of zero voltage.

7. A 6-pole D.C. generator has a flux of 3·2 me::ali-nes per pole and mm at 1,000 r.p.sn: There are
altogethe;r406 armature conductors. Calculate the total generated E .M, F. if the armature is (a) lap wound,
aud (b) wave uownd;
E.M.F. GENERATED BY A DYNAMO.
·¢ZN 3. 2 x 10 ° x 406 x 1,000
(a) Lap-wound. E.M.F. = = 216·5 volts.
. 60x108 60x 108

(b) Wave-wound. -E.M.F. = 216 · 5 x No. oi pairs of poles = 216 · 5 x 3 = 650 volts.

8. Give a genera; description of the construcuon of a small 4-pole, 500 volt, D.C. generator of, say, 40 KW
011#14', rmming at 650 r.p.sn, How may such a generator be driee« ?
DIRECT CURRENT DYNAMO.
A ~pole D.C. dynamo consists of three essential parts, namely (a) fieid magnets, (2) armature,
and (3) commutator and brush gear .
.Field magnet system. (Stationary).
This consists of a cast steel frame or yoke having 4 poles mounted on its inner periphery to carry the
self-excited field windings. The latter may be in parallel with the armature windings (so forming a
.shunt wound generator), or, in addition, a number of series turns may be added (so forming a compound
wound machine). The windings are so arranged as to form alternate North and South poles around the
yoke. Sometimes, smaller poles, termed interpoles arc provided between the main poles in order to
LR/5
A4
M agnetism. and Flux

overcome the effects of armature reaction and ensure sparkless commutation at all loads and with a.
fixed position of the brushes. In a generator, the interpoles arc so wound that they have the same
polarity as the next main pole ahead in the direction of rotation.

The frame is built in halves, split horizontally, so that the top half°can be detached when necessary
to inspect or repair the armature, and it is provided with end brackets to support the bearings for the
armature shaft.
The armature. (Revolving).
This consists of thin plates or discs (stampings or laminations) of soft iron or steel, insulated from
one another with paper or varnish to avoid eddy currents, and pierced by air ducts or ventilating
tunnels to prevent undue rise of temperature. The laminations are clamped in position on the shaft,
or are made in segments and secured to a small spider. A large number of turns of insulated copper
wire are wound around the armature in an axial direction, in slots upon its periphery, and the ends of
the coils are then secured, in proper sequence, to the corresponding segments of the commutator.
Revolution of the armature within the magnetic field causes the conductors to cut across the
magnetic lines of force and an alternating voltage is thereby generated in the armature conductors.
Commutator and brush gear.
The commutator consists of a. number of strips or segments of hand drawn copper, arranged in the
form of a drum or cylinder, the segments being insulated with mica from each other and from the shaft
on which they are fixed. The purpose of the commutator is to change the alternating voltage induced
in the armature conductors so as to deliver a rectified direct or continuous current to the external
circuit.

The brush gear consists of blocks of hard graphitic carbon mounted in suitable brush holders which
are attached to brush rockers fitted to a cast iron ring mounted concentrically with the commutator.
The brushes press upon the commutator segments and make successive connection ....vith t'1e armature
conductors so as to short circuit each coil at the instant when the voltage induced in it reverses. The
correct position for the brushes is such that they are connected to conductors lying in the neutral zolie
between the poles.
Method of drive.
A dynamo of this size and speed may be direct-driven by a high-speed vertical steam or gas engine.
totally enclosed and automatically lubricated, and mounted on the same bed-plate.
Alternatively, it may be driven by a low-speed horizontal steam engine through the medium of a
belt or vee-rope drive which increases the speed from, say, 120 r.p.m, to 650 r.p.m.
A further possibility is that it may be driven by a small steam turbine running at, say, 3,000 r.p.rn.,
through the medium of double-helical reduction gearing.

9. (a) What is the overall efficiency of a po;;;er station, wliich requires 2-lbs. of coal, of a calorific value of
12,000 B. Th. U. per lb., to generate 1 Board of Trade [!nit ?

{b) The station has an average loud of 2,000 kiknaaus. If the coal conmmptio11, be improved to
I ·5-lbs. of coal per kilowatt-hour, Iunu mmiy tons of coal will be saved per year ?

POWER STATION EFFICIENCY.

(a) The overall efficiency of a power station is the ratio of power output of the station in an
electrical form, to the power input to the power station in the form of fuel. To give this ratio a
real meaning, it is necessary to convert the fuel and electricity to some common basis and, for conven-
ience, both the fuel and electricity are expressed in terms of their heat value. One unit of electricity
corresponds to a certain amount of work, and this work is equivalent to a certain quantity of heat.
Actually, l Board of Trade Unit is equivalent to about 3,410 B.Th.U. of heat. The calorific value of the
coal is given as 12,000 B.Th.U's per lb. and, as 2-lbs. of coal are required per unit, 2x12,000 = 24,000
heat units are required to produce l electrical unit, i,e., 3_,4,10 heat units.

3,410
The efficiency oI the station. therefore,= -- x 100% = 14·2%-
. M~OO
{b) The station has an average load of 2,000 kilowatts and, as 1 kilowatt maintained for 1 hour is
equivalent to l Board of Trade Unit, an average of 2,000 units of electricity are produced per hour.
One year contains 8,7GO hours and thus
Units produced per year = 2,000 X 8,760. Saving of coal per Unit = !-lb.
8,760 x 2,000
Saving per year = tons = 3,911 tons.
2x2,240
 LR/6
I

FOUNOEO
'THE tJ.M.S.
1883.
"r. A. SOUTHERN LTD ... COPYRIGHT

£Jwot,
THl6 PAi;'ER
WAS THE FIRST

UZlu.,IVUat ~
rs SUPPLIEC ON
CORflE5PONOENCE
CONDITION 'TH1''T
MININO SCHOOL ~~I? IT 1$ "RESERVED
IN THE WOflLO.
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
INCICIJIPO .. ATC.0 193•. CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). YOUR OWN · USE

------~------------··-----·--· ·~- . --- ~ . ·- - --

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Lesson LR/6
ALTERNATING CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS.
\Ve have seen how a rhythmic rise and fall and reversal of electro-motive force is created in a
conductor rotating in a uniform magnetic field, and we have found that this variation (in the ideal
case} followsa simple law which may be expressed thus:-
E1 = E sin d : (1)
Where E1 = the instantaneous value of the voltage wave at d" from its position of z:ro voltage,
. E = the maximum voltage of the wave [i.e. its crest or peak value).
" E " is sometimes called the amplitude of the voltage wave and is the degree to which "the voltage
rises above, Qr falls below, zero. One complete wave is generated when the conductor has rotated
through a complete"turn and such a wave, when plotted to scale, is known as a sine wave. Suppose
that the conductor rotates at a speed of "f •• complete turns per second, when the voltage wave will
complete " r " cycles in a second, and "' f •• is therefore called the frequency (or periodicity) of the
E.M.F. and is denoted by the sign " r-' ". Thus 50 r-' indicates that the voltage of a system is completing
50 cycles in every second. This would correspond to the voltage generated in a pair of conductors
(i.c. one coil) rotating at 50 r.p.s. (revolutions per second) in a magnetic field of uniform intensity.

CIRCUIT HAVING RESISTANCE ONLY.

Let us now consider what happens
when an alternating voltage overcomes
resistance in a circuit which is com-
plete. When the E.M.F. is zero, cor- c .. currer«,
-responding to 0", as in fig. 1, no current

,
will be flowing through the circuit.
"When the E.M.F. is at its maximum,
a current will fl.owwhich, according to
Ohm's Law, will have a value equal to
the maximum E.M.F. divided by the
resistance of the circuit, and the
direction of this current will depend
upon the direction of the maximum
E.M.F.
The curve marked C* illustrates
diagrammatically the fluctuations of the
current produced when the alternating
voltage marked E is applied to the Fig. 1.
terminals of a resistance R. Every Single Phase A.C. Voltage a.nd Current Curves.
instantaneous value of E produces a
corresponding instantaneous value of C, and thus the current curve is exactly similar in shape to the
voltage curve and is also in phase with it. The current curve is a sine wave having a maximum value of
E maximum
·--- and a frequency the same as E. because one complete voltage cycle produces one
R .
complete current cycle. For example, if an alternating voltage having a frequency of 20 and a
maximum value of 1,000 volts is applied to a resistance of 50 ohms, a current is produced having a
frequency of 20 cycles per second and its maximum value = 1000 + 50 = 20 amps.

R.M.S. VALUES.
The student will wonder how heating and power effects can be determined with a voltage and
current varying in this manner. We have seen that the heating effect of a continuous current is equal
to C2R, (Le. the heating effect is proportional to the square of the current) and an alternating current
may therefore be compared wUh Its equivalent eontinuous current, namely one which produces an
equivalent heating effect. Such a current is equal to the square root of the mean or average value

(Note.-•In this Lesson the symbol C is used for current instead of the symbol I.)
(4710)
 LR/6
A lternating current and its effects.
2

of the squares of the Instantaneous values· of the alternating current taken "over one complete cvcle.
This is denoted for convenience as the R.M.S. (root of the mean of the squares) value. All a.c. voftage
and current values are always expressed in this way-s-i.e. all figures denote the R.M.S. values, unless.
definitely stated otherwise. The terrr-s " virtual " value and "effective " value are also sometimes
used. their meaning being the same as the R.?l'f.S. value.
Let us consider what is the R.M.S. value of an alternating current whose maximum value is 100
amps. This can be determined graphically in the manner shown bv fig. 2. The lower curve
C is drawn to scale, having a ·
maximum value of 100 amps.
C2(m<TX.)
The upper curve C2 is obtained ....C-,.2(max.)
I+\
.;
I \
bv squaring the instantaneous + \
v:llues of the current. but is 7. soo / Valu~\ IIVO/U~ \

''
'i
plotted to a smaller scale to
'
I \
\
avoid an unduly large drawing. / \
\ \\
This curve remains on the upper \ s.ooo.
{positive) side of the zero line
because, although the first half ~ 100

of the cycle is considered posi- ~ 2500.

tive and the second half nega- . I
·'-'
$1

tive, a negative value squared 'a'

gives a positive result. The 90•
straight line marked c~ (aver-
age) is the mean height of the
curve marked c2, and is
obtained by measuring the area .
under the curve c: and dividing Fig. 2. Diagram showing R.l'tl.S. Value of Current.
this area by the length of the base. The line marked C (r.m.s.) is the square root of the line marked
C:! (average) and gives the value of a continuous current which will produce the same heating effect,
or power effect, as the alternating current C. Moreover, a sine wave follows a certain definite law
and is always similar in shape, so that its R.M.S. value will always bear the same relation to sits
maximum value. It will be sufficient for the student to know that the l(.M.S. value of an alternating
current, voltage, flux, or in fact, of any alternating phenomena following the· sine law is given by
the formula.
B.M.S. value = maximum value + -,/ 2 = maximum value x '0·707 (2).
If we measure the height of the line marked "C (r.m.s.] " in fig. 2, we find that it is equal to
100
= 70 ·7 amps. In electrical engineering, this alternating current would be spoken of as " a
y'2
current of 70 ·7 amps." and, unless it is otherwise specially stated; a. given value always refers to the
R.M.S. value. If we wish to find the maximum value WC must multiply-e.g. 70·7 x v2 = 100 amps.
The ratio of the maximum value to the R.M.S. value is called the peak factor or crest factor and.
in the case of a sine wave. it is, equal to v2 or 1 ·414. The R.M.S. value must be carefully distin-
guished from the " average:" value, i.e. the average of the instantaneous values. The average value
only refers to one half of the cycle, for the average of the whole cycle is zero. The average value for
each half-cycle is 0 ·636 X max. value. The ratio of the R.M.S. value to the average value is called
the term factor, and (for a sine wave) is 0 ·707 7 0 ·636 = 1·11.
INDUCTANCE.
We nave seen that an E.M.F. may be dynamically induced in a coil by moving it across the lines
<. f force in a magnetic field (or by moving the magnetic sytsem itself past a stationary coil} and that
the value of the E.M.F. induced depends on the rate at which the lines of force are cut.
An E.M,F. may also be induced in a coil by static methods, a change in the flux (and consequent
cutting of lines of force by the coil) being produced by a change in the current to which the flux is
due. In such a case, it is the rate or change of the current and of the resulting flux thatdetermines
the E.M.F. induced in a given coil.
If the changing current is flowing in a neighbouring coil. the· E.M.F. is said to be mutually induced,
and if it is flowing in the coil itself, the E.M.F. is said to be self-induced. In either case, according
to the law of Lenz, the induced E.M.F. always acts so as to oppose any change in tl\e value or the current
and flux. ·
]t is evident that statically induced E.M.F's are more likely to be associated with alternating
currents than with direct currents, but they assume considerable importance in certain d.c. circuits
(e.g. the shunt field winding 0£ a d.c. dynamo or motor) when the circuit is broken. In such a case,
whilst the current is falling to zero, a very high induced voltage may be set up and may puncture the
insulation or give rise to a dangerous arc.
The property of a circuit or coil by virtue of which self-induction occurs is called self-inductance
or sometimes the coe!!icient of self-induction, and is symbolised by L. The value of L is expressed
in units called henries and depends on the number of turns in the coil and on the flux produced in the
coil when a steady current of 1 amp. is flowing. It is constant for a given coil unless iron is present.
The presence of iron increases the self-inductance which then also varies with the permeability. of .the
iron. A circuit is said to have a self-inductance o! 1 henry when a current in it changing at the rate
of 1ampere per second induces an E.M.F. or 1 volt. The magnitude of self-inductance rarely exceeds
one henry and is usually very much less, being then measured in millihenries = one-thousandth of a
henry.
 LR/6
The Universal Mining School. Cardiff
3

The inductance 'of a coil may be calculated from the formula :-

F x T
Inductance of a coll = L = henrles (3a).
108
Where F = flux produced by I amp. current; T = number of turns in the coil.

Circuit havlng Inductance only.

A solenoid coil having a large number of turns of wire whose resistance is negligible may be
regarded as being purely inductive; and, if an alternating voltage be applied to it, an opposing E.~1.F.
will be induced. The value er the self-Induced E.M.F. depends on the self-inductance of the coil and
on the rate at which the current is changing, and it can be shown that
Induced E.M.F. =-~ L x rate of change of current in amps. per second (3b)
Also, Induced E.M.F. = E = 2?TfLC volts (3c}.
where r = frequency; L = inductance in henries : C = current in amperes.
E
Conversely, current = C = - - amps (4}.
211fL
E
This last expression is similar to C = -- for circuits having resistance only. and may be described
. R
as Ohm's law for a circuit having inductance only, the resistance being negligible. The term 2-dL
is called the-reactanee of the circuit, and obviously varies with the inductance and the frequency.
Reaetance .is always stated In ohms and is symbolised by X or by Lw (where w = 2d).
If f = 0 (as in direct currents}, 2r.fL is zero and the current flowing in a circuit of negligible resist-
ance would be infinitely large ; but if f has a finite value (as in alternating currents] then the term 2-;rfL
also has a definite value and the current is Hmited by reaetance, even in a coil of negligible resistance,
and even if full voltage be applied to the coil. Such a coil is often called a choking coil, because it has
the effect of choking back the current.
Note that a coil may exhibit little or no reactance for currents of low frequency, whereas the same
circuit may have high reactance for currents of high frequency. Choking coils may therefore be used in
power lines to prevent surges of high frequency current clue to atmosphericdischarges. The coil may be
designed to have little or no reactance for currents of normal frequency but to " choke·· a current
of abnormally high frequency. ·
The difference between inductance and reactance should now be clear. Inductance is constant
{unless iron be present) ; reactance results from inductance and varies greatly with the Irequcncy,
Let us now consider the relationship between the current, flux, and resulting induced E .. M.F.
produced when an alternating E.M.F. is applied to a solenoid of high inductance and negligible
resistance.
The curve C in fig. 3 illustrates the current, and the corresponding curve F marks the resulting
flux. The flux is in phase with the current and is first built up to its maximum value ; it then collapses
and is built up in the oppo-

/l
site direction, finally collaps-
ing again, this being one E.
complete cycle of flux.
The E.M.F, induced in the
coil depends on the rate of
cutting of the conductors by
the flux. An examination of "...
the flux curve F shows that so" \
when the flux is at a maxi- 90• c.
tmum, its rate of change is
ata minimum, i.e, the flux is ,
maintained at a relatively I
I
constant figure during a re- I
I

lativclv Jong period. but I

I

when the flux is at a mini- E. _,. I

mum (i.e. crossing the zero I..
£,..
line) the rate of change is
l· greatest. Tangents drawn to
the flux curve indicate the ng. S. EfCecls et Self-Inductance.
therate of change of flux at uny instant. At A,D, and H, the flux is changing at its maximum rate.
At B and G, the instantaneous value of the flux is not changing.
The dotted curve EL conforms in shape to the rate of chaug« of curve F at any point, and, drawn
to a· suitable scale. this curve EL represents the induced voltage at the ends of the solenoid. This
induced voltage opposes the applied voltage (by Lens's law), and, to overcome it, a line voltage must
be applied, equal and opposite to it, and this is indicated by the curve E.
L~/6
Alternating Current and its effects,
4

It will be seen that the current curve C and the Une voltage curve E are similar in shape, both
being sine waves. but they are ~ot rising and faJling toget~er; they arc .. out of step ·· o: " out. or
phase" by one quarter of a period {=90°). As E reaches its maximum value before C, time _ben~g
measured from left to right, the applied voltage is said to lead the current by 90°, and the current is said
to lag 90° behind the applied voltage,
The vector diagram at the left of fig. 3 shows the relative phases of E, C, and EL. All three vectors
are assumed to be rotating at the same speed in a counter-clockwise direction. It will be seen t~at
the current vector C is 90° behind the applied voltage vector E. This 90° lag of the current behmd
the applied voltage always occurs when an alternating E.:M.F. is applied to a circuit having inductance
only. the resistance being negligible. The voltage and current arc said to have _a phase dl~ference
or 90°.

Resistance and Inductance In Serles.

Fig. 4 (a) shows in diagram an alternating voltage "E " at a frequency of " I." applied to .a circuit
having a resistance " R" and an i!lductance "L ." in series.. A _c~1rrer:it flows th:ou~h R 1~ phase
with the applied E.M.F., and a portion of the applied E.M.F. rs utilised m overcoming the resistance.
In other words, there is a voltage drop, ER across the resistance· R, the magnitude of this voltage
being ER = CR, according ·
to Ohm's Law. R

=
The same current also
flows through L and induces
in L a voltage EL. which
must be neutralised by an
.
I

r
I
I

equal and opposite applied ~......_~~~C:.-.~~~•'Eft

E.M.F. The magnitude of
EL is given by the expression (a.) (b)
EL = C x 2~rL {from Fig. 4. Voltage Drop when Resistance and Reactance are In Seriu.
formula 3c).
The total applied voltage required, however, is not ER + EL because the voltage to overcome
EL must be 90° in advance of the current, whereas ER is in phase with the current. The required
line E.M.F. may be determined, when the values of ER and EL are known, iu the manner shown by
means of the vector diagram, fig. 4 {b).
Let the vector ·c represent (to scale) the current flowing in the whclecircuit : let the voltage drop
across the resistance (i.e. the voltage·that must be applied to
overcome the resistance) be represented
(to another scale) by the vector ER which will be in phase with C and is therefore shown in line with
it. The inductive voltage drop (i.c. the voltage which must be applied to overcome the reactance of
the circuit) is represented by the vector EL and this leads the current C by 90°, as already explained.
Then the total voltage drop (i.e. the voltage necessary to overcome the Impedance, which is the combined
effect of resistance and reactance), wHl be the vector sum of E~ + E8 combined at light angles.
Now it is clear from the diagram that ~ = ER!! + EL!! = (CR)!! + (27ttLC)2 •........... (S} .
. ·. E = y' · t:Bi-+ EL!! = C y' (R)2 + (2:ttl.)2 = · impedanee voltage drop {6}.
The vector E leads the current by something less than 90°, and if the angle be denoted by .p, it will
be seen from the vector diagram that the value oft/>depends upon the relative proportions of EL and E8.
The greater the reactance in proportion to.resistance, the greater will be ef>, the angle of curr~nt lag.
When we have a circuit containing resistance and inductance in series, therefore, we see that
the current flowing from the source of supply is out of phase with the applied E.M.F., lagging by an
angle tfo
ER resistance voltage drop
and· cos </> - - the POWER FACTOR of the circuit .... (7).
E impedance voltage drop
resistance
----- when the resistance and .reactance are in series.
impedance
The impedance in an a.c. circuit (as already mentioned} is the combined effect of resistance and.
reactanee (not the arithmetical sum of the two) and is measured in ohms. Referring to fig. 5.
Impedance - "\(Resistance-2 + Reaetances

- y'R:! + x2 ohms, . . . . . . . . . . (8).

Impedance is symbolised by Z. and thus
Ohm's law for a,e, circuits may be stated as
Voltage E
Current -= ------ = - (9). RESISTANCE ;,. R
Impedance Z FJg. 5. Impedance Trlaugle. ·
 LR/S
The Universal lvlining School, Cardiff.
5

CAPACITANCE or CAPACITY.
If two metal plates, initially at the same potential, be separated by an insulating material or
dielectric, and iI one plate be connected to the positive terminal of a voltaic cell and the; other to the
negative terminal, a quantity of electricity will flow momentarily or be displaced until theip.d. between
the plates is equal and opposite to the p.d. of the cell, and energy will be stored in the electrostatic
field thereby established in the dielectric: Such an arrangement is called a condenser: or capacitor
and the capacity or capacltance of the condenser is the property by virtue of which a p.d. is set up.

Capacitance is measured by the quantity of electricity required to charge the condenser to one
unit of potential and may be symbolised by K. The unit of capacitance is called the (arad (or the
• microfarad = one-millionth of a farad, for small units). The capacitance of a condenser varies directly
as the area of the plates and inversely as the distance between them (i.e. asthe thickness of the dielectric}.
It also varies directly as· the specific inductive capacity or dleleetrle constant or permittivity (as it is
variously called) of the insulating material, this being taken as unity for air and from S ~o 7 for mica.

A condenser is said to have a capacitance of one faradwhen a charge of one coulomb (=one
ampere-second) on one side developes a p.d. of one volt between the terminals, both sides being pre-
viously at zero potential.

The capacitance of a condenser may be expressed by the formula :-

Charge in coulombs amperes x · seconds
Capacitance (lOa).
) (in farads) p.d. due· to charge volts.

All electric circuits and apparatus possess capacitance to some extent, and especially a long multi-
core cable working at high voltage. Such a cable, if an alternating E.M.F. is applied to it, may carry
a considerable capacitance current or so-called charging current. even if the cable is open-circuited
at ..the load end. (See Formula IOb.)

Circuit having capacitance only,

A condenser or capacitor as used in practice often
takes the form illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 6 (a).
·I
I CAA4CrTDR.

It consists of a large number of closely .interleaved (a}

plates or sheets of tinfoil insulated from one another .__ e "'"'11 __,
by sheets of paraffin-impregnated paper : one half of /-
the plates are connected together to one terminal, and
the other half to another terminal. Fig. 6a Condenser.

If the terminals be connected to a. d.e, supply at E volts, a momentary current will flow into the
condenser until the p.d. between the plates is also equal to E volts. When this has occurred, the
current will cease, because the condenser's E.M.F. is then equal and opposite to the applied E.M.F;
Thus, when the condenser voltage is zero, the current flowing into it Is a maximum ; a.nd when the
voltage is a maxJmum, the current is zero. If. now, the charged condenser is disconnected from the
supply; and the two terminals are short-circuited by a wire, a current will flow momentarily in the
opposite direction until all the plates are again at the same potential. The condenser is then said
to be discharged.

· If the terminals be connected to an a,c, supply, the condenser is alternately charged and discharged
owing to the periodic reversals of the current, and an alternating current " flows " through the con-
denser. Actually, current cannot flow in the ordinary sense because there is no closed circuit, but,
as far as the external circuit is concerned, the effect is exactly the same as if a current were flowing
actually through the condenser. It is legitimate therefore to call it the condenser current.

The value of the current flowing into a condenser In an a.e, circuit depends on the capacitance
and on the rate at which the applied voltage is changing, and it may be shown to be

I
Current ==; C = 2:-:fKE = E + --- amps (lOb).
2mK

where f = frequency ; K = capacitance in farads ; E = applied voltage,

This expression may be described as Ohm's law for a circuit having capacitance only. and the
1
term -- is called the reactancc of the condenser. The combined effect of resistance and (capacity)
2~fK .

reactance in an a.c. circuit is still called impedance. and may be evaluated in the same way as in the
case of an inductance (see formula 8).
LE./6
Alternating Current and its effects.
6

~ ~t ' • • • ·~ :.·

,, ~~
,
,,
/

I
f

I '
{ go•
c. f

90•

e:
(&) (C)
Fig. 6 (b) and (c). Effects et Capacitance.

Fig. 6 (c) shows the relationship between the applied voltage. the current and the condenser
voltage. At o• the applied voltage E is beginning to rise, the condenser voltage E1-: is rising also in
the opposite direction, and a maximum current is flowing into the condenser. At so-, the condenser
is fully charged and no current flows. As the applied voltage E falls from so• to 180° the current
flows out of the condenser, tending to charge up the supply, and thus the current curve C is out of phase
with the applied voltage E, leading it by 90°, i.e. by one quarter of a period. This is shown by the
vector diagram, fig. 6 (b) in which the three vectors are assumed to be rotating y:i an anti-clockwise
direction. This 90° lead of the current in front of the applied voltage always occurs when an alternating
E.M.F. is applied to a circuit having capacitance only, the resistance being negligible. ·

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in Series.

Fig. 7 shows a resistance " R," an inductance " L," and a capacitor "K" connected in series
across an alternating voltage whose value is " E " at a frequency " f." · Let " C " be the value of the
resultant current fl.owingin the circuit. Then, referring to the vector diagram, the voltage drop in
each case will be as follows : ·
voltage drop in R El{ in phase with the current.
voltage drop in L EL leading the current by 90°.
voltage drop in K EK lagging 90° behind the current.
c
The magnitude of E1' is given by the expression Ex = --- (from formula tob).
2dK

R
EL-EK E
1
E.volts ''

(
K
f,..,.,

•
i
oaoooo
L T c
''
'ER
I

EK
Fig. 7. Voltage Drop when Resistance, Reactance and Capacltnnce are Jn Serles.

It will be seen that the reactance resulting from capacitance and that resulting from inductance
tend to neutralise each other and, as the inductance effect is the greater in this case, their combined
effect is Ei. - EK leading the current by 90°. When this effect is combined at right- angles with the
resistance effect, the total (impedance) voltage drop is represented by the vector E and,
E2 = ER2 + (Ei. - EK)2 : . E = .YER: + (EL - EK)~ = impedance voltage drop, and
this is of course equal to the applied voltage.

V-.'e see then that the impedance of a circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance
in series, is composed of two effects at right-angles, one being resistance and the other the net reactance
effect (i.e. that of inductance modified by capacitance). If the capacitance effect is greater than the
inductance effect the current will lead the voltage, but if inductance has the greater effect the current
will lag behind the voltage. And if rp be the angle of lag or lead,
E1t resistance drop
cos</>= - =-------(as in formula 7) (U}.
E impedance drop
 L~/6
The Utnversai Jvli1iing School, Cardiff.
7

POWER ~N SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS.

In a d.c. circuit, the power expended is always equal to the product of voltage drop and current
(Watts = Volts X Amps). and it is also equal to c:~R. this being a heating effect. Let us consider
how power is expended when a single-phase alternating current encounters resistance, inductance. and
capacitance respectively, ·
In the resistance, the current is in phase with the applied voltage (exactly as in a d.c. 'circuit) and
the power expended =watts = volts x amps= E x C = C2R.
In the Inductance, the current lags 90e behind the applied voltage, and no power whatever is
expended, for. although power is first expended in producing a flux, this flux is an alternating one,
and exactly the same power is given back to the supply when the flux collapses.
In the capacitor the current leads the applied voltage by 90°, and the net power expended is again
nil, for the capacitor is first charged with current at a certain voltage and is then discharged at the
same voltage. If a \Vattmeter be connected in circuit with either the inductance or the capacitor
(assuming them to have negligible resistance), the meter would read zero power, even though the
voltage and current have finite values. ·
In practice, of course, resistance, inductance, and capacitance exist simultaneously in a.c. circuits
and the current is usually neither in phase with the voltage, nor out of phase by 90°, but lags or leads
by some angle 4' which lies between the two extremes. The total current, however, may be split
up theoretically into two components, one being termed the useful or power or active component,
which is in phase with the voltage,, and the other being termed the idle or wattless or reactive
component, which is out of phase by 90°.
·The 'actlve current available for doing work is C cos .p, and ;:::'9-
the reactive current not so available is C sin </>, as indicated ~~
in .fig. 8. The reactive current may be regarded as so much -c ~ c, ~~
idle or useless current alternating in the system, serving no
ss
(...o.J~'l--~~ ..,._
useful purpose, but.loading up the conductors and rendering ~~"
necessary the use of larger apparatus than would otherwise -<;O ~~
be required. ~~
.. TI1cpower in watts delivered by the circuit is represented
bv the product of the applied voltage, E, and the active ~<:.TIVE OR PowER GOMPOHCrtT- Cc.osj6
~s
current, C COS ,P,' i.e. in a single-phase a.c. circuit. . Fig. 8. Current Components.
Power = Watts = W = E x C cos .p (12).
W Watts Kilowatts kW
also cos r$ = ---- = = = -- = power factor .... (13).
E x C Volt-amperes Kilovolt-amperes kVA
The term- kV/ is often called the useful power, and kVA the apparent power, and so
Useful power
Power Factor = --------- .................................... (14).
Appnrent power
Students often get the impression that, with a low power factor, only a portion of the "power"
put into a system, corresponding to the value of cos rp, is available for doing work. This idea is
erroneous. The reactive or wattless current does not represent any power (or very little) expended
by the generator or the prime mover. No extra coal (or very little extra) is burnt under the boilers
because of it and, as no power is put into a system in respect of it, naturally no power is available
from it. The term "apparent power" merely implies that, according to the product E x C, there
would appear (from the voltmeter and ammeter) to be a certain number of watts available for doing
work. Actually the useful watts in the system (as shown by a wattmeter) are something less than
this; depending on the 'value of cos .p.
The main disadvantage of a low power factor is that all conductors of generators, motors. trans-
formers, cables, transmission lines, and other current-carrying apparatus have to be made large
enough to carry the total current (both active and reactive) without over-heating, and such apparatus
must therefore be more costly than would otherwise be necessary for a given power-output, a given
temperature-rise, and a given C2R loss. Larger apparatus means higher capital cost. higher interest
charges and higher depreciation charges. The cost per unit of electricity generated, or transmitted,
or utilised is thus increased. If apparatus be designed for a certain power-output (and current) at a
given power factor, and if the actual P.F. is less than this, then the permissible power-output is
correspondingly reduced, because the maximum permissible current remains the same, but the active
component of this current is less under the lower P.F. It will be evident that a high power factor
is most desirable.
It should also be clearly understood that a low leading P.F. is just as bad as a low lagging P.F.
Some students erroneously imagine that a leading P.F. is an advantage. The ideal to aim at is a P.F.
or unity or thereabouts, and the only reason for introducing· apparatus having a leading P.F. is to
counteract the effect of a lagging P.F.
Other students confuse potoer.factor and efficiency, whereas the two are quite distinct. Efficiency
is a ratio of (useful) watts output to (useful} watts input. The difference between output and input
represents an actual loss of power (due to resistance, friction, etc.) which is dissipated (usually) as
heat. This loss is slightly greater with a low P.F., but the reduction in efficiency is by no means
proportional to the reduction in P.F. Moreover, it is quite possible for a system to have a power factor
of unity but a very low efficiency, at one and the same time.
LR/6
Alternating Current and its effects.
8

POLYPBASE ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

The alternating currents and voltages which we have so far considered are called single-phase,
and represent the effects produced by a single coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field. In electric
power work, however, alternating currents are mostly used in a manner called polyphase (meaning
multi-phase). The number of phases may be two, three, six, or twelve, or even more in special cases,
but three phases are the most common.

A 3-phase arrangement is shown diagrammatically in fig. 9 where the three coils A, B, and C
each make an angle with the adjacent coil of} of a revolution {= 120°). In the position shown, A is
generating no voltage because it is cutting no lines of force, but it is about to
generate a positive voltage. B has just passed its position of maximum positive
voltage and is generating a falling positive voltage corresponding to the sine of N
the angle through which it has passed from its zero position (i.c. 120°). The
voltage in C is opposite to that in B and is approaching its maximum negative
value corresponding, like that in B, to the sine of the angle through which Chas
passed .from its zero position (i.e. 60°).
A
The Instantaneous voltage in each of the coils can be represented, as in.the
case of the single-phase voltage, by a vector, and in ftg, 10 the vectors Ea.: Eb :
Ee (spaced at 120Q) represent the several voltages when the coils are in the 51
position shown in fig. 9. Suppose that the vectors are rotating in an anti- .----------
clockwise direction at the same speed as the coils; then, plotting the projections
· of the three vectors, we obtain three sine wave curves corresponding to the rise s
and fall and reversal of the voltage at the ends of each of the three coils. The
shape of the wave is the same for each coil but there is this important fig. 9.
-diffcrence,namely. they do not rise and fall together but follow after one another. 'Prtnclple of ~phase
separated by an interval of time equal to the time taken for the coil to rotate A.C. Generator.

ElJ.
~
~

~- EA, ~
1-.J

Fig. 10. 3-Phnse A.C. Voltage and Current Curves.

' flow
through I20Q.If three separate circuits are connected to the ends of the three coifs, current will
in these circuits corresponding to the voltage, and if the circuits contain resistance only, the dotted
wave curves Ca, Cb, and Cc, represent these currents.

The student should try to visualise the currents and think of them pulsating forward and back-
ward, the pulsations in the three circuits following after one another. A single-phase alternating
currcct may be compared to the motion of the cross-head.of a steam engine which affords an example
of simple harmonic or rhythmic motion as it moves to and fro, accelerating, decelerating and reversing
evenly according to a regular cycle. Similarly, three-phase currents may be likened to the three
motions of the three cross-heads of a triple cylinder engine or three-throw pump whose cranks are
spaced at 120Q.

THREE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS.

There are two ways in which a 3-phase machine may be connected to the line conductors, known
respectively as Star connection and Delta connection. It must be clearly understood that in both
cases alike the relative position of the coils or phases in a generator or motor remains the same {namely
spaced at 120°)and that it is only the manner in which the phases are connected to one another and
to the line conductors that decides whether the phases are in " star " or in " delta."

The most obvious way of arranging a 3-phasc circuit is to maintain three separate single-phase
circuits using six conductors, i.e. two conductors per phase. Such an arrangement is depicted dia-
 LR/6
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
9

grammatically in fig. 11, the arrows.showing the direction in which the voltages act in the three phases
at a given instant, the instantaneous voltages in phases Band C being, of course, regarded as negative
and that in A as positive. If now the beginnings of each phase winding
be. connected together and the inner conductors combined into a single
~- (fourth) conductor, the resultant current flowing in this fourth conductor
will clearly be the algebraic or vector sum of the currents previously flowing
in the three inner conductors. Now it will be seen from fig. 10 that the
algebraic sum of the three currents (and voltages) at any instant is zero.
Thus for example, at 0°, the current in phase A {fig. 10) is nil; that in
phase B has a positive value ; and that in phase Chas an equal and opposite
negative value. \Ve arrive therefore at the interesting conclusion that, in
a balanced three-phase system, the inner (fourth) conductor carries no Slx-wire, ~~~ha~!· Circuit.
current and may be dispensed· with altogether, power being transmitted
by means of the three outer wires only, and each conductor in tum acting as the return conductor
for the other two phases.
Star Connection.
The three-wire circuit described above is known as a star or "Y •• connected clreutt (sometimes
denoted by the sign " A "), and is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 12b. The beginning of each
of the three coils is connected to a common junction, 0, called the star point, or neutral point, and
the outer end of each of the three coils is connected to one· of three terminals, A, B, and C. The three
conductors of the line are connected separately to these three terminals. The question
then arises, what is the value ~------A.
of the current in each of the \ ··~ 1 <, ~~
three line conductors; also \ =!'~c-0 : "~,...,....., A.
what is the relationship of \ ··'{.. ,., .> ~~ "°
the voltage between e~ch pair \ 1 • • ,·~:..

of line conductors (i.e. the c,'-----~-g - 0 to~~ , c

line voltage) and that between · 1 _,..,-fi
the outer end of any one l't;, t-
phase and the neutral point : ,.....~ol
(i.e. the star or phase voltage}. /J <5''r
commonly called " voltage to ·
neutral," ca: (8:)
Ffg. 12. Star-connected 3-phase A.C. Circuit.
Now the values of the star or phase voltages generated in each coil (as in .fig. JO) may be
represented to scale by the three equal vectors, OA, OB and OC, spaced at 120° as in fig. 12 (a).
In order to ascertain the line voltage (or potential difference) between the line conductors connected
to the terminals of any two phases (say A and C), it is neecssary to find the vector difference between
the star voltage in OA and that in OC. This is done by reversing the vector OC (as shown by the dotted
line OC1) and adding it vectorially to OA. The resultant voltage is given by the vector OP, forming
the longer diagonal of the parallelogram OAPC1• This may be proved mathematically or by measure-
ment to be equal to v3 x OA or .y3 x star voltage. Similar arguments apply to the line voltage
existing between the terminals A and B, and that between B and C. The current in each of the three
line conductors is clearly that which will flow through any one of the three coils or phases. Thus,
to summarise, in star conneetlon, ·
Line voltage = phase voltage x v3 (15).
Line current = current in one phase (I 6).
Delta Connection.
Instead of connecting the beginning of one phase to the beginning of the next, and so on {as in
star connection), the beginning of one phase may be connected to the end of the next phase ; its
beginning to the end of the next, and so on, this method being known as mesh connection or, in the
case of a 3-phasc system, delta connection. Its development will be more clearly understood by
reference to fig. 13. The diagrammatic three-phase system
in that figure is again depicted as_ three separate single-
phase circuits using six conductors, the conventional
method being to show them in the form of a triangle to
simplify the end connections. The coils still retain the
same relative positions in the machine as in the case of
A'f ;;..--, _,,____
star connection and their voltages at the given instant still - . '
Fig. 13. Six-wire, s-phase Circuit.
act 'in the same original direction (as shown by the arrows).
If now, we combine· each pair of conductors at the three p
corners (fig. 13) into a single conductor, as in fig. 14, each
single conductor will carry the resultant of the current
previously carried by two conductors. At first sight it
would appear that a short circuit has now been formed by Q
the three coils, but as the algebraic sum of the three
voltages at any instant is always zero, no local currents
circulate around the closed circuit. In other words. the
vector sum of the voltages of any two phases is always equal R
and opposite to the voltage of the third. The voltage
between any two line conductors, (e.g. P. and R in .fig. 14) (b)
is clearly equal to the voltage generated by any one phase. FJg. 14-. Delta-connected 3-phase A.C. Circuit,
LR/6
Alternating Current and its effects.
10

It remains to determine the value of the current flowing in each line conductor. Reverting
to fig. 13, it will be seen from the direction of the arrows that· this current is equal to the vector
difference of the current flowing. in any two coils. The evaluation of the vector difference may be
performed in exactly the same way as when evaluating the line voltage in the case of star connection,
and fig. 12 (which shows the vectors in their correct relationship· 120° apart) may be utilised except
that those vectors, instead of representing the phase vouages, must now be regarded as representing
the phase currents. From arguments already explained, it will· now be clear that the line current in
delta connection is equal to v'S x phase current. ·
Thus to summarise, in delta. connection
Line Voltage = phase voltage {17).
Line Current = phase current x v'3 (18).
The two systems described above arc interchangeable, and it is possible to have a star-connected
generator and a delta-connected load, and vice versa.
POWER IN THREE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS.
Consider a 3-ph:ise circuit star connected and having a line voltage " E " and line current " C!' a
E
By formula (15), line voltage = E = v3 x phase voltage. : .. phase voltage =-
v3
By formula (16), line current = C = current in one phase, and therefore the power in each phase
E
= - x (? x cos q, (where cp is the angle between the phase voltage and current). The totalpower
v3 ·
in the three phases will be three times the power in one phase, and therefore
E .
Total power in 3-phases x c x cos"'
= 3 x v3 EC cos ef> watts (19a).
v'3
Now in the case of a delta connected circuit, •
c
By formula (18) current in one phase --, and phase voltage line voltage (= E).
v'3
c
Thus power. in each phase Ex x cos ,p
c
and Total power in 3 phases = 3 x E x x cos ,P = v'a· EC cos </> watts (I9b).
vi3
Vve see therefore that the total power (in watts) in a three-phase circuit is not affected by the
manner in which the phases are connected, whether in star or in delta. In both cases alike :-
Useful power in watts = v3EC cos 4> ••..••..•....•....••.•........ (19).
Apparent power in volt-amperes = v3 EC (20).
Where E =line voltage; and C = line current.
It should be remembered that the angle ¢in these formulae refers to the angle of phase-difference
between the phase voltage and current, and not to that between the line voltage and current. This
angle is dependent, as in a single-phase circuit, on the relative proportions of the resistance, inductance,
and capacitance in the circuit, and these determine t11c value of the power factor in any given case..
TEST PAPER, LR/6.
1. (a) What is meant by the R.M.S. value ol an
alternating current?
(b} What R.M.S. value of alternating current at
of a low power factor ? (c) What means can
be employed to keep the power factor as hii;h
as possible. r
110 volts, 50 cycles, stngle-phase. would be $. A 3·phase alternator has its stator windings
f!·
'
required to produce the same heating ef!ect as connected in delta and supplies current to a
a drrect current o{ 10 amps. at 250 volts ? load of 500 kW at a power factor of o·s. The
2. In connection with alternating currents, describe voltage developed in each phase windin~ of
concisely what is meant hr the terms (a).induc- the alternator is 1,000 volts. Determine
tnncc and (b) capacity. What, are the units (a} the current in each conductor of the dis-
for these t.wo properties ? tribution line : and (b) the current in each
.3. (a) A solenoid has 20Q turns and a. direct current phase winding of 'the alternator .
o( lamp. produces a flux o{ 10,000 lines. What 9. The following particulars appear on the name-
is the self-Inductance o{ the coil ? (b} If an plate of a 3-phaso: motor : Brake borsc-powcr
alwrnati.ug cur.ceut oI 20 amps. al a frequency 500 ; Voltage 3,000 : Power factor_ o-s. If
of 50 is to flow through the coil, what must be the efficiency· of the motor is 95% what
the applied E.M.F. ? Neglect the resistance current will be taken by the motor ? \Vhy
of the coil. are technical pnr+icutar s of this type embodied
4. (a) \Vbat is meant by charging current as applied on the name-plates of motors?
to a cable ? (b) Find the charging current in 10. The electrical plant at a colliery is using J ,000
an unloaded circuit of lO microfarads capacit- kW at 3,000 volts and 0·7 lagging powerfactor,
ance ii the applied alternating E.lll.F. is 3,000 the system being a-phnse , Wha.t is the total
volts and the frequency 50 cycles per second. current taken by tile colliery ?
5. A circuit has an induclancc of 0'02 henry and a (Second Cl:i.ss caodldales are no' requtred to
resistance of 40 ohms in series with t)I<) induct- answer the followlng two questlcns)
ance. \Vhai are (a) the rcactance and (b} tl1e 11. A synchronous motor ol 500 kV A. is to be
impedance, iI the frequency is 50 cycles per installed at the colliery referred to in the
second ? (c) What applied voltage would be previous question and it will run at O·S leading
required to maintaiu a current of 10 amps. ? power factor. \.\'hat effect will this have on
~. The phase voltage and current in the stator the power factor ot the colliery ? \Vhat will
windings of a 3-phase a lternaror arc respect· be the final power factor and th.e total-current
ive ly 3,SlO volts and 120 amps. What will be taken by the colliery ?
the line voltage and current when the windings 12. Enumerate the relative advantages and dis-
are connected (a) in star, and (b) in delta ? advantages of direct current and 3·phase
7. (a) Explain w'hat is meant by the term "power al eernat ing current for collieries.
factor." (b) -...Vhat arc the disadvantages
 LR/6
A/l
FOUNOED 1883.
THE U.M.S.
'1\ A. SOUTHERN LTD.11 COPYRIGHT
THIS PA~ER

fil'~¢ 'Um,,,..,af ~
WAS THE FIRST
IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONOENCE
MINING SCHOOi'..
IN THE WORLO.
~.Jwof, CONOITION
IT IS
THAT
RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (GT. BRIT AINL YOUR OWN USE

-----·----- ·--------- - ···-.

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Answers LR/6
ALTERNATING CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS.
l. (a) What is meant by the R.1vl.S. value of an alternating current?
(b) Wlla! R.Af.S. value of alternating current at 110 volts, 50 cycles, single-phase, uould be required
lo prod11ce the same heating effectas a direct current of 10 amps. at 250 volts ?

R.M.S. VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT.

{a) The R.i\I.S. value of an alternating current defines a current which has the same heating or power
effect as a continuous current of equivalent numerical value. It is also known as the effective or
virtual value. The R.M.S. value bears a fixed relationship to the crest or maximum value of an
alternating current , and, when the _alternating current wave 'follows a pure sine law, the maximum
value is y'2 times the RM.S. value.
The symbols " R.!\1.S." stand for " the root of the mean of the squares " of each instantaneous
vaiuc of an alternating current. Just as the heating effect of direct current varies as the square of
the current, so is the heating effect of an alternating current at any instant proportional to the square
a
of the value at that instant whilst the net heating effect over complete cycle, is proportional to the
mean of all the instantaneous heating effects, i.e, of the squares of all the instantaneous values of the
current cycle. These squares are positive for both positive and negative portions of the current
wave. By taking the square root of this mean, a value is obtained which is numerically equal to a
direct current producing the same heating and power effects, and this is the R.M.S. value. Alternating
electrical phenomena are always understood to be expressed in terms of their R.M.S. value, unless it is
expressly stated that a particular value is a peak or maximum value.
(b) Heating effect of direct current expressed in watts = volts x amps = 250 x 10 = 2,500 watts.
Heating effect of equivalent single-phase A.C. = R.M.S. volts x R.;\:LS.amps = 2,500 watts.
R.M.S. value of current =watts 7 volts= 2,500 + 110 = 22·7 amps.
[The maximum instantaneous voltage would be ..J'i. x 110 = 155·5 volts.
current .y2· x 22·7 = 32·1 amps.]
2. In connection with al~mati1i.g currents, aescribe concisely what is meant by the terms (a)
·i11d11ctm1ce and (b) capar.ity. What are the unitsfor these two propere£es? •

INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITY.

(a) Inductance.
The inductance of a circuit is that property whereby an E.M.F. is induced owing to a change of
magnetic flux which accompanies any variation in the current flowing in the same circuit (self induction)
or in another circuit {mutual induction). The E.M.F. so produced is known as an induced E.M.F.
and any current that may result therefrom is known as an induced current.
The unit of inductance Is the henry and a. circuit is said to have a self-inductance of one henry
when a current in it changing at the rate of one ampere per 'second induces an E.M.F. of one volt. ·
If a circuit be purely inductive (e.g. a solenoid coil of negligible resistance, termed a choking
coil) an induced E.M.F. will be set up when an alternating current flows in the coil and this E.:M.F.
will oppose the applied voltage. This will limit the current flowing and the current will lag behind the
applied voltage by 90°. Nopower in watts will be expended in the circuit and no heat will be produced
In .practice, of course, every circuit possessessome resistance and ;l certain heat loss inevitably occurs.

(b) Capacity.
The capacity of a condenser (which consists of two or more conducting plates separated by an
insulating material) is its ability to retain a charge of electricity at a given difference of potential, or it

(Note.-ln these answers, the symboJ C is used for current instead o( the symbol I.I
{4i JO)
LRf6
Alternating Current and its effects.
A/2

is that property whereby a difference of potential (p.d.) is set up when a quantity of electricity is imparted
to it. The capacity depends on the area of the plates, the distance between them, and the nature of
the insulating material.
The unit of capacity is the farad and a condenser is said to have a capacity of one farad when a
charge of one coulomb on one side develops a p.d. of one volt between the terminals. both sides being
previously al zero potcn tial.
The effect of capacity in a circuit rs to cause the current to lead the applied voltage by 90~. It
therefore tends to counteract the effect oi inductance and, if the inductance effect. is equal to the
capacity effect, the current will be in phase with the voltage and the power factor of the circuit will
be unity. Long multi-core cables possess considerable capacity, whilst condensers may be installed
in a circuit purely because of their capacity effect in order to improve the power factor.

3. (a) A solenoid has 200 f.11r11s and a direct current of l asn]». pmduces a flux of I0,000 line».
What is the self-inductance of flu coii ?
{b) If an alternating current of 20 amps at a [requeucy of 50 is lo flow ihrougl: the coil, tohat.
must be the applied E . .'rf.F.? Neglect the resistance of the coil.

INDUCTANCE.
FxT 10,000 x 200
(<t) Self-inductance of coil = L = --- · o ·02 henry.
(b) The applied E.M.F. must be equal and opposite to the induced E.1'\'LF.
Applied E.M.F. (by formula 3c) = 27tfLC = 2 X 3·14 x 50 x 0·02 x 20 = 125·6 vplts •
•
-------·-----
4. (a) What is meant by cllargi11g current as applied to a cable ? (b) Fi1l(f, the charging current
i1i an unloaded circttit. of lO microfarads capacitance if the applt"ed alternating E.M.F. is 3,000
volts mid the frequency 50 cycles per second.

CHARGING CURRENT AS APPLIED TO A CABLE.

(a) This term -refers to the alternating current that flows in a. long multi-core cable by virtue
of its capacitance even though the circuit be incomplete. The current is at a maximum when the
voltage is zero, and it gradually decreases as the voltage rises, being zero when the voltage is at
maximum. The current thus leads the voltage by 90° and is a wnttless current. No power is expended
in causing it to flow, neglecting the resistance of the circuit. .
2 X 3·14 x 50 x I 0 x 3000
(b) Charging current (by formula IOb) = C = 2-.. fKE = --------- = 9·42 amps.

5. A circuit has an i11d11cta11ce of 0 ·02 1;1:1try and a resistance of 40 ohms in series with tire
i11ducla11cc. W l1at. are (a) the reactancc aHd {b) the impedance, if the frequency is 50 cycles per
second? (c) What applt"ed voltage would be required. to 111ai11tai11 a current of IO amps ? ·

RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES.

(a) Reactance = X = 20tfL = 2 x 3·14 x 50 x 0·02 = 6·28 ohms.
(b) Impedance = Z = ,YRcsistance2 + Reactances = yR2 +xz = y402 + 6·282 = 40·5 ohms.
(c) Applied voltage = E = current x impedance = C x Z = 10 x 40 ·5 = 405 volts.

6. The phase voltage and current in tho stator wi11di1tgs of a 3-pliase alternator are respectivety
3,810 volts and 120 amps. What will be the line voltage· and cm-rent when tlu: windings are
connected (a) i11 star, mid (b) i1i delta?

STAR AND DELTA CONNECTION.

(n) Star Connection. Line voltage .y3- x phase voltage = l ·732 x 3810 6,600 volts.
Line current = phase current = 120 amps.
{b} Delta Connection. Line voltage phase voltage = 3,810 volts.
. Line current = v3 x phase current = 1 ·732 x 120 = 208 amps.
 LRl6
The Uniuersai Nlining School, Cardiff.
A/3

7. (n) Explai11 what is meant bv lite term "power factor." (b) What arc the disadvantages of a
low poum-Jactor? (c) W hat mean~ ca1~ be emplaycdlo l.•cep the power factor as high as possible?

PO\\'ER FACTOR.
{a) This term is applicable only to A.C. systems and may be defined by the ratio :-
Useful Power Watts kW
Power Factor = = -- =cos cf>.
Apparent Power Volt-amperes kVA
In an a.c, circuit, " useful " power (watts) ls only developed
by a current component that is in phase with the voltage. If
the circuit contains resistance only, the whole current is in
phase with the voltage and the power factor is unity.
If the circuit is inductive, however, (i.e., if it mainly con-
sists of induction motors, transformers, or other electro-
magnetic apparatus) the current Jags behind the voltage. by
some angle cp. The total currentmay then be resolved into two
components, namely, {i) the active or power component C Current Components.
cos .p which is in phase with the voltage, and (ii) the reactive
or wattless component C sin cp. which is out of phase by 90°. TI1e useful power in watts is given by the
expression E x C cos <fo, whilst the product E X C is termed the apparent power in volt-amperes.
The ratio of the two is cos cp . the power factor.
If the circuit possesses capacitance (as with long transmission cables or condensers) the current
.Ieads the voltage by some angle </> and may again be split up into active and reactive components.
The leading wattless current will then partly or wholly counteract the lagging wattless current due
to inductance and so raise 'the power factor nearer to unity.

Disadvantages of-a low power factor.

(1) Larger and costlier apparatus must be used for a given power-output, a given temperature-
fise, and a given heat-loss. Heat or copper losses (and temperalure rise) depend on the total current
carried, and generators, cables, switchgear, transformers, motors, etc. must therefore be designed
to carry the total current and not merely the active component thereof. The lower the P.F., the
greater is the current for a given effective power, and the larger therefore must be the apparatus to
keep heat-losses and temperature-rise within reasonable limits. .
(2) With a given size of apparatus, the maximum power-output is smaller, the lower the P-F.
Thus, if a generator be designed to give a maximum output of 500 KW. at 0·8 P.F. and the nature
of the load is such that the P.F. isreduced to 0·4, i.c. halved, then the maximum power-output of the
generator (for the same permissible temperature-rise) is also halved, i.e. reduced to 250 KW. Fuel
and steam consumption will also be approximately halved {for only half the power is to be developed)
but the current in the generator windings will remain the same and its size is determined by this. In
other words, the kVA output (=apparent power) remains the same, but the k\¥ output (=useful
power) is halved. If an output of 500 k\V is still desiredat a P.F. of 0·4, a larger alternator must
be installed. ·
(3) A low P.F. adversely affects the voltage regulation of generators and transformers under
varying loads, i.e. there is greater fluctuation of terminal voltage between full-load conditions and
no-load conditions, in order to keep the consumer's voltage constant. This is due to the heavier
current required for a given ~wer-output and to the consequent increased voltage. drop in the lines.
(4) The cost of electric energy purchased from the national grid is usually greater for a
low P.F. because the charges may be based, either wholly or in part, on the kVA-hour instead of
"the kW-hour .to cover the cost of the increased capital outlay, interest, and depreciation. ·

Methods of improving power taetor.

(1) Induction motors should be run at run load because they usually run at their highest P.F.
when giving the rated output for which they were designed. With careful management in this direction,
a P.F. of Q ·8 may be altained even without the introduction of special apparatus. (At collieries, where
there arc often a large number of lightly loaded induction motors, a P.F. of about 0·6 is quite common).
(2) Introduce apparatus having a leading P.F. so that the leading component of the current taken
by this apparatus may neutralise some, or all, of the lagging current of the system. Such apparatus
only improves the P.F. of that part of the system lying between it and the generator. It includes:-
{a) Synchronous motors (when over-excited), These motors, in their various forms, are applicable
only to drives where frequent starting and stopping arc not required, but they form an easy and
efficient means of improving the power factor. They are suitable for large machines (of at least 100
brake h.p.) which constantly run at full load, such as fans, motor-generator sets, air-compressors, and
sometimes turbine pumps. They arc not altogether desirable underground because of the exciter
which has a commutator.
{b) Static condensers. These are installed where the size of plant justifies the capital cost and they
have the advantage that they consume little energy, have no moving parts, and require no attention.
They arc connected in parallel with other apparatus, and, in a three-phase system, each unit comprises
LR/6
Alternating Current and its effects.
A/4

" Answer ?-continued."

three condensers, one in each phase, the three being mesh (delta) connected. They take a current
which leads the voltage by almost 90°. If they are placed at or near the in bye ends of the feeder-cgbles,
they will improve the P.F. of the whole system back to the power station. On the other hand, their
size varies inversely as the voltage and for this reason the situation often preferred is on the H.T.
side of a transformer supplying a district.

8. A 3-Phase alternator has its stator wi1tdiugs C01l1teeted in delta and sttpplies current to a load
of 500 kW at a power factor of O·S. The voltage devel-Oped i1~ each phase winding of the alternator
is 1,000 volts. Determine (a) the current i1i each conductor of Ille distribution line ; a1td (b) the
current in each phase ·wiudi11g of the alternator,

3-PHASE ALTERNATOR PROBLEM.

(a) Power supplied in watts = v3EC cos</>. where E =line voltage; C = line current ..
But, with delta connection, line voltage = phase voltage = 1,000 volts.
watts 500 X 1,000
Line current = C = -------- ---------- = 361 amps.
v3 x E x cos </> I ·732 X 1,000 X 0·8
{b) With delta connection, line current = phase current x v3 = 361 amps.
line current 3Gl
Current in each phase = 208 ·4- amps·
l ·732

9. The following partic11lars ap.pea:r on the name-plate of a 3-plum: motor : Brake ttorsepou/er
500; Voltage 3,000; Power factor 0·8. If the efficiencyof the motor is 95%, wltat current will M
taken by the motor ? YJ1hy arc technicat partie11lars of this type embodied. on tho n ame-plates of
motors ?

3-PHASE MOTOR PROBLEM.

y;j EC cos cp v3x3,000xCxO·S
Brake HP of a motor = X efficiency of motor. 500 = x 0·95 .
. 746 746
. 500 x 746
Current = C = = 94- ·5 amps.
v3 x s.ooo x o-s x oss
Technical particulars are given on the name-plates of motors to form a permanent record of the
conditions for which the motor is suitable. It is difficult to determine the suitability of a motor for any
particular purpose, if the name-plate is absent. The technical particulars usually given include
horsepower, speed, stator voltage and full-load current, power factor, frequency, maker's name, and
machine number; and (in an a,c, slip-ring motor} rotor voltage at standstill, and full-load rotor current.

IO. The electrical pla1tt at a colliery is usfog 1,000 kW at 3,000 volts mid 0·7 lagging power factor,
the system befog 3-p!tase. What is lite total current taken, by the colliery? '._ ~ . ·c•;:·:\: \.'-

CURRENT TAKEN BY COLLIERY. 5~ i. • o'l

1,000 ·;
Io.~;/:
Useful power = 1,000 kW. Apparent power -- = 1,430 kVA.
0·7
But apparent power = v3 EC = 1,430 x 1,000 volt-amperes.
~·~:--·.
1,430 x l,000
. ·. Total current taken by colliery = = 275 amps .
v3 x s.ooo

(Second class candidates are not required to answer the (oUowlng two questions.)
11. A synchronous motor of 500 kV A is to be instalkd at the colliery referred to in the previous
question. and it will ruti at 0·8 leadiHg power factor. What effectwill this have on the power factor
of the colliery? Whal will be tlu: /i11al power factor, <111d the total current taken by tile colliery ?
 LR{6
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
A/5

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT.

In order to calculate the effect of the synchronous motor upon the power factor of the colliery,
we must know (a) the active and reactive components of the original current, (275 arnps.), and (b) the
active and reactive components of the current taken by the synchronous motor. ·we can then see
how much of the lagging component is neutralised by the leading component, thus raising the net
power factor of the colliery.
(a) Initial plant.
The total original current is 275 amps., and the power factor is 0·7 lagglng. This current, C~
may be resolved into two components. C1 in phase with the voltage, and C:i lagging 90" behind the
voltage, these two components being combined at right angles. The relationship, therefore, between
them is given by the expression C'.1 = Cl + C,l
Now phase component = Ci '1:75 x 0·7 - 192·5 amps.
And Jagging component = C: · ...; 275~ - 192·5= = "1!38.570 = 196·5 amps.
(b) Synchronous motor. .
The apparent power of the synchronous motor = 500 X 1,000 = y'3 EC volt-amperes.
. 500 x 1,000
. ·. Current taken by synchronous motor = C = = 96_·5 a.mps. (nearly).
y'3 x 3,000
This current, C, taken by the synchronous motor is a leading current, and may be resolved into
two components, C1, in phase with the voltage, and C~ leading the voltage by 90°.
. .
Phase component = C1 = 96 ·5 x 0·8 77 amps. (fully) .
. ·. Leading· component = C~ = "1!96 ·52 - 772 = .y3383 58 amps.
The useful po.werof the synchronous motor is only 500 X 0·8 = 400 kW.
·I-
(c} Tabulating the above results :-
.!. I.
I! i
I

.
'
kVA kW Total
Current
I
Phase
Component
Leading or
lagging component
I

! I
I .. I
- I

I
.. 1430.. iI 196·5 (Jag).
I
Initial Plant 1000 275 192·5
Synchronous Motor . 50~ 400 96·5 77 I + 58 (lead}
i '

Totals 1400 269·5 - 138 ·5 (la~)

··'
It will be seen that the leading component of the current does not completely neutralise the
lagging component, and that the final result is a current of which the phase component is 269·5 amps,
and the lagging component 138 ·5 a~ps.
Total currents = 269·52 +· 138·5~ = 91,800 (approx.) .·. Total current = 303 amps.
Phase component 269 ·5
Power factor of Ilnal current = ------- - --- = 0 ·89.
Total 303
i.e. the final power factor of the colliery = 0 ·89 and the total current taken is 303 amps.
[Alternative solution to.Question 11.
Instead of working with currents, as in the preceding explanatory solution, we can work more
simply instead with kW and kVA as follows :-
1,000
(a) Original plant. kW = 1,000 ., kVA = -- = 1.430 kVA.
0·7
Lagging kVA = y'I430~ - 10002 = 1,022 kVA (lag).
(b) Synchronous motor. kVA = 500. :. kW= 500 x 0·8 = 400kW.
Leading kVA = ...;sooi - 4002 = 300 kVA (lead).
(c) Final plant. Net lagging kVA = 1,022 - 300 = 722 kVA (lag).
Total use(ul power. = 1,000 + 400 = 1,400 kW.
Resultant apparent power ="l!l,400! + 7222 - 1,570 kVA.
kW 1,400
Resultant power factor O ·89 (lagging).
kVA 1,570
watts 1,400 x 1,000
Final current= --------- - --------- = 303 amps.]
· ...;3 x volts x P.F. v3
x s.ooo x o -ss
LR/6
Alternating <Curren: and its effects.
A/6
--·-·--·-----------------------·------ -
12. Enumerate tlte relative advantages aud disaduantagcso] direct current and 3-pliase alternating
current systems for collieries.

D.C. AND A.C. SYSTEMS COMPARED.

(I) Generation. Alternators have the following advantages over cl.c. generators r-s-
(a) Current is collected from ::-. fixed stator instead of from a revolving commutator. The
difficulty of commuting heavy currc nts at high speeds does not therefore arise, and consequently
(b) The voltage of generation may be many times higher (6,0QO volts or more for a.c, as
compared with about 600 volts for d.c.).
(c} .Much larger power outputs arc obtainable from a.c. units (e.g. 50,000 !{\:\,', as compared
with l,000 KW for d.c. units). .
{d) Alternators may be direct-coupled to high speed steam turbines running at, say, 3,000
r.p.m. with consequent saving in space and foundations.
(e) Alternators running in parallel can be more easily kept in step, to share the load equally,
than can d.c. generators.
(2) Transformation. Alternating current has the advantage that ~t can be transformed efficiently
and cheaply to any desired voltage by static transformers which have no moving parts and require
little attention. Direct current can only be transformed by rotary machines.
(3) Transmission. Alternating current has the advantage that it can be more conveniently
transmitted at very high voltages, thus reducing the current required for a given power. Smaller
cables may thus be used and heating (C=R) losses are minimised.
(4} Lighting and Heating. Both alternating and continuous current are equally suitable for
these purposes except that, for lighting incandescent lamps, the frequency of a.c. ~hould-not be less
than about 50 so as to avoid flickering. Alternating current has the advantage, however, that a
voltage suitable for power purposes is more easily reduced to a suitable value for lighting purposes,
e.g. J JO or 220 volts, without the intervention of rotary machinery. •
.,.~·~
(5} Motors. Advantages and disadvantages are here more equally divided. A.C. motors are more
robust and less liable to mechanical breakdown. Some types (e.g. squirrel-cage motors) have no
rubbing contacts whatever; others (e.g. slip-ring motors) only require nibbing contacts when starting
up, unless speed-control is desired, as in haulages, etc. They may thus be much more easily rendered
flameproof and safe for use in fiery mines. In general, they are much cheaper than d.c. motors of
comparable size. D.C. motors (either series or compound wound) have a much higher starting torque
than any a.c. motor and are thus more suitable for hauling or winding. They can be arranged to·
run efficiently at " crawling " speeds. The speed of shunt or compound motors may be economically
varied by field regulation, whereas a.c. motors normally run at more or less fixed speeds depending
on the frequency of t.he supply, and speed control is usually difficult, inefficient and expensive.
(6) General. Direct current has the further advantages that :-
(a) The power factor is always unity and no consideration of reactive or wattless current enters
into the design of d.c. apparatus.
(b) Battery charging can be carried out. direct from the supply mains.
(c) Switchgear and controllers are usually much cheaper than for 3-phase a.c. plant of similar
capacity.
(d) Greater clearances between stationary and rotating parts are permissible.
(e) The stress on insulation is not so great because the voltage is steady and does not rise to some
maximum greater than the effective value.
 FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.5.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,
THIS PAPER
WAS THE l'IRST 1S SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE
MINING SCHOO\.
IN THE WORLD
~~e ~e1.0af ~ ~,J.oof, CONDITION THAT
IT IS RESERVED
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
ll<CO!'IPOllATtO \~91 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN US[

·---------·-----· ··-·---------

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Lesson LR/7.
D.C. MOTORS AND GENERATORS.
It will be remembered that d.c. generators and motors both consist essentially of an armature
(on the periphery of which are mounted conductors in slots) rotating between the pole-pieces of the
yoke or stator (the field windings being mounted on these pole pieces) ; and that the armature
conductors arc connected to the segments of a commutator on which press the brushes which either
receive a continuous current from the commutator and deliver it to the external circuit (as in the
case of a generator) or supply continuous current to the commutator {as in the case of a motor).
Any d.c. generator, if connected to a d.c. source of electric supply, will function as a motor, the
pole systems and windings of both machines being similar.

D.C. GENERATORS.
D.C. generators run at speeds ranging upwards from 60 r.p.m. but rarely exceeding 1,000 r.p.m.
{except in vety small machines) because of the difficulty of securing satisfactory commutation at very
high speeds. •
Low-speed machines up to about 200 r.p.m. 2.re driven by long-stroke horizontal steam or gas
engines and are of large diameter, the armature having a flywheel or "spider" construction.
Medium-speed machines (about 250 to 750 r.p.m.] are driven by so-called high speed vertical
reciprocating steam or gas engines, or by a.c. motors, the armature being of smaller diameter and
its periphery {the laminated magnetic core) supported from the boss of the shaft by shorter arms
or "spokes" than in the previous case (i.e. -a smaller spider is used). When driven by an a.c. motor,
the combination is known as a motor-generator set and is usually built as a single unit, this arrangement
being convenient when the main· colliery supply is a.c., but a d.c. supply is required (or such
purposes as large winding engines or for charging accumulators.
High speed machines (about 750 to 1,000 r.p.m.] are driven through reduction gearing by steam
turbines which run usually at about 3,000 r.p.m. In this case, the armature is of still smaller diameter
and o[ greater axial length, the spider construction being dispensed with altogether. The armature
core consists of laminated steel discs threaded on U1e shaft and held in position by two end-plates
and tightening nuts.
The distinctions here drawn between the three types of generator are broad, and many exceptions
will be found in practice ; but they serve to show that a low-speed machine Is usually or large diameter
and or short axial length, whereas a high-speed machine is of small diameter and o[ correspondingly
greater axial length. Centrifugal forces arc thus kept within reasonable limits and difficulties of
commutation are avoided.

Characteristics or d.c. generators.

The voltage generated by a continuous current generator depends upon the number of lines of
magnetic flux cut by the rotating armature conductors: the rate of cutting; and the number of
conductors in series between positive and negative brushes. In practice, the voltage rarely exceeds
medium pressure, namely 650 volts.
The current flowing in the armature windings of a d.c. generator varies with the resistance of
the external circuit (i.e. the load on the machine) the resistance of the windings themselves, and the
method of winding.
The power output of a d.c. generator in watts is the product of the voltage and current output,
and thus the power varies with the previous factors.
The speed of a d.c, generator depends upon the ability of the prime mover (steam or other engine}
to maintain its speed with increasing loads on the generator. Force is required to move, through
a magnetic field, conductors carrying current when the direction of motion corresponds to that of a
generator. The greater the pole flux and the greater the current, the greater will be the torque or
turning effort required of the prime mover.

\ Types or d,c, generator.

·' Continuous current generators may be classified into three types according to the way in which
the armature conductors and the field windings are interconnected. These three types are known
respectively as (a) Serles, (b) Shunt, and (c) Compound wound generators.
. {5611}
LRt7
D.C. Motors and Generators.
- 2------·---- ----- ~ ~... -~----

(a} In the serles generator, fig. 1 (a), the field cons are connected in series with GENERATOR
the armature coils and carry the same current as the armature coils and the external CONNECTIONS.
circuit. In this case the field windings consist of a small number of turns of thick SERLES
wire and therefore have a low resistance. The strength of the field depends on the
current flowing from the machine in the external circuit, i.c, it varies with the load
on the generator.
(b) In the shunt generator, fig. l (b), the field coils are connected to the terminals
of the generator and are in paralle) or in "shunt" with the external circuit. The ~
current in the Iield. circuit depends only upon the voltage at the terminals and upon
the resistance or the field coils. The latter consist of a large number of turns of
thin wire and so their resistance is comparatively high. It. is usually arranged
that the total resistance of the shunt field circuit shall be capable of being varied.
The full exciting current in the field circuit ranges between 0·5 and about 4 per cent.
of the full load current in the armature windings.
(c) In the compound generator, fig. I (c). both series and shunt field windings
are provided, the proportions of one to the other depending on the 'purpose of the
generator.
The purpose of the field windings is to carry a current which serves to create
(b)
the magnetic 'flux. Such a current is termed an "exciting current." With a given
generator running at constant speed, the density of the magnetic tlux and the voltage SHUHT
induced varies almost directly as the exciting current until the iron approaches
"saturation." The more the iron is '.'saturated," the less does a. given increase
of excitation cause a greater flux density, and the less therefore is the increase in
voltage.
At starting, before the generator has begun to create an E.M.F. to cause a
current to flow through the field windings, a certain amount of "residual magnetism"
remains in the iron of the field magnets and this is sufficient to enable a small E.¥:.F.
to be generated in the armature conductors. Thereafter, a small current flows
through the field coils, (provided their resistance docs not exceed a certain maximum Fig. 1.
called the "critical" resistance) and this small exciting current strengthens the Generator•
flux, thus increasing the E.M.F., and enabling the normal flux to be gradually built up. Connections.
VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF D.C. GENERATORS.
A "characteristic" or a "characteristic curve" is a curve which shows how the magnitude of
one quantity varies with the changes in some other related quantity.
The most important characteristic curve or a generator is the load or voltage characteristic {some-
times called the external characteristic) i.e. a curve which shows the relationship between the voltage
at the generator terminals and the load current (or current output) when the generator is driven at
constant speed:
(a) The voltage characterlstlc of a series generator is shown in fig. 2. The
armature current is also the current producing the flux, and therefore as the · B C
current. rises from zero with increasing load, the flux rises in direct proportion
to it, until the iron is "saturated" with flux. During this period, the voltage
will be proportional to the flux, for the speed is constant. The portion of the
curve from 0 lo A is therefore a straight line. At A the iron i!'l becoming
saturated with flux and. further increase of current does not produce a corres- 0 . CURRENT OUTPUT
ponding increase of flux or voltage and the curve bends over, as shewn from
A to B. At B the iron is almost completely saturated aud further increase of Chnrac~~~t~; Curve
field current will only produce a slightly greater flux. If the current be further r
0 5 1
G t
raised, however, the demagnetising effect of the armature, which is becoming er es enera or.
more pronounced, causes the pole flux to decrease somewhat, resulting in a corresponding decrease
of voltage. This is illustrated by the portion BC of the curve. The curve in fig. 2 shows the terminal
voltage. The total voltage induced is greater by the amount of the voltage drop in the armature
conductors and in the series field coils, but the shape of the curve of total voltage is somewhat similar.
Series generators are worked over the portion of the curve indicated by AB, but are not used for mining
work, where a relatively constant voltage is normally required.
Reference has been made above to the "demagnetising effect of the armature." It will be
remembered that when the armature conductors are carrying current, they themselves create a
magnetic field which acts at right-angles to the field created by the field magnets. This is known
as the armature reaction field and has the effect of partly neutralising and distorting the main field ;
the greater the currcn t in the armature conductors, the greater the demagnetisingand distorting effect.
(b) The voltage characteristic o{ a shunt generator is shown in fig. 3. In this
case, there is always a closed circuit through the armature and field windings
even if the external circuit is open, and thus on no-load the voltage will be
gradually built up until finally the poles are fully excited {point A). When
the external circuit is closed and the current through the armature windings
increases with increasing load, the voltage drop (E = IR) due to the resistance .
of the armature windings increases proportionately. The terminal voltage
theretore will be a maximum when no external current is taken and will decrease CURRENT OUTPUT
uniformly as the external current increases. The field current and also the F!g. 8.
pole flux will therefore decrease in proportion, so that the voltage generated Charocterlstle Curve
will also decrease and this further lowers the voltage at the terminals, The of ShuntGenerator.
 LR/7
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
3

increase in current also produces an increasing demagnetising effect (due to armature reaction) and
this again further lowers the terminal voltage. This gradual lowering of the voltage is illustrated
., in the curve by the portion AB.· At C the demagnetising effect of the armature is sufficient to neutralise
) the pole flux and the voltage falls gradually to zero, as illustrated by CD, the current in the external
circuit also decreasing at the same time. This fall is not immediate, however, because there is some
residual magnetism in the pole magnets. Shunt generators are never worked to the point C but to
some value of the current corresponding to the range AB, where B represents a voltage about 10%
less than the voltage on 'no-load.
It ls possible to vary the voltage of a shunt-wound generator over a considerable range by means
ol a field rheostat (i.c, a variable resistance} inserted in series with the field windings. The greater
the resistance in circuit, the less the field current and flux, and the less the voltage generated by the
generator; and vice versa. The resistance can be so varied, if desired, as to produce a constant voltage
e.g. for a lighting load.
(c) Compound winding (in a generator) is an attempt to produce an arrangement which will give
a constant terminal voltage without the necessity for fielclregulation, and a compound-wound generator
is therefore suitable for a power load. From the previous curves it will be seen that the effect of a
series winding is to increase the pole flux with the current taken from the machine, and that of a shunt
winding is to decrease the pole flux as the current taken increases. By mounting a suitable
proportion of series and shunt turns on the poles, assisting one another, a machine can be produced
which has a flux rising slightly with the current taken, the slight rise being sufficient to compensate
for any demagnetising effects of the armature, thus giving a constant terminal voltage over a wide
range of load. Such a machine is said to be level-compounded. If desired, the machine may have a
sufficient number of series turns to ensure a slight rise in terminal voltage on load, and it is then said
to be over-compounded. Such a rise may be desired to compensate for the increased voltage drop
in the external circuit so as to maintain a constant supply voltage at the consuming apparatus.

D.C. MOTORS.
Although d.c. motors arc very similar in construction to d.c. generators their external appearance
often differs considerably,because motors arc usually required to work under more arduous conditions.
It is frequently necessary therefore to enclose motors, either partially or totally, in order to exclude
"dirt or moisture, or both, and in order to prevent accidental contact with live parts where the rr.otor
is housed in a confined space and the room available for the operator to move about is limited.
When the terminals of a motor arc connected to a source of supply, current nows through both
the armature and pole windings so that the armature conductors arc carrying current in a magnetic
iield. They are thus subjected to a force mutually at right-angles to the direction of the current
and the flux, this force acting towards the weaker field, i.e, the rotor must revolve In the opposite
direction to that of the generator, assuming the direction of the current and of the field to be the same
in each case.
The force on the conductors, and thus the turning moment (torque) of the motor, varies directly
with the density of the magnetic flux in the air-gap and the magnitude of the current in the armature
conductors.
i.e. Torque cc Flux x Armature Current (1).

Back E.M.F. of a Motor.

When a motor is running, it has (to a certain extent) a generator action, for the armature con-
ductors are cutting lines of force and a voltage will therefore be induced in them. This voltage has
exactly the same value as would be established if the machine were driven as a generator at the same
speed and under the same conditions of magnetisation, and; according to Lenz's law, it opposes the
applied voltage and tends to prevent motion. It is therefore called the back or counter electro-
motive force.
This back E.M.F. is always less than the voltage applied to the terminals or no current would
flow in the armature conductors and the motor would have no torque. The difference between
the applied (terminal) voltage and the back E.M.F. will be the voltage necessary to pass the current
against the resistance of the armature windings. Therefore the total voltage drop (which is equal
to the applied voltage) is made up of two factors, namely the back E.M.F. and the resistance voltage
drop IR.
i.c, E = e +m (2).
where E = applied voltage. · I = armature current.
e =back E.M.F. induced. R = armature resistance.
E-e
Conversely e = E- IR (3}. Andi=--- . (4).
R
Now the back E.M.F., "e," generated by a motor is directly proportional to the density of the
magnetic flux and the speed of the motor.

i.e. Back E.M.F. = e cc flux x speed (5).

LR/7
D.C. Motors and Generators.
4
--·----·-- -- .. ··- -
----·-·- ., -----
It follows that if either the flux or the speed be zero, no back E.M.F. will be generated, and the
E
current flowing in the armature will be I = -. But the armature resistance, R, is small (less
R
than l ohm) and so there would be such a rush of current through the arma.ture conductors that the
insulation would be burnt out.
It is therefore necessary in all d.c. motors to ensure that, first, the current must flow through
the field windings before, or at the same instant that, the motor is connected to the supply ; and
secondly, the voltage applied to the armature must be reduced at starting in order to limit the current
to a safe value, say, not more than twice full load current.
Example (1).-If the resistance of the armature winding of a shunt-wound cl.c. motor suitable
for 500 volts is 0·5 ohm, (a) what current will flow through the armature circuit at standstill if the
full line voltage be applied ? (b) What is the back E.M.F. when the motor is running at normal speed
if the observed current taken is 10 amps? And (c) what is the back E.M.F. when the observed
current is 20 amps ?
Answer. (a) The speed being zero, no back E.M.F. will be generated and
E 500
Armature current at standstill= I = - = - = 1,000 amps.: (a)
R 0·5
(b) The voltage required to 'send 10 amps. through a resistance of 0·5 ohm is
IR = 10 x 0·5 = 5 volts .
. ·. (by formula 3) Back E.M.F. = e = E - IR= 5()0 - 5 = 495 volts (b).
(c) When the current is 20 amps.
e = E - IR = 500 - (20 x 0·5) = 50_0 - 10 = 490 volts (c).
This example shows how excessive· the current would be at starling if 110 means were adopted
to reduce the applied voltage. It shows also that the back E.M.F. accounts for much the greater
portion et the voltage drop in a d.c. motor and, further, that when the current is doubled by increased
load, the corresponding percentage reduction in the back E.M.F. is very small.
Let us examine expression (5) a little further, namely that the back E.l\LF. e cc flux x speed.
It will be seen that if the flux be constant, the back E.M.F., "e," varies directly as the speed of
the motor ; and because the resistance voltage drop IR (in equation 3) is always relatively small
(being usually only about 4% or less of the applied voltage at full load), the back E.M.F. generated
is always very nearly equal to E, the applied voltage. It thus follows, that if the flux be constant, the
speed of a motor is almost directly proportional to the applied voltage E.
J.. i.e. speed cc E (approx.] when flux is constant (6).

Let us now examine what happens when the exciting current and the rssultlng flux is varied,
the voltage applied to the armature being constant and the back E.M.F. almost constant. Under
these circumstances, formula (5) still applies and e = flux X speed = a constant (nearly). As the
product of flux x speed is almost a constant, the result is that the speed varies inversely as the
magnetic flux
1
i.e. speed cc-·- (approx.) (7).
nux
Thus, if the exciting current and flux be small, the speed is high, and when the flux increases, the
speed decreases. This is only true, however, until the poles become saturated, for, when this stage
is reached, an increase of exciting current does not appreciably increase the flux, both the flux and
the speed thereafter remaining approximately constant.
From formula (4), it will be seen that the current taken by a motor, having an armature resistance
of R ohms and connected to a d.c. supply at E volts, is dependent solely on the magnitude of the
back E.M.F. Let it be assumed that the motor is taking a certain current and is running at a certain
speed corresponding with a given load. The back E-.M-F. will have such a value that the difference
between it and the applied voltage will be just sufficient to pass the required current through the
armature conductors. If now the load be increased, the torque will no longer be sufficient to over-
come the increased load and the speed will drop (assuming the flux to be constant). The back E.M.F.
will also decrease and a greater current will flow to take care of the new load. It will thus be clear
that a d.c. motor has certain self-regulating properties which enable it to adjust the speed and the
current taken to any new conditions that may be imposed upon it. We will now proceed to examine
how the principles outlined affect the various types of <l.c. motor.

SHUNT-WOUND MOTOR.
The connections of a shunt motor arc shown in fig. 4, the field coils being connected in parallel
with the armature. The exciting current flowing in the field windings depends only on their ohmic
resistance and on the applied voltage, and it is constant if the voltage is constant, as it usually is. It
follows that the flux is almost constant at all loads.
 LRt7
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
5

As already pointed out, it is essential that the field be created first or at the same instant that
the machine is connected to the supply. Moreover, when starting, a variable external resistance
must be lnserted In the armature circuit to avoid a heavy rush of current, the resistance being cut
out step by step as the machine 'speeds up and generates increased back E.:M.F., until at normal
speed, the resistance is all out and the armature circuit is connected direct to the supply.
Speed Characteristic of Shunt Motors.
The most important characteristic curve of a d.c. motor is
the speed characteristic, i.e. a curve which shows the relationship
between the speed of the motor _and the load upon it as represented
by the current in amperes taken by the motor.
Fig. 4 shows the speed characteristic of a shunt-wound motor,
and it will be seen that the speed falls slightly with increasing load.
r
SUPPL.'f CURREHT
.>i.s the flux created in a shunt motor is constant, the back E . .i\1.F. Fig. ct.•
varies directly as the speed of the motor, and when the speed decreases Characteristic Curve et
Shunl Motor.
slightly with increasing load, the back E.M.F. also decreases in the
same ratio (thus allowing more current to flow). The increased armature current, however, increases
the demagnetising effect of the armature, thus tending to decrease the pole flux (which tends to
raise the speed) and consequently the fall in speed with increasing load is less than it otherwise would
he. The net reduction of speed is only of the order of about 2% between light load and full load, and
so, for all practical purposes, the shunt motor may be regarded as a constant speed machine, except
in so far as its speed may be varied purposely as described "in the next paragraph.
Speed control of shunt motors.
Within certain limits, the speed of a shunt motor may be varied by inserting a variable resistance
in the field elrcult, the speed being increased by decreasing the exciting current and vice versa. The
range of speed variation by this means is not large because- if, in order to increase the speed, the
field be weakened too much, it becomes seriously distorted owing to armature reaction, resulting in
sparking at the brushes; also the field cannot be strengthened beyond the "saturation" point of the
iron in the poles. The degree to which a reduction in speed is possible is therefore limited.
• It is also possible to reduce the speed by reducing the voltage applied to the armature, i.c., by
the insertion of a variable resistance In series ·with the armature, the field current being maintained
constant. As a result the necessary back E.M.F. is generated in the constant field at a corres-
pomlingly reduced speed.
. Alternatively, the speed may be reduced by inserting a variable resistance in series with the
motor across the supply, so reducing the voltage across both the field coils and the armature. In
this case, however, the reduction·in speed is not so great (for a given resistance) as in the previous case
because the reduction in flux tends to maintain the speed in spite of the reduced armature voltage,
Both the latter methods-termed rheostatlc control-are very wasteful, because either the greater
part or the whole of the current taken by the motor then passes through tile rheostat, instead of only
the (smaller} exciting current as in the case of field control. Much power is therefore dissipated
in the resistance in the form of heat, .e., there is a heavy I :R loss.
Shunt wound motors are particularly suited for stationary constant-speed drives, e.g., small
-Ians, pumps, and air-compressors, line shafting in workshops, light machine tools, and small endless
rope haulages.
Torque oI shunt motors.
Reverting to formula (1) it will be seen that the torque exerted by a motor varies as the product
of flux x current. In a shunt motor, the flux is almost constant (as already explained) and therefore
the torque exerted varies directly as the armature current as shown by the straight line in fig. 4. If
therefore the current at starting be, say, 1! times full load current, it may be concluded that the
starting torque is also about I! times full load torque.

SERIES-WOUND l'llOTOR.
. In this motor, as shown in fig. 5, the armature and field circuits are connected In series and the
same current flows through both, so that the Ilux varies with the load on the machine. When starting
(as with a shunt motor) a variable external resistance must be inserted in series with the motor to
reduce the applied voltage and prevent a heavy rush of current.
Speed Oharacterlstlc of Serles Motors.
The manner in which the speed changes with the load and
current is shown by the characteristic curve in fig. 5. It will be
seen that the speed falls rapidly with increasing load, especially at
first. The reason for this is as follows.
When the load increases, the back E.M.F. must fall to allow a
) greater current to flow. But the back E.M.F. varies as the product C:.URR"li.tiT
of flux and speed so that the speed must fall as the flux increases.
The stronger flux, however, tends to increase the back E.M.F. and Flg. 5.
so the speed reduction is still greater than would otherwise occur, Characteristic Curve or
provided the iron is not yet saturated. Serles Motor.
 D.C. Motors and Generators.

This decrease in speed of a series motor is an advantage because the power taken by the motor
does not increase: so much with increasing load as it would' do if the speed remained constant.
The demand for power from the supply does not therefore fluctuate so widely, and this is an
important consideration where the load is very variable, e.g. when hauling a heavy load along a
road of variable gradient.
When magnetic saturation is approached, the increase in the: flux due lo an increase of current
is much less than previously, resulting in a smaller change of speed. This is shown by the flattening
out of the curve in fig. 5.
II the load on a series motor is decreased, the speed rapidly increases (as shown by the steeper
portion of the curve in fig. 5) in order to maintain a slightly increased back E.l\LF. in the weakened
field, It is therefore essential for series motors to be connected inseparably to their loads so that they
are brought to rest by external forces. If the load were to be removed entirely, the current required
in the armature and field windings would be very small, the flux would be negligible, and the speed
necessary to ~cncrate a back E.l\I.F. nearly equal to the applied voltage would be dangerouslv high.
A minimum load of about 25% full load is required to prevent the speed becoming excessive.
Speed control of series motors.
It is not possible to insert a variable resistance in series with' only the field circuit of a series
motor (as can be done with a shunt motor} because the field is in series with the armature, and there-
fore the speed cannot be controlled by varying the flux in this simple way.
In general, the easiest way of varying the speed of a series motor, is by inserting a variable reslst-
ance in series with the motor, so reducing the voltage applied to the armature as well as the field
windings, Rheostatic control in this way, as already pointed out, is wasteful of power, especially
under heavy loads and at [ow speeds, A resistance used for the speed control o( a series motor is
called a controller and differs from one used for starting only, in that it must be more robust and also
capable of remaining in circuit for indefinitely long periods without over-heating.
Torque of series motors.
When a series motor is just starting, the back E.M.F. is very low because of the low speed, and
thus a large current flows through the armature and field windings, in spite of the applied voltage
having been reduced hy the start ing resistance. The flux is therefore high. and the torque (flux x
current) is correspondingly high. As tho motor speeds up, the back .E . .?vf.F. increases, resulting in
decreasing current, decreasing flux, and decreasing torque. The starting resistance, however, is cut
out step by step as the speed increases, and so the applied voltage is progressively increased, tlms
bringing back the current and flux to its original value and maintaining the torque almost uniform.
This constant high torque while starting up is an advantage for traction drives {tramways and haulages)
or craii'cs, etc., and for any drive where the load is great at starting. If lhe starting current be
limited to, say, q. times lull load current, then the flux will also be It times the flux on full load, and
the starting torque will be 1~ x 1~ = 2} times full load torque.
Note that, in a series motor, the flux increases with the current, and (within limits) the torque
varies as tho square of the current. This is only approximately correct and applies only until the
poles am approaching sat urat ion , Thereafter, the torque increases less rapidly as the current increases.
Note also that, whereas the torque increases with the current, the speed decreases (although not
quite in the same ratio), and the power·(which is the product of torque x speed) therefore varies
within narrower limits than in the case of a shunt motor where the speed remains nearly constant
with increasing torque.

COMPOUND WOUND MOTORS.

Compound motors have both a series and a shunt winding, the series winding consisting of a
small number of turns of thick conductors and the shunt winding consisting ofa fa"ige· number of
turns of fine conductors. Such motors are of two types :-
(a) Differential type, in which the series field opposes the shunt field.
(b) Cumulative type, in which the series field acts in conjunction with the shunt field. The
greater Hie number of series turns, the more heavily isthe motor said to be compounded.
In the differential type, the series field weakens the shunt field as the load increases, thus com-
pensating for tJ1~ .f;i,,U .in speed which would occur if the motor were plain shunt wound. The speed
characteristic would therefore be a straight line showing constant speed at nU loads. Such motors
arc not used in mining because the weakening of the field under heavy loads lends to make them
unstable.
In the cumulative type, when the load increases, the armature current and also the flux due
to the series field winding increases, thus increasing the total flux. The speed therefore decreases
more rapidly than in o. plain shunt motor and the characteristic curve would lie in an intermediate
position between the shunt and series curves. \.Vhen the load decreases, the series field (and total
field) is weakened, and the motor speeds up, this being an advantage in the case of motors operating
intermittent and heavy- loads. For the heavy loads, the motor will slow clown, and for the lighter
loads, it will speed up, this self-adjustment preventing excessive power being taken from the supply
system. Cumulatively compound wound motors are therefore suitable for mining hoists {winders).
rolling mills, etc. where heavy intermittent loads are encountered. When the load on such a motor
is removed, the motor will not speed up indefinitely as in the case with a series motor, because the
shunt field is main tained.
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The Uniuersal 1vJ.ining School, Cardiff. 7

EFFICIENCY OF GENERATORS AND MOTORS.

By the "efficiency" of any machine is always meant the ratio (expressed as a decimal fraction
or as a percentage) between the power or energy output and the power or energy input expressed in
the same units, i.e.
Output Output
Efficiency ------ (8}
Input Output + Losses
In both a generator and a motor, the power losses may be divided into (a) Copper losses, (b) Iron
losses, and (c) Mechanical losses.
(a) Copper losses. These are I !R or heat losses which take place whenever a current overcomes
ohmic resistance. They occur in the armature and series field windings, in the shunt field windings
{termed the excitation losses) and in the brushes and brush leads (termed the brush losses).
{b) Iron losses. These are due to rapid changes of magnetisation in the armature-core plates
and in the pole shoes. Such changes induce eddy currents in the iron and this energy is wasted,
being dissipated as a heat loss. The loss is reduced by building up the armature core with a large
number of very thin discs or stampings of soft iron threaded on the shaft (or mounted on a spider)
and separated from one another by paper or other insulating material.
(c} Mechanical losses. These include the power wasted in "winclage" (the fanning action of
the rotating parts) and in overcoming the friction of the bearings and commutator brushes. The
iron and mechanical losses are often grouped together and called the stray losses and are usually
assumed to be constant for any given machine running at a constant speed.
In both the generator and the .motor, there are three "efficiencies" to be considerecl,namely the
electrical efficiency, the mechanical efficiency, and the overall or commercial efficiency which is the
product of the two former.
In the case of a d.c, generator, the electrical output (Ex I) is a fraction of the electrical power
generated in the arinat.urc, the latter being the greater by the amount of the copper losses; but
the electrical power generated is a fraction of the mechanical power input, the latter being the greater
by•lhe amount of the stray losses. Thus :-
Watts output EI
Electrical efflciency
Watts generated El + PR losses.
Watts generated EI + I ~R losses
Mechanical efficiency
Mechanical power applied El + all losses.

overall efficiency Watts output EI

of a generator
Mechanical power applied EI + all losses.
In the case of a d.c. motor, the brake hp. output is a fraction of the mechanical power developed
in'The armature, the latter being the greater by the amount of the stray losses; whilst the mechanical
power developed is a fraction of the electrical power supplied (E X 1), the latter being the greater
. ~ by the amount of copper losses. Thus :-
Brake HP x 746 n. HP. x 746
Mechanical efficiency =
Mechanical power developed EI - I 2R losses.

Mechanical power developed EI - I ZR losses

Electrical efficiency
Electrical power supplied El
Overall efficiency Brake HP. x 746 B.HP. x 746
ot a motor
Electrical power supplied EI
In most problems, when the term "efficiency" is used without qualification,ilreferstothcoverall
eflictency, but there are occasions when the other separate efficiencies must also be considered.
The overall or commercial efficiency (or simply the efficiency) of a machine depends largely
on the value of the load. When the machine is running light, the efficiency is zero; as the load
increases the efficiency also increases, reaching a maximum at a certain load, after which it falls off
again. The full load efficiency usually ranges between about 80% for small machines and 92% for
large machines.

RATING OF MOTORS.
The size of a motor is stated in terms of its brake horsepower output and this may be expressed
either as a continuous rating or as a short-time rating which may be a one-hour rating or a half-hour
rating.
LI{,7
8
D. C. Motors and Generators.
--------· --------·-·--· ·-- - ----
It will be understood that, when a motor is running, a certain proportion of the power input,
namely the copper and iron losses, will appear as heat in the windings and iron paths. If this heat
is excessive (more than about the temperature of boiling water) it will have an injurious effect on
the insulating materials used in the construction of the machine and ultimately cause a breakdown.
It is therefore essential, when designing a motor, to ensure, not only that the motor can develop
sufficient power and torque to overcome the load, but also that its temperature at any point will
not rise to a dangerous degree. This implies that the conductors and other current-carrying parts
must he of sufficient area to carry the required load current without overheating. The temperature
rise or a machine is the final criterion as to whether it is large enough for its work.
The continuous raring of a motor is that horsepower output which can be maintained constantly
Ior long periods without the temperature increase of the windings and other components exceeding
certain prescribed limits. These limits are laid down in British Standard Specifications for particular
types of motor and particular types of insulation, but, for the present purpose, the permissible
temperature rise, in British lati tudes, may be taken as 40 °C (72 °F) above the temperature or the
surrounding air. In other words, the machine is getting too hot when its temperature is such that
the hand cannot be kept in contact with any part of it. A continuously rated motor is essential in
all cases where the motor operates under a uniformly sustained load, e.g. for fans, pumps, air-compressors,
conveyors, <U1d endless rope haulages.
Consider now a motor which operates under an Intermittent or varying load, c.g. a direct-rope
or a main-and-tail rope haulage working at varying speeds over varying gradients. In this case, the
motor is most heavily loaded at starting and when hauling a full train up an incline and its tempera-
ture therefore increases ; it is lightly loaded when hauling a train at uniform speed along a level -3
road or downhill during which time little or no further temperature rise occurs; and it stands idle
at intervals between trains or journeys during which time it cools down. The cycle is then repeated.
Let us suppose that, in order to cope with the normal full load and.develop the necessary torque, a
motor of 100 HP. is required. It would be quite unnecessary to install a motor which has a continuous
rating of 100 HP .. for this would result in a machine which is unnecessarily large and costly. Some-
thing smaller and cheaper (requiring Jess copper) will suffice whilst being funy adequate for the
purpose, and the motor is then given a one-hour rating which implies that it will develop its rated
HP. for one hour without overheating. In a similar way, for certain limited duties, a motor haxing
a half-hour rating may be adequate.
It should be further understood that, if a motor is rated at (say) 100 HP., this does not mean
that the maximum power the motor can develop is only 100 HP. Thus, a continuously rated motor
is quite capable or carrying 25% overload for periods up to two hours at the entl of a continuous load
run without exceeding the permissible -ternperature rise. It may also carry 50% overload for one
minute, or 100'}-;, overload for 15 seconds. On the other hand, a short-time rated motor has no
sustained overload capacity, but, of course, (as in the case of a haulage motor} it is capable of develop-
ing up to twice the normal full load output for a short period in order to overcome the peak load at
starting and other momentary over loads.

TEST PAPER LR/7.

l, Summarise the characteristics of ~1) shunt-wound
(2) series-wound. and (3) compound-wound
motors and indicate the purpose {or which
each type is suitable.
2. (a} \Vb:it various factors combine to make up the
total voltage drop between tl1C tcrminats o( a
compound wound molar ? (b) Vvnat is
meant Ly th~ efficiency of a d.c. motor and
where do the power losses occur ?
3. A shunt wound d.c. motor is required to run at
speeds varyiru; from zero to full speed, How
can this be effected ?
4. A shunt-wound <l.c. generator gives an output of
400 kilowatts, the electrical efficiency being
97·5%, and the mechanical efficiency 90%.
Find (a) the clcctr ical losses, and (b) the
mechanical losses. Express them "in terms
of horsepower.
5. Power amouutiug to GOO h.p. at 600 volts (d.c.) is
to be delivered at a place half-a-mile distant
from an electrical generating starion. (a)
Find th" kilowatt output and voltage o( the
generator required if the loss in tra.nsmission
is to be 14 % of the power generated. [b) Also
determine the cross-section oI the conductor
required, assuming that the resistivity o{ the
material =·O·GS mierohms per inch cube:
G. A shunt wound GOO volt motor runs at a speed of
1,250 revs. per minute when unloaded.
·what will he its speed when developing
8 h.p. assuming an efficiency of 80%. an
armature resistance of I ·5 ohms, and a drop of
2 volts at the brushes ?
7. /I. shunt-wound d.c. gonera\or running at 900 r.p.m.
supplies 180 amps. at 460 volts to the external
circuit.. The shunt current taken by the
maclrine Is 8 arnps., the resistance of tbe
armature windillJ:?is 0·05 ohm, and the brush
drop is 2 volts. Find the speed at which the
same machine will nm as a motor on a 460
volt supply, when taking a current of 150
amps from the supply.

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MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Answers LR/7
D.C. MOTORS AND GENERATORS.

1. Summarist! the characteristics of ( l} -~hm1t-wo1md, (2) scries-usound, and (3) compound-

womui motors, and. indica1e the purpose for which encl: type is suitable.

CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. MOTORS.

(1) Shunt-wound Motors.
(a} The'flux is.nearly constant (unless varied purposely) and is a. maximum when there is no load.
(b) When the flux is wea~ened, the speed increases.
• (c) When the flux is strengthened, the speed decreases.
(d) The flux must never be reduced to zero while the motor is running or it will attain dangerous
speeds.
(e) The motor must not be connected to a supply while the flux is zero or excessive current will
flow and burn out the armature. (N.B.-Makc field first, break field last).
-v ',,;
.. (f} Increase of load reduces the speed but slightly because the flux is reduced owing to the
dernagnct isiug effect of the armature. The decrease of speed is only about 2% to 3% from no load
to full Ioad,
(g) Torque is proportional to the current (approx.).
A shunt motor will start up against any reasonable load when provided with starting apparatus
to reduce the voltage applied to the armature during the starting period. It is suitable where slight
variations of speed from no load to full load are permissible. Typical drives are factories, workshops,
fans and pumps.

(2) Sarles-wound Motors.

(a) The flux varies greatly with the load on the machine, being roughly proportional to the
armature current until the poles become saturated.
(b} Increase of load strengthens the field, resulting in lower speed and greater torque.
(c) Decrease of load weakens the field, resulting in higher speed and smaller torque.
(d) Total unloading gives excessive speed.
(e) Within limits, the torque is roughly proportional to the square of the current.
A series motor is more suitable than a shunt motor for starting up against a heavy load because
the armature current and the pole flux when starting are both large, thus giving a high starting torque.
It is therefore almost universally employed for traction and haulage work, or for any conditions
where high starting or overload torque is required. It is always coupled permanently to its load.

(3} Compound-wound Motors.

Any combinations of series and shunt field windings can be arranged either to assist or to oppose
one another and the resulting machine will have the characteristics (chiefly) of the predominant field
A small amount of shunt winding may be used cumulatively with a main series winding for a motor
dealing with heavy and variable loads so as to prevent it racing at light loads. Sometimes a slight
amount of series winding is used differentially (i.e. in opposition to the main shunt winding) in order
to give almost constant speed over all ranges of load. Cumulatively compound-wound motors (in
which the two windings assist each other) arc suitable-for such drives as haulages, winders, etc.,
where high starting torque is required and excessive speed at low loads must be avoided.

(5611}
LRj7
A/2
Answers on D. C. Motors and Generators

2. (a) Wlrnt various factors combine to make itp the total voltage dro]» between the terminals
of a compound <t ou.11d motor ? {b) T·Vhat is meant by lite efficiency of a d.c. motor and tohere
0

do the pozoer tosses occur ?

VOLTAGE DROP IN COMPOUND MOTOR.

(a) The factors which make up the total voltage drop betweeen the terminals of a compound d.c.
motor are as follows:-
(i) Back E.M.F. ; (iv) Brushes ; and
(ii) Armature resistance ; (v) The resistance of the leads from terminals
(iii) Series field winding resistance; to brushes.
Taking the first of these voltage drops, the back E.M.F., this is generated by the armature
winding in cutting the lines of force emanating from the poles, the motor having a generator effect
within itself and the generated voltage being opposed to the supply voltage. This back E.:VI.F. is
nearly equal to the applied E.i\:I.F. and the portion of the applied voltage required to overcome it
is by far the largest drop in the machine.
The armature resistance drop is the product of the current per path in the armature and the
resistance per path. The armature resistance is usually small and this drop is only I% or 2% of
the total drop.
In a compound wound motor the armature current also passes through the series Ileld windings
on the poles, and the product of this current multiplied by the resistance of the pole windings is a
further voltage drop. This is usually small, as series field coils consist of a few turns of thick copper
wire or strip and have a very low resistance.
The brush contact drop under full load is I~ to 2 volts for most machines, depending upon the
condition of the commutator and brushgear ; i.c., there is a total drop of about 2 volts between
brushes and commutator. The voltage drop in the leads to the brushes from the terminals may be
neglected as this is a very small amount, the leads being of ample size to cause only a negligible
voltage drop. ·
[The Shunt Field windings are in parallel wifh the armature and the voltage drop in them is',
of course, equal to the total applied voltage). •

(b) EFFICIENCY OF D.C. MOTORS.

The efficiency is the ratio, expressed as a percentage of :-
Power Output Output
------- or
Power Input Output+ losses
The power losses in a motor (or in a. generator) consist of copper (or resistance) losses, iron (or
magnetic) losses, and mechanical losses. The copper losses are those in the armature and field wind-
ings and arc all I ~R losses. In addition to these, there is a further loss due to voltage drop at the
brush contacts. The iron losses are not so serious in a d.c, machine as in an a.c, machine, because the
flux in most of the iron paths is steady. but there is some loss due to eddy currents set up in the
armature. The mechanical losses arc those due to bearing friction and rotor windage. All these
losses can be computed and estimated for any given machine and the efficiency determined within
a reasonable degree of accuracy.

3. A shun: wound d.c. motor is required to Y1m al speeds varying from zero to full speed. How
can tltis be effected ?

SPEED VARIATION OF SHUNT MOTOR.

The following methods may be employed in practice to vary the speed of shunt wound motors :
(1) The voltage applied to the armature may be varied from zero to full value, the excitation
of the field coils remaining constant.
(2) The magnetising current in the shunt coils may be varied, thus decreasing or increasing
the magnetic flux.
In cases where the voltage variation can be effected at the source of supply, this is the means
adopted for varying the motor speed, and arrangements are then made for a separate excitation
supply at constant voltage.
Where the supply voltage is constant, the voltage applied to the armature must be reduced by
means of a variable resistance, inserted in series with the armature. The value of this resistance is
so chosen that, when all the resistance is in circuit, the voltage drop across it is almost that of the
supply and only sufficient voltage exists to produce a current through the windings which will not
overcome the friction of the motor, and the latter will not run.
This external resistance may be in the form of a long coil of metal strip or wire to which, at
intervals, arc connected brass studs over which a moving contact arm can pass. The contact arm
and one end of the resistance coil are the two terminals of the variable resistance and, by moving
the contact arm over the studs, the length of the resistance coil in circuit is varied, To save space,
the resistance elements may be made in the form of grids, several of these being mounted side by
side. Thus a long resistance path is provided in a small space.
 LR/7
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff,
A/3

Considerable heat is generated, due to the passage of the current through the resistance; for,
when the motor is being started or when it is running at very low speeds, nearly the whole of the
normal power is dissipated as heat in the variable resistance. It is evident, therefore, that wide
speed control of a shunt motor ls not an economical proposition and the necessity tor it should be
avoided wherever possible. Sufficient space must be left between the resistance grids, to ensure
that the heat can be taken away by the air, which will circulate naturally through the grids and
prevent them becoming over-heated.
The speed can also be varied, to a limited extent, by varying the strength of the flux, which is
effected by varying the current in the (shunt) field coils. In motors, the magnetic circuit is normally
run near saturation and the degree to which the magnetic system is saturated limits the extent to
which the speed of the motor can be decreased by increasing the field current. Moreover, if the flux
be reduced below a certain limit so as to increase the speed, the effect of armature reaction increases
to such an extent that sparkless commutation becomes impossible.
For large variations or speed, therefore, a variable resistance is installed in series with the arma-
ture ; and !or small variations of speed near full speed, a, variable resistance is installed in series
with the pole windings only. In practice, a shunt-wound motor is normally used for essentially
constant-speed drives, and, where necessary, limited variations of speed are obtained by varying
the resistance of the field circuit.

4. A sluont-tnonnd. d.c. generator gives mi output of 400 kilowatts, the electrical efficiency
being 97·5%, and the meclianical. efficiC1icy 90%. Fi11d (a) the electrical losses, and (b) the
mechanical losses. Express thein: in terms of horsepower.
D EFFICIENCY OF GENERATOR.
watts output 97·5 400 K\.V.
(a) Electrical ~fficiency = 97·5%
watts generated 100 KW. generated
100
Power generated= 400 x -- = 410·256 IC\V.
97·5
.·. Electrical losses = 410·256 - 400 = 10·256 KW. = 13·7 HP.
watts generated 90 410·256 KW.
(b) Mechanical efficiency -------- = 90% = - = -----
mechanical power applied 100 Power applied.
100
Mechanical power applied = 410·256 X - = 455·8-1 KW.
90
Mecbnolcni losses = 455·84 - 410·256 = 45·5S4 KW. = 61·1 HP.

5. Tower amozmting lo 600 hp. at 600 volts (d.c.) is lo be delivered ai a p!(lce half a mile dista11t
from a1L electrical generating station; (a) Fi11d the kilowatt 01ttp11t and voltage of the generator
required if the loss in transmission. is to be 14% of J/i.e power generated. (b) Also determine th«
cross-section: of the conductor required, assuming tluu. the resistivity of tile material = 0·65 micro/1111-5
per i·ncli cube.

GENERATOR OUTPUT CALCULATION.

(a) 600 HP. delivered = 86%-of power generated.
746 100
Power of generator = 600 x -- x 520 KW.
1000 86
600 x 100
Voltage of generator 698 volts.
86
Watts 520 x 1000
(b} In D.C. calculations, Current - --- = 745 amps.
Volts 698
Voltage drop in line= 698 - 600 = 98 volts= IR= 745 x R.
voltage drop 98 pL
Resistance of line = R = - = 0 ·13 ohm. ButR=-
current 745 A
Where p = O·G.5 l(J6 ohms. L = ~mile x 2 conductors = 5280 x 12 inches.
LR/7
A/4 Answers on D.C. Motors and Generators
.--·------ ------· -------------
0·65 x 5280 x 12
.·. Resistance = R ·-=-= 0·13 ~ ohm.
10' X A
0·65 x 5280 x 12
And Area A 0·31 sq. inch.
1,000,000 x 0· 13

6. A shunt uround. 600-volt motor runs at a speed of 1,250 revs. per min11tc when unloaded.
H1hat wilt be its speed when developing 8 hp. asstmii11g a1~ cfficie11cy of 80%, mi armature resistance
of I ·5 ohms mid a drop of 2 volts at the brushes ?

SPEED OF SHUNT MOTOR.

The back E.M.F. of a motor is proportional to the product of flux x speed, and thus, when
the flux is constant (or almost so, as in the case of a shunt motor)' the back E.M.F. varies directly
as the speed, and vice versa.
When the motor is running light, the current taken from the -rnains is negligible, and tho back
E.M.F. Is almost equal to the applled voltage or 600 volts. It may thus be said that a back E.M.F. of
600 volts corresponds (in this case) to a speed of 1,250 r.p.rn. By determining the back E ..M.F. when
the motor is on load and developing 8 hp., the speed proportional to that back E.M.F. can be found.
The back E.M.F. when the motor is loaded will be the terminal voltage of 600 volts, mlnus the
brush voltage drop. and also the voltage drop in the armature. The' brush voltage drop is given as
2 volts and this must be assumed to be the total voltage drop due to the brushes, no matter how
many brushes there may be. To find the voltage drop in the armature, we must know what current
is flowing through the armature conductors when 8 HP. (effective) is being developed.
Now in the case of a d.c. motor:-
Volts x amps.
Effective HP. developed =
746
x efficiency.
598 x I
8 = ----
746
x
80
100
.
S x 746 x JOO
and Current = I = = 12·475 amps.
598 x 80
Armature voltage drop = I x H. = 12·475 x 1 ·5 18·71 volts .
. ·. Back E.M.F. = 600 - 2- 18·71 = 579·29 volts.
579·29
The speed on load is therefore 1,250 x --- = 1,200 r.p.m. (approx.).
600

7. .t1 shunt-iooicnd d,c, generator rumii1ig at 900 r.p s«. supplies 180 amps. at 460 volts to
the external circuit. The shunt current taken by the machiou: is 8 amps., the resistance of tlte
armature winding is 0·05 ohm, aud. th« brush. drop is 2 voUs. · Find the speed at wliich the same
machine will rim as a motor on a 460 volt supply, wltm taking a current of 150 amps. from the (
suppby.

D.C. GENERATOR RUN AS A MOTOR.

The solution of this problem depends 011 the fact that the Induced E.M.F., in both a generator
and a motor, varies directly as the speed, assuming the flux to be constant and neglecting armature
reaction.
In the generator, induced E.M.F. = terminal + volts drop in + brush drop.
voltage armature
Now the generator armature has to supply both main and shunt currents = 180 +8 = 188Zamps.
. ·. Volts drop in armature = IR = 188 x 0·05 = 9·4 volts .
. -. Induced E.M.F. in generator= 460 + 9·4 + 2 = 471·4 volts.
In the motor, induced back E.l\'l.F. = terminal - volts .drop in - brush drop.
voltage armature
Now the motor armature only carries the supply current minus the constant current through
the shunt winding = 150 - 8 = 142 amps.
Volts drop in armature = IR = 142 x 0-05 = 7·1 volts. ·
Inducedback E.M.F. in motor= 460 - 7·1 - 2 = 450·9 volts.
450·9
Speed as a motor 900 x == 881 r.p.m.
471·4
 LR/8
l
FOUNDED 18S.'7.
THE U.M s.
T. A. SOUTHERN L'l~D.,. COPYRIGHT

TH•S PAPER

gge 'Uw,~af ~ $dwJ,

WAS T>iE Fl1t$T
IS SUPPLIED ON
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MININC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Lesson LR/8
. PRINCIPLES OF A.C. MACHINERY
Under this heading, we propose to deal with the mode of operation of (a) generators, (b) trans-
formers and {c) motors, as applied to alternating current.
A.C. GENERATORS.
The essentials of a 4-pole single-phase a.c. generator, or
alternator, as it is called, are shown in fig. L
It consists of two main parts, namely (a) a rotor on which
are mounted the . poles and their windings which create the
magnetic field, and (b) a stator carrying armature conductors, in
which an alternating voltage is generated. The rotor is driven by
a prime mover which may be either a reciprocating steam engine,
an internal combustion engine, or a steam turbine. In the latter
.
case, the complete set is usually called a turbo-alternator. .
It will be seen that, in an a.c. generator, the alternating
Fig. 1.
Single-phase A.O. Generator..
voltage is generated in the stationary coils and that the field
rnagrrets rotate, this be:ing the reverse arrangement from that in a d.c. machine. The advantages of
this arrangement are :-
. (1) The alternatlng current is collected from fixed terminals on the stator instead oi from slip
nngs-a matter of importance because a.c. generato_rs operate at voltages ranging from 3,300 to ll,000
volts and a large current at such voltages would be difficult to collect by means of brushes and slip rings.
(2) The ventilation o! the machine is slmplUied because it is easier to provide a cooling system in a.
stationary part of a machine than in a rotating part.
The rotor may be one of two types, For speeds up to about 750 r.p.m.,it is provided with salient poles
which project outwards from a central yoke, as shown in fig. L For higher speeds (l,000 to 3,000 r.p.m.)
the rotor is made from a solid cylindrical steel forging of small diameter and considerable axial length
and the field windings are embedded. in axlal slots. the periphery of the rotor being smooth. Such a
''drum-type" rotor is stronger than one with salient poles and can better resist centrifugal stresses.
The (ield windings are supplied with direct current at about 100 volts from an exciter, through two
slip rings. The exciter is simply a small d.c. generator, usually driven by the same prime mover as
that driving the alternator and having its rotor mounted on an extension oI the alternator shalt. A
slip .rlng is a smooth bronze or steel ring mounted on the rotor shalt but insulated from it. The slip
rings receive the current from the exciter through the mediwri o( two brushes an<l they deliver it to
the field windings via insulated conductors led through or along the shaft.
The stator or armature consists of a cast iron or steel box-frame having a laminated iron core
secured to it by end-flanges. The core has axial slots provided in its inner circumlerence and in these
arc embedded the stator windings which, of course, are insulated from the core by micanite or other
suitable material.
The stator windings in such a
4-pole machine are arranged as
shown in fig. 2. It will be seen
that Iour belts of conductors are
formed, corresponding to the
four poles of the rotor. The
first belt runs from back to front,
the second from front to back,
and so on.
Fig. 2. Stator Wlnding Spread Out.
When the rotor is made to rotate, the lines of magnetic force issuing from the N poles first cut (say)
the conductors running from back to front, as assumed in fig. 2 where the poles superimposed on the
stator conductors represent the poles of the rotor, whilst the lines of force entering the S poles cut those
running from front to' back. It follows that, throughout all the stator windings there is momentarily
a generation of voltage in one direction.
As the rotor poles rotate, the N poles come under conductors running from front to back and
the S poles under those running from back to front and there 'is now a generation of voltage in the
opposite direction throughout all the windings. It will be seen therefore that an alternating yoltage
is generated !-D. the stator winding.
(4807)
 LR/8
Principles of A .C. M acliinery
2
Frequency.
In a 4-pole generator, such as that described, if the rotor were running at 3,000 r.p.rn. or 50 revs.
-per second, the conductors would be cut twice by a N pole and twice by a S pole during each revolution
and thus the frequency of the voltage generated would be 100 cycles per second. If only one N pole
and one S pole were mounted on the rotor, the stator being wound to correspond, only one cycle would
be generated in the stator windings during each revolution and the frequency would be 50 cycles per
second. And, to state the case generally :-
Frequency = No. of pairs of poles x Revs. per seoond (l}
Frequency and voltage varintlon.
Let us consider the effect of altering (a) the speed of the rotor, and (b) the magnitude of the
exciting current.
(a) If the speed be increased, the frequency will be increased ; and the rate of cutting the stator
windings will also be increased, resulting in an increased terminal voltage. Conversely, a decrease in
speed will result in a lower frequency and a lower terminal voltage.
(b) If the exciting current be increased, this will increase the field strength and so increase the
terminal voltage without, however, altering the frequency. Conversely, a reduction in the exciting
current will reduce the terminal voltage.
Maintaining constant voltage. .
It will be understood that, as the windings of the stator carry a current when the machineis on load
they themselves create a magnetic field. This field tends to demagnetise the main field created by
the d.c. excitation and thus, the greater the load on the machine, the greater must be the excitation if
the terminal voltage of the alternator is to be maintained. The voltage of an alternator, designed to be
run at approximately constant speed {and therefore constant frequency) is kept reasonably steady by
varying the exciting current and this isdone automatically by means of a voltage regulator.
Arrangement of 3-phase alternator.
In a 3-phase machine, the general arrangement is as already described, bu' the stator carries three
separate windings, each similar to a single-phase winding but so arranged that the three voltages
generated in them are out of phase with one another by one-third of a cycle {=120°). The three
windings arc usually star-connected, so providing a neutral point which can be earthed if desired." The
outer ends of the three phases are connected to three fixed terminals on the stator frame from which
the 3-phasc current may be collected. ·
THE STATIC TRANSFORMER.
It is one of the advantages of alternating current for the transmission of power over considerable
distances that the voltage at which power is supplied may be readily changed or transformed l?Y a
simple device known as a static transformer which has no moving parts and is highly efficient and
reliable in operation.
If, for example, we have a current of 100 amps. at 100 volts, we can reduce this current to 10 amps
at l,000 volts, or increase it to 500 amps at 20 volts (or anything equivalent thereto), whilst still
transmitting the same power as at first, namely 10,000 watts, neglecting losses. To state the case
generally, if we have a ~certain power at voltage E 1, and current C1•, we can change it to a voltage
E::: and a current C :• the new values (assuming no losses in the transformer)being such that :-
. E1 x C1 = E::: x C!!--·-·-· .. ·-·--·-·····-······· -··-··-········ _ .. (2)
The desirability of raising the voltage arises when it is required to transmit a given power, say
1,000 kW, over a long distance, for then it is advisable to reduce the current in the transmission line
so as to reduce the resistance loss which varies as the square o~ the current. If we double the voltage
of transmission, this will halve the current and divide the transmission losses by four. Such a trans-
former would be a step-up transformer, having a ratio of 2 to L
The desirability of lowering the voltage arises when the generated voltage is high {say 5,500 volts)
and it is desired to use motors underground at. a lower voltage (say 550volts). In this case, a step-
dow'n transformer would be required, having a ratio of 10 to L
Principle of the Transformer.
In its essentials, a single-phase transformer consists of an iron core
(laminated to reduce eddy currents) carryin~ two sets of insulated wind·
ings, namely (a) the primary winding which is connected to the supply at
the existing voltage, and (b) the secondary winding which is connected to
give the desired voltage. In fig. 1, the secondary has more turns than the
primary and this denotes a step-up transformer.
When the primary winding rs connected to the supply voltage, an Fig. 3
alternating current will flow in it and this gives rise to an alternating flux Principle of' Transformer.
which cuts both sets ol windings, inducingin both of them an E.M.F. whose
ratio corresponds to the number of turns cut per second. That is :-

Translormation Primary Induced Voltage Ep No. of Prlmary Turns Np

Ratio -------- = -.- (3)
Secondary Induced Voltage Es No. ol Secondary Twns Ns

*[Note. In this Lesson, the symbol C is used for current instead of the symbol I.)
 LR/8
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
3

In practice, the "ratio of a. transformer" ls glven by the ratio of its terminal voltages at no load, i.e.,
when the secondary side is "open,'• the induced and terminal voltages then being almost identical.
The ratio is changed slightly, due to a fall in the secondary voltage, when the transformer is on load, as
will be explained presently.
Phase relation of voltages.
When the secondary side of a transformer is "open,'• i.e., not connected to an
external circuit, only a small magnetlslng current nows through the primary
windings when they are connected to the supply.
In fig. 4, the magnetising current is represented by the vector Cm and the
flux by Fm. This flux cuts the primary windings and induces in them an alternat-
(
ing voltage Ef, lagging behind the primary current and flux by 90 °, and, to over-
come this induced voltage, the applied primary voltage Ep must be equal and
opposite to it, leading the flux by 90°.
The primary winding thus acts like a "choklng coil., and the current flowing
is merely an exciting current which serves to magnetise the core and create a
Es.
magnetic flux. There is a small additional current to overcome the no-load losses,
but this may be neglected. Fig. 4
. Phase Relation o[
The same flux Fm also cuts the secondary windings and induces in them a Voltages.
sccondaryvoltageEs which is proportional to the ratio of the number of turns and (Open Secondary}.
is in phase with El because it is induced by the same flux. The vector Es re- ·
presents the induced secondary voltage available at the secondary terminals for connecting to the
circuit to be supplied. It is at 180° phase angle to the primary applied voltage.
When the secondary slde is connected to an external lnducUve load whose
power factor is therefore less than unity, we have an alternating current, Cs
flowing In the secondary windings and lagging by an angle 0 behind the second-
ary voltage, Es: This.current, Cs produces a flux, Fs, in phase with itself and
tending to neutralise the primary flux, Fm.
The primary flux Fm, however, must be maintained constant and, to ensure
this, an additional current, Cp flows in the primary to produce a fiux. Fp, equal
and opposite to the flux Fs. The load current in the primary has the same F.. c,,,,
angle of lag (or lead, as the case may be} as the current in the secondary. The
resultant current in the primary, taking account of the magnetising current
which lags 90° behind the applied voltage, has a slightly greater angle of lag
than the secondary current. ~
When the secondary side is connected to a. non-inductive circuit whose
power factor is unity, both the primary and secondary currents arc in phase I!.,.
with their respective voltages, except that there is a small angle of lag in the
primary due to the magnetising component. Fig. 5
Phase Relation of
Regula.tion o! a translormer. Voltages.
The term "regulation" here has rather a special meaning which should be (Closed Secondary).
understood. We have seen that the ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the
induced voltages and that this is equal (almost) to the ratio of the terminal voltages on no load.
On load, however, the primary terminal voltage is somewhat greater than the primary induced
voltage, the balance being expended on causing current to fl.ow against the impedance of the primary
windings. Moreover, the secondary terminal voltage is less than the secondary induced voltage by an
amount equal to the impedance voltage drop in the secondary windings. ·
The change ln secondary voltage which occurs when the load is reduced from the full rated output
to no load fthe primary terminal voltage being maintained constant) ls termed the inherent regulation of
the transformer. It is usually expressed as a percentage of-the no-load secondary voltage and normally
varies between about 1 % and 5_%, depending on the power factor. ·
Transtormer losses.
The losses may be considered under two headings :-
(a} Iron or core loss is due to the eddy currents set up by the alternating flux in the iron core and
appears as heat in the iron. It is constant so long as the transformer is magnetised.
(b) Resistance or copper loss is the sum of the C iR losses in the primary and secondary windings
and appears as heat in the coils.· It varies with the load on the transformer.
The sum total of the losses is relatively small and ranges from 2% to 8%. Thus the efficiency of a
transformer at full load ranges from about 92% for small transformers to about 98% for large
transformers.
Three-phase transformers.
For three phase work, three separate single-phase transformers may be used, the three primaries
being connected, in either star or delta, to the supply, and the three secondaries being connected in a
similar way to the load. For mining use, however, and especially underground, it is more usual to
combine the cores into a single unit which is much more compact.
LR/8
Principles of A.C. Machinery
4

Fig. 6 shows diagrammatically the arrangement of a

~-phase core-type transformer. It will be seen that the lam-
inated core consists of three limbs joined at top and bottom by
yoke pieces, each limb carrying the whole of the primary and PAlMMY'
secondary turns of one phase. In practice, the two sets of DELTA
windings are mounted concentrically, one within the other. and
separated by insulating cylinders. For cooling purposes, the
core and its windings arc immersed in a tank of oil. SEC.O~
STAR
In a 3-phase transformer, the ratio of the number of
"turns" is the same as the ratio of the phase voltages.
The "ratio of the transformer," however. is the ratio of
the primary and secondary terminal voltages at no load, and
this depends on how the windings are connected, whether in
star or delta in each case.
For mining work, the primary windings are commonly Fig. 6
connected in delta and the secondary windings in star. so Three-Phase Transformer.
giving what is termed a delta-star ccnnection, as shown in fig. 6. ·
This gives a neutral point on the secondary side which can be earthed, so giving protection to the
transformer in the event of a fault developing between the primary and secondary windings, and
facilitating the use of leakage protective devices. The primary side need not be star-connected bee-a use
jt is usually supplied from a star-connected alternator with earthed neutral point, and a delta con-
nection is desirable because it forms a. closed path around which so-called third harmonic currents can
circulate.

Instrument transformers.
These are small single-phase transformers used in connection with electrical· measuring
instruments where large currents or high voltages have to be measured. A current transformer is one
which gives a smaller current, usually 5 amps on full load, in the secondary than in the primary so that
a 5-amp ammeter. connected to the secondary, can be used to read a very much higher current in the
primary, depending on the ratio of U1e transformer. A potential transformer is one which steps down
the voltage on the secondary side to, say, 100 volts, and thus a voltmeter, suitably wound for 100 volts,
can be connected to the secondary whilst being calibrated to read the much higher supply voltage on
the primary side.

ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS.

For mining purposes. there are two main types oI A.C. motor to be considered; namely (1) the
synchronous motor, and (2) the induction motor,and the latter may be divided into two classes. namely
(a) the squirrel-cage motor and (b) the slip-ring motor.

A third type of motor may be mentioned. namely the synchronous-induction motor which runs
like a synchronous motor but is started up like an induction motor and therefore possesses some of the
characteristics o! both types.

THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.

This is, in essentials, an alternator reversed, i.e., it has somewhat the same constructional features
as an alternator, but is supplied with alternating current from an external source.

Fig. 7 rllustratcs a simple 2-pole single-phase synchron-

ous motor having "salient" or projecting poles whose
windings are supplied with direct current through two slip
rings. Single-phase alternating current is supplied to the
windings of the stator via fixed terminals on the stator frame.
Note that, as in an alternator, it is the D.C. field magnet
system which rotates.
Let us assume that, at a certain instant, the current in
windings A is flowing from front to back, while that in B is
flowing from back to front, as indicated by the dots and
crosses.
The conductors A are lying in the field of the north pole Fig. 7
and are subject to a force which tends to cause them to move Single-phase Synchronous Motor.
to the right, as shown by the small arrows F. The stator
conductors, however, are fixed, and so the N pole of the rotor itself becomes subject to the same force
reacting in the opposite direction, i.e., to the left, as shown by the long arrow. The S pole, being
under conductors B carrying current in the opposite direction, is subject to an opposite force, i.e., to
the right in the sketch.

It follows that the rotor, being free to revolve, is subject to atorque or turning effort in an anti-
clockwise direction. If, now, the N pole could arrive under the conductors B, and the S pole under
conductors A by the time the alternating current in conductors A and B had changed its direction,
each of the poles would be subject to a force in the same anti-clockwise direction as before and
continuous rotation in that direction would result.
 1 ne u nvoersat Mining School, Cardif].
5
The rotor of a synchronous motor must rotate at such a speed that its poles come under the
·influence of fresh conductors by the time the current in them has changed its direction. This speed is
-called the" synchronous speed ••and depends on the frequency of the a.c, supply and on the· number of
-pairs of poles. It is given by the expression :-
Frequency
Revs. per second = _ (4)
No. of pairs or poles
II this formula be utilised to ascertain the synchronous speeds of different motors on a standard
frequency of 50 cycles per second, it will be found that a 2-pole motor runs at 3,000 r.p.m.; a 4-pole
motor at 1,500 r.p.m.: a 6-pole motor at 1,000 r.p.rn.: an S-pole motor at 7:>0r.p.rn.: a 12-pole motor at
.500 r.p.m.: a 16-pole motor at 375 r.p.rn.: and so on. No variation from these speeds is possible. A
.given synchronous motor on a given frequency must run at constant speed, depending on the number of
pairs of poles.
,Starting of synchronous motors.
A plain synchronous motor is not self-starting but has to be unloaded and run up to synchronous
speed in the required direction by external means. This may take the form of an auxiliary d.c, motor,
-or a.c. induction motor called a pony motor and direct coupled to the synchronous motor.
Alternatively, the synchronous motor may have incorporated an additional winding, termed a
-damper winding, in the pole-faces of the field system, so forming, in effect, a squirrel-cage motor (see
later). When the stator windings are supplied with 3-phase alternating current, this addifional
winding enables the motor to start up of itself against light loads by induction motor action.
When a synchronous motor is running at full speed, the torque developed is proportional to the
·field flux x stator current. Now the flux is constant, but the current is an alternating one and thus.
in a single-phase motor, the torque varies greatly throughout each revolution. On the other hand, in
.a 3-phase motor, the distribution of the alternating currents is such that the torque is almost uniform at
all times. If a sudden or heavy overload occurs, however, the motor will fall out of step and stop
altogethe1·. The torque at which this occurs is called the pull-out torque•
. Improvement of power factor.
One of the advantages of a synchronous motor is that its power factor can be varied at will by
varying the exciting current. By adjusting the latter to a suitable value, the motor can run at unity
power factor whilst, if the field be over-excited, the motor will operate at a leading power factor, so
taking a leading current from the supply. This has the great advantage that, by introducing a
.svnchronous motor into a system which already has a low lagging power factor, the overall power
factor can be brought nearer to unity.
Application o( synchronous motors.
The constant speed characteristics of these motors obviously limits their application to drives
which can be unloaded when starting and in which speed variation is not desired or is not permissible,
.in spite of varying loads. Typical applications include motor-generator sets, frequency changing sets,
fans, and constant-running air-compressors.
The synchronous.. inductlon motor.
This may be described as a synchronous motor with a
variable resistance in the rotor circuit' for starting purposes
I iI ~UPP~~
EXCITER
RHEO~TAT

-or as an induction motor with an exciter added. It is shown WSTA'TOP.

.dfo.l:,'Tammatically in fig. 8.
11.0TOR
It will be seen that the stator has a 3-phasc winding
-conncctcd to the A.C. supply. The rotor· also has a 3-phase
winding (instead of salient poles) and this may be connected,
via three slip rings and a change-over switch, either to a
.liquid starter or to an exciter.
CHANC">E
During the starting period, the rotor is connected to the -OYEP. LIQUID

liquid starter and the resistance is gradually cut out as the L_!~==~-:::!._J
t r. . ......________.11J"'_y~ 6J
SWITC.H STARTER
motor speeds up by induction motor action. When full
speed is attained (apart from the "slip") the change-over START _T
switch is placed in the" RUN" position, so connecting the
rotor windings to the exciter, and the motor pulls into step.
Fig. 8
It will be noted that one rotor phase carries twice as Synchronous-induct19n Motor.
much direct current as the other two, resulting in somewhat uneven heating of the rotor windings.
Various special patent windings have been developed to overcome this, but the general principle
remains unaltered.

) The advantages or the synchronous-induction motor are that (1) it will start and synchronize
against full load torque and (2) it can be used for power-factor improvement just like a synchronous
motor. The disadvantages arc that (l} it is unsuitable where frequent starting and stopping, or speed
variation, are required, and (2) it is more costly than -an induction motor and more liable to open
.sparking because o~ t~e commutator on the exciter.
The uses of a syncbronous-induction motor arise chiefly where power-factor improvement is
·desired, the starting torque is heavy, and the load is fairly constant. Typical applications include
large ventilating fans, large endless haulages, and large turbine pumps.
 Princvptes oJ A. c. JVJ. acmmcry.
6
THE INDUCTION MOTOR.
This type of A.C. motor differs from the synchronous motor previously described in that (1) the
rotor is not connected to any source of electrical supply, either A.C. or D.C. and only an induced current
flows in the rotor circuit-hence the name" induction" motor ; (2) it is inherently self-starting; and ( 3)
it runs at a speed slightly below synchronous speed.
In essentials, an induction motor consists of (a) a stator wound for 3-phases just like an alternator
or a synchronous motor, and (b) a rotor which may be either of the squirrel-cage type or of the wound
type as in a slip-ring motor.
In either case, the motor depends for its action on the rot.ating magnetic field set up by the stator-
windings when a 3-phase alternating current is supplied to them,
Production of rotating magnetic Held. A
a,;;,.:--~~~~~~
Fig. 9 shows the stator of a 2-pole, 3-phase induction
motor on which are mounted six poles (two per phase)
carrying six interconnected coils joined to a 3-phase supply. 8.
(In an actual motor, of course, the coils are embedded in
slots on the inner periphery of the stator and are not
mounted on projecting poles.) One end of coil "a" is
connected to phase A, while the other end is connected (as
shown by the dotted line across the centre of the circle) to
the opposite coil "a 1' '. The other end of coil "a 1'' is
connected to a common junction of coils "b 1" and "Ci'• c.
forming a neutral point (i.e., the motor is star-connected,
though delta connection can be adopted i( desired). Coil
"b" is connected to "b 1", and also to phase B, while coil
"c" .is similarly connected to "c 1" and to phase C.
Fig. 9
Taking an instant when the current in phase A is zero, Sta.tor of 2-pole, 3-phase Induction Motor.
current will be flowing in phases Band C. Fig. 9 shows by
means of dots and crosses the direction of these currents in the coils at this instant., Remembering
that the lines of force created around a conductor by a current flowing away from the observer (as
shown by the crosses) are clockwise, it will be seen that the current in coils b and b 1 creates a
flux acting in the direction indicated by vector Fb in fig. 10 (i). Similarly, the flux created by coils e
and e 1 acts in the direction of vector Fe in fig. 10 (i). Their resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the vector F.
(ii) (iii)
F
~

~
f.1>

f f
Fig. 10. Vector Diagrams ot Rotating Flux.
The current, however, is an alternating one and thus, one-sixth of a cycle later, (60°} there will be
no current fl.owing in phase "B'' but a flux will be created by each of the coils "a'' and "c.' • as shown in
fig. 10 (ii). The resultant of these two fluxes is shown by the vector Fin fig. 10 (ii). Similarly, the
resultant flux at 120° is given by the vector Fin fig. lO(iii) and at 180° by the vector Fin fig. 10 (iv}.
Similar arguments apply at 240°, 300° and 360°.
It will be seen that the Hux F is constant but is rotating at a synchronous speed corresponding to
the frequency of the suppJy. Such a rotating flux produced.by stationary coils has precisely the same
effect as the flux produced by a rotating field magnet system.
The squirrel-cage induction motor.
This is the simplest type of A.C. motor and consists of (1) a stater as already described and (2) a
rotor having a number of stout .copper bars embedded in slots around the periphery of a eyllndrica1
laminated iron core. ·The bars are all connected together at both ends by copper rings and are thereby
short-circuited, ~ BVSeA~S

Fig. 11 shows a diagram of how such a motor may be connected to the s.upply,
namely by a main switch which, when closed, allows a 3-phase current to flow
through the stator windings. sw1T,H·
When this occurs (the rotor being stationary) the current flowing is limited
011ly by the impedance of the windings {just as in the primary· of a transformer)
and a uniform rotating magnetic Iield is set up, as already explained. This flux
cuts the rotor bars and induces in them alternating voltages. Moreover, as the
bars are short-circuited, alternating currents of considerable magnitude arc STATOR
produced in them. WINDING

We now have conductors carrying current in a magnetic field and the rotor ~ ROToA
therefore beglns to move, its direction of rotation being the same as that of the ~ w1t1oit1G
rotating Iield. The rotor tends to attain the speed of the rotating field but never Fig. 11
quite reaches this speed because, H it did, the rotor bars would be rotating with Connections for
the flux and there would be no cut ting action ; no current would flow in the bars ; S qulrrel-cageMotor.
and no turning force would act on the rotor. AD induction motor ls therefore .
called an asynchronous or non-synchrcnous motor because it cannot run exactly at synchronous speed
as defined bv formula (4).
 LR/8
The Universal Mim:ng School, Cardiff.
7

The difference in speed of the rotor and the flux in r.p.m. is- termed the slip and is usually expressed
.as a percentage of the synchronous speed. Thus :- .
Synchronous speed - rotor speed
Pencentage slip = ------------- x 100 (5)
Synchronous speed
The slip at starting is obviously nearly 100% ; when the motor is running light, the slip is
negligible ; whilst at normal full load, the sllp is about 5% for small machines and 1% to 2% for large
machines.
The greater the slip, the greater is the cutting action of conductors and flux ; the greater is the
voltage (and its frequency) induced in the rotor ; the greater is the rotor current ; and, so long as the
rotor current is materially in phase with the induced voltage, the greater is the torque, i.e., the force on
the rotor tending to make it speed up and catch the rotating flux.

One of the disadvantages of induction motors (whether slip-ring or squirrel-cage) is that the power
factor Is very low on light loads, for then the slip is negligible, and the stator current is almost entirely
a magnetising current lagging nearly 90° behind the applied voltage. As the load increases, however,
the active or useful component of the total current also increases and the power taetor may rise to 0·8
or 0·9 at full load. It is important, therefore, that induction.motors should as iar as possible be no
larger than is necessary to do the work required.
Starting characteristics of squirrel-cage motors.
If the full line voltage be applied to the stator of an ordinary squirrel-cage. motor at rest, the
starting current taken by it may be five or six times the normal full load current.
Just at starting, the slip is high, and large currents of the same frequency as that of the supply
flow in the rotor circuit. The rotor has low resistance but high inductance and therefore the rotor
-currents (and flux) lag nearly !10° behind the voltage induced in the rotor. But the rotor voltage
already lags nearly 90° behind the stator flux which induces it, and so the rotor flux lags nearly 180°
behind the stator flux, i,e., it is in opposition. The rotor flux thus tends to weaken the rotating
stator flux and, to overcome the demagnetising effect, a larger current must be taken from the supply
so as to maintain the operating flux constant.
As the motor speeds up, the slip becomes less, the rotor currents, and their frequency, arc reduced,
the reaction of the rotor circuit (which depends on the frequency) is reduced, and the currents and flux
in the rotor are more in phase with the induced voltage. The weaker rotor flux is then less directly
.opposed to the stator flux, the demagnetising effect is less, and the stator current gradually falls to its
normal full-load value•
.Methods of starting a squirrel-cage motor.
'(I) Direct. If the motor is small, or if the drive is such that the starting load is inherently light,
.e.g., a turbine pump, an auxiliary fan, or a sawmill, it is permissible to switch direct on to the line.
Acceleration is rapid and the peak demand for current is momentary. Motors of 100 H.P. or more
may be started in this way, when connected to a power station of sufficient capacity.
In cases where the starting load is considerable, a friction clutch or n. centri(ugal clutch may be
used, the motor being first rapidly run up to speed unloaded, and then the load taken up gradually by
the dutch.
(2) Star-delta starter. This consists of a switch which iirst connects the stator windings in star,
·so reducing the voltage applied to the phase windings or the stator to 58% or the line voltage { = line
voltage +- v3). This reduces the starting current to about l! times the full-load current, and the
starting torque to about one-third of the normal full-load torque.

(3) Auto-transformer starter.

This is a device whereby supply may be given to the motor stator, when
starting up, at some selected voltage which may be 50, 60 or 75% o( the line
voltage. It differs from an ordinary transformer in that there is only one winding
.(per phase) and this acts asbeth primary and secondary. If a voltage E1 is
applied to the whole winding (the primary) a reduced voltage E 2 may be obtained
by tapping the winding at an intermediate point. The ratio of E1toE2 depends Fig. 12
on the ratio of the number of turns, N.1 and N ~in the whole winding and the part Principle of Auto-
below the tapping point. When the motor is up to speed, the auto-transformer Transformer.
is cut out and the motor connected to the line.
Double-cage rotor wlnding.
The high starting current and moderate starting torque of an ordinary squirrel-cage motor are
due to the low resistance and high inductance of the rotor conductors, a low resistance being essential
for high efficiency at normal running speed.
The double-cage rotor winding has been designed to reduce the starting current and increase the
starting torque. The rotor is provided with two sets of rotor conductors, one beneath the other. One
set (the outer) is made of an alloy of high resistance. The other set (the inner) is made of copper and
has a low resistance but a higher inductance because it is more deeply set within the iron _c-ore.
LR/8
Principles of A. C. Machinery.
8

At starting, the induced rotor current flows chiefly in the high-resistance outer winding because of
the "choking" effect of the high-reacrance inner conductors. The effect is to reduce the starting·
current to about three times the normal current and to increase the starting torque to about twice the·
full-load torque. At full speed, the rcactance decreases owing to the lower slip frequency and the·
rotor current then flows chiefly in the low-resistance inner conductors, thus giving high efficiency at
normal speed.

The introduction of motors with double-cage rotors has greatly widened the field of application of
squirrel-cage motors and they can be used for a large variety of drives where quite a considerable·
starting torque is required. Typical applications include coalcutters, conveyors, power loaders;
haulages, and so on, in cases where the more costly and more complicated. slip-ring motor is incon-·
venient or unnecessary.

The slip-ring induction motor.

This is the second main type of induction motor, and it
diffors irom a squirrel-cage motor only in the arrangement o[ SUS EAR$

the rotor circuit, the stator being exactly the same.

The rotor of a slip-ring motor is termed a wound rotor a.nd SWITCH
it has a 3-phase winding embedded in slots on the periphery of
the iron core. The three ends of this winding are brought
out and connected to three slip rings mounted on the rotor
shaft.
Fig. 13 shows a diagram of connections for a slip-ring
motor and it will be seen that supply is given to the stator
windings via a main switch, just like a squirrel cage motor. In
the rotor circuit, however, there is n vnriable external resistance SLIP
which enables the resistance of the rotor circuit to be varied at FllN6S

will.
A slip-ring motor operates j115t like a squirrel-cage motor Fig. 13 .
ROTOR
RESISTANCE

in so far as the induction motor action is. concerned. A Connections tor Slip-ring Motor.
rotating magnetic field is produced in the same way and the
rotor revolves at a speed just below synchronous speed when full speed has been attained. But the
method of starting is quite different.

To start a. slip-ring motor, the whole oi the variable resistance must be placed in the rotor circuit..
This limits the rotor current and reduces its demagnetising cficct on the stator flux with the result .that
a smaller stator current is taken from the supply. Further, the extra resistance makes the rotor
current more in phase with the induced rotor voltage and this greatly increases the starting torque.

As the motor speeds up, the rotor currents are reduced by decreased slip and the resistance is
gradually cut out. In a constant running machine, the brushes may be raised and the slip-rings.
short-circuited, a device being fitted to the slip-ring end of the machine to effect this.

Design of variable resistance.

The type of resistance required in the rotor circuit of a slip-ring motor depends on a. number of'
factors, including the magnitude of the rotor currents, the frequency of starting, and whether or not
speed control ls desired. It must be remembered that electrical energy expended in a resistance is
converted into heat and this must be dissipated in such a way that the temperature of the resistance:
does not rise too high.

Fig. 14 shows a rclati vely simple type of "face-plate," starter To ~1p-R1f>9' or

consisting of a. wound metallic resistance which is cut out bymeans of an .5-pn.lnd<A:lionmotor.

arm moving over a series of contact studs: Such a" starter" is suitable
only for infrequent starting.

Where speed control is required, as in a haulage, a much more

robust starter must be used, and this is referred to as a controller. Either
a drum-type controller, or a liquid controller may be used. The latter
consists of a tank at the bottom of which are fixed three contact plates
or electrodes immersed in an electrolyte and connected by a 3-core cable
to the rotor slip-rings, Three vertical movable electrodes, connected
together at the top, arc also immersed in the electrolyte and the
resistance is varied by varying the depth to which they are immersed.
Torque characteristics of induction motors.
Fig. 15 shows by means of curves, how the torque of induction
motors varies with the speed. Fig. 14 .
Rotor Starter.
 LR/8
The Universal Mining· School, Cardiff.
9

Curve A represents an ordinary squirrel-cage motor

having a rotor ot low resistance. At starting (slip 100%)
the torque is low but it gradually increases as the motor
speeds up until the maximum or"break-down" torque
is developed at about 10% slip. Thereafter, the torque
) falls rapidly as synchronous speed is approached. The
torque at normal full load (slip 5% assumed) is about
half the break-down torque. In other words, the motor
is run at such a speed that it can deal effectively with a
temporary overload by developing a higher torque at
a temporarily reduced speed. PEl1CENTAOE SLIP.

Curve C represents an induction motor having a

rotor of constant hlgh resist.ance. In this case, the torque Fig 15.
is a maximum at starting but it decreases gradually
with increasing speed. Torque Curves;

Curve B represents an induction motor having a rotor of Intermediate resistance. Note the
higher starting torque compared with curve A, and also that the maximum or break-down torque
occurs at a lower speed.

It should now be clear that, in a slip-ring motor where the rotor resistance is high at starting and
is gradually cut out, a constant high torque is maintained both at starting and while the motor is
speeding up: Finally, when the motor reaches full speed and the whole of the external resistance is
cut out, the motor settles down like a squirrel-cage motor to deal with the normal full load.

Application ot slip-ring motors.

The slip-ring motor is of much more complicated construction than the squirrel-cage motor and is
therefore more costly, but it has much better starting qualities, the initial torque being higher and the
starting current smaller. Moreover, unlike a synchronous motor or a squirrel-cage motor, its speed
can be varied, below the normal running speed, by varying the resistance in the rotor circuit. It
follows that the slip-rlng' motor must be used in cases where the starting torque ls heavy, or where speed
control is desired. Typical applications include haulages, a.c. winders, ram-pumps, large fans, large
turbine pumps, and washery drives.

Reversal of A.C. Motors.

To reverse a 3-pha.sc a.c, motor of any type, it is necessary to alter the stator terminal connections
in such a manner that the direction of rotation of the magnetic field of the stator is reversed. This is
done by transposing the terminal connections of any two of the three phases or the stator. In the case
of a machine requiring frequent reversal, e.g., a haulage, or a winder, a starting and reversing switch is
interposed in the stator circuit between the main switch and the motor in order to effect the change-over.

TEST PAPER LR/8

1. (a) BrieJl.y describe a 3·phase a.c. generator,
having an output o{ (say) 1,000 kW, at 3,300
volts and running at 3,000 r.p.rn. (b) Qn
what docs the voltage generated depend
and how may it be kept constant ?
2. (a) Describe the construction and mode o{ action
of a 3-pha.se salient-pole synchronous motor.
On what docs Hs speed depend ? (b} What
are the advantages and disadvantages of this
type of motor ?
3. Carefully describe the construction and action of a
3·phase slip-ring induction motor, say Cor
150 H.P. at 725 r.p.m. 50 cycles, 3,000 volts.
Illustrate your answer by a sketch showing
how the motor may be connected to the supply
and its speed controlled. · and (d) the secondary phase voltage and
4. A 6-pole induction motor is supplied by an 8-pole
alternator running at 750 r.p.m. U the slip
of the motor is 3%, what is its actual speed
in r.p.m.?
5. (a) What ii; a static transformer :Ad what, do you
understand by its "ratio." (b} A 3-phaso
a.e. motor of 100 B.H.P. 500 volts; O · 7
power factor ; is supplied from a transformer.
The supply to the transformer is at 3,000 volts
What will be the primary aud secondary line
currents o{ the transformer ii the efficiency of
the motor is 00% and that of the transformer
D2%?
6. A 3-phase transformer connected in delta-star, is
supplied with current at 3,000 volts and gives
current to a load at 600 volts. If th.is current
is 400 amps. at a power factor o! 0·75, deter-
mine {a) the kW output ; {b) the kVA input i(
the transformer has an efficioncy o! !l0% ;
(c) tho primary phase voltage and current ;
current.
7. In a star-connected 3-pbase system, tho neutral
point is frequently earthed. What advant-
ages are claimed for this ?
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w.i.s 1$ SUPPL.IEO ON

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flE!<ERYEO
IN THE WOFl\.0 EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAI:"J). YOUR OWN use

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Answers· LR/8.
PRINCIPLES OF A.C. MACHINERY.
l. (a) Briefly describe a 3-piiasc a.c. generator Jiavi11g a1i output of (say} 1,000 kw. at 3,BOO '<Jolts and
rmmi11g at 3,000 r.p.m. (b) On what does the voltage generated depe11d and. ho» may it be kept
constant ?
3-PHASE A.C. GENERATOR.
(a) The essential parts of such a machine comprise :-
(1) A stator having a laminated iron or silicon steel core which is provided with axial slots
carrying the 3-phase insulated stator windings. One end of each phase is brought out to a fixed
terminal and the others are connected to form a neutral point .
. (2) A rotor consisting of a cylindrical drum of forged steel with axial slots in its periphery to
receive the insulated field windings.
~3) An exciter mounted on an extension of the rotor shalt to supply direct current at about 100
volts to the field windings via two slip rings.
(4) A prime mover which, for a speed of 3,000 r.p.m., would be a steam turbine, direct coupled to
the rotor shaft.
(5) A cooling system whereby the heat generated in the production of electricity is continuously
carried off.

(b} Volmge generated and how controlled.

The voltage generated and available at the stator terminals depends on the total number of lines of
force cut by the stator conductors per second and this depends on (1} the number of Jines of force
emanatingfromeach field pole, (2) the number of field poles, (3) the number of conductors forming the
coils of each phase of the stator windings, and (4) the speed of the field magnet system in revs. per
second. Jn normal running, the terminal voltage tends to fall somewhat as the load on the machine
increases.
In a given machine, the number· of poles and the number of conductors are constant, whilst the
speed is also maintained almost constant.. The voltage generated is therefore kept constant by varying
the exciting current in accordance with the load on the machine and this is done automatically by
means of a field rheostat (variable resistance) in the shunt field circuit of the d.c, exciter.

2. ·(a) Describe the construction. and mode of action of ti 3-pltasc salient pole synchronous motor. On
witat does its speed depend? (b) Whnt are tire advantages and disadvantages of this type of motor ?

THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.

This may be described briefly as an alternator reversed and consists of:-
(a) A stator wound for three phases and supplied with alternating current from the line.
(b) A rotor having a number of salient poles (depending on the speed desired) wound to form N
and S poles alternately.

•
(c) An exciter to supply direct current to the field magnet system .
When such a machine is nm up to speed by another motor, or by induction motor action (a special
additional winding being placed on the pole faces to bring· this about} we have stator conductors
carrying alternating currentin a magnetic field and therefore a reactive force is produced on the rotor
causing it to continue rotating in the same direction provided that a given conductor comes under the
influence of a pole of opposite polarity by the time the current in that conductor has changed its
direction.
LR/8
A/2
Principles of A.G. NIachinery,

The speed of a synchronous motor is fixed and depends on two factors, namely, (Lrthe frequency
of the supply, and, (2) the number of poles. The exact relationship is given by the expression :-
Frequency in cycles per second x 60
Speed in revs. per min. = ---------------
Number or pairs of poles.
(b} The advantages or a salient-pole synchronous motor are :-
(1) It is very stable when running and can deal with quite .large fluctuations in load.
(2) It has a high efficiency,
(3) It can be used for power-factor correction by over-exciting the field. It may even be used
for this purpose only, without doing any mechanical work, being then called a "synchronous-condenser ."
The disadvantages are:-
(1) It is not inherently self-starting and, even when fitted with a damper winding to start up by
induction motor action, it developes only a small starting torque.
(2) It is not suitable for frequent stopping and starting.
(3) If a sudden heavy overload occurs, the motor falls out of step and stops altogether.
(4) It requires an exciter which adds to the cost and is an additional piece of apparatus liable to
breakdown.

Its constant speed may be either an advantage or a disadvantage. It is an advantage where a

constant speed is desired under varying loads, e.g. motor-generator sets, fans, and air-compressors. It
is a disadvantage in cases where a variable speed is required, e.g .. haulages, and clearly a synchronous
motor cannot be used for such a purpose.

3. Carefully describe tlic construction a11d action of a 3-plzase slip-ring induction. motor, say for 150 H.P.
at 725 r.p.m. 50 cycles, 3,000 volts. IU1,strate your answer by a sketch showing how the moto» may
be connected to the s11pply and: its speed controlled.

SLIP-RING INDUCTION MOTOR.

The adjoining sketch shows a complete diagram o( connections for a. slip·rlng induction motor
-suitable for.. driving, say, a haulage where reversal and speed control are required.
The motor itself consists of (a) a stator
wound for three phases and supplied with
alternating current from the line via three
fixed terminals on the stator frame ; and (b)
a rotor, also wound for 3-phases having their STA1'0R
(.11'.(.UIT
outer ends connected to three slip rings on
the rotor shaft and their inner ends connected
together to form a star point. The leads
from the brushes bearing on these slip rings
are connected to (c) a variable external
resistance, in this case a controller of the
liquid type, whereby the resistance of the
rotor circuit may be varied at will.
Slip-ring Induction Motor.'
Supply is given to the motor stator via
(1) a main oil switch fitted with an ammeter, a voltmeter (operated through a potential transformer,
P.T.), overload coils, and a no-volt release, and (2) a starting and reversing switch to transpose two of
the stator phases when reversal is required. ·
Action of the motor.
When 3-phase alternating current is supplied to the stator, a rotating magnetic field is set up which
cuts the rotor windings and induces alternating currents therein. We thus have conductors carrying
current in a magnetic field and a torque is developed which causes the rotor to revolve at approximately
(but not quite) the speed of the rotating field, the difference being termed the" slip."
On a 50-cycle supply, an 8-pole motor would be required to give a synchronous speed of 750
r.p.m. and an actual speed of 725 r.p.m.

The motor is started with the whole oI the resistance in the rotor elreult, This limits the starting
current to about 1 ·5 times the full load current and gives a starting torque of about twice the full load
torque. As the motor speeds up, the resistance is gradually cut out, so maintaining a high torque
throughout the starting period until nearly full speed is reached. Thereafter, the motor settles down
to develop its normal foll load torque. When the motor is running, speed control may be obtained by
varying the resistance in the rotor circuit. Considerable heat, however, is generated in the controller
and this must be removed by circulating cooling water through a nest of tubes mounted in the liquid.
A slip-ring motor is suitable for drives where a large starting torque must be developed or where
speed control is desired, ~.g. haulages, a.c. winders, large fans, washery drives, or screen drives.
 LR/~
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. A/3

4. A 6-pole i1~ductio1i motor is supplied by a1i 8-pole alternator rmmi11g at i50 r.p:n, If the slip of lite
motor is 3%, what is its actual speed i1~ r.psn. ?
SPEED OF INDUCTION MOTOR.
The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the frequency of the supply and the number of
pairs of poles in the motor.
750
Frequency of supply = Revs. per sec. x No. of pairs of poles in alternator = - x 4 = 50 cycles per
60 sec.
Frequency x 60 50x60
Synchronous speed of motor In r.p.m, = - 1,000 r.p.m,
No. of pairs of poles in. motor 3
Slip = 3% of l,000 = 30 r.p.m, and Actual speed or motor = 970 r.p.m.
(Note. Some students wrongly imagine that the speed of the motor will be 750 r.p.m. less=~% =
727 · 5 r.p.m., whereas this could only be true if the motor had the same number of poles as the alternator
namely 8 poles. With a given frequency, the synchronous speed varies inversely as the number of
poles.]

5. (a) What is a static transformer and wha/. do yon mldersta11d by its" ratio" ? (b) A 3-phase a.c.
motor of 100 B. HP ; 500 voUs ; 0 · 7 power factor ; is s1tpplierlfrom a transformer. The s1ipply
to the transformer is at 3,000 uolts, What v:iU be the primary and. secondary line currents of the
transformerif tit~ efficiency of the motor is 90% aud that of the transformer 92% ?

THE STATIC TRANSFORMER.

(a) The transformer is a stationary apparatus which changes the voltage of an a.c. supply, either
up or down according "to requirements, with a corresponding opposite change in the value of the
current, the power remaining unchanged apart from a small loss which is dissipated as heat .
.
In essentials, a single-phase transformer consists of a laminated iron core in which an alternating
flux is induced by an alternating current in a coil of insulated wire, called the primary winding.
Interlinked with this magnetic circuit, but insulated from the primary, is another coil, called the
secondary winding, and, in both these windings, an alternating E.M.F. is induced, due to the coils
· ' being continually cut by the alternating magnetic flux. The ratio of the primary induced E.:M.F. to
the secondary induced E.M.F. depends on the ratio of the number of turns in the two windings
respectively, and is referred to as the "transformation ratio."
In a 3-phase transformer, there are three sets of primary and secondary windings (one set for each
phase) mounted on the three limbs of an iron core. The ratio of the primary and secondary phase
voltages depends on the ratio of the turns in each phase. The ratio of the terminal voltages depends
on the manner of connection on each side, whether in star or in delta.

•
The "ratio of a transformer" may be defined as the ratio of' the primary and secondary terminal
voltages on no load, This ratio changes slightly when the transformer is on load, depending on the
"regulation" of the transformer .
(b) Calculation.
The line current on the secondary slde at 500 volts will be the same as the current taken by the
motor. ·
,Y3 EC cos 0
B.HP of a motor = ------- x efficiency of motor (0 · 9}
746
B.HP x 746 100x746
. · . Secondary Current = C
,Y3 x E x cos 0 x Effy. y'3 x 500 x O·i x 0·9
= 137 atnps = line current on the secondary side of the transformer.
74·6
Output of motor= 100 HP= 74·6 kW. Input to motor= -- = 83 kW.
0·9
83
kVA input to motor= - = 118·5 kVA = output of transformer in kVA.
0·7
118·5 v3 EC

•
Input to transformer - --= 129 kVA =
0·92 1,000
129 x 1,000
. · . Primary current = C= 24·8 amps.
v3 x 3,000
[Alternatlvely, the line current on the primary side at 300 volts will be one-sixth of the secondary
current at 500 volts if the efficiency were 100%. But the transformer efficiencyis only 92%.
137 100
LR/S
Principles of A.C. lvlachinery,
A/4

6. A 3-pliase transformer connected. in delta-star, is supplied with current al 3,000 volts a11d gives current
to a load at HOO volts. If tltis current i .... 400 amps. at a power factor of0·75, determine {ci} tlte kW
output ; (b) the I~ VA input if the transformer has mt efficieiicy of 06% ; (e) the primary phase
voltage and current : and: (rl) the secondary phase voltage and. current,

TRANSFORMER PROBLEM.
v3 EC cos 0 ,13 x 600 x 400 x 0·75
(a) kW output = 311·76 kW.
1,000 1,000

an ··76
{b) kVA output - 415 · 68 kVA. But the efficiency is given as 96%
0·75

100
. · . kVA input to transformer = 415·68 x = 433 kVA •
96
(c) Primary phase voltage (delta) = "line voltage 3,000 volts.
433 x 1,000
Primary line curreu t = 83·3 amps.
y3 x 3,000

line current 83·3

Primary phase current (delta) 48 amps.
v3 ,13
line voltage 600
(d) Secondary phase voltage (star) 346 · 4 volts.
y3 y3
Secondary phase current (star} = line current = 400 amps.

7. In a star-connected 3-pltas~ system, the neutral point is frequently earthed. ·what advantages are
claimed for this ? ·

ADVANTAGES OF EARTHING THE NEUTRAL POINT.

(1} The maximum shock voltage between any one line conductor and earth-is limited to the phase
voltage which is only about 58% of tho line voltage. When the neutral point is insulated from earth,
the maximum shock voltage is equal to the full line voltage.
(2) If a fault to earth occurs on one phase, there is at once a complete direct return circuit via
earth to the neutral point and the leakage current flowing ma.y be used to operate an automatic leakage
protective device designed to trip the switch and isolate the circuit from the supply before it develops
in to a more serious fault between two phases.
{3) A circuit, with .58 per cent of the line voltage, is obtainable for lighting or other purposes by
connecting one line through a load to earth.
(4) In the case of a transformer, if the neutral point on the low tension side is earthed, this will
prevent that side from being charged to a high potential if a fault should develop between the H.T. and
L.T. windings.
(5) Leakage protective gear is more reliable,
The chief advantage claimed for an insulated neutral is that, if a lault to earth develops on only
one phase, there is no direct earth return and the system may continue to nm for some time without
interruption, provided that the insulation of the other .two phases is good. Such a fault may soon be
followed, however, by an earth fault on another phase, or by a short-circuit between phases, and the
benefit is then lost.

A. Mcuy & ce., Ltd., Ely, Cudllf.

 LR/9
1

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CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN}. 'l'OUR OWN U91t

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Lesson LR/9

TRANSMISSION LINE CALCULATIONS

The ultimate aim of the designer of a.n clecteical transmission line is to produce a line which is
mechanically sound, cheap in first cost, and economical in running. ..All those factors are inter-related
and, with un extensive system, the problem becomes & difficult one necessitating treatment, by experts.
At. the same time, the main principles should be thoroughly understood by the student of these
lessons.
The chief factors n.liect;ing the size (sectional areu} of the conductors in a. cable or overhead
line a.re:-
J (n) Economy
(b) Current carrying capacity
(e) Permissible voltage drop
ECONOMY
When .other conditions permit of n. decisicn being made solely on economical considerations
the object a.imcd u.t is that the total annunl cost of I2R (heat) losses, plus charges for interest on
outluy and deprociation shall be a minimum. It will be appreciated that, if the size of conductors
be increased, there will bo tin increase in the initial cost of u. transmission line, with resulting increased
yearly charges for interest and deprccio.tion. At tho same -time, tho I2R losses will decrease in
direct proportion to the increased· croas-secbional area of the conductors. It is found that the
resultant cost is a. minimum whon the cost of J%R losses is equal to the sum of interest and
deprociobion. This is known u...'5 }telvin 's Law which is stated moro explicitly e...<; follows :-

•
If the capilal 01tilay on conductors varied. i1l. strict proportion: lo 1oeig/it. of metal, then tile most
economical size of wnduetor 11Jould be that for which the a.nm1ai cost of interest and depreciation.
equalled the annual cost of energy icasted,
This lnw is applicable more partlcularly to bare overhead lines than to insulated eablcs, for the
cost of 11.n overhead line is more nenrly proportional to the weight of coppor used in the eonductors.
If consideration of voltage drop arc not important (and they usually ure), the standard size of
conductor which is nee.rest to that found by Kelvin's Law is the size installed.

CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
The flow of current along o. conductor resu!ts in a. loss of energy, which varies as the square of
the current, and is commonly known as an PR loss. The energy thus lost generates heat, which is
in part absorbed, causing u. rise in temperature, and in part is dissipntcd by radiction, convection
and conduction. The conductor e.tWt.ins u, steady state of tcmpernture when the total heat
dissipated from the exterior surface is cquol to the total heat generated in the conductor. '.rhe
steady temperature attained marks a balance, as it were, between the hent generated and the heat
dissipated.
The heat generated will depend upon the current carried and the resistance of the conductor.
The current may be varinble (due to a. vueiable load) and an R.M.S. value of the vnrlations is the
value which determines tho heat generated. The dcterminc.tiou of this vulue is often difficult, and
when found it is not of much use in determining the size of cable required as there are so many other
vo.rio.blcsto be te.kon into account. In practice, the me.ximum current to be carried for n.ny appreciable
length of time, say 5 minutes and over, is the value of the current which decides tho size of conductor.
If very large current peaks are cn.rrted for shorter intervals u. lower value tho.n the maximum may
be chosen, the precise determination being e. matter tha.t calls for judgment based on experience.

(5902)
LR/9
T'ramsmission. Line Calculations

The heat dissipated depends largely on the conditions surrounding the conductor, including:-
(u) The type of insulating covering (as in a. cu.ble)
(b) The type of protective covering provided over the insulated conductor
(c) The proximity of other conductors (as in a. cable)
(d) The situution of the cable.
Paper-insulated lead-sheathed cables can, generally speaking, be loaded to a. higher temperature
than vulcanised bitumen or vulcunised rubber cables, due to tho softening of the bitumen and
physical deterioration of the rubber iit high temperatures. .As a general rule it may be taken that
paper-insulated cables can carry 50% more current, than bibumen-insuluted cables without injury
to the insulating substance.
The maximum temperature attained by a cable also depends upon the proportion of heat-
rndia.ting surface to conductor-urea, The conductor-erea of a. twin-ccre cable is twice that of a
single-core cable ult.hough the rudiabmg surface is not doubled. 'I'hus twin cable will only carry
85% to 90% of the current carried by two single-core cables of th1~ same couductor-area. A three-
core cable will, for the same renson , carry only about 7!i% of the current carried by three single-core
cables of the same conductor-areu, The maximum ternperuture at.to.incd further depends upon the
method of laying the cable. If it is buried in the ground it will have a somewhat. higher current-
carrying capacity than if luid in troughing, and also a higher carrying cupucity than if suspended
in warm air. In cold air there will be greater hea.t dissipated, and the capacity will be higher, the
lower the temperu.tnre of the air.

Permissible Current Density

In a bare overhead line, the conditions for disaipa.tion of heat. are ideal and the question of
insulating covering being injured by excessive hea.ting docs not arise. 'I'he size of the conductors
is therefore determined, not 50 much by the permissible current density as by considerations of
economy, or of permissible voltage drop. •
In a cable, the permtssiblc current, density depends on its type and size, and on its si.t.uation.
Tubles are published by the leading manufacturers giving the current-carrying cnpucities or'various
kinds and sizes of cable, n.nd reference must be made to these for full details.
Broadly speaking, a current density of about 1,000 amps. per sq. inch, is permissible for large
paper-insulated eubles in which each conductor has an area of about 0·5 sq. in. The permissible
current density increases, however, a..-; the size of conductor decreases. Thus, for 0 ·I sq. in.
conductors, a. current density of 2,000 amps. per sq. inch is allowublo ; for 0·05 sq. in., 3,000 amps.
per sq. inch ; aud for 0 · 01 sq. in. a current density of 4,000 amps. per 1-1q. inch muy be permitted.
'I'he reason for· the increased density being permissible with the smaller sizes of cable is that the
radiating surface only decreases in proportion to the dia.m. whereas the sectional area. decreases as the
squure of the diameter. The figines given above are only approximate, but they will serve as a
guide when tables are not available. Sufficient has been said to show that no arbitrary figure as to
permissible current density can apply to a.ll cases alike, and reliance must be placed on judgment and
experience.

PERMISSIBLE VOLTAGE DROP

In the majority of t.runsmission line calculations, it is. necessary to keep within a certain
prescribed limit of pressure drop, und this factor usually outweighs the question of (a) maximum
economy, and renders impracticable the loading of the conductors up to (b) the permissible current
density. The perrnissiblc voltage drop varies considerably from about 2-!% in the case of lighting
circuits Ul) to <IS much as 10% or even 15% in the easo of long distance power transmission. In d.c.
transmission, the only cause of voltage drop in the line is the ohmic resistance of the conductors.
Jn a.c. transmission, the problem is complicated by the fact tha.t the voltage drop is due, not only to
.obmic resistance, but also inductive reactance, and account must be taken of both factors. The
resultant. of the two voltage drops is called the impedance voltage drop.

DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION .

In an ordinary d.c. line, there arc two conductors, namely tho lead and the return conductors.
A eerbuin amount of pressure (voltage) is expended in causing the current to flow from the supply
(generator) to the receiving end (load), and a, similar amount is expended in the return conductor.
The received voltage is thus less than the supply voltage by twice the drop in each conductor,
nnd the totn.l voltage drop is :-
Voltage drop = V1~ = 2IR volts .. .. (l}
Where I = current in amperes; R = resistance of each conductor in ohms.
'.rhe power loss in tra.nsmission is dissipated &S heat, and its value is given by :-
Heat loss = 2I~R watts __ ,............... .. . . .. . .... (2)
 LR/9
The Universal ll'1ining School, Cardiff
3

The value of R depends on the length of the line, the u.ree. of the conductors, and the resistivity
(specific resistance} of the conducting material, and is given by the formula :-
pl
Resistance per conductor = R = - . . .. . . . . .. .. .. . . .. (3)
. A
Where l = length of trcnsmission line (one conductor only);
A = sectiona.1 ar~n. of each conductor in sq. in. ;
p = resistivity of conducting mnteria.l.
The resistivity p may be expressed in microbms per inch cube, or in some other similar way.
'I'hus it might be expressed cs the reaistunce in ohms (or microhms) of a. rod of the same material as
the conductor, having a sectional aren of l sq. in. and a. length. of 1 yard. But whatever unit; of
length is used in stating the value of p, the same unit must be used in stating the value of l (namely
inches or yards respective)y in the two cases mentioned). The value of p for hard-drawn copper is
variously taken as about O· 65 to 0· 69 microhms per inch cube, or {for pracbical purposes) as 25
rnicrohms for a. rod having o. sectionel areu, of 1 sq. inch nnd a. length of 1 yurd,
Example 1. A d.c. line is 1,000 ycls. long ond each of the two conductors has :L sectional n.ret~
of 0 · 35 sq. inch. The current transmitted is 120 amps. and the supply voltage is 500. Find (a) bhe
voltage drop and (b) the power loss in· tho line. Tu.ke the resistivity as 0 · 66 microhms per inch cube.
pl 0·6G x 1,000 x 36
Answer (a) Resistance of each conductor= R = - = = 0·0679 olun.

•
A 10° x 0·35
:. Volt.age drop in line = 2IR = 2 x 120 x 0·0679 = 16·296 volts.
(b) Power loss in line = 21:R = 2 x 120: x 0·0679 = 1.055·52 watts.
Example 2. The input hp. to o. proposed d.o. line 1,000 yds. long is 120 hp., the voltage being
4:30. The permissible voltage drop is 10% nnd the resisto.ncc of a rod (of the same material as the
conductor) having a sectional t\l"e& of 1 ~q. inch and o. length of l yd. is 25 microhms. Find (a)
the sectjonal area of the conductors required, and (b) the power loss in transmission.
,
Voltage drop Vn
Answer (a} Resistance of line = 2R - --------
current I
IO watts 120 x 7-16
But. VR = X 4.50 = 45 volts, uud I = ---- ------ = Hl!J amps.
100 volts 450
4:)
:. 2R = - = 0- 226 ohm : and resistance of one conductor = R = 0· 113 ohm.
199
pl pl
But R = - a.ndA =-
A R

•
25 x 1,000
:. Area of each conductor = -------- = O· 22 sq. in .
108 x 0-113·
(b) Power Loss= 212R = 2 x 1992 x 0-113 = 8,950 watts(= 10% of 120 hp.)

ALTERNATING CURRENT TRANSMISSION

(i) Single-phase 11.c. Neglecting the effect of the reacbance of tho line, the calculations for the
resistance drop in a. single-phase tnu1~-mission line aro precisely the same as those for a d.c, line except
that nllowance must be made for the power factor of the load when deducing tho value of the
current {unless this is given).
(ii} Three-phase a.c. Neglecting the effect of rea.cta.nce :-
Line voltage drop ---" Vn = y3 x IR volts .. .. . . (4)
where I = current .ixi amperes ; R = resistance of each conductor in ohms.
Heat or power loss in line = 3 FR watts .... ---· ...• . .... --· -·- .. .. .. -····· .. (5)
In connection with formulae (4) o.nd {5), the following points should be carefully noted r-c-
(a) The product IR gives the resistance voltage drop per phase and must be multiplied by tov3
give the voltage drop between line conductors (i.e. the line voUagedl'op) us Indicated by voltmetees
placed o.t tho sending and receiving ends of the line (neglecting the effect of reactancc). Conversely,
if the permisaible voltage drop is given, it refers to the drop in the line voltage (unless otherwise
stu.ted) and must be divided by v3
to obtain the voltage drop per phase.
(b} The product PR is the power dlsslpated as heat in each conductor and must be multiplied
by 3 to obtain the total power loss In the line. The total power loss is also given by V.a I,v3
where Vn is tho line voltage drop due to resistance.
The cbovc statements apply equally to star and deltu-connected circuits, for a given supply
line voltege, und tho size of conductor required for a given power loss, or voltage drop, is the same
in both cases.
I.R/9
Transmission Line Calculations
4

Example 3. (a) What, must be the area of each conductor, assuming the same conditions as
in the previous example (2), except that the system is 3-pha.se a.c. und tho power factor of the load
is 0 · 8 : and (b) what is now the power loss in t.he l ne ~ Neglect the rcactance of tho line.
10
Answer (n) Linc voltage drop = - x 450 = 45 volts.
100
45
Voltage droll per phase = - = 26 volts. (spprox.)
\!3
Wat.ts 120 x 746
143 · 6 amps.
,!3 v x cos"' \!3 x 450 x 0·8
phase voltage· drop 26
Resistance of each conductor = ---------- 0· 181 ohm.
current 143·6
Pl 25 x 1,000
Area of each conductor = - 0·138 sq. in.
R 106 x 0· 181
(bl Power loss per phase =PR = (143·6)2 x 0· 181 = 3,i30 watts.
And total power loss = 3 x 3,730 = 11,190 watts ( = 12· 5% of 120 hp.)
If the ]lower factor had been unity, the current would only have been 115 amps. and the area of
the conductors 0·11 sq. in. Also the power loss would have been the same as in the d.c. case
instead of being 25% greater. 'I'his once again emphasises the desirability of keeping the power
factor as near unity as possible.

COMPARISONS BETWEEN D.C. AND 3-PHASE A.C. TRANSMISSION

'I'hc following remarks neglect the effect of the rcacesnce of un a.c. line.
(1) If the current density is the same in each ease, the voltage drop In a 3-phase a.c. 9:Jsteru is
\!3
only - = 0·866 times that in a d.c. system.
2
(2) If the current density is 1,0-00 amps. per sq. inch in each case, the resistance voltage drop per
100 yds. of transmission line (including the return conductor in the d.c. line) is
2·5 x 2 = 5 volts (upproximntoly} in the case of d.c.
and ~·5 X \/3 = 4·3 volts (epproximately) in the case of 3-phase a.e,
This is independent of the Iine voltage, or of the power eransmitted, or of the power factor of
the system, or of the size of the conductor. The resists.nee voltage drop in any length of trans-
mission line can thus be easily estimated, provided its length is known, and provided the current
density is 1,000 amps. per sq. inch. If the current density be greater than 1,000 amps. per sq. inch,
the voltuge drop will be greater in proportion : and vice versa if the current density bo less.
The foregoing figures are worth memorising because thoy enuble an easy check to be made on
results calculntcd from first, principles. Thus in the d.c. problem given in Example (2), the current
199
was 199 amps. and the area 0 · 22 sq. inch, giving a. current density of - = 900 amps. per sq. inch.
0·22
If it had been 1,000 umps. per sq. inch, the voltage <hop in the 1,000 yds. of line would have been
!iO volts (i.e. 5 volts per 100 yds.) but, a.s bhe density is only 900 amps. per sq. inch the V.D. is
900
~- x 50 = 45 volts as implied in the question. Similarly in the three-phase a.c. Example (3),
1,000
143·6
-the current was 143 · 6 amps. and the area. 0 · 138 sq. in. giving a current density of-- = 1,050 umps.
. 0· 138
1,040
per sq. inch (approx.). The line voltage drop, therefore, is equal to 4·3 x 10 x -- = 45 volts
(nearly), thus affording a. ready check on the results. 1,000
(3) For a given line voltage, a given power transmitted, and the same power loss and voltage drop
in each case, a 3-phase line requires only 75% of the copper required in 11 d.c. line, provided the power
factor of the a.c, system is unity. (In examples (2) and (3) two conductors of 0 · 22 sq. in. were required
for the d.c. Iino and three conductors of 0· 11 sq. in. for the 3-ph~e a.c. line :it unity power factor).
The current density in the 3-phnse Iino, however, is about 15% greater than in the d.c. line.
f
(4} If conductors or the same sectional area are used, and il they are worked at the same current '
density and line voltage, then, assuming unity power factor, the 3-phase line will transmit \/3 times the
power transmitted by a d.c. line of the same length, the resistance voltage drop and power loss being
v3 + 2 = 0 · 866 times that in the d.c. line. Of course, the 3-phu.se system under such circumstances
would require 50% more copper than the d.c, system.
 LR/9
The. Uniuersai Jlrfining School, Cardiff

In a given a.c. line, the voltage drop varies inversely Mi the power factor of the load, and the
1:iR power loss varies Inversely as the square of the power factor. Thus, if the power factor is O· 8,
l
the voltage drop will be - = l ·25 times greater then if the P.F. had been unity; and the PR
0·8
l l
loss wm be 1·5G times greater thnn o.t unity P.F. This shows very clearly the
0·8'! 0·64
great increase in power loss o..t low power factors.

REACTANCE IN A.C. TRANSMl~SION

It has been stated that the problem of ealculubing the tot;LI voltn.ge drop in u.1 n.c, circuit is
complicated by the effect of inductance so that account must be taken of the reactanee of the line as
well ns of its resistance, each producing a. volta.ge drop. This is especially the case with single-core
cables or with bare overhead lines, for the recctance of o. transmission line increases with the distance
between conductors. Reuetancc is of less importance with B-col'e cables and can sometimes be
ignored in practice in so for t\S eulculabions for pressure drop arc concerned. ·
It should be noted tho.t the total or impedance voltage drop is not equal .to the urithmeticnl sum
of the resistance a.nd reactance drops, for tho.t due to resistance is in pha-sawlth the current, whilst
tho.t duo to rcactance is in .quadrature with the curront and leads the current by 90°. This is
illustrated vectorio.lly in fig. 1, where the vector I represents
the current and Vn represents tho resistance voltage drop
in phase with the current, i.e. the voltage tha.t is expended
in overcoming the resistance. The vector VL represents the
voltage expended in overcoming tho reactance of the circuit.
It will be remembered that whenever an alternating current
flows in a circuit possessing inductance, a voltage is induced
which lags 90° behind' the current, and to overcome the
induced voltage, o. voltage must be applied which is equal
and o~osite and thus leads the current- by 90°. In other Fig. 1. Vector Diagram
words, the reaetance voltage drop is out of phase with the
current by 90°. These two volt~ga drops, VR and VL, must therefore be combined vectoriully a.t
right-angles to find the total voltage.drop, Vz, necessary to overcome the impedance of the line and
leading the current by an angle rp which depends on the rclanivo values of resistance und reactonce.
To find the reactance voltage drop. This is given by the formula :-
Reactance voltage drop per conductor = VL = 2rr fL x I .......(6).
Where 2rr fL = reactancc of each conductor in ohms ; ·
f frequency in· cycles per second ;
L = inductance of ea.ch conductor in henrys ;
I = line current in amperes.
To obtain the line voltage drop due to renctance, the value of VL given by formula (6) must be

•
multiplied by 2 for single phase transmission, and by y3 for 3-pha.sc transmission, just as in the
case of the resistance voltage drops .
To find the Impedance voltage drop. If the conductor resistance und rcactance drops Vu and
VL be calculated separately, the Impedance drop is given by the formulu i-e-
Impedance voltage drop per conductor= V:1. = y'Vnz vLz volts + (7)
It is often simpler, however, to find the resistance R and the reactauco X ( = 27T fL} of each
conductor, both in ohms, and from this calculate tho impedance, Z, of each conductor, thus:-
Impedance per conductor = Z = vfR2 + X! ohms (8).
\.Ve may then find the impedance voltage drop as follows:-
For single-phase a.e •• Impedance drop = 21Z volts .............. (9).
For three-phase a.c., Impedance drop = y'SIZ volts ............ (10}.

CALCULATION OF INDUCTANCE
(Note. The subject-matter from here to the end of this Lesson is, of necessity, a little involved,
ond is intended more for olectrieal students than for the purely mining student. The first six questions
o.t the end of tho Lesson can ~IL be answered without proceeding further than this point. It is
nevertheless very desirable that a.11 students should have a general knowledge of the principles dealt
with hereafter and this can only be obtained by studying the mutter in fair detail.)
Before formula (6) can be applied, it is necessary to have given or to calculate the value of tho

•
inductance L per conductor in henrys and, for this purpose, the following formula gives approximately
correct results :-- s
L = O· 0457 + 0·421 x log - millihenrys per 1,000 yds (11).
r
'\.Vhere L = inductance of each conductor in rnillihenrys ;
s =distance in inches between conductor centees ;
r = rudius of conductors in inches,
(The logeribhms used nre those based on 10, as is always the case unless otherwise specified)
LR/9
Transmission Line Calculations
()

This formula, as writton, is correct for either single-phase trunsmission having two conductors
s ins. apart, or 3-ph:u:;etransmission huving 3 conductors urronged at·thc corners of an equilateral
triangle with sides of length s ins. Where the spacing of the three conductors is irregulnr, however
the value of s should be taken as :\/~be, where a, b and e, are the respective distances between the
centres of the conductors. The formula assumes that the inductance is the same for each conductor,
this being achieved by transposing the positions of the conductors on the cross-arms <•t regulnr
intervals so that euch of the three conductors occupies a. parbiculur position relatively to the other
too for only one-third of the whole route.
It will be seen from formula. (11) tho.t the greater the

I
spacing, the greater will be the value or the inductance '' L •' Voltage of Spacingof
Line Conductor
and the greater also will be the reactancs voltage drop 2n!LI. ... _ ..
'J.'his is of importance in extra-high tension lines where the cco 2 re, 0 in!!.
spacing of the conductors must not be reduced below a certain
minimum in order to avoid danger of a. " flash-over " between
conductors. The udjoining table represents average practice
3.300
6,600
11,000
I 2 fc. :~ins.
2 n, G ins.
3 ft.. 0 ins.
2~.000 3 ft. 6 ins.
in the spacing of conductors in bare overhead lines. 33,000 I ""It. 6 in.s,
In the case of cables, the resistance reaceance, und impedance of each conductor of a cable of
given size and construction can often be obtained from tables supplied by the makers. The
reactcnce muy he neglected altogether in 3-core cables up to 0·03 sq. in. (conductor area) bocause the
resistance then forms by for the greater proportion of the combined (impedance) effect. As the size
of the conductor increases, tho rcacta.nce decreases slightly, but the resistance decreases much more
rapidly, with tile result thu.t the rcactance effect assumes gradually increasing importance. Thus
when the area of each core of 11, 3-core bitumen-insulated cable is 0 · 25 sq. in., the reactance (in
ohms) is about one-half the resisbauee (assuming a. frequency of 50) and the Impedance is about 20%
greuter than the resistance. In other words, the total voltage drop due to impedance is u.bout
20% greater than that due to resistance alone. When the conductor-area is 0:5 sq. in. the
rcactunce is actually slightly greuter than the resistance, and the impedance is about 60% greater
than the resistance. ·
If the voltage drop. be found excessive in any particular case, the remedy is to decrease the
current density, either by providing additiona.l conductors so tlw..t the current is shared~ or by
installing larger conductors. If the system is a.e, another remedy is to improve the power factor
of the system, for it will be remembered tlmt the nearer unity the P.F., tho lower will be the current
for ;t given power output.

CAPACITANCE OF CABLES
H will be understood tha.t cables tra.nsmitliing alternating current have capacitance, inasmuch
as they consist of considerable areas of. conductor placed close together and separated by insulating
material, a cupacitor being thus formed. 'l'hc effect of capacitance is to neutralise to some extent
the elicct of inductance, but the capacitance effect is usually so small that it is neglected. In any
case, the procedure of neglecting the capacitunce assumes a voltage drop somewhat. higher than the
correct voltage drop, which is a fault on the right side and allows of some mcrgin when choosing a
suitable size of cable for a particular job.
Example 4. l.n a certain 3-pha.sc transmission line, the resistance per conductor is 0 · 23 ohm
and the inductance per conductor is 0 · 23 milli-henry. The frequency is 50 cycles per second end
a current of mo amps is flowing. Find the impedance voltage drop in the line.
Answer. Resistance per conductor = R = 0 · 23 ohm.
2 x 3·1416 x 50 x 0·23
Reacta.uco per conductor = X = 211'fL = = 0 · 07 2 ohm.
1,000
Impedance per conductor = v' R2 + X2 = v'0·232 + 0·0722 = v'0·058084 = 0·24J ohm.
Voltage drop per conductor= current X impedance = 130 X 0·241 = 31·33 volts.
:. Impedance voltage drop = 31·33 x y'3 = 54 · 26 volts.
Alternative method; Resistance voltage drop per conductor =IR = 130 x 0·23 = 29·9 volts.
Rcactance vcltnge drop per conductor = I X 27.fL.
= 130 x 2 x 3·141G x .50 x 0·00023 = 9·39 volts.
Impedance voltage drop = y'29 · 92 + 9 · 39: x y'3 = 31 · 33 x y'3 = 54 · 26 volts.
'.rhc following example is somewhat more complicated, but is included to show how the various
formulae may he applied. ·
Example 5. A :).phu~e eruusmissicn line from a power station.is supplied at 3,000 volts, 50 cycles,
3-phase. The line consists of wooden ." H" poles and 3 stranded copper conductors, each having
an urea of 0·075 sq. inch (0·388 ins. diam.), the conductors being supported on a single cross-arm.
A conductor is carried on an insulator- n.t each end of the cross-arm and one in the middle of the
cross-arm, the distance between adjacent conductors being 2 ft. 3 ins. Allowing 1,000 amps. per
c
sq. in. of conductor, what will be the voltage a.t the loud end of the line which is 8,800 yards away ~
Assume the voltage drop to be in phase with the supply voltage. Take p as 25 microhms per yd.
for a rod 1 sq. inch in area.
 LR/9
The Universal, .~Mining School, Cardiff
7

Answer. First find the resistance per 1,000 yards of conductor, then the inductonce and
renctance per 1,000 yards ; combine these to find the impedance per 1,000 yards, und the.11 calculate
the impedunce of the whole line ; finally determining the current curried , the voltage drop, and the
-~ ...; voltage at the loud end.
~ e» ·' pl 25 x 1,000
Resistance per 1,000 yds. of conductor = - = ------ 0·333 ohm.
A 10' x O·Oi5
s
Inductance per 1,000 yds. of conductor= L = 0·0457 +
0·421 x log - millihenrys.
r
Wheres = 3vu. b c .= 3y27-x 27 x 54 = 3y2 x 27 = 34 ins.
And r = 0·388 .;- 2 = 0·194: ins.
[Note. As the conductor is stranded, the diameter given does not correspond to thnt of o. solid
conductor having the same effective sectional arca.]
I; 34
Hcnc<." - = -.-- = 175 (nea.dy}; log 175 = 2·2430.
r 0·194:
., Inductance =·L = 0·0457 + 0·421 x 2·243 = 0·0457 +
0·9443 = 0·99 millihenry.
Reactanee per 1,000 yds. of conductor = 2~fL (where L =inductance in henrys)
2 X 3·1416 x 50 x O·DD
= 0·311 ohm.
l,OGO
Impedance per 1,000 yards= v0·333! +-0.31!2 = 0·454 ohm.
Impedance of whole line. It is convenient first to find the impodanco per 1,000 yds. of
conductor in the foregoing manner because, for the same arrangement and size of conductors and
the sumo frequency, it is u. consto.nt; and where a large network of transmission lines all have the
same chaeectcristics, th~ impedance of any section of the line con be found by mu lbiplying the
figure 0·454 by tho number of thouscnds of yards of line. In this case :-
8,800
~
Total Impeda nee = 0 · 454 x --- = 3·99 = (say) 4 ohms.
1,000
Current. At o. current density ~f 1,000 amps. per sq. iueh, tho current in tho conductor having
an nren of 0 · 07 5 sq. inch = 75 amps.
Voltage drop per phase = current x Impedance = 75 x 4 = 300 volts.
Line voltage drop = y'3 x 300 = 520 volts.
As the voltage drop is ussurucd to be ill phase with the sup1ily voltage :-
Voltage at load end of line = 3,000 - 520 = 2,480 volts.
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
In a d,c. transmission line, where the voltage and current are nlways in phase, the voltage a.t
the load end of the line may be calculated simply by deducting tho voltage drop in the line

•
o.rithmetica.lly from the supply voltage. Thus if the supply voltage is 500, and the voltuge drop is
2~ volts, the voltage at the load will be 475 volts.
In an a.c, transmission line, the voltage a.t the load cud cannot always be obtained in this simple
manner because the supply voltage and load voltage are not necessurily in phase with each other.
resistance
In other words, the :rower factor of the loud and the rntio ----- of the transmission line arc
impedonce
not neccssnrily equal. In practice, this fact is often disregarded, a procedure which is justifio.blc
in the majorrty of cases because any slight error is on the ri1!ht side in mnintcining the voltage at
the load end of the line.
Fig. 2 gives a complete vector diagram
for an a.c, transmission lino having hoth
resistance and reactance, For convenience,
all the voltages (supply, load, and volcagc
drops) in so for as they refer to .3-pho.sc
transmisston, wil! be considered o.s voltages
to neutral so as to eliminate the factor '\/3
in a.11 cases alike. The voltage a.t the loo.cl
end is given by the vector Vr behind which
the current I lags by an angle q,. The small
triangle corresponds to the voltage-drop
~ diagram ulready given in fig. l and consists
i of (11) the rcsistunce voltage-drop IR parallel
to the current vector 01 (i.e. in phase with
the current) and (b) the reuctance voltage Fig. 2
drop 2nfLI, leading the current by 90°.
Vector Diagram of phase relationships in
These two drops are combined to give the
11.c. transmission line
impedance voltage drop V ,..
Ll{./9
Tvumemiseicm. Line Calculations
8

It will be seen the.t the voltage drop Vz (represented by the hypotenuse of tho small tria.ngle}
is not necessarily in phase with the received voltage Vr because the angle ct between Vz and tho vector
IR depends on the relative values of IR and ~lLI which will vary according to the construction
of the line. The voltage Vs <Lt the supply encl will be the vectorial sum of the received voltage Vr
and the voltage drop v .. , combined ns shown in fig 2. The actuai voltage drop in the line is Vz, but
the appm·ent voltage drop ;~s read by voltmeters a.t each end of the line is V5-Vr which is not equal
to Vt. in this cuse : it would only he equal if Vz were in phase with Vr. 'l'hc method of calculating
the voltage drop V.,, has already been given, end the angle a can. ulso be found because tan. <•
21!'fLI
= ---. If either Vs or Vr is known, and also its phaso relationship to the current (i.e. the angle
IR
included between the known voltage and the current I) the diagram can be drawn to scale. This
is the simplest method of determining the apparent voltage dTOJJ.
The procedure is as follows :- t
t(
Assume that tho voltcge Vr at the load end, and the power factor of the load arc known, and also
the ourrcnt in the line, und the reactance and resistance of the line. Referring to fig. 2-, draw ti. line
c
(
to represent the current = OI; this need not. ho to scale. Drow another line OVr at an angle to ~~
~
01 corresponding to the power factor, Le. the o.ugle whose cosine is tho power factor of the load. 8t
This line should, to some convenient, scale, represent the value of the voltage received. Druw the -
-!
>
resistance drop IR to the sarne scale us OVr and parallel to OJ,. an d set up the 'reactive voltage drop (

2nfLI to the sauio scnlc rmd a.t right-angles to 01. This gives the points Vz and, V8• Join Vr and 1...
Vs, and nlso 0 and Vs. The line joining Vr a.nd Vs ropresents to scale tho actual voltage drop a.nd
also gives its phase rclatdonship to tho 'current. The Iine joining 0 and Vs represents to seule the
voltage of supply to the line. Measure this voltage. The mrmericul difference between this voltage
and tho voltage Vr then gives the apparent volt~e drop as read by voltmeters at each end of tho
line. It will he noted that, in the case. mustrakd, tho power factor at the generator (or _supply) is
less than that o.t the load, i.e. tho.t the current lags behind the supply voltage by o. greo.ter angle thnn
_behind the load voltage. This, of coursevis not Invariably the case and depends largely on the mtio
of IR to 2;;- ILI, i .e, on the rcsista.uec and reactcnce of the line as compared with the 11owcrfactor
of tho land.

TEST PAPER LR/9

J. JI., fa required to trnnsrnit, 5 K\Y. d.c. power R.t
250 volts for lighting purposes l\t n diseunce of
SQO yards from u. powor station. Tho per-
rnisaible voltuge drop is 5 volts. \Vlmr. is
t.he minimum si7.A of conductor tho.t can bu
used Assume the 1·er;ist,{Lnceof 1 ynrd of
conductor having nn aren of 1 sq. in. to be
0 · 000025 ohm.
2. A d.c. motor of 75 h.p. output is situut.cd 650 yard»
inbyA from the shaft-bottom, where current
o,t •t50 volts is avnilable. If the motor's
officioncy is 90% and the voltage drop in the
coblo is not to exceed 5%, givo sizo und typo
of coble which should be inatnlled. Tho
restst.ivivy is to be taken as 0 · 00 microhm
per inch cube.
3. Tho copper ecnduccoes of uu ovorboud 3-phuso
transmission lino 1,500 yards long o.ro 0· l '18
mchea diameter. Tho resiseance per conductor
is 0 · !lll:3 ohm per 1,000 ynrds, Power is put
into tho line nt. 3,300 volts, nnd nt tho rote or
600 kilowutts, Tho power fu.ctor is 0 · 8 (a.)
Whnt, i.q tho drop in voltuge due to re.qi'\tance ?
(b) If you know of nny other foct.or thnn those
given, Lhnt. would nffect, the drop iu voltage,
stutc whut it Is but Ignore it in calculating
your answer. (c) State also the power loss
in the line ns n. percentnge of tho power input.
4. A 3-phuso truasmission lino has buro copper
conduct-era 0 ·0,1, sq. inch sectional area and is
one mile long. Tho resistance of copper wiro ·
having a. sect.ionnl area. of O·O~ sq. inch is 0·6
ohm per 1,000 ynrds, J=:Jectric power i!I fed
to the Iino o.t. the rnto of 1,000 K\V. o.t :J,300
volts und tho power foctor i!I 0 · 8. \'\'hat
kilowatt.'! ure delivered by the Lrnnsmi.ssion
line?
5. A 3-phnse t.rnnsmission line 2 miles long consists
of bnro copper conductors 0 · 2 inch diameter.
Tho power put int.o tJm lino is 120 K~V. o.t
2,200 volts n.nd 0 · 7 power Inet.or-, Who.t will
be t>he drop in volt.age dne to rosismnco ?
A&'\llme Lho.L t.ho 1·csist.unce of 1,000 ..-ard.<1 of
copper wiro 0·025 sq. inch in o.rco.is i·O ohm.
6. Tho underground loRd on colliery electrical plant
is aqtirno.ted nt. 1,000 kilo·watt.q at. n power
foclor of 0 · 7 :>. 'l'h i>l power hn.8 to bo 1.rnns-
mitt.ed o. dista.nco of 900 yllrda fro1n tho J>OW!)r
stutio11 ut tho eurfaco to tho underground
distribution board, State the eize nncl t.ype
of cable you would employ, nssuming t.ho
system to be 3-phu.so with o. voltugo of 3,300
uvailublo ut t-ho surfoce. Assume a. pormi<i-
siblo pressure drop of JO volt.<;and a resi'\tivity
of 7·!l2. mic1·ohms per sq. inch per foot..
Neglect< the rcnctunco of tho cnblc.
[Qaeslions 7 and 8 11.re optional)
7. A 3-pho.se tre.nsmi<;.~ion line 5 miles long, r111\ nt
11,000 volts, 5Q cycles, consist.s of 0·1 sq.
incl\ section ~trunuctl conducton;. Thu rosii;.
~co of u line conductor is 0·24'4 ohm par
1,000 yurds, and the inductnnce 0·001 he1\ry
per 1,000 ya.l'ds. (n) \Vho.t KVA. can bo
t.rnnsmitted over t-ho line, allowing u c\l1'T1mt
density of 1,000 n.mps. per sq. inch, 11.nd (b)
WhP.t will be t.110 voltugo drop in tho lino with
this KVA Y
8. A colliory i9 supplied ~it.h elect.ric pov;or, from o.
powor station, over n. 1.rnnsmission line 4: miles
long hR.ving concluctora 0·15 sq. i1tch 1Lrcu
{or 0 -1198 inch clia.motor), tho suppl)• ut tho
powor st11tion being l,500 KVi'. o.t 6,000 volt..'!,
50 cycles, 3-pha.qe, 0 · i5 powe1· fnctor. 'l'here
nre three conducLors nrrunged vert.ic111ly,tho
spncing being S fcot. 'Vlmt will be t.ho actual
voltllgo clrop tuld percont.ago of power lo!lt. in
tho line ? As.sumi; p = 25 microhms por .sq.
inch per yo.rd.
 LR/!>

.-\' l
FOUNDED 1883.
THE U.M.6,
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD •• OO?Yf\lG/11
THIS PAPEr.
WAS THE FIRST

£J10of,
13 SUPPL.10::0 Of.I
CORRE6PONDENC:E
MINING SC:HOOl:--
Ut THE WORL.O.
~~~ ~""af ~ COSDITION
17 IS
THAT
llESE!IV!!D
EXCL.USIVEL.Y Fon
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). 'iOUR OWN U8E

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Answers LR/9
TRANSMISSION LINE CALCULATIONS
1. It is required. to transmit 5 KW d.c. power at 250 volts for lighting pw·po8r~~ at a. distance of 800 yd.s.
from a power station. 'l'he permissible t-'OUage d-rop iR 5 uolis, What is the minimum: size of
conductor that can be uscd t Assume the resistance of 1 yard of conductor havi'.ny a.n area of
1 sq. in. to be 0 ·00002;) ohm,
FINDING D.C. CONDUCTOR-AREA
Power transmitted = !l KW (d.c.) n.t 250 volts.
wutts ;j X 1,000
Current '= --- = 20 amps.
volts- 250
Voltage drop per conductor = 2 · 5 volts =IR
~ voltage drop
Resistance per conductor = R · 0· 125 ohm.
current 20
pl pl
ButR =- and A
A R
25 x 800
:. Area of conductor = A = ------ = 0·16 sq. inch.
10• x 0· 125

2. A d.c. mofo1· of 75 hp. output is situated 650 yd$, inbye from. the shaft bottom where czlrrenl at. 450
volts 1°8 acailable, If the -moior's efficiency is 90% mid the voltage drop in the cable is not Co
exceed 5%, yii;e .~izc and type of cable wliidi slundti be installed. The resistivity is lo be
taken. as 0 · 66 microlrm pei· inch cuhc.
D.C. CABLE PROBLEM.
5
Voltage drop in line = v,,. = 2IR x 450 = 22·5 volts.
100
To find the current.
100 750 250
HP output = 75 ; HP input = 75 X --HP.
90 9 3
VxI
But HP = ----, whcro V = voltage a.t motor = 427 · 5 volts.
746
HP x 746 250 x 746
:. Current = ------ = 145·4 amps.
v 3 x 427·5
To flnd the resistance per conductor.
Vn 22·5
2R = -- = -- = 0· 1548; :. R = 0·0774 ohm.
I 1-!5·4
To find the area of each conductor.
pl 11l 0 · 66 x 650 x :~G
R = - : :. A = - = = 0·2 sq. inch.
A R 10a x 0·0774
The roudway cable may -bc o. pnper-insulated, lead-sheathed, double-wire armoured, two-core
cable, each conductor having a. cross-sectional area. of 0 · 2 sq. inch. Alternatively, a. compound-
insulated cable may be used (essentially vulcanised rubber plus other patent ingredients), this type
having the advantage of greater flexibility.
(5902)
LR/9
A nsuiers on Transmission Line Calculations,
A/2

3, 'I'h« copper conductors of an overhead 3-pllwse transmission line 1,500 yd.s, long are 0·178 ins.
diameter. The resistamee per conductor is 0 · 965 ohm per l ,000 yds. Power is put into tile
line at 3,300 colts, and at the rate of 600 kilowatts. 'I'he power factor is 0 · 8. (a) What is the
drop in uoltaqcdue to resietancet (b) If you, /.."110w of any other factor than. these given, that
would affect the drop in ooltaqe, state what it i.s but ignore it fa calculating your a11,~u:er, (c)
State also lite power loss in the line as a percentage of the power in1nd.
RESISTANCE VOLTAGE-DROP IN A.C. LINE.
,13 VI cos<$
(a) Power input GOO KW = -------
l,000
600 x 1,000
Current = ----------- = 131 · 2 amps.
"'/B x B,BOO x 0·8
1,500
Resistance 1Jcr conductor = 0 · 965 x --- - = l · 44 7 5 ohms.
t,000
Voltage drop per conductor e» IR= 131·2 x 1·4475 = H}O volts.
:. Line voltage drop = l!lO x ,Y3 = 329. volts.
(It will be noted that some of the data. are redundant, tho diameter of the conductors not
entering into the ealculubion at all.)
(b) One factor that is ignored In the above calculation is the inductance of the line. This
phenomenon is only present, in u.c, tmnsmission lines and gives rise to un upparcnn resistance (in
addition to ohmic resistnnce} known as reactance, which has the effect of further reducing the voltage
at the load end. A second factor is the capacitance o( the line 'which has the effect of neutralising
some of the reactance voltage drop. Tho capacitance effect, however, is very small.and may for
practical purposes be ignored, the error being on the safe side. •
(c) The power loss in a.. c. lines, as in d.e. lines, is dissipated as heat in the conductors and is an
PR loss, i.e. it depends upon the current flowing and upon the ohmic resistance of the line.
Power loss per conductor =PR= (131·2)'.! X l ·4475 + ·1,000 = 24·916 KW .
Power loss in 3 conductors = 24·!H6 X 3 = 74·748 KW.
74·748
:. Percentage Power Loss = --- x 100 = (say) 12}%
600

4. A 3-pliase transmission. line ha» bare copper conductors0 · 04 sq. inch sectional area and is one mile
long. The res islance of COJ>lJer wire ltaving a sectional area. of 0 · 04- sq. inch is 0 · 6 ohm per
1,000 yds. Electric power is [ed. to the line at lite rate of 1,000 KW. at 3,300 volts and the
power factor is 0 · 8. W fiat kiknoatts are delivered by the transmission line ?
POWER DELIVERED BY 3-PHASE LINE.
The KW delivered ure found by deducting the power loss in trU.nsmission from 1,000 KW.
Power loss in transmlsstcn = 3PR watts.
Where I = current in amperes: R =resistance per conductor.
,Y3 x V x I x P.F.
Now Power supplied = 1,000 KW
1,000
1,000 x 1,000
Current I 218·7 amps.
v3 x 3,300 x o-s
1,760
And resistance per conductor = 0 · 6 x 1·056 ohm.
1,000
Hence power loss in transmission = 3 x (218 · 7)'.! x l · 056 + 1,000 = 151·5 KW.
., Power delivered = 1,000 - 151·5 = 848 · 5 Kilowatts

5. A 3-pha.se transmission line 2 miles kmg consists of bare copper conduetors 0 · 2 inch. diameter. 'l'lte
power put into lite line is 120 KW. at 2,200 volts and 0 · 7 power factor. What will be the drop
in voltage. due to resistance '! As1mme that the resistance of l,000 yaril:j of copper ioire 0 · 025
sq. inch in area is l·O ohm.
VOLTAGE DROP IN 3-PHASE LINE.
Line voltage drop = ,Y3 x IR volts.
Whore I = current : R = resistance per conductor.
w u.tt.'i 120 x 1,000
Now current = 45 amps.
,Y3 x V x PF 1·732 x 2,200 x 0·7
Area. of each conductor= 0·2 X 0·2 X 0·7854 = 0·0314 sq. ins.
 LR/9
The Universal .iWining School, Cardiff.
A/3

Ans. 5 (contin·ued)
But resistance vuries inversely as the area, a.nd so the resistance of 1,000 yds. of conductor will
0·025
be less than l · 0 ohm in the ratio 0 · 025 : 0 · 0314 = = 0 · 8 ohm per 1,000 yds.
0·0314
2 x 1,760
:. Resistance of 2 miles ot conductor = 0 · 8 x ------ = 2·8 ohms.
1,000
Hence, line voltage drop = y3 x 45 x 2·8 = 218 volts.

G. The umderqround load 011, collienJ electrical. plant is estimated at 1,000 kilowatts at a power factor of
0 · 75. This power has to be transmitted: a distance of 900 yds. [rom. the power station at the
surface to the umderqrouaui distribution board. State the size and t!1pe of cable you would employ,
assuming the sy.stem to be 3-phasc. with a voltage of 3,300 available at the surface. Ass-ume a.
permissible pressure drop of 40 volts and a resistivity of 7 · 92 microhms pa sq. inch per foot.
Neglect the reactance of the cable.

3-PHASE A.C. CABLE PROBLEM.

40
Lino voltage drop = y3 x IR= 40 volts. Voltage drop per phase = -- = 23· l volts.
y3
Voltage at underground distribution beard = 3,300 - 40 = 3260 volts.
To find the current, assuming 1,000 KW delivered at underground board.
Wn.tts l,000 x l,000
Current = I = -------- = 236 amps.
y3 x v x P.F. y3 x 3,260 x 0·75
To fled the resistance per conductor.
Voltuge drop per phase 23·1
R= 0·098 ohm.
Current 236
rl
But R = -, and A
A R
7·92 x 900 x 3
Area or each conductor = A = 0 · 22 sq. inch.
1011 x 0·098
A suitable shalt cable would be a. 3-core, po.per-insula.tcd, leud-shea.thed, double-wire armoured
cable, euch conductor having n. crosa.secfional area of 0 · 22 sq. inch.

(Questions 7 and 8 are cptlonal.)

7. A 3-phase transmiseion line 5 miles long, run at 11,000 volts, :JO cycles, consists of O· l sq. inch
section stranded. conductors, The resistance of a line conductor is 0 · 244 ohm. pe1· 1,000 yds.,
and the inductan~e 0·001henryper1,000 yds.; (a) Whal KVA can be transmitted over the
line, allowing a current density of 1,000 anups, per sq. inch, and. (b) what will be the voltage
drop in th« line with this KV A ?

3-PBASE TRANSMISSION LINE PROBLEM.

(a) To find the KVA.
Section of conductors = O· l sq. inch. Current density = 1,000 amps. per sq. inch.
:. Current in line = 0 · l X ~ ,000 = 100 amps.
y3 x VI v'3 x 11,000 x lOO
:. KVA ot llne = ----- ~ -~--~~~~~~ 1,905 KVA.
1,000 1,000
(b) To find the voltage drop.
Inductance= L = 0·001 henry per 1,000 yds. of conductor.
Reactance = 27TfL = 2 x 7T x 50 x 0·001 = 0·314 ohm per 1000 yds.
Resistance = R = 0 · 244 ohm. per 1,000 yds. of conductor.
Impedance = Z = ,10·244~ + 0·314~ = 0·4 ohm per 1,000 yds of conductor.
s x 1,760
:. Impedance per conductor = Z = O · 4 x --- = 3 · 52 ohms.
1,000
Line Voltage Drop = y3 lZ = -v'3 x 100 x 3 · 52 = 610 volts.
LR/H
A n.suiers on T'ramsmission. Line Calculati ans.
A/4

8. A colliery is suq;plied tl)it/1 electric pouier, from a power station, over a transmission line 4 miles lonu
having conductors 0· 15 .sq. in, area (or 0·498 in, diam.), the s1tpply ctt the power station be1'.ng
UiOO ](IV al 6,000 volts, 50 cyclr..s, :3-phase, 0 · 75 power [actor. There are three conductors
arrauqed i:ertically, the spacing bei119 3 ft. JVhat will be the actual »oltaqe drop and. percentage
of pouier lost in Ille lint!? Assu.me p = 25 microlnns pe1' .sq. inch JJe~· yd.

3-PHASE TRANSMISSION LINE PROBLEM.

(a) To find the voltage drop.
EtTective spacing '""" J,!36 x 36 x ·72 = -vf2 x 36 = 45 · 36 Ins,
3

s 45· 36
Inductance= L = 0·0-!57 + 0·421 log - = 0·0457 + 0·421 log---(= log 182·1}
1" 0. 249
= O · 0457 + 0 · 421 x 2· 26 = 0 · 997 milllhenry per 1,000 yds.
0·997
Reactance = X = 2-:T fL ~ 2rr x :iO x --- = 0 · 313 ohm per 1,000 yds.
1,000
/ll 2.') x J ,000
Resistance = R = - 0·167 ohm per 1,000 yds.
A JOG X 0·15
Impedance = z = ,io · 16-7: .;:. o · :n 3z 0·355 ohm per 1,000 yds.
4 x 1,760
lmpedance per phase = Z = 0 · 355 x = 2·5 ohm.
1,000
Power taken = l ,500 x 1,000 = V3 VI cos .p watts.
J ,500 x 1,000
:. Current = I = ---------- = 192 amps.
-Vil x 6,000 x 0·75
Voltage drop per phase '--' IZ = 1~2 x 2·5 = 480 volts.
.. Line voltage drop = -vf3 x 480 = 830 volts (upprox.).
(b) To find the power loss.
4 x 1,760
Resistance per phase = 0 · 167 x ----- = 1·176 ohms.
. 1,000
Power loss = 3PR = 3 x 192~ x l · 176 wa.t.ts = 130 KW.
130
Percentage power Joss --- x 100 = S·C>7%
1,500
 FOUNDED 1883 COPYR:GHT
TI-IE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,
THIS PAl'~!I.

g~e GU.u.,~a£ ~ &;k.,t,

WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONDENCE CONDITION THAT
MINING SCHOOL IT IS RESERVED
IN THE WORLD EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN use

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Lesson LR;IO.
SWITCHES AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES

A switch is a device for completing an electric circuit to give---

supply, or for disconnecting a portion of a circuit in order to intem1pt--+-
the- supply.
The switch is said to be ·single-pole, two-pole, or triple-pole,
according to the number of connections or disconnections made
simultaneously by the switch when operated.
Fig. l shows a simple lamp circuit with a single-pole switch;
a d.c. motor circuit requiring a two-pole switch ; and a 3-pha..~ a.c,
squirrel-cage motor circuit requiring a three-pole switch.
The conventional signs for a d.c. motor and an induction motor
should be noted. A d.c. generator would be represented like the d.c.
motor, but with a G instead of an M. A 3-phase a.c. synchronous SINGlE DOUBLE TRIPLE
motor would be represented like the induction motor but with a POLE POLE POLE
single, instead of a double, circle ; and an alternator {or a.c. generator) Fig. t.
would have a single circle with the letter G and the number of. phases Simple Circuit Diagrams of
Swltchos.
inside-lit.
Switches vary greatly in their construction and essential features, according to the various
voltages and currents they have to deal with, and they range from small switches for low-tension
lighting circuits up to the massive and complicated switchgear required for handling large powers
at high voltages.
AIR-BREAK SWITCHES.
The simplest type of switch is the slow-break knife switch shown in fig. 2. 1t
consists of a blade of copper, carrying an insulated handle at one end and hinged at
the other to a contact jaw, the rear continuation of which forms a bolt passing
through the panel and acting as a terminal. Another terminal and contact jaw is
provided to receive the copper blade when it is desired to close the circuit. The
conductors forming the circuit are secured by nuts to the terminals at the back of
'the panel, only the switch being visible at the front. ·
Such switches may be single, double, or triple-pole, each pole being just a
single-pole switch so mounted that the several switch-blades can be rigidly attached
to a common cross-arm of insulating material such as hard fibre. The cross-arm
carries the handle so that all the blades can be engaged or withdrawn simultaneously. Fig. 2.
Where heavy currents have to be carried, each pole may be formed of two or Slow-break
more blades placed side by side and connected together in parallel, the contact Knlre Swllcb.
jaws then having a suitable number of openings to receive the composite blades.
In the case of two or three-pole knife switches, fiash guards or arc barriers of insulating material
are often inserted between the poles to prevent an arc springing laterally across the contacts.
The foregoing switch is called " slow-break '• because the speed at which it is opened or closed
depends only on the operator. It is only used to make or break circuits carrying small. or moderate
currents, e.g. lighting circuits and low power circuits. Such a switch, however, may also be used
as an isolating switch to carry heavy. currents but not to break them, the circuit being primarily
controlled by a circuit breaker. A plain knife switch has no protective
gear, other than perhaps fuses connected in series with it.
For mining use, knife switches are usually of the ironclad
type, as shown in fig. 3, each unit comprising a busbar chamber,
an air-break switch with arc barriers, fuses as required, and a
cable sealing and dividing box. An ammeter may also be included.
A number of such units placed side by side and having their busbar
chambers coupled together, forms a " switchboard.•• Surface
\
:' distribution boards, giving supply to the smaller surface motors about
a colliery (screens, workshops, etc.) may be of this type, each motor,
of course, having its own control panel and protective gear in
addition.'
Pig. 3.
Iron-clad, Unit Type Air-break
(5211) Swltchbo:ird.
 Switches and Protective Devices.
~--·--------·----
Quick-break knife switch (fig. 4).
TI1is differs from the previous type in that it is fitted with a strong spiral
spring which accelerates the departure of the hinged blade from the upper
contact jaw and ensures that the circuit is quickly broken, regardless of the
dexterity of the operator.
It is also fitted with an arcing contact or finger, consisting of a springy
copper strip carrying a renewable carbon block or tip. This reduces the burning
and wear of the upper contact jaw that would otherwise be caused by the break
flash or arc resulting from the interruption of the current.
A quick-break switch is desirable when the circuit to be broken has a high Fig. 4.
self-inductance, e.g. the shunt tickl circuits of d.c. generators, alternators, Quick-break Knife Switch
motors, or any other highly inductive circuits such as lifting -rnagncts, brake
solenoids, etc. 'When the current in such a circuit is broken, the collapsing lines
of magnetic force cut the conductors linked with them and induce a voltage which tends to assist the
line voltage and maintain the current. As a result, the fi.eld windings may be damaged by the excessive
rise in .voltage whilst the arc· that results when the current is broken is dctr imeutnl to the switch and
may be dangerous to the operator.
AIR-BkE~~
' ' ~ CIRCUIT BREAKER.
A circuit: breaker is a switch titted with one or more forms of protective device which open the
switch aufpmil.tically under pre-determined conditions, e.g. in the event of an overload. Fig. 5 illustrates
one de~ig~ o~ circuit-breaker which will serve to explain the general construction.
Tt wjll be seen that contact is made not by a blade and contact
jaw as in t~ie "knife switch, hut by a number or springy copper ·
laminations' bound togl~lh(!r to form a copper brush D which
presses d9w,11 on two fh,lt contact pla.tes. This construction gives
a large area of contact ; the springy copper strips bend sufficiently
to ensure rubbing contact, thus keeping the surfaces clean and
brighf ; and the switch requires very little force to open it because e;
there are no jaws to grip the movable member as in a knife
switch. K

·To -close the switch, the handle H is pushed upwards until

it reaches· a position corresponding to the dotted centre line.'
The handle is pivoted at F ! and carries a heel R which comes into
contact with the lower arm of the toggle-lever J, the latter also
being pivoted at F 2• The toggle-lever J is thus rotated anti-
clockwise, depressing the toggle-joint between J and the link K,
and forcing 'to the left the switch-arm G which is pivoted at Fl'
The brush' is mounted on a horizontul plunger which slides in a
bush· E confnining' <l powerful compression-spring tending to open
the contacts when the toggle-lever is released, but the la.lter is
normally held by the roller S engaging with the trigger M. The Fig. 5.
handle carries a drilled toe through which a connecting rod L Air-break Circuit-breaker.
slides; and after use the handle drops back until brought up by a
stop ~t· the ;upper' end of L.
1'he path of the current is indicated by arrows, namely from the " live " terminal A through the
brush D -and through a connecting bridge P to the overload trip coil, from which it leaves by the
" dead " terminal B. The action of the trip coil will be described in due course.
To op~n:: the switch, the handle H is depressed, lifting L and rocking the trigger l'il pivoted at Fa·
The roller S is thus released, allowing the switch to be opened by the spring at E.
Aiixilia~,Y a,rcing contacts, CC, ;~rn titled above the main contacts so that the arc formed on breaking
the circuit is transferred to them and is extended to such a length as to become unstable, being finally
broken . between 'the auxiliarv - contacts.
. ~ : ... '. \ ~
Loose-handle mechanism.
·A common feature of circuit-breakers, whether air-break or oil-immersed (although not shown
in fig. 5~ .is , known as the ': Iree " or " loose-handle " mechanism which is provided to protect the
operator::fro~ recelvlng' a violent blow· if he should try to close the breaker when there is a· fault on
the circuit, and· :~O prevent him from. holding the breaker in the closed position in such circumstances.
The handle .is 'arranged to rotate a short spindle carrying a lever and a hook or latch. The latter
actuates: the m~vi,ng switch contacts through levers and connecting links, but when the tripping
mechanism ·~s operated, either by under-voltage or over-current, the latch is lifted and the switch
contacts: are opened by a spring. The breaker thus trips out at each attempt to close it under the
conditions men tioucd.
Air-break 'circuit breakers, as described, are suitable for pressures up to 650 volts, and for use in
clean and dry surface sub-statlons (d.c. or a.c.) or power stations (d.c.), They arc also very widely
used for underground distribution. when suitably modified and protected by ironclad flameproof
enclosure . P~pi>c-i:ilh·
, ..,.:1 .
for gate-end
. .
switchgear controllinz nor+ablr- anrl =crni-fixr-d <1Ppar:i111~.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. t.R/10
~-

OIL-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKER. ",

ll •'

This differs from the previous type in that the switch contacts
\
are completely immersed in oil. Fig. 6 shows the interior of a
; :)-pha:;e oil-break switch in its simplest form.
Th€' switch mechanism is enclosed in a cast iron or steel
tank Iined with sheets of insulating material and filled up to a
certain level with oil, Projecting down into the oil arc three
pairs of fixed contact fingers mounted on porcelain insulators, the
contacts consisting of nests of laminated copper strips shaped
to form an inverted " V.' '·
Each of the three movable copper switch-bars is shaped at
the ends to fit the corresponding pair of fixed contacts and short- Fig. 6.
circuit them. Only one.pair of contact fingers and one switch-bar on-Immersed switch .. ,
engaged therewith arc seen in (ig. G, but it wiU he noticed that an · · ':•···" ···-···· '·
arcing contact is fitted to each or the tixed contacts, on the extreme left and right of the main cont.'act1
assembly.
. . . ··' ..
. ·. . . , :
The 1:nov_able bars are ins\1latc~ Crom a~d suspended b.y rods having a vertical slidi;ng_',mQ.~ion,,
··.::

the rod with its return spring to assist the switch to open being seen between the two main. contacts.
The movable contacts are actuated by the operating handle of the switch, the latter being'closed by
an upward f!!Ovement of the short-circuiting bars. · - ' · . - ::1
In the operation of the switch, any arc formed when the switch is opened is transf~rred to the
arcing contacts and is immediately quenched by the oil. It is usual to divide the oil tank 'into separate
compartments by means of vertical sheets of insulating material· to separate the several- poles or
phases and eliminate the risk of arcing between phases. .. . 1 . ··.I;
The oil used must be a high-grade mineral oil free from moisture, acids, and other foreign. ihdtter
and having little tendency to form a sludge. It must also be maintained above a certain leve}ii(: the
current is to be broken safely. Periodic renewal o[ the oil is essential. .. ·
A~1 advantage of oil-creak switches is that Clearances between poles or phases, an~l b~t\v~ef1 the
live parts and the case, may be 'much less than with air-break gear. The resulting S\Yikhgear is
1 hcrefore more compact. The switches can also be designed for a higher rupturing cap~city · because·
of the arc-extinguishing effect of the oil. -;\forcover they tend to break an alternating current when"
it is passing through the zero pflrt of the cycle. They arc less suitable for direct current because the
latter tends to carbonise the oil and more frequent renewal is essential.
Among their disadvantages {apart from the need for careful attention to the oil ·level and for::
periodic renewal of the oil) is that a highly inflammable mixture of gases is produced from the oil .
by the arc, These gases consist for the most part of hydrogen (GG to 82%), with some ac;e~ylEme
(IO to 2G%). methane (4 to 7%) and ethylene (2 to 4%), and there is some risk of their being ignited
by the arc, or by hot gas bubbles, especially if the oil-level falls too low. Moreover, it is more-difficult·
to provide a flameproof enclosure for hydrogen or acetylene-air mixtures than for methane-air mixtures,
and care is needed to ensure that the casing is kept in a flameproof ·
condition.
Fig. 7 illustrates, in outline, the arrangement of an ironclad
t!raw-out oil-immersed pedestal circuit breaker as commonly used
underground for district feeders. Features to notice are the trifur-
cating bcx for the incoming cable, and the isol~ting plugs whereby
the switch may be drawn forward clear of the live busbars,

Oil-break switchgear in one form or another is extensively

used on all a.c. systems. in po'l-cr stations, surface and underground
sub-stations. and for controlling fixed machinery such as haulages
and pumps. For coal-face machinery where the switchgear is moved
forward with the advancing face, ironclad, flameproof, air-break
switchgear is normally preferred. Fig. 7.
Iron-clad OJl-lmmersod Circuit-breaker
PROTECTIVE DEVJCES.
\\'e will now consider the simpler forms of apparatus that may be attached to switchgear to protect:
the motor!', cables, etc., supplied by them against au excess of current {overload), failure of supply,
and leakage.

Fusible cut-outs .
•A fusible cut-out {co:nmonly called a fuse) represents the sirnplcst form of protection against an
excess of current. A typical example is shown in fig. 8. It consists of three main parts, namely the
[use-Iink , the removable Iuse-carrier, and the fixed contact jaws with their housing. r
Tho fuse-link is-simply a piece of wire made or copper, tin, lead, or a tin-lead alloy and .of such
a thickness that it can safely carry the normal current but will melt and break the circuit if the current.
should exceed a pre-determined value.
LR/10
-··-;r- Switches and Protective Devices
~-·- ------------
The fuse-carrier is a detachable holder or case o( porcelain, glass, or
other insulating material designed to carry the fuse-link and enable it to be
inserted in, or removed from, the circuit safely.
The carrier is fitted with a bronze contact block at each eud, the blocks
being held loosely to the porcelain body by means of screws on which· they
can pivot, so constituting what are termed sel!-aUgning contacts which
fit snugly into the fixed contact jaws.
A tube of asbestos composition passes through the contact blocks and
the porcelain, the fuse wire being threaded through it and secured under
a terminal screw on each block. Air is thus able to circulate freely past
the fuse-link, so cooling it, whilst the molten metal and the break-flash
incidental to the blowing of the fuse arc shielded by heat-resisting material.
The fJxed contact jaws to receive the contact blocks are made of spring
copper and are shielded by porcelain end-pieces, all mounted on a base-plate PORCELAIN
of insulating material which may be bolted as a unit to the panel of a switch- Er<O-Ptecio

board.
Fig. 8.
The rating of a fusible cut-out is usually stated in amperes and is marked Fusible Cut-out.
on the porcelain end-pieces. Such a figure indicates, not the rupturingcurrent,
but the maximum current the cut-out will carry safely and continuously.
Fusible cut-outs are simple and cheap, but they have many disadvantages :-·
(l) They can easily be tampered with, a larger fuse-link being inserted, with consequent danger
to the circuit.
(2) The fuse wire is liable to oxidise with use, and the rupturing current then decreases.
(3) The blowing of one Iuse of a pair, on a two-wire circuit, will interrupt the current but still
leave the whole circuit " alive ' • and dangerous.
(4) Tlme ls lost In re-wiring a blown· fuse, and suitable wire may not be at hand.
(5) A Iuse does not permit of heavy over-currents oI short duration which are quiteharmless, e.g.
when starting up a motor. If a thicker wire is inserted to carry the starting current, it will not protect .
the motor in the event of a sustained, but moderate, overload.
{6) Although a fuse blows more quickly with a heavy over-current than with a small ons. and
thus has what is termed a" inverse time-limit characteristic '• {which is a desirable feature) the time-lag
is somewhat indefinite and cannot be accurately adjusted.
Fusible cut-outs, if correctly designed and properly guarded against being tampered with, still
have a wide field of usefulness for many purposes, such as the protection of small transformers used
in switchgear to operate auxiliary apparatus ; branch lighting circuits ; and quite small motors ; but
their day has passed as the principal means of protection against heavy currents, their place being
taken by an electro-mechanical device which can be arranged to '' trip " the switch when an over-
current occurs.
Over-current (overload) trip coil,
Fig. 9. shows a sectional and side elevation of a plain TR/Pl'llYG L/;."YER
overload trip coil (without time-limit attachment) suitable = =
for an a.c. circuit.
---8RA$S TRIP·ROI>
It consists essentially of a coil of insulated wires wound
within and around a laminated iron framework which
provides a path for the magnetic Hux created by the passing
of current through the coil.
The magnetic path is completed through a movable
iron plunger whose position within toe coil and within its
brass stirrup or tube, may be varied by the adjustable nuts
at the bottom. In this way. the current required to pull
up the plunger and trip the switch may be altered, a variation
between normal and three times the normal full-load current
usually being provided for. 1.Mfll'IATEJ)

. .
IRON /'L tl#GfR
The coil ls connected in series with the Une and carries
the line current. When an overload occurs. the increased
magnetic flux strives to obtain a closed magnetic circuit and "n: S T/RRt.lP
the plunger is drawn upwards. The plunger carries abrass ' : ~l.OC}(·/Yvr
trip-rod moving through a hole in the iron frame and this
strikes a tripping lever which trips the switch.
The action may be further explained by reference to PA RT- S ECT!Ol't'AL Sil>£
fig. 5 where the construction is slightly different but the ELEVATION. ELEVATION.
principle is the same. In this case, the coil is carried by
an iron framework and is wound around a brass tube N Fig. 9.
which encloses the iron plunger. Q is the adjustable stop. Overload Trip-Coll.
When the plunger rises, the brass trip-rod strikes the trigger M, so releasing the toggle-lever J and
the roller S and allowing the switch to be opened by the spring at E.
In the case of direct current trip coils, the construction is similar except that the magnetic path
is of solid iron, instead of being laminated, as with a,c, coils.
On d.c. circuits, a two-pole circuit breaker requires two overload· coils to give lull protection.
On 3-phase a.c. circuits, three trip coils {one in series with each phase) is needed if the neutral point
is earthed (as is usual), but only two coils if the neutral point is insulated from earth.
 LR/IO
The Unioersal Mining School, Cardiff. 5
------- -----·- .... -.-·-------------- ---------
On a.c, circuits, the coils are each connected directly in series with each phase for moderate
voltages and currents but, for high voltages and heavy currents, they are operated by small static
transformers, known as current transformers, one for each coil. The primary winding of each trans-
former then carries the main current and only a small current, sufficient to operate the trip plunger.
) flows in the secondary winding which is connected to the actual trip coil.
Inverse time-lag attachments.
To prevent a switch being opened instantaneously when an overload occurs, the trip coil mav
be fitted with .a time-lag device which operates quickly in the event of a heavy overload and only
after an interval in the event of a moderate overload. This ensures freedom from unnecessary interrup-
tions of supply due to temporary over-currents, e_g_ when starting up. Two common forms of time-lag
are (1) an oil dash-pot, and {2) a time-limit fuse.
An oil dash-pot (fig. 10) consists of a small brass vessel or cylinder
containing a certain quantity of oil. The vessel has two different internal
diameters, the smaller at the bottom being slightly tapered. A pistonca.rrying
a simple disc valve is correspondingly tapered and is attached to the plunger
of the over-current trip coil.
When an overload occurs, the piston is drawn upwards by the plunger,
but its motion is checked by the oil which cannot pass it except via the
clearance around its periphery. After a short interval of time, the piston
reaches the larger diameter of the cylinder and is then able to rise freely,
so permitting the trip to operate. Thereafter, the plunger and attached
~;~~~r-PISToN
~
piston descend, the disc valve opends,the oil passes to the upper side of the Fig. 10•
piston, and the device is again rea y for operation. 011 Dnsh-pol Time-Jag Dovtce
The position of the piston, relatively to the oil cylinder, may be adjusted
by inserting the small locking screw in one or other of a series of numbered holes arranged at different
levels around the cylinder. In this way, the clearance between piston and cylinder ma}' be increased
or reduced, so varying the rate of flow of the oil and therefore also the time occupied in raising the
piston.
The second type of time-lag device, namely a time-limit (use, is used with
a.c. switches fitted with transformer-operated overload releases. It is connected
to the secondary circuit of the current transformer, in parallel with the trip
coil, i.e. short-circuiting it, as shown at F in fig. 11. Normally, owing to the

ln,
impedance of the trip coil, the fuse carries almost the whole of the small secondary
current. When an over-current tlows, the fuse has a natural inverse time-lag
which prevents it from " blowing " for an interval depending on the degree
of overload. Once it has blown, however, the only path for the current is through ·1
the trip-coil and this then operates instantly.
We can now summarise the advantages of magnetically operated trip coils:-
lSWOT~
(I) They arc not easily tampered with.
(2) They may be adjusted to trip at any given excess current from normal
Fig. U.

,
current upwards.
(3) The tripping current is not subject to indeterminate variations. T rans[ormer-operated
Overloo:id Coll with
(4} The trip adjusts itself ready for action again after it has opened the Tlme-llmlt Fus~.
switch.
(5) The switch cannot be held in the closed position if there is a short-circuit on the system.
{6) It may be fitted with delaying mechanism, allowing a motor to bl! started and its current to
fall to normal before the trip operates.
Where a number of circuit-breakers are installed in series in different parts of a distribution
system, it is desirable to introduce selectivity by grading the setting of the tlme-lag attachments so as
to localise the stoppage caused by the automatic tripping of any one switch under an overload. An
inbyc switch could have a lower setting, both for tripping current and time-lag and could therefore be
fairly relied on to operate before the outbye switch, if a fault should occur inbye of both switches.
In this way, an interruption due to a moderate current may be limited to the branch circuit responsible.
Nevertheless, a very heavy overload would probably operate all circuit breakers between the point
affected and the source of supply.
Protection against failure of supply.
If a temporary failure of supply occurs and then power is again supplied to idle motors while
their starting apparatus is still arranged for running, the motors will be severely damaged by the
excessive current that would flow.
To safeguard against this, an under-voltage release coll (al.so called a low-volt, or no-volt, release)
may be fitted to the main circuit-breakers. This differs from an overload coil in that:-
(1) It has a finer, high-resistance, winding connected in parallel across the supply, i.e. between
positive and negative in a d.c. circuit, or between two phases in an a.c. circuit ;
(2) The movable plunger is weighted at the bottom (or it may be spring-loaded) so that it drops
automatically and trips the switch if· the sUpl)lY fails, or even if the supply voltage falls below about
65% of normal, the pull of the coil then being insufficient to hold the plunger within it.
Referring again to fig. 5, the low-volt release, if fitted, would raise the tripping latch or trigger M
by a system of levers so as to trip the switch .when the plunger dr?pped, _and it would only permit the
switch to be closed when the plunger was raised up by the energised coil.
 LR/10
()
Switches and Protective Dcriccs

Such a release coil also prevents the switch being closed, and 1cft closed, when no supply is available,
because the switch trips out automatically at each attempt to close it.
For hlgh voltages, the under-voltage release is connected to the secondary side of a small static
transformer known as a potential transformer, instead o( directly across the supply. (See fig. 12b.).

Diagrams of connections.
Fig. 12a illustrates the connections for an ironclad
oil-immersed circuit-breaker for rressures up to 650 volts.
The diagram is almost self-explanatory, but note that
the threr- Q\'{ rload coils arc- in series with the three
phases and the amrnrtr-r in ser i- s with one phase on the
outgoing side of the switch, The low-volt coil and the
voltmeter an' e;td1 connected across two phases of the
incoming supply. ·
Fig. 12b shows the alternative connections !or
pressures above 650 volts, the low-volt coil and the
voltmeter in this case being operated lrom the secondary
side of a potential transformer at 110 volts. The trans-
former is itself protected by fuses on the high-tension
side and is earthed on the secondary side to prevent
undue rises of potential.
(b)
For pressures exceeding ~~~mo volts, or for very heavy
currents, the overload coils and the ammeter would Fig. 12.
usually be operated by current transformers, one for
Conneclions of Overload and Low-volt Releases,
each phase and all inter-connected on their secondary A mmcter, and Vollmeter.
sides.

Leakage Proteetion.
Automatic leakage protection is required to isolate a11 electrical fault in its early stages, before
it has had time to cl(:Yelop into a short-circuit between phases. Such protection is a much better
safeguard against risk of fire and electric shock than a fuse or other overload device. ..
Leakage may occur due to failure ·of the insulation of a cable, between phases, or between one
phase and earth, and an arc may then be struck which takes a. smaller current than that required to
operate overload trir.s or blow fuses. Such an arc is nevertheless dangerous and it is urgent to cut ofl
the supply without delay. To ensure complete protection, therefore, leakage protection, in addition
to overload protection, is «sscn tial.
The commonest me food of leakage protection is known as the
core-balance system, which <l•'JWn<ls for its action on the balance of
currents in the three phas=s. The principle of the method is shown
diagramma tically in fig. 1:3.
The g<ar essentially ccmj-rises a small "core-lalance" trans-
former on which are wound lhree primary windings, one connected
in. each phase of the- circuit. Only one secondary winding is provided
and 'this Is earthed at one point E and connected to <i. tripping coil.
Under normal condltlons, the alternating magnetic fluxes set
up hy the three primary windings balance one another so that no
current is induced in the secondary circuit.
When a fault occurs, the Lalanee is disturbed and the resulting
magnetic dfrt't in the transformer core induces a current in the
secondary circuit, so c·ni•rgi:;ing the tripping coil and operating the
tripping mechanism on the circuit breaker. ouTGO•,..~ r-EEt>£1t
The protection against leakage thus afforded is much inore Fig. 13.. .
sensitive than that of over-current trips and requires no time-lag .Core-balance Leakage Protechon.
device, It may be- operated by a leakage current as small as 5% of the full-load current of the circuit,
so isolating a fault in its early stages before reaching serious proportions.
It will be understood that an earth-fault release is called upon to operate only at rare intervals,
unless the cables, control ~(·ar, etc. are in bad condition. It is therefore necessary to test the secondary
circuit from time to time;- and this is done by means of the tripping battery shown on the rigl.t, in
conjunction with the test switch. When this switch is thrown over into its alternative position, a
small current from the battery passes through the leakage trip coil and trips the circuit-breaker,
assuming 1.'\'crything to be in order.

Rupturing capacity of a switch.

The rupturing capacity of a switch is the maximum KVA that the switch can interrupt without
suffering any serious damage. lt is a measure of the maximum fault conditions with which the switch
may be expected to deal safely. .
It may perhaps be. thought that the setting of the overload trip coils will limit the current flowing
in the event of a fault and that these trip coils are an adequate protection to the switch. This idea is
quite erroneous,
 LR/JO
The Umiuersal Mining School, Cardiff,
7

If a short-circuit should occur in the system, the amount of current flowing momentarily through
the switch, before the over-current trips have time to operate, may be enormous and the current is
only limited by the size and output of the generators and by the resistance or impedance of the intervening
-,
cables and apparatus. The amount of destructive energy concentrated at the contacts of a switch
attempting to interrupt such a short-circuit current may be sufficient to wreck the switch.
It is extremely important, therefore, that the switch must be adequately designed to interrupt,
without damage to itself, not merely an "overload " current. but the maximum short-circuit current
that is likely to occur. In other words, it must have an adequate " rupturing capacity."
Overload trip coils are intended to protect the apparatus supplied by the switch against any
excessive current that may arise in .normal use. They do not protect the switch Itself in the event or
a short-circuit. The switch must be designed to handle this short-circuit current without being damaged
in the process.
a
It should be remembered that switch may interrupt an alternating current just when the current
is at its maximum or peak value and thus, in determining the rupturing capacity of a switch, it is
not the R.M.S. value of the current that must be taken into account, but the maximum value, i.e, the
R.M.S. value x y2, assuming a sine WC\Ve curve .
. In systems of large capacity, it is necessary to calculate what the maximum short-circuit KV:\
will be at given points in the system so that switchgear of sufficient rupturing capacity may be installed.
When this short-circuit KV A has a value higher than that for which it is economically advisable to
install switchgear (as the higher the rated KV A rupturing capacity, the higher will be the cost) reactors
may be installed, i.e. apparatus designed to increase the impedance of the circuit, so as to limit the
short-circuit KVA to a. reasonable figure.
It will be evident that, if a switch can be-tripped by a leakage protective device, so isolating a
fault in its early stages before it develops into a "dead short " between phases, the switch may never
be called upon to break a current corresponding to its rupturing capacity. Moreover, if the fault
current gradually increases so as to operate the overload trip coils, the switch will again take no harm.
It is when there is a sudden short-circuit on the system that danger to the switch is likely to arise,
and it is against this condition that adequate rupturing capacity must be provided.
FLA~EPROOF (F.L.P.) ENCLOSURES.
Switchgear (and other electrical apparatus) required for use underground in tiery (i.e. gassy)
mines must be designed in such a way that it is safe in operation even where an in.flammable atmosphere
exists both within and without the external casing of the apparatus. The following definition should
be carefully not.ed :-
A flameproof enclosure (including explosion-proof} for electrical apparatus is one which
will withstand, without injury, any explosion or prescribed Inflammablegas that may occur in
practice within it, under practical conditions of operation within the rating of the apparatus
enclosed by it (and recognised overloads, if any, associated therewith) and will prevent the
transmission of name such as will ignite the prescribed inflammable gas which may be present
in the surrounding atmosphere.
It may be thought that the provision of a strong hermetically sealed enclosure is all that is required
to comply with this specification. Anything in the nature .of "gas-tightness," however, must be
dismissed as commercially impracticable.
) In practice, enclosures must be made with 'joints to give access to the inside, and, however tightly
they are made, a certain· amount of " breathing" due to changes of temperature and pressure, is
inevitable. \Ve cannot absolutely prevent the passage of air or gas into, or out of, the casing, but
we can limit the ignition or gases to the Interior of the casing and prevent name from passing through
joints to the exterior.
The commonest form of protection is that known-as flange protection whereby the hot gases or
flame produced by an internal explosion arc so cooled by contact with the metal of the tlanges, and
also by expansion, that they emerge at a temperature below the ignition temperature of inflammable
gas and air. Some of the essential features of Oange protection are:-
(1) Adjacent Ilanges must be placed metal to metal for a width of at least one inch, without any
packing at the joints. ·
(2) All. covers should be secured by bolts through flanges external to the casing ; or, if this is not
possible, the holes should be " bottomed '• by leaving sufficient thickness of the metal undrilled.
(3} The flanges should be rough-machined so as to form transverse groo,·cs which allow a gap
not exceeding 0 ·02 inch between opposing faces.
(4} Bearings for sha(ts or spindles should be at least 2 iii.ches' in length and the spindle should
be truly central.
(5) The heads of bolts, nuts, or screws should be shrouded to deter unauthorised opening of the
enclosure.
(6) Connections to external conductors should be made by a terminal box, or by a flameproof
plug and socket.
.
Unbottomed holes ·in internal flanges are dangerous and several external ignitions of gas have
occurred because of bolts having been inadvertently or negligently omitted from such holes.
--r
LR/10
Switches and Protective Devices
'Ihe maximum pressure generated in a hermetically sealed enclosure by an explosion of firedamp
and air is of the order of 110 lbs. per SQ. inch ; and in the interior of commercial apparatus with flame-
proof flanges, a pressure of about 100 lbs. per sq. inch has been registered. The necessity for strong
construction is therefore obvious, and it is suggested that welded steel plates or pressed steel arc
preferable to cast iron for flameproof enclosures.
Where two or more separate compartments exist in an enclosure, with an open communication
between them, much higher pressures may be generated if an explosion originates in one compartment
and is then propagated into another. This fact must be duly considered in design.
Release of pressure may be obtained by various types of " venting device." For example, the
tlanges may be partly machined away between adjacent bolts, forming gaps between the flanges
0 ·02 inch wide : or spring-loaded relief-bolts may be fitted ; or a larger number of narrow outlets
for the escaping gases may be provided between a series of spaced plates, as in the " ring-relief " and
·· plate-relief ·· devices. But these special devices are not usually needed and are not much favoured.
'Where gases such as hydrogen or acetylene have to be guarded against, e.g. in oil-break switchgear,
the enclosure must be designed to suit. In particular, the gaP. between flanges should be reduced to
0 ·006 inch. It is also important that means should be provided to interrupt the circuit elsewhere :;:
if a severe short-circuit should occur within the enclosure and that the enclosure should be maintained •t:
in its flameproof condition at all times. -z
JI
t...: ~
INTRINSICALLY SAFE APPARATUS. ;::
-·-~-.
This must be carefully distinguished [rom flameproof enclosure, lo~ " intrinsic safety "and "flame-
proof enclosure" are two entirely different things. .-
The term " intrinsic safety " implies that the circuit or apparatus to which it refers is inherently
incapable oI creating a spark of sufficient intensity to Jgnite firedamp. If an apparatus is intrinsically
safe, it does not require flameproof enclosure. Conversely, flameproofenclosure is needed for apparatus
such as motors and switchgear which arc only too capable of creating a dangerous spark and cannot be
made intrinsically safe.
Intrinsic safety can only be achieved in the case of small types of apparatus of low power such as
bells, relays, telephones and signalling systems generally, remote control and interlock circuits, and
exploders, where the operating current is of the order of one ampere or less. Even these smallapparatus.
whose windings all possess inductance, may create a dangerous spark if not suitably designed. The
danger arises when the circuit is broken. for then the collapse of the magnetic field causes a l'!se in
voltage across the break which tends to maintain a current in the gap and thus produce a spark.
To make an apparatus " intrinsically safe," we must provide an alternative path through which
the energy stored in the inductive winding can discharge. This may take the form of a secondary
winding, mounted on the iron core of the magnets and short-circuited upon itself, the inductive energy
being dissipated in this winding in the form of heat. The winding may be bare, or insulated, or simply
a copper sleeve. Other methods include the connection of a non-inductive resistance, or a condenser.
or a metal rectifier, in shunt with the inductive winding. Alternatively, the inductive winding may be
shunted by a piece of silicon carbide, a material whose resistance varies approximately inversely as
the cube of the applied voltage. It therefore offers a high resistance to the normal operating voltage
hut a very low resistance to the much higher induced voltage. .
In addition to the foregoing modifications, it is necessary to restrict the total current that can he
taken from the source of supply, or danger will arise when two or more apparatus, otherwise safe, are
used in parallel. For this reason, bells, relays, and telephones may only be supplied with current Irom
the following sources :-
(a) For D.C. apparatus, either (1) a battery of three-pint Leclanche cells of the porous pot type
connected in simple series, or (2) a cer tified dry battery having built-in non-inductive resistors. In
both cases, the open-circuit E.M.F. must not exceed 25 volts.
(b) l<or A.C. apparatus, a certified transformer having negligible leakage inductance and a built-in
non-inductive resistor of 8-9 ohrns., limiting the secondary short-circuit current to 1 ·6 amps. and wound
for a secondary R.~·LS: voltage of 15 volts.
(c) Fer magneto telephones, the generator forming part of the certified telephone.
Prohibited sources of current include Leclanche batteries of the "sac" type. accumulators, motor
generators. unccrt ified dry batteries and uncertified transformers.

TEST PAPER LR/10 ..

1. Differentiate between (a) an air-break knife switch,
(b) an air-break circuit breaker, and (c) an oil-
immersed circuit breaker, indicating for what
conditions of service they arc suited.
2. The specification of a switch supplying an electric
motor underground is as follows:-•
"A metal case containing (a) a 3-polc oil-break
switch, loose-handle type : with (b) automatic
over-current releases, and (c) time-lag devices on
i hrce-phascs : (d) under-voltage release : and (c)
lrifurcating box for incoming :I-core armoured cable,
with (!) armour grip."
Explain the meaning of the terms (a) to {fl and
slate what kind of a motor l his switch L-; suitable
for supplying.
3. Give a general account of the material!! in general
use in connection wilh switchgear, for the con-
struction of (a) insulators, (b) conductors, and [c]
4. (a) What is meant by the rupturing capacity of a
switch ? (b) What factors govern the rupturing
capacity that must be possessed by a switch at any
given point in the system ?
5. Explain the principle on which an automatic
leakage protective device operates, illustrating
your answer by a diagram of connections for a
3-phasc circuit.
Ii. :\ 3·phase rnotot works a t 240 BHP when supplied
with electric current at 3000 volts between phases.
I ts efficiency is 85 per cent, and power factor I) ·75.
Taking the voltage at the generator terminals as
3300 volts between phases, what is the output of
the generator in kilowatts to supply the motor,
assuming that the power factor of the -gcnerator
is tlie same as that of the motor.

=-===~s=u~p~p~orts;;,;;:;;~·===================================="=============================-===================
Printed by Cardiff Printers Ltd.
FOUNDED 1883 COPYRIGHT
THE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,
THIS PAPER.

~kof.
WAS THE FIRST

g~~ ~ellA)af ~
IS S\JPPLIEO ON
COIUtESPONDENCE CONDITION THAT
MINING SCHOOL IT IS RESER.YEO
IN THE WOllLO
EXCLUSIVE\. Y FOi\
lltCOUCRloT!O ,9;,1 CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUll OWN USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Answers LR/IO
SWITCHES AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES.

L Differentiatebetween (a) (W air-break kni]« switch, (b) rm air-break circuit breaker, and (c) aii
oil-immersed circuit breaker, indicating for what conditions of service they are suited.

VARIOUS TYPES OF SWITCH AND THEIR USES.

(a) Air-break knife switch.
This consists, in its simplest form, of a single blade of copper, hinged at one end and carrying
an insulated handle at the other. The blade is arranged to engage witb, or part from, a springy contact
or cuntacts shaped to fit the blade. The whole.mechanism is mounted on a base of insulating material.
The switch may be provided with a spring to increase the speed of break, and with arcing contacts
to reduce the burning and wear of the main contacts. The switch usually has no protective gear other
than fuses connected in series with it.
A knife switch is mainly used for interrupting moderate currents, either d.c. or a.c., at low or
medium voltages (up to 650 volts) e.g. lighting circuits or the shunt field circuit of a d.c. motor. In
high tension work, it may be used as 'an isolating switch designed to isolate a power circuit after the
current has been interrupted by a circuit breaker.
(b) Air-break circuit breaker.
This incorporates protective devices whereby a circuit is broken nutomatically under abnormal
conditions. The construction varies with types, but the breaker usually incorporates a set of contact
blocks on which press either solid or laminated copper brushes, These contacts and brushes carry the
current of the circuit and, in conjunction with auxiliary sparking contacts, they close or interrupt the
circuit as required.
An operating handle may be provided which may be or the free or the fixed pattern. In the free
or loose-handle pattern, the automatic switch-opening or release mechanism is independent of the
handle used to dose the breaker, i.e. while the switch is being closed by means of the handle, it can
be opened by its protective devices independently of the handle. A fixed-handle circuit breaker is
one which cannot open automatically while the handle is held in the closed position.
The protective devices incorporated may include overload and under-voltage releases, reverse
power releases, leakage protection, and remote control.
Air-break circuit breakers are suitable (or controlling circuits of medium (and in special cases,
high} pressure earrytng heavy currents. Their constrnction may include ironclad flameproof enclosure,
in which case they may be used underground. They have a special field of usefulness as gate-end
switchgear for the control of coal face machinery, i.e. in the neighbourhood of the advancing face
where oil-immersed switches would be more difficult to maintain in a safe condition.
(c} Oil-Immersed circuit breaker.
This is similar in principle to the air-break type except that the contacts and the switch-bar are
immersed in oil which quenches the break-tlasb and permits the ourrent-carrying parts to be more
compactly arranged. The switch may be mounted either on an open-type switchboard, or within
sheet steel cubicles, or on an ironclad switch pillar, and it rnay be fitted with all the usual automatic
protective devices. ·
Oil circuit-breakersare suitable for controlling the largest currents ~t the highest operating voltages
now in use, whether on power station switchboards, or in surface or underground sub-stations, or in
motor rooms controlling fixed machinery such as haulages and pumps. For mining work, the unit-type,
ironclad, compound-filled, flameproof, draw-out pattern is the most widely used.

(52l I)
 LR/IO Suntche« and Protective Devices
_ _,_
.. Ai2·-
- ·-- -·------ ----- ·-- --- - -
2. The spec1Jicati'o11 of a switch supplying an electric motor underground is as follows :
·" A metal case containing (a) a 3-pot.e ail-break switch, loose-handle type ; with (b) «utomatic
over-current releases, and. (c) time-lag devices on three phases ; (d) nndcr-uoltage release ; and
(r.) trifurcatiug box for incoming 3-core armoured cable, witli (/) armour grip."
Explain the meaning of the terms (a) to (f) aud state tohat. l~i11d of a motor this suitch is suitable
for srij>-plyi11g.
IRONCLAD OIL-IMMERSED SWITCH PILLAR.
(a) 3-pole oil-break switch, loose-handle type.
The term "3-pole .. means that there are three pairs of contacts operated simultaneously for
3-phasc a.c, work. ·~ Oil-break " implies that the switch contacts are oil-immersed and the contacts
are broken under oil to quench the break flash. " Loose-handle ''means· that there is a latch arrangement
whereby the handle is prevented from actuating the switch contacts or holding them in the closed
position under faulty circuit conditions.
(b) Automatic over-current releases.
These are solenoid coils having low-resistance wi.ndJngs, each· coil being connected in series with
one of the phases. A movable iron plunger within each coil is drawn upwards by the magnetic flux
when current in excess of a pre-determined maximum passes in the circuit due to an overload or a
fault. The upward movement of the plunger rod thereupon trips a latch which releases the switch
mechanism and permits the switch to be opened by a powerful compression spring.

(c) Time-lag device.

This is a device which delays the action of the overload release so preventing the switch from
being tripped instantaneously by over-currents of short duration. e.g. when a motor is being started
up, but allows the release to operate in the event of a sustained overload. The device is usually an
oil dash-pot in which a small piston attached to the plunger rod works in a cylinder containing oil,
the bore of the cylinder being a close fit at the bottom but wider higher up. The upward movement
of the piston (and of the plunger rod) is governed by the rate at which oil can leak downwards around
the periphery of the piston, this rate being low at first but gradually increasing as the plunger rises.
Eventually, the piston is freed from the oil and the switch is then tripped instantly. The time factor
is subject to easy adjustment.
(d} Under-voltage release. .
This is a solenoid coil having high-resistance windings connected 'across two of the phases. A
movable iron plunger wifhin the coil is held up by the magnetic flux so long as the coil is energised
by the.supply voltage. If, however. the supply fails. or if the voltage falls to about G5% of normal,
the plunger drops under the influence of a weight or a spring and trips the switch by a system of levers.

{e) TrJlurcating box.

This is a compound-filled cable sealing and dividing box which is fitted to the end of the incoming
or outgoing cable, and which can be bolted to a flameproof terminal box where insulated leads from
the cable and from the busbars are connected together. The trifurcating box seals the lead sheath
so as to exclude moisture from the cable and makes fast the cable armouring. whilst ensuring also the
requisite continuity of the earthing system.
(f) Armour grlp.
This is that part of the cable-box which secures the armour wires and thus relieves the conductors
of any tensile stress that may devolve on the cable. It is usually formed by two steel cone-shaped
sleeves, fitting over the cable sheath, one wider and one over the armour wires, and clamped together
by flanges and bolts, thus gripping the steel wires with a wedging action.

Purposes. for which suitable. .

Such a switch would be suitable as the main switch for any type or 3-pbase a.c, induction motor
of moderatesize, e.g. a squirrel cage induction-motor, or a slip-ring motor. Suitable starting equipment,
of course, would also be necessary, e.g. a star-delta starter for a squirrel cage motor (unless the motor
can be switched directly on to the line} ; and a rotor starter or controller for a slip-ring motor.

3. Give a general account of lite materials in general use i1"i. connection with switchgear, for the con-
struction of (cz) insulators, (b) conductors, and (c) supports. ·
INSULATORS, CONDUCTORS, AND SUPPORTS IN SWITCHGEAR.
Insulators.
{a) Porcelain. This is perhaps the most common material used for insulating purposes in switch-
gear. lt is in general use for busbar supports and spacers, lightning arrestor mountings. switch-handles,
fuse-carriers, and frequently cable-box insulating bushes. In ironclad gear, it is used for the bushes
0{ isolating plugs and sockets and for the mounts of oil-immersed switch parts.

(b) Bakellte, ebonlte, and tufnol. These are all synthetic products which are used as bushes and
sheaths for busbars and leads, switch operating-rod sheaths, instrument base-boards, etc. They have
the advantage that they lend themselves to moulding in complex shapes and to machining and drilling.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.

(c) Slate and marble panels. These are usually associated with d.c. open-type switchboards and
with some medium voltage a.c, switchboards of the cubicle type. They have been replaced to some
extend by an impregnated asbestos board which has more uniform insulating properties and can he
used in thinner pieces.
(cl} Varnished cambric is often used to insulate the internal leads in oil switches, being laid on in
strips after the manner of a paper-insulated cable. It is non-hygroscopic and so does not require
further protection against moisture. It is unaffected by oil and ranks next to rubber for flexibility.
{c) Compressed and impregnated laminated wood is used for operating rods as an alternative to
timber such as hickory.
(f) Oil and compound. These may be regarded as insulating materials although not used specifically
as insulators. Oil is widely used to quench the break flash in oil-switches. Compound is used to fill
busbar-chumbers, cable-boxes, erc., to exclude damp and dusty air, or inllamrnable gasei.;.
Conductors.
(a) Copper of a high degree of purity is themost common material for conductors. It is almost
exclusively used for busbars and leads in the shape of bars and strips, and in various machined shapes
for current-carrying switch parts.
·(b) Brass is widely used for wearing and contact parts, especially in small switches and controllers.
and for small brackets, and nuts and bolts.
(c) Special alloys are frequently used for particular purposes where strength, ease of casting, and
high electrical conductivity have to be combined.
Supports.
These arc usually of steel, with or without marble, slate, or asbestos-board panels. or sheet steel
covering in the case of cubicle and truck-type panels. Extensive use is made of standard rolled steel
sections such as angles, flats, tees, etc. In the case of pedestal switches. cast iron and cast steel frames
and boxes arc in general use.
•

4. (a) What is meant by the rupturing capacity of a switch? (b) What factors govern the rupturing
capacity ~hat m1lsl be possessed by a susitch at a11y give11 p01·nt in: the system ?
RUPTURING CAPACITY OF A SWITCH.
{a} The rupturing capacity of a .switch is usually stated as tbe maximum KVA (corresponding
to the maximum current at the rated voltage of the switch) that the switch can safely interrupt without
itself being materially damaged in the process.
It is very important to install a· switch having an adequate rupturing capacity because it may be
opened by the operator or by its protective devices while a serious fault or short-circuit exists on the
feeder supplied by the switch. In such an event, the switch contacts have to break a current many
times greater than that normal to the circuit. Excessive heating may occur and undue mechanical
strains may be set up causing severe damage to the switch and possible injury to the operator.
The rupturing capacity is a measure of the maximum fault conditions with which the switch may
be expected to deal successfully.
(b} Factors governing the rupturing capacity required.
The rupturing capacity of a switch at any given point in the system is governed l>y : ·-
(i) the I{. \'.A. capacity of the generators, and
(ii} the impedance of the generator windings and of any apparatus between them and a possible
fault.
At first sight, it would appear that, in the event of a complete short circuit on a feeder, near a
switch controlling that circuit, the current to be dealt with by the switch would be infinitely great,
for the resistance of the fault is almost zero. It must be remembered, however, that the actual impedance
of the circuit is not that of the fault only, but of the whole circuit from generator to fault, including
the generator windings, cables, busbars, and perhaps transformers, all in series with the fault. The
result is that the fault current is limited to some maximum value, depending on the KVA capacity
of the generators and the impedance of the whole circuit affected.
In many systems, especially those of large capacity, it is necessary to calculate the probable value
of the maximum short-circuit current at various points in the system, so that the switches installed
at the several points shall have adequate rupturing capacity.
So far as the switch itself is concerned, its rupturing capacity naturally depends on its design.
Important factors include the mechanical strength of the oil tank, the volume of oil used, the head
of oil over the contacts, the distance between phases, or between any one phase <ind earthed metal,
the area of the contact faces, the mass of the current carrying parts, and the speed with which the
current is broken.
-....,.------- ----------------·---------------------
 LR/10
. A/4 Switches and Protective Devices

S. .J::.:xplai" flu: principle on. which 'm automatic leakage proteclive device operates, illustrating yo11r
a11swrr hy fl diagram of connections for a 3-p!tase circuit.
LEAKAGE PROTECTION.
The essential feature nnderlying the action of an automatic leakage protective device is that,
in a normal healthy 3-phase power circuit, there is a. balance or currents in the three phases. If, however,
a fault occurs in the insulation of the circuit whereby there is a leakage of current to earth, or between
phases, the current balance is upset and the out-of-balance current is utilised to operate a tripping
coil which opens the switch automatically.
The apparatus required includes a core-balance transformer which is energised on its primary side
by three primary windings, one for each phase of the circuit. Only one secondary winding is required
and this is connected to a tripping coil. Alternatively, the core-balance transformer may be replaced
by three current transformers connected in parallel.
(a) Core-balance transformer. &use." s
This has already been described and illustrated in fig. 13 or
the Lesson, and students are asked to refer to this for details.
(b} Three current transformers.
The adjoining sketch shows the alternative method of leakage
protection utilising current transformers. The circuit also includes
overload and under-voltage
complete.
protection in order to make it E~
E3 01\.
· U1R 1.4-~~"'°' C:ll'\CVrT
&R£Al\EA
In this case, a current transformer is placed in each phase r » •••

O.L.
of tile circuit. All the secondary windings arc connected in parallel Ji!v. - · COii.$
and to an earth leakage trip coil which operates a relay in the ~ ...
low-volt circuit.
Under normal conditions, the leakage coil carries the vector
sum of the three secondary currents, this being either zero, or of
verv small value, Under abnormal conditions. the coil carries
the. out-of-balnncv current due to a fault and this trips the relay, Circuit Diagram or Earth Leakage
so opening the low-volt circuit and tripping the main switch. Protecllon with Over-current aTld
Undor-voltage Rclenses
--------------------------
6. .·l 3-phas.:. motor· works at 240 JJHJ> when supplied uiitl: electric current at 3000 volts between
phases, Ifs :lficicncy is 85 per cent, and. power factor 0 ·75. Taking the uoltage at the generator
terminals f1S :1:>00 volts between p!tases, wha.t is the Ol(.tput of the genemtor in kilowatts to supply
the motor, nss1w1i11g that the power [actor of the generator is the same as that of /J1e motor.
THREE-PHASE POWER PROBLEM.
Assuming thal the power factors or the generator and or the motor are identical, namely 0 ·75,
then the power of the generator will he 10% greater than that of the motor, seeing that its voltage
is 10% greater (namely 3,300 as compared with 3,000). ·
746 100
Now, power input to motor = 240 x x ·- - 210 ·6 KW.
1000· 85

Output of generator - 210 ·6 x 1 ·I = say 232 KW.

Alternative solution.
BHP x 746 240 x 74G
Motor current -= I = == ~----~----~-~ 54 amps.
y'3 E x cos ef> x efficiency 1 ·732 ·x 3000 x 0·75 x 0·85
But this current also flows in the generator windings.

-v'3 E I cos </> y3 x 3300 x 54 x 0·75

Out.put of generator=------- 232 KW
1000 1000
This is a more roundabout method than the first.

[Note. Both the foregoi~g methods assume that 0 ·75 of the total impedance voltage drop in
the supply cable, namely 0 ·7;J x 300 = 225 volts, has been expended 011 overcoming resistance, the
power loss due to resistance being .ys Er I = 1 ·732 x 225 x 54 = 21 KW.
Hence power output of generator = 210 ·6 + 21 = 231 ·6 KW.
In practice, however, the ratio of resistance to impedance of the line might be greater or less
than 0 ·75, in which case the power Joss due to resistance would be greater or less than 21 KW, and the
power factor of the generator would differ from that. of the motor. The correct resistance loss figure
added to the motor input of 210 ·6 KW, gives the correct output of the generator.] . '

Priotcd by C.Udi// Prin«n Lld.

~OUND£0 1883 COPYRIGHT
Tl-IE U.M.S.
T. A. SOUTI-lERN LTD ..

~~me CU.U.,~at ~
THIS P"PER
WAS -THE l'IR$1'

£.Jwof;
18 SUPPLIED ON
CORftESPONDENCI
CONDITION TH•T.
MINING SCHOO~
IT t6 RESERV60
1111 THE WORLt>.
EXCLUSIVELY FOii
CARDIFF (G"r. BRITAIN.) YOUR OWN USIE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Lesson LR/11.
SWITCHGEAR.
Switchboards at collieries may be one of a number of different types, depending on the situation,
purvose, and size of the plant to be controlled. These types include :-
(a} Fiat-back or open-type. (c) Truck type-
(b) Cubicle type. (d) Ironclad type.
All Iour types arc suitable for power stations and substations at the surface, but the ironclad
type is standard for underground distribution.
Flat-back or Open-type Switchboard.
This is the simplest type of switchboard and is only suitable for low and medium pressures, d.c.
or a.c., and for small plants.
The board consists of slate or marble panels free from metallic veins and supported on an iron
framework. At the back and near the top of the panels are mounted the busbars, these being strips
of copper running the whole length of the board and mounted on porcelain insulators. The power
supply for the whole board is fed to the busbars via an incoming panel with its switch and protective
gear, and each of the outgoing or feeder panels takes its supply from the common busbars.
All. the main conductor interconnections and small wiring between apparatus are mounted on
the back of -thc switchboard, only the actual switches and instruments being mounted on the front.
For the protection of men from the live parts of adjacent circuits when making inspections or
repairs, the various panels are separated by barriers of sheet steel, expanded metal, or asbestos slate.
There should be a clear gangway in lront at least 3 feet wide, .and also behind the switchboard,
Cubicle Type Switchboard.
This is of" unit" eonstruetlonttig: I}, each unit
being a self-contained sheet-steel cubicle (8 to 10 It,
high and 3 ft. wide and deep) with an angle-iron
framework. A number of such units placed side by
side forms a switchboard and any one cubicle, with
all its apparatus, can easily be moved to a new
situation if desired. Such cubicles are used for voltages
up to 6,600.
All h.t. apparatus, including the oil switch, is
mounted inside the cubicle, and Lt. apparatus such
as controlling and indicating devices and instruments
are mounted on a sheet-steel panel which forms the
front of the cubicle. The busbars extend along the
top, being secured to insulators mounted on iron bars
running from front to back in each cubicle. Copper
strip conductors are brought down from the busbars
to the oil switch and the outgoing leads are taken to a
cable terminal box in the base of the cubicle. The
operating handle of the switch is accessible from
outside, Access to the internal apparatus is usualJy
obtained through' a door in the back of the cubicle, S!Oe VIEW. BACl<VIEW.
this being interlocked with the switch, FJg. 1.
To facilitate inspection and repair and to avoid Cubicle Type Swllch Unit.
having to shut down the whole switchboard, each
cubicle is fitted with isolating links or switches which
enable all the internal apparatus to be disconnected from the busbars, The isolators consist of simple
single-pole knife switches, one for each phase, and are operated by means of insulated mechanism, or
by a Jong rod of wood, micarta, or other insulant, Knife switches are used because they give a visible
indication as to whether any given circuit is disconnected and dead.
It must be understood that isolating links are not a means or making or breaking the load current
and it would be dangerous to use them for such a purpose. The circuit must first be broken by the
oil switch so that no current flows and the isolating links may then be opened in safety.
.Considcring a switchboard consisting of one or more incoming panels and a number of feeder
panels, the now of current is from the incoming cable. through the 'incoming oil switch, through the
incoming isolators to the busbars ; thence along the busbars to the various tappings, down through
the feeder isolators, through the feeder oil switches down to the outgoing terminal boxes.
LRtll
2
Sisitcbgear

Truck Type Switchboards.

This type of switchboard is standardised for all pressures up to
P~UG
11,000 volts and is essentially a combination of cubicle and drawout gear. SUS &AIU CON TAC. TS
Each cubicle or unit, fig. 2, consists of (a) a rear fixed chamber
housing the busbars and the cable dividing box, and (b) a movable
angte-lron frame or truck mounted on wheels so. that the truck can be
travelled into the fixed chamber or out of it.
The truck contains the oil switch, instrument transformers, and
other auxiliary apparatus, and the incoming and outgoing leads to and
from the switch are secured to insulated contact plugs, (three at the top
arranged vertically and three at the bottom arranged horizontally)
which fit into corresponding sockets in the rear chamber.
When the truck is withdrawn, the top and bottom sets of contacts
disengage and the circuit is isolated at these points. Simultaneously,
safety shutters arc arranged to move automatically in front of the sockets.
in the rear chamber, so preventing danger from accidental contact by
persons working on the isolated apparatus. An interlock is provided
between the isolating feature and the oil switch, so ensuring that the Fig. 2.
switch is open before the tmck can be engaged with or disengaged from Truck Type Switch Unit.
the busbars. The operating handle for the switch is brought through
the front plate and is mounted thereon.
Truck type switchboards combine safety, reliability and accessibility and have been extensively
used for power stations and surface substations. Extensions and alterations can be made with a
minimum of interruption to the supply and, as all high voltage apparatus is totally enclosed, accidental
contact with live parts is impossible and the switchgear can therefore be handled with safety by semi-
skilled attendants.
Ironclad Switchgear.
This term covers a very wide range of oil immersed apparatus, designed for such diverse purposes
as power-station switchboards, transformer substations at the surface, underground substations,
district feeder switches, main switches for individual haulage motors and pumps, and so on. konclad
flameproof air-break switchgear is in general use for the control of coal face machinery, e.g. for gate-end
switchgear controlling contcutters and conveyors.
A fuller description of ironclad switchgear units will be given presently. Suffice it here that
ironclad switchgear possesses many features that render it suitable for mining work :-
(1) It is strong and robust and able to withstand the rough treatment. inseparable from mining
conditions.
(2) It can be made Oameproof to render it safe in gassy mines.
(3) Accidental contact with live parts is impossible, an important matter where unskilled men
are working in the vicinity.
(4) It is dust-proof, moisture-proof, and vermin-proof.
(5) It is compact, being the smallest form of switchgear for any particular set of conditions.
In all the above types, protective apparatus and measuring instruments can be incorporated to
any desired degree. These include over-current release coils, with or without time-lag devices :
under-voltage release coils ; reverse power trips for generator protection ; leakage protective devices ;
ammeters, voltmeters. ctc., with or without current and potential transformers respectively ; and
so on.
ALTERNATING CURRENT SWITCHBOARD.

~~~~Tl.F
O.\...
COIL

PT
....... .:>-.J,-t

DR

EXCITERPAl'IEI. GENERATOR PAl'IEL. FE"-DER PAl"IEl-

Fif. 3. ShnpliUed Connection DiagT:am or A.C. Switcbboard.
 LR/11
The Universal M·ining School, Cardiff. 3

The detailed connections of a colliery power station switchboard arc extremely complicated
and vary with the equipment (protective devices and instruments) installed. Fig. 3 is merely a simplified
diagram to indicate the general scheme of things.
In normal cases, the switchboard-say of the cubicle or the truck type-is divided into a number
of units or panels, namely (1) generator panel, (2) exciter panel, (3) instrument panel, and (4) feeder
panels, The equipment of the various panels may be somewhat as follows :-

Generator panel (one for each generator).

(a) 3-pole isolating feature, IS, consisting of a 3-pole knife switch interlocked with the circuit
breaker, or isolating plugs and sockets (as in the truck type).
(b) 3-pole circuit breaker, of the oil-break,"loose-handle type, and of adequate rupturing capacity.
The breaker may be fitted with three· transformer-operated (CT) over-current (overload) trip coils
and time limit fuses TLF (only one of which is shown for simplicity in fig. 1), or with a reverse-power
time limit relay (not shown) or with a combination of the two. In addition, core-balance leakage
protection may be provided to guard against internal faults in the generator windings, or some special
method of balanced current protection such as the Merz-Price system.
(c) One 8-inch moving-iron, spring-controlled ammeter A, operated by a current transformer.
(Three ammeters are sometimes specified, but are not really required).
(d) Generator voltmeter, operated by a potential transformer PT, protected by fuses on the
high-tension side. ·
(e) Wattmeter, W, calibrated to read the total power in the generator circuit.
(I) Recording Wattmeter, RW, (optional) to indicate by a line on a chart a record of the loads
encountered.
(g) Watt-hour meter, (integrating wattrneter) WH to record the number o[ B.O.T. units (K.\.V.-
hours) supplied to the system.
(h) One set of synchronising sockets to enable the generator to be connected to the synchroscope.
(i) Neutral earthing switch, ES, of the oil-break non-automatic type, to break the circuit between
the neutral point N of the generator and the earthing system. The neutral point of one generator
only is earthed at a time. A resistance R is usually placed between the neutral point and earth to
limit the current that may flow on a fault, and a low-reading ammeter, LRA, operated by a current
transformer, should also be connected in the earth circuit in order to indicate any defect in the insulation
of the system.
Exciter panel (one for each generator}.
(a) Field circuit breaker, FCB, 'with non-inductive discharge resistance DR, to make or break
the circuit in the alternator field and arranged to be tripped automatically by any leakage protective
gear on the machine.
(b) Exciter field rheostat (variable resistance} FR, connected to the shunt field circuit of the
exciter and fitted with an operating spindle and hand-wheel to enable the field current (and therefore
the voltage of the alternator) to be varied.
(c) Ma.infield rheostat MFR, connected in the alternator field, to provide an additional means of
varying the field current.
(d) Ammeter, A, to indicate. the exciting current flowing in the generator field.
(e) Voltmeter, {not shown) to indicate the voltage maintaining the exciting current.

Instrument panel {common to several generators).

{a) Two voltmeters, VV. one to read " busbar volts," and the other ''incoming machine volts,"
and placed side by side so that they can be compared when one generator is to be run in parallel with
another.
(b) Syncbroseope, S, to indicate when the frequency and phase of an incoming machine are
identical with the frequency and phase of the busbars.
(c) Synchronising lamps, to be used as alternatives to the synchroscope.
(d) Power factor meter, PF, to indicate the power factor of the system.
(e) Automatic voltage regulator, AVR, common to several generators and fitted with a Tirrill
or other regulator, to maintain the terminal voltage of each generator at some constant value. (Some-
times the voltage regulator is mounted on the exciter panel).
Feeder panel (one for each outgoing feeder).
(a) s-pote isolating feature, IS~
(b) 3-pole circuit breaker titted with automatic protective gear which varies in <liffercnt cases
but may include three overload trip coils OLC, with inverse time-lags, low-volt release LVR operated
by a potential transformer PT, and core-balance leakage protection operating a relay which opens
the low-volt circuit and so trips the oil switch-in the event of a fault occurring in the cable or other
apparatus supplied by the switch.
(c) Ammeter, wattmeter, and watt-hour meter.
· In the foregoing account, reference bas been made to (1) an automatic voltage regulator, and
(2) a synchroscope, and a brief explanation of their action is desirable.
LR/11
4 Switchgear
The Tirrill Automatic Voltage Regulator.
This consists essentially of:-
(a} A main control magnet, M, excited through
a potential transformer from two of the alternator
terminals and having an upward pull.
(b) An exciter control magnet, E, connected
across the alternator field and having a downward
pull.
(c) Main contacts, C, carried by two levers, one

i6
POTEl'ITIAL
being actuated by M and the other by E. The levers
are controlled by a weight W and a group of springs
S respectively.
(d) A differentia11y wound relay, R. with a
U-shaped core. The winding on the left hand limb AL TERNA TOI\
is directly connected across the alternator field and Fig. 4.
the winding on the right hand limb is similarly but The Tirrill Voltage Regulator.
indirectly connected through the main contacts.
Normally, the main contacts are separated by the action of the two control magnets and only the
l.h. coil of the relay is active. The armature A of this relay is then. attracted downwards, so separating
the relay contacts.
If the alternator voltage falls due to an increase in load, the upward pull of the main control
magnet is decreased, so allowing the main contacts to close. The r.h, winding of the relay is then in
circuit, so cancelling the effect of the Lh, winding, releasing the armature, and closing the relay contacts.
This short-circuits the whole or part of the exciter field rheostat and causes the exciter voltage to rise,
so increasing the alternator voltage. Thereupon, the pull of the main control magnet increases and
the main contacts are again separated.
This process of making and breaking the main and relay contacts goes on continuously whilst
the alternator is running so that any variation in voltage, either upwards or downwards, is immediately
counteracted and a steady voltage is maintained at the alternator terminals. When the instrument
is used for controlling a number of alternators, it is only necessary to provide one main control magnet
with a separate relay for each exciter. '
Synchronising a new alternator.
Before an incoming alternator can be switched on to the busbars so as to take its proper share
of the total load, three conditions must be satisfied. namely :-
{ l) The voltage of the incoming machine must be the same <ts that o[ the busbars.
(2) The frequency of the two voltages must be the same.
(3) The phase of the machine voltage must be identical with that of the busbars, i.e. the two
voltages must be rising and falling together at the moment the switch is closed.
Correctness of the voltage of the incoming alternator may be ensured by the use of two voltmeters,
the machine being nm up to speed and the field excitation adjusted until the synchronising voltmeter
indicates the same voltage as the busbar voltmeter.
Correctness ol phase and frequency may be ensured either by lamps (for voltages up to 550 volts)
or by means of an instrument known as a synchroscope, usually connected through potential trans-
formers.
The Rotary Synchroscope.
This instrument, fig. 5, consists essentially of a small
6
two-phase motor, both the rotor and the stator of which are
wound for two phases. The stator windings arc connected c
to <my two of the busbars and the rotor windings to the two
corresponding phases of the incoming machine.
Both the stator and the rotor incorporate what is
called the "split-phase " system, i.e. one phase in each case
is connected through a non-inductive resistance R (often
.an incandescent lamp) and the other through an inductance
L {e.g. an iron-cored choking coil). Jn both cases, the
-current in one phase is nearly 90° out of phase with that
in the other so that a two-phase revolving field is produced,
the speed of rotation of each field depending on the fre-
-quency of the busbar voltage and the alternator voltage
respectively.
The two fields react on each other so that, when the
two voltages are identical in phase and frequency and the Fig. 5.
two fields are rotating in the same direction, the rotor with Rot~ry Syochrosoope (Diagram).
Hs pointer will remain stationary. If however, there is a
difference of frequency, the rotor with its pointer will rotate at a speed corresponding to the difference
and, by its direction of running, will indicate whether the machine is fast or slow.
The correct moment for closing the switch is when the pointer is steady, or only slowly moving,
and is midway between the fast and slow direction, Usually, the switch is closed.when the machine
is running just slightly fast, and a fraction of a second before it is absolutely in phase. The incoming
generator then drops easily into step and takes up its share of the load.
 LR/11
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
5

DISTRIBUTION SWITCHGEAR.
Fig. 6 illustrates diagrammatically a typical
distribution scheme for a colliery supplied by
overhead line at 11,000 volts from the national
grid.
The terminal pole equipment comprises
(a) a lightning arrester to provide an easy path
to earth for surges of higher voltage than
normal, and (b) an inverted weather-proof
triturcating box to connect the o.h. conductors
to a 3-core cable leading to the 11,000 volt
switchboard. The choke coil prevents high-
frcquency lightning discharges from passing to
the colliery plant and diverts them to earth PIT e.oTTOI>\
through the horn gap arrester. SV!>- ~TAT ION

·~J}
3l00 ..
The 11,000 volt switchboard may be of the
J I I I
cubicle, truck, or iron clad draw-out type and
f ( f {
would comprise {a) an incoming panel belonging
to and controlled by the supply authority and
equipped with the necessary measuring instru-
. T
i ~ M.0.fH 1\011.0c.AB.LE

-_,J'l-),
"j -l' . ] l"l ~0A~~ -1.
PUll-\P P'..MP
14Atl1.£1\ S~Al'l:!
ments, and (b) outgoing panels supplying
duplicate transformers which step down the
voltage to 3,300 volts. All trip coils and
instruments would be operated at about 110 Fig. 6.
volts through the medium of current and Distribution Systgm. (Dfogr<im).
potential transformers. ·
The power transformers would be. of the oil-immersed self-cooled type, housed in a separate
fireproof compartment and fitted with trifurcating boxes on the h.t. and Lt. sides to enable the
incoming and outgoing cables to be connected respectively to the primary and secondary windings.
The 3,300-volt surface switchboard would Usually be of the ironclad type and would comprise
mccmiag panels from the two transformers and outgoing feeder panels to the various surface motors
and to the two shaft cables.
· The pit-bottom substation houses the underground distribution switchgear of the ironclad oil-
immersed, flameproof, draw-out type. All the large main pit-bottom motors may be supplied at
3,000 volts or thereabouts, a transformer stepping down to 550 volts being also required for the smaller
motors. Further transformation clown to 110 volts would be required for lighting purposes .
•i\11 the panels should be equipped with (1) three overload trips with inverse time-lags, (2) ammeter
and (3) dividing box to take armoured cable. In addition, the incoming switches should have a volt~
meter to indicate whether the shaft cable is alive or otherwise, and earth leakage protection should
be fitted on all outgoing panels.
The main road cable (3-core, paper-insulated, lead-sheathed, double-wire armoured), carries the
power inbye at high tension in order to reduce the current and lessen the voltage drop in the line,
and it leads to the incoming panel of the inbye sub-station. One ol the outgoing panels supplies a
transformer stepping down to 550 volts for the smaller motors inbye. Alternatively, all the inbye
motors may be supplied at 550 volts, in which case the step-down transformer would be placed at
the shaft bottom and the main road cable would be at medium pressure.
Ironclad, flameproof, oil-break, drawout, pedestal switch. O(tAC."'.fll.D'I..'
C.OMl'll)&.lrcO P'l .. 11,.CC>
<.A81..t' eo>e. -
Fig. 7 illustrates a typical flameproof switch of this 150!.ATll"'G PLVG
type designed for mining service. ~O SDC>ffT

The supporting pedestal is a rigid structure of rolled

steel angle sections with welded joints. It carries a
compound-lilied busbar chamber with isolating plug
receptacles, an air-insulated terminal chamber, and a
compound-filled cable dividing box.
The circuit breaker, the frame of which is a malleable
iron casting, forms a self-contained unit and slides on
two guide arms attached to the pedestal. The breaker
is isolated from the supply by drawing it out on these
arms. In this way, any maintenance work can be carried
out safely, as the breaker is entirely removed from the
live parts which are all in the stationary pillar.
The welded oil tank is constructed of steel plate and
makes a flameproof joint with. the main frame. It is fitted
with linings and phase barriers of insulating material
extending almost to the oil level. In the heavier sizes,
tank raising and lowering gear is provided.
The fixed contacts consist of solid copper blocks
having large surfaces capable of quickly dissipating the Fig. 7.
heat generated. The stems are supported by stout Fla.meproor Drawout Pedestal Swllch
(lV[elropolitcm· Vickers).
porcelain insulators.
 Switchgear /
-·~· ~ ------
The moving contacts, of the balanced pressure contactor type, arc lifted by rods linked to the
operating mechanism. A high speed of break is obtained by powerful throw-off springs, assisted by
the natural spring of the contacts and by gravity. Contact is made by a rolling and sliding motion
which cleans the contact surfaces whilst the breaker is being closed. The operating mechanism consists
of a toggle and link system with loose handle arrangement so that the breaker cannot be held in against
the action of the automatic releases.
The internal leads or conductors connecting the various contacts are generally single-core cables
insulated with varnished cambric which is cut into strips and applied in a similar manner to paper
insulation. Such cables, though more expensive than paper-insulated cables, arc more convenient
for the internal wiring of switchgear motors, transformers, etc. They are almost non-hygroscopic,
and do not require a special sheath ; they are unaffected by oil {unlike rubber) ; and they may be
bent to a small radius.
The trip coils and dashpots arc mounted below the operating mechanism and arc under oil in the
circuit breaker tank.
Mechanical interlocks are provided to ensure that the circuit cannot be made or broken on the
isolating plugs. The breaker must be tripped before it can be racked either in or out. In addition,
the oil tank cannot be lowered un til the breaker has been withdrawn nor can the breaker be plugged
in with the tank removed.
A binged safety door is provided to cover the plug sockets when the breaker is in the drawn-out
position and the door can be closed without removing the breaker from the guide rails.
The protective devices may include :-
(a} Series over-current releases with oil dashpots to enable the breaker to wi thstand a sudden
peak, but to trip on continuous overloads.
(b) Under-voltage release connected across two phases.
(c) Earth leakage protection by means of a core-balance· transformer, with a. testing battery to
enable the earth fault release to be tested periodically. By means of a special key, the testing battery
is connected in series with the leakage trip coil and the secondary side of the core-balance transformer.
If the release is in working order, this' operation will trip the circuit breaker. A flag indicator shows
when the circuit-breaker has tripped on an earth fault.
For lighting purposes, a flameproof transformer lighting unit rated at 300 volt-amperes (ot a pair
of such transformers) can be mounted on the busbar chamber to give a supply at 110 volts.
Earthing device.
To ensure safety of personnel when working on cables or apparatus supplied
by the switch, it is essential that the circuit be earthed. The only satisfactory
way of fulfilling this requirement and preventing accidents due to a cable or
apparatus becoming recharged, is to earth the circuit through the circuit breaker
itself after the oil-switch has been drawn forward and is isolated from the
busbars.
In the switch described. the earthing device consists of a detachable box-
shaped earthing bridge which is placed between the fixed structure and the
drawn-out oil circuit-breaker. With the bridge in position and the breaker
open, one side of the circuit-breaker is connected to earth through an earthing
plug in the bridge, and the other side is connected to the outgoing cable through
insulated plug extensions permanently fixed to the earthing bridge. The act of
closing the circuit-breaker earths the feeder, leaving the isolating plug receptacles Fig. 8.
on the live side safely disconnected. The circuit breaker may then be locked Switch Pillar. fitted with
in this position. A warning notice bearing the words ·· Earthed=-Menon Line ·· Earthing Device.
should be displayed. ·
SWITCHGEAR FOR COAL FACE MACHINERY.
For controlling motors near the coal face-coalcutters, conveyors, loaders, and drilling machines-
the switchgear is usually of the ironclad flameproof air-break type, preferably equipped for remote
control and with all possible protective devices.
Fig. 9 gives an external outline view of one typical switch unit
consisting of a welded steel case with removable top cover and front &llSMR IS.OL.AT1t1r.
cover, machined joints, and shrouded bolt heads, the whole being COVER SWITCH
mounted on skids with detachable end-pieces. Several interconnected l
switches may, if desired. be mounted side by side to form a· switch-
board, the busbar cover then being removed.
The incoming cable arrangement may consist of a compound- I
filled trifurcating box with air-insulated spreader chamber, or a bolted PlUG-.ND
SOC.PIH
l'l'IAltc
plug and socket coupling (flit plug) which can be secured to either end 0 COl\T.-,CTO~ e COUP~IHG
of the busbar chamber. The outgoing arrangement consists of a 4-pin SWITCH
C>lAMeER
100 amp. standard B.S.I. plug and socket, or a flit plug, as occasion Wrtk
PROTECTIVE o
requires. 0
P£'f•C£!.
The case has two separate flameproof compartments. The upper 0 0
compartment contains the busbars and a three-pole reversing isolating
switch operated by a specially shaped key and so interlocked that
the lower chamber cannot be opened unless the isolator is OFF and all Fig. 9.
Gnte~end Box.
the apparatus and contacts are dead and safe.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff,

The tower compartment contains a three-pole air-break main contactor (an electro-magnetically
operated switch) fitted with magnetic blow-out coils and arc shields on each pole ; a single-phase
voltage transformer giving the pilot voltage of 25-30 volts ; and all the necessary protective devices,
as follows :-
(1) Over-current (overload) protection by means of three series over-current trip coils, fitted with
double-action time-lag dashpots to enable squirrel cage motors to be switched on direct.
(2) Under-voltage release, this being inherent in the action of the main contactor.
(3) Core-balance leakage protection, provided by means of a core-balance transformer working
in conjunction with a relay which may be set to trip at a primary leakage current of five amperes.
The relay is provided with a flag indicator and a latch-up-and-reset device.
(4) Earth continuity protection, to ensure that, until a through earth connection is established
the power cannot be switched on, and should the earth circuit be disconnected at either end, or other-
wise broken (e.g. by withdrawing a live plug} the switch will immediately be opened.
(5) Pilot core protection, with Jlag indicator, which operates in the event o[ a short-circuit fault
between the pilot core and the earth core.
{6) Interlocks, to prevent (a) the opening of the box while the switch is ON, and (b) the accidental
closing of the switch while the box is open.
In conjunction with the foregoing, a system of remote control is incorporated whereby all switching
operations for starting and stopping the motor are performed, in so far as the main power circuit is
concerned, not at the motor, but at the circuit breaker. The master control switch on the motor only
operates a low-voltage auxiliary pilot circuit which operates the contactor by electro-magnetic action.
The remote control system provides for :-
. (1) Closing and opening the gate-end contactor by a master switch on the coalcutter or conveyor
(as already described).
(2) Automatic tripping of the contactor if the pilot conductors are open-circuited.
(3} Automatic tripping if the trailing cable is damaged and so causes a short circuit between pilot
and earth cores.
(4) Automatic tripping if the supply fails or if either of the trailing cable plugs is removed or not
fully home.
(5) No re-closing of the contactor on restoration or supply until the coalcuttcr master switch
has been opened and re-closed.
··-- The foregoing arrangements require a 5-core trailing cable to be used, i.e. having three power
cores, one earth core, and one pilot core, or alternatively a 4-core pliable armoured cable in which the
armouring is used as the earth conductor, or a 5-core cable in which both pilot core and earth core
.are provided. .
A complete connection diagram for a remote-controlled gate-end switch is rather complex, as
there arc so many circuits superimposed on one another. It is sufficient to note that the circuits for
overload, low-voltage, and core-balance earth leakage protection are similar in principle to those
already described and illustrated for ordinary switchgear. Among the other circuits, that for earth
continuity is perhaps the most important and a schematic diagram of one method of securing this
is shown in fig. 10. ·
Earth continuity protection.
)
It will be seen that the main contactor is
closed magnetically by the coil A when this is
energised. Coil A is connected across two 1·-·1
phases of the incoming feeder and it becomes
energised when relay R is closed, and de-
energised when relay R is opened, or when the I
.
supply fails.
There is also a circuit through the pilot I
SfM.T.
core, motor switch, earth core, the secondary
side of the potential transformer PT and the
relay coil R. The transformer is protected by
fuses F on the high-tension side.
When the motor switch is placed in the Fig. 10.
"start" position. relay coil R is energised, so Dfagr:am of Earth Continuity Prcteetlcn.
closing the relay and completing the circuit of (Metro-f,ol1'tan-Vicllcrs).
coil A. The main contactor is thereby closed and supply is given to the motor. The switch is then
placed in the "run " position.
If, however, there should be some fault in the pilot core, or in the earth circuit connections, the
relay coil R becomes de-energised and this, in its turn, opens the relay Rand shuts down the equipment.
The removal of a plug at either end of the trailing cable will have a similar effect.
Temporary failure of main supply.
To guard against the possibility of the motor re-starting after a temporary failure in the supply
voltage and whilst the master switch is still in the " run " position, a resistance is inserted, as shown,
in the pilot circuit. The value of this resistance is such that it will not pass sufficient current to close
relay R, although sufficient to retain the relay in the closed position. After a shut down due to failure
of voltage (or other cause) it is therefore necessary to return the master switch to the " off " position
and then to the" start " position, (so cutting out the resistance) before the equipment can be restarted.
 Switchgear

Face equipment. --------0:> ~euTTER

Fig. 11shows m diagrammatic
form the equipment that may be used -----~ :i]CUTTER
to supply two coalcuttcrs, two con-
veyors, and one loader.
Supply is brought in by an armoured
roadway cable from the district sub-
station at 550 volts to a main air-break
section switch-a hand-operated circuit
breaker+-which controls the supply to
all the inbye equipment. Connection's
are made to the switch by detachable SECTION SWITCtt GATf EMO $WITC:K VNIT!'.
bolted-on cable end coupling boxes or Fig. 11.
"fiit plugs "which obviate the unsealing Dl:igram of Coal Face Equipment,
and uncoupling of cable tails when the
switchgear is moved up. This switch is fitted with three overload releases and inverse time-lag dash-
pots.
From the section switch, supply is taken to a five-panel assembly of gate-end circuit-breakers
through one or more standardised I00-yard lengths of three core pliable armoured temporary extension
cables having flit plugs at each end. Any surplus length of pliable cable is stowed in a figure of eight
to prevent kinking.
The first two of the five units control the supply to the two coalcutters. The two trailing cables
should be of the five-core type for remote control, with overload, earth leakage, earth continuity,
and pilot core protection. The cables are connected to the switches at one end and the coalcutters
at the other by flameproof plugs and sockets.
The remaining three switch units control the supply to the conveyors and the loader through
the medium of 4-core or 5-core pliable armoured cables which may bo connected to the apparatus
either by flit plugs or by free plug and socket couplings, depending on the system of protection adopted.
There are, of course, many variants of the above arrangements, but the general principle "should
be dear. Sometimes, all the gear is placed in the central loading gate leading to each double-unit
face. Sometimes the power supply to the face conveyors is taken through the tail gates al each end
of the face. Al other times, the switchgear is placed in special intermediate gateways (one for each
face of a double-unit), thus removing it from the dusty conditions often found in loading gates and
shortening the length of trailing cable required for the coalcutters,
Electric drilling equipment.
The equipment required for electric drilling O~H ... ING
MACHINE WITH
is shown in fig. 12. :.PIRAL. OFtlu.. FtOO
ll"IOSPEGIAL. &IT

Supply is brought in at medium pressure

l~EflMEDIATE
P~UGANO .SOCl(ET
C.OVPUNG
\
(say 550 volts) from the main section switch, or
from the district substation, to the gate-end drill \
panel which may be lined up with, and connected
to, other panels supplying coalcutters, conveyors.
etc., or may be mounted quite separately. Fig. 12.
Layout or Drilling Equipment.
The equipment of the drill panel (assuming
an a.c supply) depends on whether the drill is to
be supplied at the normal frequency of 50 cycles per second, or at three times the normal frequency.
namely 150 cycles per second.
The advantage of the high frequency drill is that the motor has a very high synchronous speed
of 9000 r.p.m., as compared with 3000 r.p.m. for the 50-cycle drill. The torque developed by the
motor and transmitted to the drilling machine is thus greatly increased and improved drilling results
are claimed to be obtained in both coal and stone. In both cases, the actual motor speed is 6% or
7%, less than the synchronous speed because of " slip," and the drill itself is geared down to nm at
speeds which range between 300 r.p.m. and 700 r.p.m,
With 50-cycle drilling equipment, the drill panel 'contains, in one flameproof unit, a triple-pole
isolating switch interlocked with the cover ; a 3-phase atr-cooled step-down transformer to reduce
the pressure from 550 volts to 125 volts, this being the voltage of the 50-cycle current supplied to
the drill ; apparatus for the protection and operation of the drill ; a cable gland or a. flit plug for the
incoming cable ; and one (or two) plug sockets for the outgoing drill cable.
The protective and operative gear withjn the panel includes two hand-operated triple-pole circuit-
breakers, one on the primary and the other on the secondary side of the transformer, both being
provided with overload and short-circuit releases. In addition an earth leakage relay is provided
to act directly on the primary circuit-breaker and a small two-way switch is fitted so that the drill
rotation may be reversed.
The drill is operated by remote control with earth continuity protection, the apparatus for this
including a single-phase potential transformer which steps down the voltage to ZS volts for the pilot
circuit and a triple-pole contactor which is controlled by a pilot switch mounted on the drill itself.
 LR/It
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. 9
----- -· ~-·------ ---------····-·------··-···
Assuming all the equipment in fig. 12 to be correctly connected up, the procedure is first to close
the isolating switch, then the primary circuit breaker, and finally the secondary circuit breaker. The
pilot switch in the drilling machine is then closed to see whether the direction of rotation is correct.
II not, the matter is put right by means of the two-way reversing switch. The whole equipment is
then ready for service.
With 150-cycle drilling equipment, the 3-phase transformer with its primary and secondary circuit
breakers is replaced by a frequency changer of special design. This is a rotary machine combining,
in effect, a squirrel-cage motor and an a.c. generator. It performs the double functlon of reducing·
the voltage from 550 volts to 125 volts, or thereabouts, and of stepping up the frequency from 50 to
150 cycles per second, the high-frequency current being supplied from three slip-rings. For earthing
purposes, the neutral point is brought out from the windings to a fourth slip-ring. The frequency
changer is protected by fuses on it~ primary side.
Remote control of the gale-end box, in this case, is effected by the pilot switch on the drill. and
by a 3-pole line contactor and a 4-pole drill circuit eontactor mounted in the drill gate-end box. Closing
the pilot switch energises the corresponding drill contactor; this in turn energises the operating coil
of the 3-pole line contactor which closes and starts up the frequency changer. The protective gear
includes overload releases, earth continuity protection, and earth leakage protection.
From the drlll panel {with either type of equipment) the 125 volt supply is taken to the drill by
means of a 5-core flexible cable, commonly consisting of five equal cores of 0 ·01 square inch cross-
section, arranged symmetricallyaround a cradle centre and tough rubber sheathed overall. Sometimes.
a 5-yard length of specially flexible cable having a very short lay is interposed between the main
length of cable and the drill as a precaution against core breakages, the two cables being joined by
a plug and socket coupling.
The drilling machine is driven by a squirrel-cage motor having an output of 1 t H.P. on a one-hour
rating. It is fan-cooled and provided with longitudinal ribs to help in the dissipation of heat. The
switch is operated by a lever mounted in the hand grip. The weight of the machine is 30 to 35 lbs.
The drill rods are of spiral shape, having bits tipped with some special cutting material such as tungsten
carbide which retains its cutting qualities almost indefinitely and does not require periodical heat-
.
treatment .

TEST PAPER LR/11.

I. In choosing ironclad oil-break switchgear for use and plant that may be installed between the trans-
underground, what features or constt:uction would mission line and the shaft cable for providing and
you consider as being specially important, having controlling the current and for protecting the
particular regard to safety ? . installation.

2. Briefly describe a switchboard and its equipment for
controlling and protecting two alternators of 3-pha.se
type (say of 1000 K\V each and 3,300 volts between
phases) supplying a number of outgoing feeders.
State the purpose or function of the various items
of equipment.
3. (a) What do you understand by the term •• syn-
chronism " in electric power work ? (b} How does
" synchronism " atfcct electric genemtors and
motors.
4. AIJ. overhead bare copper transmission line brings
3-phase SO-cyclecurrent at 6600 volts to a colliery.
A 3-core cable in the shaft is to carry current under-
ground at 3,300 volts. Describe briefly the apparatus
5. An electric cable leading to a double-unit face supplies
3-phase current at 50 cycles and 500 volts for driving
two coal-cutting machines. two face conveyors, and
a gate conveyor. Outline the apparatus that ma}'
be installed bceweeu the main roadway cable and the
various motors to control the supply and safeguard
tlle operators. Illustrate your answer by a sketch.
6. A turbine pump and a maln-and-tail haulage, both
of about 150 Hf>., are each to be driven by a 3-phase
3000 volt, 50 cycle, slip ring induction motor with
wound rotor. Enumerate the etcetrtcat plant !or
starting and controlling the= motors. describing
carefully the d iffcrences between the two equipments.

CardiU Print en L Ld.

FOU-NDED l883 COPYRIGHT
THE \J,M.S.
'T'.. A .. SOU"£HERN LTD .•
THIS P,_PER

'Uu.i~of ~
WJ.S ·Tl-IE FUIS7 IS SUPPLIED OM
CORRESPONOENCE
MINING $CH00l
,,. THE wo1:u.o.
§'fte £dwof; CONOITION Tl-IAT
IT IS I: ES F.llVE I)
excLUSlllELV FOR

lhOO,.PODAT4if) 1931, CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN.) YOUR ow» USE

MINING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Answers LR/11
SWITCHGEAR.
I. In choosing ironclad oil-break switchgear for use underground, what features of construction
would you consider us being specially important, having partiwlnr regard to safety ?
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF IRONCLAD OIL-BREAK SWITCHGEAR.
These may be: set out as follows :-
1. Robust construction. The gear must be able to withstand the arduous conditions met with
in mining and the possibly rough treatment it may receive.
2. Flameproof enclosure, There must be no risk of the ·occurrcnce·of O)X:ll sparking in places
where inflammable gases may occur,
3. Safety in operation. It must be impossible to obtain access to live metal under normal working
conditions. Mechanical or electrical interlocks should be provided to ensure- correct sequence of
operations when the gear is to· be opened up for inspection.
4. • Adequate rupturing ccpacity. ·The gear must be designed to carry the normal current con-
tinuously without over-heating and to deal safely with the maximum short-circuit current it may be
called upon to interrupt.
5. Automatlc protective devices. The switch must be arranged to open automatically under
conditions appropriate to the circuit it is designed to protect. The automatic devices may include
overload releases, under-voltage releases, and leakage protection with facilities for testing the latter
periodically.
6. Loose-handle mechanism. It should be impossible to close the switch on a faulty circuit
againsL the action of the automatic releases.
7. Draw-out Ieature. The oil switch and its accessories should be capable of visible isolation
from the live busbars and a. hinged door should he provided lo cover the fixed isolating contacts and
protect them from accidental contact.
8. Earthing the outgoing feeder cable. It should be possible to earth the outgoing feeder through
the ·oil circuit breaker whenever work is being donr- on the cable or apparatus connected thereto.
9. Detachable cable scaling boxes. The cable sealing and dividing boxes should be readily
detachable from the switchgear without disturbance of the sealing compound.
In practice, all the foregoing features are incorporated in switchgear made by the well-known
manufacturers, and cost, convenience, simplicity of operation and other factors govern the eventual
choice. Heavy and elaborate equipment may be required for a large and important power circuit,
but a simpler and cheaper type of switch may be adequate for a single small motor. Each case must
be judged on its merits and the advice of the manufacturers sought before a final decision is made.

2. Briefly describe a switch/ward and ifs cqseipme.nt for controlling mid protecting tsso alternators
of 3-phase t)'Pe (s(iy of 1000 KW each and 3300 volts betsoeen phases) ~mpplyi1zg a number of
outgoing feeders. Slate Ute purpose or [unction of tt:« various items of cq1tipmwl.

POWER STATION SWITCHBOARD.

The main switchboard of an a.c, generating station of the size mentioned may be either of the
sheet-steel cubicle type, or of the truck type, or of the ironclad draw-out type. In any case, the switch-
board would consist of a number of separate units or panels, each controlling a generator or a feeder,
and all mounted side by side and connected to
common busbars, The various panels may be equipped
somewhat as follows :-
Generator Panels (one for each generator) equipped with :-
{a) Clrcuit-breaker of the 3-pole, oil-break, loose-handle type and of adequate rupturing capacity.
(5207}
 Switchgear

The protective devices would include transformer-operated over-current trip coils and time limit
fuses to trip the switch automatically in the event of a pre-determined overload ; or a reverse-power
time-limit relay arranged to open the switch in the event of a reversal of power supplied by other
~ach~nes working in parallel (leaving overloads to be dealt with by the feeder switches) ; or· a com-
bination of overload and reYerse-power protection.
In addition. core-balance leakage protection, or some special current-balance system of protection,
e.g. the Merz-Price system, may be adopted in order to isolate the machine in the event of an internal
fault developing in the generator windings.
(b) 3-pole isolating feature, to enable the generator and the circuit-breaker to be isolated from
the busbars. It is interlocked with the breaker and can only be withdrawn when the latter is open
and no current flowing.
(c} Indicating and measuring instruments, including voltmeter (to indicate the generator voltage},
ammeter (to indicate the current), wattmeter (to indicate the power in KW), recording wattmeter
(to record the variations in power during each shift) and a watt-hour meter (to record the number of
KV.'-hours supplied to the system).
(d) One set of synchronising sockets to enable the machine to be connected to the synchroscope.
(e) Neutral earthing switch, placed in the basement of the power station, to make or break the
circuit between the neutral point of the alternator and the earthing system.
Exciter Panels (one for each generator] equipped with:-
(a) Field~circuit breaker with non-inductive discharge resistance.
{b) Exciter field rheostats, one connected in the shunt field circuit of the exciter and the other
in the alternator field circuit, to enable the exciting current, and therefore the voltage, of the alternator
to be varied either by hand, or automatically.
(c) Voltmeter and ammeter lo indicate the voltage and current in the alternator field.
Instrument Panel (common to both generators) equipped with:--
(a) Two voltmeters, one to read" busbar volts" and the other" incoming machine volts~"
(b) Synchroscope, to indicate when the frequency and phase of an incoming machine are identical
with those of the busbars.
(c) Synchronising lamps, to be used as alternatives to the synchroscope.
(<l) Power factor meter to indicate the power factor of the s.ystem.
(c) Automatic voltage regulator to maintain a constant terminal voltage.
Feeder Panel {one for each outgoing feeder) equipped with:-
(a) Oil circuit-breaker, fitted with over-current trip coils and a core-balance leakage protective
device arranged to trip the switch in the event of an overload or of an incipient fault in the circuit
supplied by the switch.
(b) Instruments, including an ammeter, a watt-meter, and a watt-hour meter.

3. (a) Whal do you -undersiand by the term " synchronism " in electric power work ? (b) Hoio does
" synchronism. '' affect electric generators and motors ?
SYNCHRONISMAND ITS EFFECT.
(a) When two events occur at the same instant, or when two things arc identical at the same
instant, they are said to " synchronise " or to be in " synchronism." Two watches which read the
same time and are so regulated that they continue to do so indefinitely may be said to be " running
in synchronism."
In electricity, the term " synchronism " has special reference to alternating current where 'the
voltage fluctuates in both magnitude and direction, usually completing 50 cycles per second, i.e. having
a " frequency " of SO cycles per second. It may be defined as follows :-
Synchronism is the condition existing between two machines or sources
of electric supply when they have the same frequency and are " in phase:"
{b) Effect on alternators.
Before two alternators can be run in parallel to supply a common circuit, their voltages must be
identical, the frequency of both machines must be the same, and the voltages must be In phase, i.e.
they must be falling and rising together in unison and in proper phase sequence. 'N11cn these conditions
have been achieved, the two machines are said to be running in " synchronism '• and both will take
their proper share of the load. An apparatus called a "synchroscope '' is used to i~dicate when the
phase and frequency are identical, and voltmeters are used to indicate the respective voltages.
Effect on motors.
The speed of a.c. motors is governed by the frequency of the supply and by the number of pairs
of poles on the motor.
 LRII l
Tht Universal Mining School, Cardiff. ·A~

A synchronous motor (as its name implies) runs in synchronism with the supply, i.e. the angular
velocity of its rotor is equal to the angular velocity corresponding to the supply frequency. Its syn-
chronous speed is given by the relation:-
Revs, per second = Frequency 7 No. of pairs of poles.
An induction motor has a "synchronous speed" which is determined exactly as with a syn-
chronous motor, this being the speed of the revolving field. The actual normal speed of the rotor.
however, is always from 2% to 5% or so belo"'.,. synchronous speed, the difference being termed the
"slip." The rotor speed is also capable of variation through the medium of a variable resistance
(or controller) in the rotor circuit.

4. A it overhead bare copper transmission line bri1igs 3-p!utsc 50-cycle current al 6600 volts to a
colliery. A 3-core cable iti Lile shaft is lo carry current underground at 3300 volts. Describe briefly
th« apparatus and plant tliat may be installed. between the transmission li11e and the shaft cable
for providi11g and controlling tile current and for protecting the installation;

"j
0.11.LINE
TRANSFORMER SURFACE SUB-STATION.
The required apparatus is shown diagrammatically in the adjoining
sketch. The apparatus includes:- CHOKE'
con,
Terminal Pole Equipment. EARTH 'V
(i) Lightning arrester to provide an easy .path to earth for surges
of higher voltage than normal.
(ii) Inverted, weather-proot trifureating box mounted on the pole to
enable connection to be made between the o.h. line conductors and the
three tails of a 3-core paper-insulated wire-armoured cable leading to the __J_
I 6E.OO VOLT
sub-station. I . . SWITCHGEAR
(ill) Choke coil to offer a difficult path to discharges of high-frequency I
and so protect the colliery plant.
~STEP•DOWN

TI
In some cases, no lightning arrester or choke coil is used, the terminal TRAKSFORMER
E:.foOO- 3500 'I.
pole being placed 250 yards or more from the colliery. It is then (ound
that the connecting cable itself damps down surges and so gives protection
to the colliery plant. I :S.300 VOLT
~ SWITCHGE"'R
6600 Volt Swltchgear. I
This may be either of the cubicle, truck, or ironclad draw-out type,

,
each panel being provided with a 3-pole oil-immersed switch fitted with
loose-handle mechanism. There would be : -
(i) An incoming panel belonging to and controlled by the supply
authority and equipped with measuring instruments, e.g. voltmeter, Simplllied Diagram or Con-
necllons between Overhead
ammeter, wattmeter, watt-hour meter, and power-factor meter. Line and Shatt Cable.
(ii) An outgolng panel supplying a step-down transformer and fitted with overload, low-volt,
and leakage protection.
AH trip coils and instruments would be operated by means of potential and current transformers.·

Step-down Transformer.
This would be of the 3-phase, oil_-immersed, self-cooled, type, reducing the voltage from 6600
volts to 3300 volts. It wou.!-dbe housed ma s~parat.e fire-proof co!11partrnent and fitted with trifurcating
boxes on the h.t. and Lt. sides to enable the incormng and outgomg cables to be connected respectively
to the primary and secondary windings.

3300 Volt .Switchgear.

This would be of similar type lo the 6600 volt gear, and would comprise an incoming panel from
the transformer and a number of outgoing feeder panels, one being to the shaft cable. Protective
devices would include overload protection and leakage protection. An ammeter would also be provided.

Surface Cable.
This would he ?f the 3-corn .P~pcr-insulated, lead-sheathed wire-armoured type and would be
connected by a straight-through joint box to the shaft cable. It would be secured to the sides of
buildings, or suspended from a catenary wire, or taken to the shaft via a brick tunnel. whichever is
most convenient.
In practice, the step-down transformer and the shaft cable would probably be duplicated so as to
give an alternative supply if anything should go wrong, and this would necessitate additional switch-
gear to control the duplicate supply.
Ll(fli
.A/-4
-----·-· ·-·- ·-----
~- An cicctric caot« lead·ing lo a double-unit face supplies 3-pl:asr current al 50 cycles and. 500 volts
for dn:-;;i;:l! ttc« coai-cuiiing mac/tines, two [ace conveyors, and <1 gato co11vc:yur. Outiine ihr: apparatus
thot. ii1<1c'I! be installed betuieen Lile main roadway cable and the various motors '" c1,,:tr,•! the supply
and safq:11ard !/;r. operators, Illustrate _yottr anstrrr by a sketch,
CONTROL OF' COAL FACE il1ACHINERY.
The adjoining sketch shows a typical layout of the
electrical plant for n double-uni t face although there
are several possible variations.

District feeder switch.

In the case shown, the: incoming supply at medium
pressure (say SSO volts} is brought in via a 3-core paper-
insulated, lead-sheathed, double-wire armoured cable to
an ironclad nameproo!, oil-immersed, switch pillar which G1'TE
COHVC'<OFI
controls the whole of the branch circuit. It is provided
with overload protection and time-lags.
Alternatively, the district feeder switch may be
replaced by a transportable substation or transwiteh
unit of, say, 100 KVA capacity. Such a unit consists
of an oil-immersed mining type~ tra.nstormer mounted
on wheels and equipped with flameproof oil-immersed TnA~IHG CABLE
switches on both the h.t. and the Lt. sides. When a
transwitch unit is used, supply is brought in at high
tension and is transformed down to medium tension Pl\PEft LEl'IO CABLE
for the inbye equipment. The transformer is connected
in delta on the h.t. side and in star on the Lt. side, the
neutral point being «urthed, Overload protection is Diagram shcwtng Geno~:il Layout of Coal Face
provided on both switches. and an earth leakage trip Mnchioery.
and an ammeter are also provided on the I.t. switch. The: whole unit is moved forward ;,s the face
advances so eliminaring the excessive voltage drop that occurs in long cables at m-cliurn pressure.
Gate-end switchgear.
From the outgoing side of the oil switch, or of the transwitch unit., supply is l<iken by armoured
cable to a 3-pole, flameproof, air-break, circuit breaker forming one of a series of similar breakers,
all electrically inter-connected and supplying the individual motors.
A 100-yard length of pliable armoured cable may be interposed between the main armoured
cable and the lirst switch when it is necessary lo move the equipment forward.
Each unit panel of rne gate-end swltchboard consists of a welded steel case mounted on skids.
Internally, the case, is divided into two compartments, upper and lower. The upper compartment
contains the busbars and a 3-pole isolating switch. The lower contains all the operative and protective
devices for the remote control of the various motors, including a 3-pole air-break main contactcr
titted with magnetic blow-out coils, arc shields and renewable contact tips ; a single-phase voltage
transformer giving the: pilot voltage of· 25-30 on the secondary side ; three series over-current trip
coils with double-action time-lags ; core-balance earth leakage protective device with flag indicator ;
earth continuity protection ; and the various coils, relays, rectifiers, etc., associated therewith.
In addition to the panels for coalcutters and conveyors, a further special drill panel (although not
specified by the question) may bf: provided to enable one or more electric drilling machines to be
operated by re-mote control. -

Cables and connections.

The main armoured cable may he connected to the oil switch on both the incoming and outgoing
sides by detachable cable sealing and dividing boxes arranged for pre-compounding and removal
without disturbing the sealing compound.
The semi-fixed conveyor motors are supplied from their respective switches t.y 4-core or 5-core
pliable armoured cables which may he connected to the switch at one end and the machine at the other
by means of a bolted plug and socket coupling (flit plug). Alternatively, where one core is used as
an earth corr, or where remote control with earth continuity protection is provided, a detachable
flameproof plug and socket may be used.
The coaleutters are supplied by 5·core flexible cables having three power cores, one «arrh core and
one pilot core. The cores may be either collectively copper screened, or indivirlually screened. The
flexible cables are connected to their apparatus at both ends by detachable flameproof plugs and sockets.

Control switches.
The use of a remote control gate-end box requires the provision of a suitable- master control
switch on the coalcntters. This is usually of the drum type having the necessary control rings and
contacts for the remote: control feature, and also main power rings for reversing the stator connections
of the motor. The sequence of operations ensures that main current is not made or broken. on these
contact rings. Power is given to the motor by closing the control switch, so completing the pilot
circuit and closing the main contactor in the gate-end box.
 The Universal Mining School, Cardiff. LR/11
:\/5

A similar control switch may be mounted on the conveyor head. Alternatively, a push-pull switch
having an action equivalent to an ordinary stop and start push-button may be used. The push-pull
switch may be mounted at the loading point or other place suitable for the control of the conveyors.
being connected to the conveyor motor cable box by a small armoured cable. •
Safeguards effected.
The foregoing arrangements ensure that power cannot be switched on to any machine until a
through earth connection is made. Should the earth connection be broken ; should accidental contact
be made between pilot core and earth core; should any power circuit leakage occur; or should any
live plug be withdrawn, the machine affected would be immediately stopped ; and when the machine
is stopped, the power circuit is disconnected from both the machine, the trailing cable, and the plugs.
The main contactor, however, can be re-closed from the machine by remote control except in the
case of an earth leakage fault or a fault in the pilot circuit, in which cases the lault must be put right
before work can be resumed.

6. A turbine pump and a niain-and-tai; haulag», bolh of about 150 HP., arc each to be driven. l>y a
3-plwse 3000 volt, 50 cycle, slip-rfog it1dm;ti<m motor u;ith wound. rotor. Emmterate tire electrical
plant for starting and eonlrolling the motors, describing carefillly the differences bctureen: the two
t•q11ipmc.nls.
CONTROL GEAR FOR TURBINE PUMP AND HAULAGE MOTOR.
Turbine Pump Motor Equipment.

'
The type of equipment required is largely determined by the fact that {al a t·~;bine pump motor
starts up under light load, (b) Infrequent starting only is required, and (c) the motor runs continuously
for long periods. The necessary control gear may comprise :-
{1) Main switch of the ironclad, compound-tilled, flameproof, oil-immersed, loose-handle type
to supply current via a 3-core cable direct to the stator windings of the motor. The switch would be
provided with three overload releases fitted with oil dashpot time lags, and also an under-voltage
releasej intcrlocked with the rotor starter. A voltmeter and an ammeter may also be fitted, and
trifurcating boxes for incoming and motor cables.
{2) Rotor starter to vary the resistance in the rotor circuit. The starter may be of the metallic
or the liquid type.
Assuming the metallic type, this would be an oil-immersed flameproof starter having unbreakable
metal grid resistances supported on mica-sheathed steel rods and totally enclosed in a. welded boiler-
plate casing. The resistances arc connected to the fixed contact studs of a race plate provided with
three contact arms and a starting handle.
When starting up, the whole of the resistance is in circuit, so limiting the rotor current and
{indirectly}the current taken by the stator from the supply. The resistance is gradually cut out as
the motor speeds up. Finally, when full speed is attained, the brushes are raised off the slip rings
and the rings are short-circuited.
Haulage Motor Equipment.
A main-and-tail haulage motor starts up on full load and must be capable of speed variation.
It runs intermittently and requires frequent starting up. It may also have to be reversed. The control
gear must therefore be of a more elaborate and complicated character and may comprise :-
( 1) Main switch, as in the previous case, to control the whole supply to the motor.
(2) Starting and reversing switch, of the oil-immersedflameproof type, to transpose the connections
of two of the stator phases, so enabling the motor to run in the forward or reverse directions as required.
This switch may be mounted separately, or combined with the rotor controller and actuated by the
same control lever.
Alternatively, the reversing switch may be of the flameproof air-break or oil-break contactor
type, this being electrically operated by a small master switch coupled up to the operating lever of the
controller. Electrical operation gives quick and positive closing and opening of contacts and is designed
for large haulers requiring frequent starting, stopping and reversing.
(3) Rotor controller to vary the resistance in the rotor circuit. A controller differs from a starter
in that it is designed Ior more arduous service than a starter, for it is in constant use for speed control
and also for frequent starting and " inching " duty. The controller may be either a barrel-type drum
controller, or a liquid controller.
For haulage purposes, a liquid controller of the moving electrode type is often preferred for large
motors, exceeding about IOO HP. 1t is simpler in construction and easier to maintain than the drum
type : it gives smoother acceleration and reduces the strain on ropes and other apparatus ; and it
occupies lit tle, if any, more room than the drum type with its hanks of resistances, On the other hand,
a good supply of clean cooling water must be available.
In essentials, a liquid controller consists of an iron or steel tank filled with water (the electrolyte)
to which salt, soda, or permanganate of potash Iias been added to improve its conductivity. Within
the tank at the bottom are three fixed copper plates or electrodes, whilst the position of three moving
electrodes or dippers is controlled by the operating lever. The resistance of the rotor circuit is varied
by changing the position of the moving electrodes relatively to the fixed electrodes.

J>rinred I.>)' Car(lilf !Tiner.<$ Lid.

 COPYRIGHT
FOUNOEO 1883
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD ..
THE U.M.S. THIS PA.PER

&=),Ju,J,
WAS THE FIRST IS SUPPLIED ON
CORRESPONOENCE
MINING SCHOOL
IN THE WOP.lO
~f.e GUrw,euaf ~ CONDITION THAT
IT IS P.ESEP.VEO
EXCLUSIVELY FOR
CARDIFF (CT. BRITAIN.) TOUR OWN USE

·-- ·- ·--- ..- .... ------ --------

Tes.t Paper MB/S

SPECIMEN ANSWERS
ELECTRICITY.
1. Draw a diagram of connections showing an electrical 3-phas,; circuit [rom a 3-core cable through
high-tcm;.frm sioitchgear , step-down transformer, mediwu-LC1tsion switchgear, and. stator reversing switch
lo the motor. The reversing switch is combined <oitli a liqnid starter for the. rotor circuit, Show automatic
overload trips aud low volt releases where appropriate. Show ammeter and »oltsneter 01t the medium-
tension. (step-do1:.111) side of the transformer,

DIAGRAM OF CONNECTIONSFOR 3-PHASE A.C. CIRCUIT.

The adjoining sketch shows the required 1MC.QM\HG ISOl'PLY
diagram of connections and forms a complete CABLE
answer to the question. •SOLATOAS I J J
STATOR
REVERSING
SWITC.1-1

[Note. The following dcscripti ve notes H.T.

OIL
will be helpful. c.&RWIT
811£AKE~~-.i.-__._....J
The incoming supply passes through an ()YE'RLOAO
COILS
iron-clad, flameproof, draw-out, oil-immersed,
high-tension swltch fitted with three automatic
over-current (overload) releases on the out-
going side, and passes thence to the primary
side of a step-down transformer.
The static transformer is connected in
delta on its primary side (as is customary) and
in star on its secondary side, so giving a
neutral point which can be earthed to prevent
the secondary windings becoming charged at
high potential. The secondary side gives
supply at medium tension to an oil-immersed
switch panel. LOW
!l'OLT
1'11111"
The medlum-tenslon switchgear is fitted
with a voltmeter and a low-volt release, each
connected in shunt across two phases on the
incoming side, and with an ammeter and three
overload releases, each connected in. series with
one phase on the outgoing side. It may be
additionally fitted with core-balance leakage
protection to open the switch automatically Fig. l.
in the event of leakage to earth, or between Diagram or Conneotlons for 3-pha.se A.C. Slip-ring
phases. Induction Motor supplied through a Statlc Trans(ormer.

From the medium tension switch, the supply passes to the reversing switeh {designed to change
over two of the stator phases) and thence to the fixed terminals on the motor stator. The stator
windings are thus supplied direct with current at the full medium voltage.
The rotor cireuit is electrically independent of the stator circuit and only an induced current
flows in the rotor windings. This induced current is controlled by the liquid starter in the rotor
elrcuit, the starter being connected to the three rotor slip-rings by means of a 3-core cable.
As stated in the question, the reversing switch and the control handles for the liquid starter
are combined mechanically in one control pillar for convenience of operation, although electrically
independent].
(5701)
MB/5
A/2
Answers on Electricity

2. H'hen a 3-pltasc squirrel-cage motor is connected direct to the -poioer mpply, the starting current
may be over six times the full load r1mnitig current. What devices may be adopted to reduce the d1;ma11rl
on the sysieni for current at starling under various conditions ? E xptain, with sketches where. necessary,
how the devices act.

STARTING A SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTOR.

To reduce the demand when starting up, one of the following methods may be adopted :-
(I) Reduce the load on the motor at starting so that it speeds up rapidly, thereby shortening
the period of high current-demand.
(2) Reduce the voltage applied to the stator windings, by means of a star-delta starter or an
auto-transformer, so reducing both the starting current and also the starting torque.
(3} Install a motor havlng a double-cage rotor winding, so reducing the starting current but
increasing the starting torque.

{1) REDUCING THE LOAD ON THE MOTOR.

If the drive is such that the starting load is inherently light, e.g., a turbine pump, an auxiliary
fan, or a sawmill, it is permissible to switch direct on to the line. Acceleration is rapid and the peak
demand is momentary. Motors of 100 HP or more may be started in this way, when connected
-to a power station of sufficient capacity.
In cases where the starting load is considerable, e.g., a haulage, a friction clutch or a centrifugal
clutch may be used, whereby the motor is first rapidly run up to speed unloaded, and then the load
is taken up gradually by means of the clutch gear. A friction clutch is operated by hand, but a
centrifugal dutch comes automatically into action as the speed increases.

(2) REDUCING THE VOLTAGE APPLIED TO THE STATOR-WINDINGS.

(a) Star-Delta. Starter. SUPPLY b
c STATOR
This may be either combined WINDINGS
with the main switch, or separate
therefrom, the latter arrangement A~---
being shown in Fig. 2. The main
switch is fitted with a no-volt
release (N.V.R.) and three over- O.~.R.
load releases (O.L.R.}.
The starter is essentially a
lour-pole throw-over switch which, e,
in the "START" position, connects MAIN SWITCH
CONNECTIONS
the stator windings in star, so STARTER CO~!'! E.C.TIOliS
reducing the voltage applied to .
each phase to lOO-:-y3=58% of Fig. 2. Star-Delta Starter.
-the line voltage. This limits the starting current to about 1! times the full-load current. and also
reduces the starting torque to about one-third full-load torque. The load at starting must therefore
be light. When the motor is up to speed, the starter arm is sharply moved to the "RUN" position
and the stator windings arc thereby connected in delta, full line voltage being applied to the stator
windings.
Points to note are that the six ends of the three phases A, B and C, are brought out to fixed
terminals. In the "START" position, the outer end of each phase is connected to the supply, whilst
the three inner ends, a, b and c, are short-circuited by the fourth starter-arm, so forming a neutral
or star point. In the "RUN" position, the fourth arm_ is idle, but the other three arms connect the
outer end of each phase, A, B and C, to the supply, and also connect the end of one phase to the
beginning of the next. so. placing the windings in delta. The lettering of the various terminals
should be carefully noted, and especially the transposition of the upper pairs.

(b) Auto-transformer starter.

SvPPL.Y
An auto-transformer is a device in which one winding {per 3-PHAS£
AUTO-
phase) acts as both primary and secondary, and a reduced voltage TRAHS-
may be obtained by tapping the winding at an intermediate point. FORMER
An auto-transformer starter consists essentially of a sJx-pole
throw-over switch whereby, in the "START" position, supply is
given to the motor stator via an auto-transformer at some selected
voltage which may be 50, 60, or 75% of t~e ~e voltage, The
particular voltage chosen should be ~hat wh1~ will JU,S~ start the
motor on light load. The 60% tap gives starting conditions a_bout
.
tJ •
equivalent to those of a star-delta starter. When the motor rs up AUN
' 'TO
to speed, the starter is placed in the "RUN" position, so cutting STATOR
out the auto-transformer and giving supply to the stator at full Fig. 3. Auto-transformer Starter.
line voltage.
 MB/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff.
A/3

(8) DOUBLE-CAGE ROTOR WINDING.

The high starting current and moderate starting torque of a directly-connected squirrel-cage
motor are due to the low resistance and high inductance of the rotor conductors, a low resistance
being essential for high efficiency at normal running speed.
To reduce the starting current and at the same time Increase the starting torque, the rotor may
be provided with two sets or rotor conductors, one beneath the other, as in the Boucherot Motor.
One set (the outer) is made of an alloy having a high resistance. The other set (the inner) is made of
copper and has a low resistance but a higher inductance because it is more deeply set within the iron
core. Such a rotor is called a double-cage rotor and the motor is sometimes referred to as a "hlgh-
torque motor." At starting, the current flows chiefly in the high-resistance outer winding because
of the "choking" effect of the high-rcactance inner conductors. The effect is to reduce the starting
current to about three times the normal current (instead of six times) and to increase the torque to
about twice the full-load torque. At full speed, the reactance decreases owing to the lower slip
frequency and the induced rotor current then flows chiefly in the low-resistance inner conductors,
thus giving a high efficiency at normal speed.

3. If y01~ had to deliver 390. E.HP 1,500 yards away from a 3,300 volt 3-phasc generator, at a
power factor of O·S, wi:tl~ a 3% voltage drop in. transmission, iohat size of copper conductor u;ould you
require? Assmne the resistance of a copper conductor 1 sq. inch fo section and 1,000 yards long to be
0·025 ohm and neglect the readance of the litie.
POWER TRANSMISSION PROBLEM.
In 3-phase transmission, line voltage drop = y'3 x I R volts.
Where I = line current in amperes ; R= resistance of each conductor in ohms.
To find Une current = I.
Generator voltage = 3,300 volts; voltage drop = 3% of 3,300 = 99 volts:
Voltage at delivery 3,300 -- 99 3,201 volts.
y'3E I cos ,P HP x 746 390 x 746
Now HP = and Current = I = ------ ------- = 65·5 amps.
746 v'3xExcos <fo I ·732x 3,201 x0·8
To find resistance per conductor = R.
voltage drop per phase 99~y'3 57·16
R =----------
current 65·5
---
65·5
= 0'873 ohm per 1,500 yards.

To find area ot conductor required.

f>L pL
Resistance per conductor = R. = , and area= A. sq. ins.
A R
Where p = resistivity of material = 0·025 ohm per sq. inch 1,000 yards long.
L = length of transmission line in thousands of yards = 1 ·5.
R = resistance per conductor = 0·873 ohm .
. 0·025 x 1·5
. ·.Area of conductor= A ----- = 0·043 sq. inch .
0·873

4. (a) What are the f1mdamental differences between (i) a synchronous motor and (ii) cm induction
motor, both for 3-j>liase alternating current ] (b) Explain. what is meant by a synchronous-induction
motor, givi1~g a diagram of connections, and state tlte advantages, disadvantages, and uses of this type.
ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS.
{a) Ditrerences between synchronous and induction motors.
(1) A synchronous motor is a constant speed machine and must run In synchronism with
the supply. Any deviation from this e.g., due to a heavy load, will cause the machine to fall out of
step and stop.
Frequency in cycles per second x 60
Synchronous speed in revs. per min. ------------ (1).
No. of pairs of poles
By contrast, the normal speed of an Induction motor is slightly below synchronous speed, by an
amount known as the "slip," and the speed falls somewhat .on heavy loads. Moreover, the speed
can be controlled by varying the resistance of the rotor circuit.
Synchronous speed -- rotor speed
Percentage slip = ----------- x 100 (2).
Synchronous speed
)IB/5
A/4
Answers on Electricity
·---------·--·
(2) A synchronous motor has a D.C. rotating field magnet system (usually of the salient pole
type) supplied with continuous current from an exciter, whereas the rotor of an induction motor
is not connected to any source of supply, either D.C. or A.C., and only an induced alternating current
flows in the rotor circuit.
(3) A synchronous motor ls not inherently sell-starting whereas an induction motor can be
started up of itself against light load (if of the squirrel-cage type) or against full load (if of the slip-
ring type). Nevertheless, by incorporating in the pole-faces of the. D.C. field magnets an additional
winding, termed a "damper" or "amortisseur" winding, a synchronous motor can be rendered sell-
startlng against light loads. In such a case, the machine starts up by induction motor action, resem-
bling a squirrel-cage motor in this respect, a~d finally. "pulls into. step," thereafter running purely
<Le; a synchronous motor. The normal mechanical load rs then applied. ·
(4} The power !actor of a synchronous motor can be adjusted simply by varying the exciting
current, so that it can run at either a lagging or a leading power factor, or at unity power factor.
By contrast, an induction motor always I1IDS at a lagging power factor, the value of which depends
on the load taken by the machine and is a maximum at full load. If a synchronous motor running
at a leading P.F. is connected to a system which has a low lagging P.F., it will tend to counteract
the latter and raise the overall P.F. of the system. In fact, a synchronous motor may be installed
solely for the purpose of power-factor improvement, being then referred to as a "synchronous
condenser."

{b) Synohronous-induction motor.

As its name implies, this is a combination of the two
types in which the machine is started up as a slip-ring
induction. motor and, when full speed is attained, finally
I lI SUPPL~

runs in synchronism as a synchronous motor. WsTAToP.

As shown in the adjoining diagram, the stator has a
3-plw..se winding connected to the /\.C. supply. The rotor F\0,-0FI
also has a 3-phasc winding which may be connected, via
three slip rings and a change-over switch, either to a liquid
starter or to an exciter. During the starting period, the
rotor is connected to the liquid starter and· the resistance
is gradually cut out as the motor speeds up. When full
speed is attained (apart from the "slip"), the change-over
~
C.HAl'IGE !..IQUID
switch is placed in the "RUN" position, so connecting -OVER STARTER

6
the rotor winding to the exciter. The motor then pulls SWITCH ~
itself into step and runs thereafter at synchronous speed.
r r ~_J
Il will be noticed that one rotor phase carries twice
as much direct current as the other two, resulting in
START
1
somewhat uneven heating of the rotor windings. Various Fig. 4. Dla&ram ot Connections for
special patent windings have been designed to overcome Synchronous-Induction motor.
this defect, but the general principle remains unaltered.
The advantages of a synchronous-induction motor are that it combines the good starting qualities
and characteristics of the slip-ring induction motor and the efficiency and high power factor of the
ordinary synchronous motor. lt will start and synchronise against full load torque.
The disadvantages of a synchronous-induction motor, as compared with a synchronous motor, are
that it is less stable on a fluctuating load ancl is liable to "phase swinging" or "hunting" which, if too
great, may cause the motor to fall out of step. Compared with an induction motor, it is more costly
and more liable to open sparking because of the commutator on the exciter. It is unsuitable where
!requent starting and stopping, or speed variation, are required, e.g., for winders or main-and-tail and
direct haulages.
The uses of a synchronous-induction motor arise chiefly where power-factor improvement is
required, where the starling torque is heavy, where the load is fairly constant, and where a constant
speed is desired. Typical applications are for large ventilating fans, large endless haulages, or large
turbine pumps. For air-compressors and motor generator sets, the salient-pole synchronous motor
is more generally used.

5. (a) Describe, with sketches, a mini11g type transformerfor 3-phase, 50-cyclc current and for about
100 J(. V. A. 011tput, ttic ratio being 3,300 to 440 volts. (b) What are the usual fittings and accessories?
(c) ·w1iat are convenient connections for the primary and for the secondary windings ? (d) What particulars
would yo1t expect to find on the 11a111c plate, and (c} What routine inspections a11d tests would you apply
lo ascertain. that the transfornur was in good r1mning order ?

MINING TYPE TRANSFORMER.

(a) The sketch A on page 5 illustrates a typical 3-phase, core-type, oil-cooled transformer, available
in ratings from 50 to 300 K.V.A., and mounted on wheels for easy transportation underground.
Essentially, the transformer consists of insulated primary .and secondary windings mounted on a
three-limbed iron core and immersed in a tank of oil.
 l\1B/5
The Universal 1\!Iining School, Cardiff. A/5

The complete core-assembly B consists of three LI Fill'IG

vertical limbs connected together at top and bottom SHA~KL..ES
by horizontal yoke pieces. The limbs and yokes am
built up of a large number of thin laminations of silicon-
steel alloy, separated by insulating material (paper or
varnish) to reduce eddy currents and heating. The
whole of the laminations arc securely clamped together
between clamping plates by means of insulated bolts.
Each vertical limb carries upon it the primary
and secondary windings of one phase, arranged as
shown at C. The two sets of windings are placed LAMIMATED COAf
concentrically on the limb, the L.'T. winding being the
inner one, and they are separated from each other and
from the core by cylinders of bakelite or other insulating
material.
The built-up core and coils are bodily immersed
in oil in a tank of boiler-plate steel, mted with external
tubes for circulation of the oil. The latter must be a
high-grade mineral oil of high flash-point and low c.oRi: AND w1No11-1Gs SECTION
viscosity, having no tendency to form a sludge. Its ( B) ( C)
purpose is partly to assist the impregnated tapes and F. M. . T T r
bakelite cylinders in providing efficient insulation !g. 5- ming ype rans ormer.
between windings and individual turns, and partly to dissipate the heat generated by the passage
of current.
(b) Fittings and accessories.
(1) Cable sealing and dividing box at each end of the tank, as shown on the left of sketch A, or
alternatively a. flameproof oil-immersed circuit-breaker fitted with protective devices and measuring
instruments, as shown on the right. In the latter case, the transformer becomes a transportable
sub-station.
{2.} Four llfting shackles, for convenient handling of the transformer,
(3) Name, rating and diagram plate.
(4) Oil-gnuge, with armour plate glass, to indicate the oil-level.
(5) Drain valve, fitted with locking device to prevent unauthorised opening.
(6) Sprlng-loaded relief vent, to operate when the internal pressure exceeds 51bs. per sq. in.
(7) Thermometer pocket, consisting of a closed tube welded into the tank side and protected
at the top by a screwed cap.
(8) Neutra.lpoint terminal box on the L.T. side.
(e) Convenient connections.
The primary windlngs may be either in star or in delta, but delta connection is commonly preferred
because it provides a dosed path for the circulation of so-called .. third harmonic currents." The
secondary windings arc usually connected in star because this provides an accessible neutral point
on the L.T. side which can be earthed. Earthing the neutral in this way is a safeguard against the
L.T. windings becoming charged at high potential, and it also facilitates the use of leakage protective
devices on apparatus supplied by the transformer.
(d) Particulars on name plate.
{l} Maker's name and serial number. (5) Primary and secondary voltages at no-load.
{2) Rated load in K.V.A. (6) Primary and secondary amperes on load.
(3) Number of phases on both primary and (7) Percentage impedance voltage drop.
secondary sides. (8) Vector diagram group reference number.
(4) Frequency in cycles per second. (9) Diagram of connections.
(e) Routine inspections and tests.
In the routine daily inspections, attention should be paid to (i) the temperature of the tank by
feeling it, or by reading the thermometer provided: (ii) the musical hum of the transformer, noting
whether there is any unusual vibration caused (say) by loose core-plate or connections ; and (iii) the
oil level, by means of the oil-gauge. Periodically, further tests should be made for (iv) insulation
resistance, by means of a mcgger testing set : (v) continuity of the windings, by means of a low-
resistance testing set ; and (vi) the dlsruptive strength or tbe oil, by means of a special testing
transformer.
Measurements of insulation resistance should be made by means of a "megger" between high and
low tension windings; between each winding and U1e core; between windings and tank ; and
between insulated core bolts and core.
For testing the oil, samples are carefully taken from the top and bottom of the tank and each
t sample is subject to a high-voltage test to ascertain whether its ability to resist a given voltage (i.e.,
its disruptive strength) has been impaired. A disruptive strength of 22,000 volts m<ty be considered
good and, if it is below 12,000 volts, the oil requires replacing or reconditioning, by either filtration
or centrifugal separation to remove moisture and dirt.
MB/5
·xis Answers on Electricity

6. bt connection with electrical wi11di1tg pla·nt, what is meant by the "Word-Leonard system of
drive" with "flywheel equalising set?" Enumerate the various items of pla11t that are essential (with a
sketclt) mid give reasons for the adoption. of this type of eq"ijmumt. How is electrical braking effected.
wilh this system.

WARD-LEONARD DRIVE WITH FLYWHEEL EQUALISING SET.

[Note. Many systems have been projected and tried out for electric winders, but only two are
in common use, namely :-
( 1) The A.C. System, in which the drum is driven by a q-phase A.C. slip-ring induction motor
and in which speed-variation is obtained by varying the resistance in the rotor circuit.
(2) The Ward-Leonard System, in which the winding drum is driven by. a D.C. motor supplied
with direct current from a motor-generator or converter set. If a flywheel is added to the motor-
generator set, the system is. then called the Ward-Leon:ird-Ilgner equalising system. It is with this
last method that the following answer deals].
The Ward-Leonard system of control
consists essentially of a motor-generator set, M
and G, which supplies direct current at a
.o.c..
variable voltage to the armature of the D.C.
winding motor, W. The addition of the
:tywheel F, is a feature of the llgner equalising
?TOR
system.
Motor-generator set, M. and G.
Assuming a 3-phase A.C. supply, the
motor M, of this set is usually a slip-ring WIHD!rtG
induction motor (or occasionally a salient-pole t>RUM
synchronous motor), and it is mechanically
connected lo the variable voltage, D.C, gener-
ator, G, and to an exciter, E. The latter
supplies a variable magnetising current to the
generator field via the regulator C and a
constant magnetising current to the field of Fig. 6. Diagr;:im or W3rd-Leonard System with
the winding motor W. Flywheel Equalising Set.

The exciter, induction motor, and generator (and also the flywheel when fitted) all run at the
same, almost constant, speed, i:e., the speed of the induction motor .M ..
The generator field; G, is provided with a regulator C which is capable of varying the exciting
current from zero to maximum, and also of reversing it. This varies also the voltage generated by
the constant-speed generator G and applied by it to the armature of the winding motor, W. The
armatures of generator G and motor W are permanently connected in series.
The Winding Motor, W, has its field energised at constant voltage, so that its speed depends
only on the variable voltage applied to its armature by the generator G. It thus follows that the
speed of motor W is governed entirely by the controller C, i :e., by varying the exciting current
magnetising the generator field. Not only so, but the speed of motor W and drum D depends solely
on the position of the lever of the controller Candis independent o.r the load on the drum (or almost so).
The plain Ward-Leonard control, as described, is suitable when the A.C. supply comes from a
power station of ample capacity to deal with large peak loads, but, if peak loads would have an adverse
effect on the supply, a heavy flywheel F is direct-coupled to the motor-generator set. The purpose
of the flywheel is to equalise the load on the supply, by increasing somewhat in speed and storing up
energy during periods of light load, or between winds, and by falling in speed and giving back energy
during periods of heavy load. These changes in speed involve corresponding changes in the rotor
resistance of the induction motor M, and these are effected by an automatic regulator acting on the
rotor resistance and controlled by the stator current taken from the line by motor M. This current, of
course, varies with the load on the winding motor W. In case of breakdown during a wind, the
flywheel may have stored in it sufficient energy to bring the cages to bank.

Electrical braking. (Termed regenerative braking).

This is effected by moving the control lever C townrds the "oft" position, so reducing the excitation
of the generator field and reducing also the voltage applied to the armature of motor W. When this
is done, the winder motor W acts as a generator and supplies generator G as a motor, the necessary
energy being drawn from the kinetic energy of the moving masses which are therefore decelerated.
The returned energy increases the speed of the motor-generator set, with or without its flywheel. In
some cases, the speed of the induction motor M may rise above synchronous speed, in which case
motor M will act as a generator and the returned energy will be given back to the line.
 ________ T_A_ie_Universal
1.llfining School, Cardif!.:_ -~~74?
Reasons for adopting Ward-Leonard equipment with flywheel.
(1) Speed control is effected more economically than in the A.C. system where heavy losses
of energy take place in the rotor controller, necessitating elaborate arrangements for heat-dissipation.
By contrast, the speed controller in the Ward-Leonard system only deals with the field of the generator
G (about 1 to 2 per cent. of the total output},
(2) A given position of the control lever corresponds to a given winding speed, so that the opera-
tions of acceleration, deceleration, etc., are independent of the load, or whether raising or lowering,
and are therefore more easily carriecl out, with less possibility of error.
(3} Low speeds for-inspection purposes are more readily obtained than with the A.C. system,
merely by moving the control lever slightly from the "off" position.
(4) Regenerative braking can be readily applied for the lowering of heavy loads.
{5} The flywheel equalising set smooths out the demands made on the supply system and so
enables a Ward-Leonard equipment to be used successfully for winding henvy loads from great depths.
On the other hand, the Ward-Leonard system has a bigher first cost than the A.C. system, and
the equipment occupies more space. The A.C. system is often preferred where the winding conditions
are not of a sufficiently severe character to warrant the more elaborate Ward-Leonard system.

, 7. It is decided to improve the power factor of an electric pla11t whose load is 240 kilowatts at 0·6
lagging power factor by adding a synchronous motor whose i1i-jmtof power is 210 kilowatts. What uutst.
be the leading power factor of the motor to raise the overall power factor to 0·9 lngging?

IMPROVEMENT OF POWER FACTOR.

(a) Original Plant. Useful power ~4.9_kW at 0·6 lagging power factor.
kW 240
Apparent power 400 kVA.
P.F. 0·6
Wattless component= y4002- 2402 = vfoz·,400 = 320 kVA (lagging).
(b.) Final Plant. Useful power 240 +
210 = 450 kW at 0·9 lagging power factor.
kW 450
Apparent power 500 kVA.
P.F. 0·9
Wattless component= ysoo·~ - 450~ = y•i°7~500 = 218 kVA (lagging).
(c) Required Power Factor. To reduce the lagging wattless component from 320 to 218 kVA,
we require a leading wattless component of 320 - 218=10Z kVA, so as to counteract some of the
lagging component.
Useful power of
synchronous motor 210 kW (given); wattless component=l02 kVA.
Apparent power of
synchronous motor -v210~ + 1022 y54,504 = 233 kVA.
kW 210
Power Factor of O ·9 leading.
Synchronous Motor kVA 233

8. Jn connection wit.It electric power, how um yoit obtain:-

(a} 3-phase 50-cycle current at 440 volts from 3-pliuse 50-cyclc current at 3,300 volls ?
(b} Direct current "t 440 volts from 3-pltase 50-cycle alternating current at 3,300 volts ?
(c} 25-cycle current from SO-cycle c111re11t, botJi being 3-pliase at, say, 550 volts ?

CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

(a} Transforming voltage of alternating current.
To transform the voltage from 3,300 volts to 440 volts, a 3-phase step-down stanc transformer
would be used, having insulated primary and secondary windings mounted on a laminated iron core.
The latter would have three inter-connected vertical limbs (one for each phase) and the whole would
be immersed in a tank of oil. '
The primary windings would be supplied with alternating current at the supply pressure and this
current gives rise to an alternating flux which cuts both primary and secondary windings and
induces in them an alternating voltage proportional to the number of turns in each. Assuming the
t given voltages to be at no-load:-
Primary induced voltage No. of turns in primary 3300 7·5
Voltage
ratio Secondary induced voltage No. of turns in secondary 440 l
:.\lB/5
A1isw1ers on Electricity
A/8
----··. ·-------- ----------------------
(b) Conversion from a-phase A.C. at 3,300 volts to D.C. at 440 volts.
Several methods are available, including (1'.) motor-generator set, (ii) rotary converter, and
(iii) mercury arc rectifier.
(t'.) A motor-generator set is simply a 3-phase A.C. motor· (either a. synchronous motor or a
squirrel-cage induction motor) mechanieally coupled to a D.C. generator, either shunt or compound
wound. Alternating current at 3,300 volts is supplied to the stator of the A.C. Motor and direct
current at 440 volts is collected from the commutator of the D.C. generator.
(ii) A rotary converter is essentially a. D.C. machine having the usual self-excited stationary
field magnet system, and a rotating armature from which connections are taken to the commutator
at one end and to slip-rings at the other end. It will thus be seen that the A.C. and D.C. portions
of the machine are electrically Interconnected. Alternating current is supplied to the slip-rings at
one encl and direct current is taken from the commutator at the opposite encl.
Because of this interconnection, the ratio or the A.C. and D.C. voltages is fixed, depending Oil
the number of phases for which the converter is wound. In the case of a 3-phasc machine, the ratio
of the voltages is 0·612 to I so that, to obtain a D.C. voltage of 440, the A.C. voltage applied to the
slip-rings must be -1-10 x O·G12 = about 270 volts. It is therefore necessary to interpose a step-
down static transformer between the A.C. supply and the slip-rings in order to step down the A.C.
voltage from 3,300 to 270 volts.
(iii) A mercury arc reetifier is a stationary appar- PAIMAA'( sE~ONOAR'I'
atus consisting of an exhausted glass bulb containing ~- c,
a pool of mercury (the cathode) al the bottom, and a
numh~r of iron or graphite el~ctrodes (the anodes) in SUPPL'< o.c,
·-
extension arms around the periphery of the bulb. TRANSFOl\MEA
LOAD
Considering a 6-phase rectifier, supplied from the +
6-phase star-connected secondary side of a transformer;
alternating currcn l at a voltage of about three-quarters
of the required D.C. voltage is taken from each phase
winding to the corresponding anode. This sets up an
arc between anode and cathode and it is found that
current will flow through the rectifier in one direction
only) namely from the anode which is at the highest
positive potential at any given moment to the cathode.
Ionised mercury vapour is given oIT from the cathode
and this greatly reduces the resistance to the How of . .
current. On the D.C. side, tho positive lead is connected Fig. 7 · Six-phase RoctlfLer.
lo the cathode and the negative lead to the neutral point of the transformer secondary.

(c) Cha.ngingfrequency from 50 cycles to 25 cycles.

The simplest method of reducing the frequency in the ratio specified (50 to 25) is by means of a
synchronous motor-alternator set in which a 4-pole synchronous motor, supplied at SO cycles and
running at 1,500 r.p.m., drives a 2-pole A.C. generator at the same speed. The frequency, speed,
and number of poles arc all inter-related as follows :-
Frequency revs. per second x number of pairs or poles.
It follows that, for any given speed of the set, the generator will deliver current at haU the
frequency if it has haU as many poles as the motor.

(Note. Another form of frequency changer consists of a squirrel-cage induction motor connected
to the SO-cyclesupply and driving a slip-ring motor acting as a generator. The stator of the generator
is also connected to the SO-cycle supply so that a rotating magnetic field is set up which cuts tbe
rotor windings and induces E.M.F.'s in them at a frequency depending on the "slip." When the rotor
is stationary, the induced E.M.F.'s have a frequency equal to that of the supply. As the speed
increases, however, the "slip" frequency decreases until, at half the synchronous speed of the
generator, the frequency of the induced E.M.F.'s is half that of the supply and current at 25 cycles
may then be collected from the slip-rings. The squirrel-cage motor, of course, must be designed
to drive the rotor at the required speed.
It is possible by this method, to run the rotor of the generator in the opposlte direction from
normal and so obtain a higher frequency than that of the supply. Moreover, by suitably adjusting
the number of turns on the stator and the rotor. the generator may act as a transformer. the voltage
and the frequency being changed simultaneously in the one machine}.

CARDIFF PIUXTERS LINJT.EO

 COPYRIGHT.
FOUNDED 1883.
T. A. SOUTHERN LTD.,.
THE U.M.6, THIS PAPER

9'~e ~~a£~
WA8 THE FlnST IS SUPPLlEO ON
COARUPOltOENCE
MttllNO SCHOOL
IN THE WOl'ILO.
~,Jwof, CONDITION
IT 16
THAT
RE6ERVED
EXCl..USIVl!l.Y "OR
CARDIFF (GT. BRITAIN). TOUR OWN U91£,

Test Paper EC/5

SPECIMEN ANSWERS
ELECTRICITY
(1) (a) State Ohm's Laio, (b) K1lowing the units of resistance and current to be the olvm. and
the ampere re.spectit•ely, houi would ymt define a 1:0/t 1 (c) If the voltage of supply is 250, and the
total resistance of a group of lamps connected. across t.lte mains is 20 ohms, what is the value o.f the
current supplied ? .

OHM'S LAW.
(a) Th.is law gives the relation between current. voltage, and resistance in any circuit in which
11 steady direct current is flowing, the temperature remaining constant, and it states that :-

The current I flowing in a. conductor between two points

which are at a different potential varies directly as the difference
of potential E.a.nd inversely as the resistance R of the conductor.
E
Jn symbols, I= -, where I= amps; E = volts; and R = resistance in ohms.
R
(b) A volt is the unit of pressure, potential, voltage, or electro-motive force, and is thn.t pressure
.which will cnuse a current of one ampere to flow against a resistance of one ohm.
E 250
(c) Current supplied = I = -. = - = 12·5 amperes.
R 20

(2} Classify the follcnuing materials under the headings of (a) electrical conductors, and (b) elec-
trical insulators, and state uihethereach is good or otherwise in iii; class :-Air, aluminium, bitumen,
copper, iron, paper, porcelain, seater, Comment briefly on the appitcation.s of each material.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS.

A conductor is a material which offers very Iitele resista.nce to the flow of an electric current, tho
resistance being measurable in microhms per inch cube, and an insulator is one which offers a high
resistance, the resistance being mensurable in megohms per inch cube. No substances are either
perfect conductors, or perfect insulators. The best insulator may break down if a sufficiently high
voltage is applied.
The materials named in the question may be classified as follows :-
(a) Conductors. .
(1) Copl)er (very good) used most extensively for overhead lines, cables, and the windings of
generators, motors and tcansformers.
(2) Aluminium (good) used sometimes for overhead lines instead of copper.
(3) Iron (fair) used as galvanised iron wire for signalling on baulsge roads, and also in tho manu-
facture of the steel wire nrmouring of main cables, where it forms pert of the earth circuit.
(b) Insulatora,
(1) Bitumen (very good), a natural product from asphalt which, when mixed with petroleum
compounds, is used for filling cable joint-boxes. Vulcanised bitumen, a. distillation product of certain
oils, is used for insulating euhles.
(2) Pa.Per (very good) used in the construction of paper-insulated cables, the pa.per being im-
prcgnated with oil and protected from access of moisture by n lead, or a vulcanised bitumen, sheath.
(3) Porcelain (very good) used as o. support for bare conductors, fuse-carriers, and small electrical
fittings.
(4) Air (very good) used as u separa.ting medium in bare overhead r.r!l.nsmission lines and air-
break switchgear. An air path of a.bout 1 foot is sufficient insulation for 30,000 volts.
Water may be described either as a poor conductor or as a. poor insulator. In its pure state,
it is a, fair insulator, but a.11 natural waters are impure and possess some degree of conductivity. Sea-
water mo.y be described ns a semi-conductor. The conductivity of water is considcro.blyimproved
by the addition of acids (as in battery solutions) or salts such a.s washing soda, (as in liquid starters
and controllers where the " electrolyte" so formed is used us a variable resistance).

(5608)
EC/!5
Aj2 Electricity

3. (a) Describe the essential features and principle of action of a d.c. motor, and (b) slate what·
you understend. mJ (i) series, {ii) shunt, and (iii) compound-ioound motors, mentioning the pur-
pose.afor which each type is suitable,
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS.
(a) Essential features .
. A d.c, motor consists of three essential pcrta, namely (1) field-
magnet system, (2) armature, and (3) commutator.
The field-mngnets (stationary) consist of an even number of +
inward projecting wrought iron pole-pieces mounted on a circular cast
iron framework or yoke and having u, large number of insulated copper
conductors, termed the field windiDge, wound around them. These
windings arc arranged in such o. wo.y that, when an electric current
is passed through them, the pole pieces become electro-magnets, the
North and South poles being arranged alternately around the yoke.
The armature consists of a eylindricol clrnm or core made of thin Fig. 1.
iron discs (stampings or Iamina.tions) insulated from one another with Diagramof ll 4-pole D.C. Motor.
po.per or varnish to avoid induced eddy currents. A large number of
turns of insulated copper wire are wound axially around the armature, being placed in slots upon its
periphery, and the ends of the wires at each tnrn are then secured to the segments of the commutator.
The commutator is a cylindrical drum consisting of o. number of strips or segments of hard-drawn
copper, the segments being insulated with mica from each other and from the shaft on which they are
fixed. Current is supplied to the commutator segments, and thence to the armature conductors,
via two or more carbon brushes which nre mounted in suitable brush-holders and press on successive
segments of the moving commutator.
Principle of action.
The action of a. d.c. motor depends on the fundamental fact that a.. conductor carrying an electric
current when lying in a magnetic field is subject to a force which tends to move the conductor in a.
direction at right angles to the field.
In a motor, there are a.. whole series of current-carrying conductors mounted on the armoture
and all the conductors lying under tho influence of the pole magnets are therefore subject. to o. force
tending to cause movement. Rotation of the ermaturo on its shaft is the natural outcome, and
continuous rotation in one direction is effected by the action of the commutator which reverses the
current in each conductor just before it comes under the influence of a pole of opposite polarity.
(b) Series, Shunt, and Compound-wound Motors.
In any d.c, motor, the turning moment or " torque '• is proportional to the product of magnetic
flux x armature current, so that an increase in either, or both, increases the torque developed. More-
over, the speed is inversely proportional to the flux, so that, if the field be weakened, the speed is
increased, and vice versa.
(i) Series-wound motor.
In Lhis motor, the urmature and field circuits are connected in
series and the same' current flows through both. This current is
<l...
large when the load is heavy, and small when the load is light. The
\•hief choractcristics of such a, motor are tJ;:it (I) it develops a high ~
:..<>
~taiting torque because both the armature current and the flux arc
then bif.'h: (2) its speed 1a!ls rapidly witli increased load and may ~-~--
c.u:-:r•::.:.-:-
intr:·;-..-,-. :im1gC'rouslywith reduced load. Suitable applicat.ions arc for
hati;.r,!;e or ~raction work where the starbing conditions are severe, e.g. Fi~. 2. Series Motor.
tramcars, electric Iocornotivcs, and single-drum direct-rope haulages.
{ii) Shunt-wound motor.
In this motor, the field is connected in parallel with the armature
and takes only a small fraction of the current supplied, the flux being
almost constant. a,t all loads. Such 11 motor (1) develops a moderately
high starting torque due to the high armature current a.t. starting, and
(2) runs at almost constant speed (because of the almost constant field
current), the speed falling only slightly with increased load. Suitable SUPPLT CURRE~T
applications include light machine tools, bar coulcutters, and small Fig. 3. Shunt Motor.
endless-rope haulages.
(iii) Compound-wound motor.
This motor has both shunt and series windings which, in mining I ! · ·v.·, -
~-·\-::.-::;.~;;:~
work, are always arranged cumulatively so thnt they assist each other.
1.11
' .... ~
<·"t". ,,
The characterrst.ics of such 1~ motor are intermediate between those of
shunt and series motors, depending on how heavily the motor is com- UJLS\!"
UJ0. ("''?·~:·:-
<,
pounded, i.e. on the strength of the series field. 'l'ypical applica.tions </I
~~
.;
are for main haulages, winders, chain ccalcutters, etc., where high
starting torque is required, and excessive speed a.t low loads must CuRREHT
be avoided. Fig. 4. Componnd Motor
----··----
 EC/5
The Universal Mining School, Cardiff
AJ3
4. Explain tb« terms in black type in the following sente~C$ :-The electrical supply is 3-phase
alternating current at 550 volts between phases. Tl1e cycles are 50 per second and the power factor
mainlained at 0·75. ·

TEB.MS USED IN ALTERNATING CURRENT.

(a) Three-phase alternating eurrent,
If CL single turn or coil of wire AA1 be rotated
about an axis in o. magnetic field, as shown at
(a), Fig. l, an alternating voltage will be generated
in the coil, and this will give rise to a. single-nhase
alternating current, whose fluctuations are illustrated
by the single curve.
s r---- ONE GTCLl ---f
If now, we have three such rotating coils, AA•,
BB', nnd CC1, spaced at intervals of 120°, as shown at
(b), the alternating voltages thereby generated will
give rise to a three-phase alternating current, whose
fluctuations ore illustrated by the three overlapping
curves. Ench phase generates the sumo voltage as a.
corresponding single phase, but ·each, in its turn,
reaches its maximum value one-third of a revolution
{= 120°) later tba.n the preceding phase. Actually,
Fig. 1. Voltage Fluctaatione.
in a..c. machines, the three coils are stationary, and
the field magnets rotate, but the· same principle
a.pp lies.
(b) Volts between phases.
The three phases ~ B, and C of an a.c. machine 'T,
may be connected either in star, as a.t (a), Fig. 2, or in
delta, or mesh, us at (b). In either case, a. certain
voltage is generated in each phase winding, and this is
calleel the " phase voltage." We have seen tba.t it
varies according to the curves shown in Fig. 1 (b), Now T1 .__ tr.•
the threo line conductors are connected to the terminals ( o..)
T , T no and Ts of the three phases, and the expression
v~lts between phases represents the difference of voltage Fig. 2. Three-Phase Connections.
between each pair of terminals, or between each pair of
line conductors. Actually, this difference varies from instant to instant, but it is possible to arrive
at a. single effective value, termed the R.M.S. value, which evens out, as it were, n.11 the fluctua.tions.
Such a value is then comparable to a d.c. voltage of equivalent numerical value. In the question,
550 volts is the R.M.S. value of the volts between phases, or of the line voltage. In delta. connection,
the line voltage EL is equal to the phase voltage. In star connection, it is equal to vs times tbe
phase voltage. ·

(e) 50 cycles 11er second.

In alternating current, during each cycle, the voltage in each phase rises first to a maximum in
-~ one direction, then falls to zero, afterwards rising to a. maximum in the opposite direction, and finally
returning to zero. The number of such cycles completed in one second i.'l called the frequency or
periodicity of the alternnting.ourrent and is given as 50 in the question. The value of the frequency
depends on the revs. per second and ~he number of pairs of poles in the machine, and is given by the
expression : freq,1ency = revs. per sec. x no. of pam of poles.

(d) Power Factor.

Alternating current possesses the peculiarity that, except. in cir-cuits possessing resistance only
(e.g. lighting or heating circuits), the ~oltage and the current in each phase do not keep in step with
each other, i.e. they do not reach maximum value CLt the same instant. Thus, in circuits containing
vencra.tors, induction motors, and trnnsformers (i.e. electro-magnetic apparatus} tho current reaches
fts ma.ximurn value later than the voltage in each cycle. In other words, the current lags behind the
voltage by some angle, t/J. Conversely, in circuits containing condensers or synchronous motors, the
current may lead the voltage by an angle .p.
In cases where the voltage and current are in step, tho useful power developed in wa.tts is equal
to the product of volts X a.mps (multiplied by ../3 for 3-phase a.c.) and the " power factor" is said
to be unity.
In all other cases, the useful power developed in watts is less than the apparent power given by
the product of volts x amps, and is equal to volts X <imps· x cos </> (multiplied by ....1;; for 3-phuso
a.c.) where cp is the angle of phase difference between voltage and current. The value o1 cos </> is
called the "power factor" and is less than unity, no matter whether the current lags behind, or lends,
the voltage. Thus :-
Useful Power watts
Power Factor = cos q,.
Apparent Power volt-amperes
--------------------------------------- ··--· ·-·
EC/5
A/4
Electricity

;3. Describe suitable me/hods of starting the fol:Owiny vndoction. motors, all of 3-pltu8e l!I}><- :-
(a) A 5 II P motor al ·100 uolts, 1i:ith squirrel cage rotor,
(b) A 30 HP slip-1-i?1(1 motor at 400 volts, ~cith uiound. rotor, driving a fan.
(C) A }CO HP sl1p-ri11g motor at 30()0 colts, with umnul rotor, drir:ing <t direct-rope
haulaqe,

METHODS OF STARTING 3·PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS.

(a) 5 HP squirrel-cage motor, 400 volts. eu$e.o.R.s
This is the simplest, type of u.c, motor, consisting merely of a. stator, with
a a-plmse winding in slots, and a. rotor, with short-circuited copper bars.
Small motors UJ) to ,5 HP ma,v be switched directly on to the line by means
of 0. double-throw switch, prctected by ruses in the running position, because tho
starting current, although 3 to il times the normal full-load current, is well
within the capacity of the supply.
Direct-on starting is also permissible with even larger squirrel-cage motors,
up to about 50 HP, utilising an automatic circuit-breaker as shown in fig. 1.
The equipment comprises a 3-pole, ironclad, oil-break or air-break, switch,
fitted with three over-load trip coils in series ,vith each phase, and a. no-vol t MOTOR
release across two phases. Alternating current is supplied to the fixed stator
terminals, the rotor circuit being electr ica.lly independent and not connected
to the supply. A friction, or a. centrifugal, clutch may be used to reduce the Fig. 1.
load 11t starting. Jf desired, an Ammeter A may be fitted in series with one Squirrel-cage Motor.
phase, and a voltmeter, V, in shunt across two phases.

(b) 30 HP slip~ring motor, with wound rotor, driving n fan, 400 volts.
'I'his differs from a squirrel-cage motor l I l'l£
""'"'"elf.
in that its rotor has c 3-phase winding, ~T...P.TING
Rf~ISTANC.E
the free ends of which are brought out
to three slip-rings.
In this case, the stur ting equipment. OVl'ALOAO
MOTOP.
consists of [i) a. main switch (as in case C.01lS

(a) ) controlling the supply to the stator of AOTOfl

the motor and fitted with overload and C.I ~C.UIT
no-vclt trip coils ; and (ii) a variable
starting resistance in the rotor circuib. Slip-ring Motor driving a Fan.
The rotor starter may be of the metallic, or the liquid, type, and it need not; he very massive
because a fan is only started up occasionally n.nd the rotor resistance is cut out when full speed is
attained, the slip-r ings then being short-circuited. Assuming o. metallic resistance, as in fig. 2, one
encl of each phase is connected by a B·COl'e cable to brushes beu.ring on the rotor slip-rings, and the
other ends o.re connected to the contact studs of a. face-plate provided with three contact arms.
At starting, the whole of the rotor resistance is in circuit, so increasing the starting torque but
limiting the rotor current, and also that taken by the stator from bhe supply. The resistance is
gradually cut out ns the motor speeds up. Finally, n.t full speed, the motor functions just like a.
squirrel-cage motor.

(c) 100 BP slip.ring motor, with wound rotor, driving a direct-rope haulage, 3000 volts.
The equipment would be similar to case
(b) except t.hat (i) a reversing switch is required
in the stator circuit, to trn.nspose two of the
stator phases und enable tl1c motor to run in
either direction ns required. aud (ii) a controller ~P.T.
is required in the rotor circuit, :Moreover, the v
no-volt coil and the voltmeter if fitLed to the
main switch, would he operutcd ::i.t. a reduced .-+-+-+-.
voltage through n, potentiul transformer, P.T. t-t--t--t--i 5~;,,.
A controller differs from a. starter in that "~(,~"'-+-+-+-'
it is designed to carry heavy currents for long
periods without overhea.ting, and mny therefore
be used for speed control. It ma.y be either
a drum-type metallic controller, with separately F~.S. Slip~ring. Motor driving a H:iulnge.
mounted resistances of cast iron or stamped steel
alloy ; 01· a liquid controller of the moving
electrode type, as in fig. 3.
To start up, put in the main switch and move the controller handle (which may also operate the
reversing switch) so as to cut out. the rotor resistance. To vary the speed, vary the resistance in the
controller.
'When used underground in a colliery where firedamp may occur, the switchgear and the motor
slip-rings would be enclosed in a flameproof (F.L.P.) enclosure, designed to withstand an internal
explosion and to prevent the l)nssagc of flame from the interior to the exterior of the enclosure.
 EC/5
The Universal. .Mining School, Cardiff A/5
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6. (a) Describe a lrailing cable S11:itable for supplyina electric power to the 3-phase motor of a
chain-type coalc1ttting machine on a kmgtoall face. {b) Explain, with a sketch, how the cable
ieould. be connected to noitchqeo» at cme end and to the coalC1ttting machine at the other end..

TRAILING CABLES FOR COALCOTl'ERS.

{a) Trailing cables for coalcutters are normally of the c.oi>i:EP>
/~SHEATH ~-sc.~e@E
TOUGH Rue&eR
cab-tyre sheathed type, three of the commoner constructions
heing shown in the adjoining sketch. In each case the ~ ~·
conductor size is 0·03 sq. inch. · e •
(i) 4-core. 'I'his has three rubber-insulated stranded G &
copper power cores and one earth core of equal cross-
sectional area, laid nround t~ moulded rubber cradle centre Ci) (ii} (iii)
and to~gh. ~ubber sheathed overall. It is ·the simplest, Fig. l. Trailing Cnbles-sectional Diagrams.
type of trailing cable.
(ii) 5-core. This is used where the machine is to be operated by remote control. It has three
power cores and one earth core of equal cross-sectional area. laid a.round a. cradle centre in the middle
of which is a pilot core, 0·01 sq. inch area. The whole is then tough rubber sheathed, tinned copper
screened, and tough rubber sheathed overall.
{ill) 5-core. This is similur to (ii} except that the three power cores, earth core, and pilot core
are all of equal cross-sectional area and are la.idin the same pitch circle around the cradle centre.
The purpose of the copper screen, which is earthed, is to reduce the risk of shock if the insulabion
should be damaged. 8ometimci-, each power core is enclosed within its own individual copper screen,
and this construction gives even greater safety, but it is generally considered that the collectively
screened type is less lio.ble to break down and is simpler to repair, and is therefore to be preferred.
(b) Connection to apparatus,

Jj r5 c;9
Fig. 2 (a) shows dia.gramma.tically one method of ERMANErtT ARMnUFl.EO P.OAOWA'( GAe.LE
arranging the electrical apparatus at the fcce. Whore $TAHOAl\015EO OETACKA~C...s~e ENO S0,11,

..
ATE f;HD ~WITCH
nccessury, a length of pliable armoured cable ma.y be
introzluccd between the armoured roa.dwa.y cable and ...r ~ ( .....
the switch. The method of connecting the trailiDg
cable to other apparatus is by means of a flameproof (a.) ~ TEl\MINAL BOJI TRAILl!tC.CAt!L( COAL.-
OF SWITCH Wl'TM pt.UGS CUTTER
·- m.i.ning type plug and socket, usually of 100 amps
cupncity, ·
The plug, or removable porbion, shown at (b) in
fig. 2, is secured to each end of the cable and fits into o.
corresponding socket (not shown} secured to the switch-
. gear o.t one end and the coa.lcutter o.t the· other. In
each case, connection is made by contact pins and tubes,

,
the tu bes being usually in the plugs, but sometimes in
the socket. ut the switch end, and in the plug a.t the Fig. 2.
machine end. Arrangements of Connections lor Trailing Cable.
A standard plug for use with remote control carries four pin and tube contacts, {arranged as in
fig. 1 (i) } three being ma.m or phase contacts, ! inch diam., and the fourth, smaller in diameter, being
used for the pilot circuit. (Only two of these contacts are visible in fig. 2 {b)). The barrel is of gun.
metal and the contacts nre carefully insulated by a tough non-ignitable and non-hygroscopicme.terial.
The earth core is brought through to the outside of the case, the earth connection thus being rendered
visible and easily checked.
Mounted in the socket is a. ring made of hard tensile brass, nrrn.nged as a. scraper on the outside
of the plug barrel, This constitutes the earth connection between plug and socket and is so arranged
that the eaeth circuit is made first; and broken Iast. When assembled, the plug and socket arc secured
together by a retaining device (fitting into the recess a.t L) operated by a. wing nut or a special key
or spanner. The device is also used for releasing the plug from its socket.
A cable gland is provided on t.he plug and firmly grips bhe outsido of the cable, making a water-
tight joint.

7. Describe " methocl o/ mea.s1tri1l{l the power passing i1i a three-phase circuit supplyituJ
induction: motors.
MEASUREMENT OF POWER. IN 3-PHASE cm.CUIT.
Power is measured in either watts or kilowatts, and the instrument used to indicate the power in a.
circuit is called a wattmeter. In a D.C. circuit, the power can readily bo obtained from simultaneous
voltmeter and ammeter readings, nnd a wn.ttmeter is less frequently used. But. in an A.O. circuit,
Tt is necessary to take into account the phuse angle between current and voltage, i.c. the power factor
of the circuit, and this is done automaticnlly by a wattmeter which therefore indicates the true power
direct. \Ve will describe two methods of conncct.ing the instrument.
EC/5

=c
Electric·ity
A/6
- -~·-------
(l) Using one wattmeter.
This is permissible {fig. l) when the loads on the three
phases are hulanced (as may be assumed in the case of n. • oAo;;J
motor) and there is 11.n accessible neutral point.
~---:;Jr-+--
NE.oTA•l R '-....p
-•-.-11-----•
SUPP!. y
POH(f ~ - ~
The wattmcter has two coils, one, known as the /
current-coil, being fixed, and i.lw other, known as the l,_ _
pressure coil, being 1_novo.~le. The curr~nt co~ C ~onsists p· . l. Wattmeter in balanced 3-phase ciroult.
of a few turns of thick wire connected m series with one ig
phase. Tbe pressure coil P is wound with Fine wire and is connected between one phase and the
neutral point, with a high resistance R in series with it.
The deflection of the instrument is proportional to the. product of the voltage and the in-phase
current, and therefore· to the true lJOWCr. 'l'he total power, of course, is three times the reading of
the instrument.
(2) Two-wattmeter method.
c.
This is applicable to all eases, 110 matter whether the
phases are balanced or unbalanced, or whether the circuit
w.
is star-connected or delta-connected. c, w, :i
E,., !;;
Ci
As shown in fig. 2, the current coils of the two instru , l .,
~
ments, W 1 and W ~, are placed in any two of the line wires, . C1 ~
'
and their two pressure coils nm both connected to the Fig. 2. Two wattmeter method. c,.,
c-. 0
third line wire. With these connections, the algebraic sum of the readings of the two instruments .0
~
-
gives the total power in the three pbuses of the circuit. !?
c
It should be noted that the two instruments only give the same rending when the powor factor ~
is unity. In other cases, the instruments give different recdings, depending on the value of the power ..-
factor. At a P.F. of 0·5, one instrument. gives a reading of zcrc, whilst at lower power factors, it ......~
gives a negative reading. Due account must therefore be taken of the sign when determining the
total power indicated. by the instruments.
- ----------·· ·-·------------------------
8. In the case of a. coalc11lting plant, incl11ding 3-phase transformer, switchgear, cable. and
electric motor, (a) what ie the purpose of earthing; (b) toluit. parts of the plant and apparat1ts would
ymt. earth ; and (c) hou: i.~ the earthing carried, out ?

EARTHING A COALOUTT!NG PLANT.

(a) The purpose of earthing is Lo elirninute the danger of persons receiving a. dangerous electric
shock if they should come into contact with some part of a. machine or apparatus which is normally
" dca.d " hut which ma.y become electrically charged or " alive " through failure of insulation or
contact with live parts.
Actually, earthing alone is not a. complete safeguard, and it is important that, upon the occurrence
of an earth fault in cables or apparatus, the faulty circuit shall be isolated o.utomatically and with
'the least possible delay. This can be ensured hy means of automatic leakage trips.
(b) The paxts to be earthed in the plant specified include all those not required to carry current
in the normal working of the apparutus, namely the frames and bedplates of the motor, transformer,
and switchgear, joint boxes, instrument covers, and nil metallic sheaths, coverings. and handles.
In other words, all metallic parts must be earthed except the current carrying conductors such as
the transformer windings, the motor windings, the cable conductors, the switchgear contacts, the
terminals, and so on. All these live parts, of course, must be well. insulated.
One further point in the apparatus mentioned should be earthed, namely the neutral point oi
the secondary winding of the transformer, the purpuse being to prevent that side from being charged
to n. high potentiul if a fa.ult should develop bet.ween the L.T. and H.T. windings.
(e) Method of earthing.
An important point is thut there must be a continuous metallic connection right from the coal-
cutter at the face to the earthing system at the surface of the mine.
The fir:st connection is made between the socket on the coalcutter and the plug of the trailing
cable ; thence via the earth core (and copper screen) of the ca.ble to the socket on the gate-end switch,
the frame of which forms the eart.h connection back to the crmouring gland of the incoming cable.
The steel wire armourine of the muin cable then forms the earth conductor back to the district sub-
station housing the transformer with its controlling switchgear, and thence back to tho pit bottom
sub-station, and so to the surface.
At each point where armouring glands are provided, e.g. at joint boxes, connections to switchgear,
transformer, and so on, the glands must be bridged by copper bonds between the armouring at one side
and the armouring or the frame of the apparabns :it. the other. Only in this way can the continuity
of the earthing circuit be ensured.
At the underground sub-stations, and at. the surface, nll the units of the switchboard are con-
nected together by an earthing bus-bar, from which, at the surfuce, a connection is taken to the earbh-
ing plates buried in the ground. These muy consist of a. series of cast. iron pipes, 9 ft. long, placed
vertically in a. pit dug in damp clayey ground and filled with coke. The pipes are connected in
parallel by a bar of copper riveted or soldered to the pipe Flanges.

I'rlntcd by Dntcs Ltd., CordlCI.