Seek and Find!

A Rereading of 4QSapiential Work (4Q185)

Ingunn Aadland

Phd Thesis
MF Norwegian School of Theology
September 2016
Supervisor: Corinna Körting
 Contents

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................v
Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... vi

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................1
1. 1. The Topic: Rereading 4Q185 ........................................................................................1
1. 2. 4Q185 and the Text Editions ..........................................................................................2
1. 3. Categorisation and Interpretation in Previous Research ................................................4
1. 4. The Aim of the Study ....................................................................................................9
1. 5. The Theoretical Basis of this Thesis ............................................................................10
1. 6. Outline of the Study .....................................................................................................17
1. 7. Methodology ...............................................................................................................18

2. A Rereading of the Manuscript 4Q185 ................................................................................29

2. 1. Material Perspectives ...................................................................................................29
2. 2. The Story of 4Q185 told by PAM ...............................................................................34
2. 3. Placement of Fragments ...............................................................................................38
2. 4. Hebrew Text .................................................................................................................40
2. 4. 1. Principles for Reading ...........................................................................................40
2. 4. 2. Transcription ..........................................................................................................41
2. 5. Comments and Notes on Readings ..............................................................................43
2. 6. Translation ....................................................................................................................78

3. A Close Reading of 4Q185: Structure and Content ............................................................81

3. 1. The Approach of the Close Reading ............................................................................81
3. 2. Structure of the Text .....................................................................................................83
3. 3. A Close Reading ...........................................................................................................87
3. 4. Conclusion..................................................................................................................155

4. Rhetorical Analysis: Instruments of the Instruction...........................................................157

4. 1. Approach and Preliminary Clarifications ...................................................................157
4. 2. Tools of Persuasion ....................................................................................................158
4. 2. 1. Polarised Discourse: Judgment and Human Weakness .....................................159
4. 2. 2. Instructions for Body and Emotions ...................................................................163
4. 2. 3. Threats and Rewards ..........................................................................................166
4. 2. 4. Transformation as Motivation ............................................................................168
4. 3. The Style of 4Q185: Elusive Torah Discourse? .........................................................169
4. 3. 1. Beatitudes ...........................................................................................................171
4. 3. 2. Something to Possess: Two Verbal Strings .........................................................172
4. 4. Conclusion..................................................................................................................176

iii
5. What About Wisdom? ........................................................................................................179
5. 2. Defining Qumran Wisdom .........................................................................................179
5. 2. 1. Wisdom as Category and Wisdom as a Genre ....................................................180
5. 2. 2. Qumran Wisdom as Rewritten Proverbs ...........................................................183
5. 2. 3. 4Q185 and Wisdom ............................................................................................185
5. 2. A Comparative Reading of 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184) ........................186
5. 2. 1. Women in Proverbs: Folly and Wisdom .............................................................187
5. 2. 2. A Female Figure in 4Q185? ..............................................................................189
5. 3. A Comparative Reading of 4QBeatitudes (4Q525) ...................................................191
5. 3.1. Wisdom and Torah in 4Q525 ...............................................................................192
5. 3.2. Torah Piety, Wisdom, and Way Motifs in 4185 and 4Q525 .................................195
5. 4. 4Q185 in the Light of “Rewritten Proverbs” (4Q184 and 4Q525) ...........................198
5. 5. Excursus: Penitential Wisdom in Sirach ....................................................................199
5. 6. Conclusion..................................................................................................................202

6. Remembrance and Paraenesis: 4Q185 as a Didactic Speech.............................................203

6. 1. Approach and Preliminary Clarifications ...................................................................204
6. 2. 4Q185 and 4Q370: A Comparative Analysis .............................................................205
6. 2. 1. 4Q370 and Textual Overlap ...............................................................................205
6. 2. 2. History and Paraenesis ......................................................................................212
6. 2. 3. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................218
6. 3. Didactic Discourses and History of Rebellion: Psalms 78, 106, and Deut 32 ...........219
6. 3. 1. Historical Summaries: Rebellion and Lack of Knowledge ................................219
6. 3. 2. Didactic Framework and History in Deut 32, Psalm 78, 4Q370, and 4Q185 ...221
6. 3. 3. Summary .............................................................................................................224
6. 4. Conclusion .................................................................................................................225

7. Repentance, Restoration, and Torah in 4Q504 and 4Q185 ...............................................227

7. 1. Mapping the Literary Motifs of Repentance and Restoration ...................................227
7. 1. 1. Instruction on Repentance ..................................................................................229
7. 1. 2. Repentance and the Return to God’s Law .........................................................231
7. 2. A Comparative Approach: 4Q185 and 4Q504 ...........................................................233
7. 2. 1. 4Q504: Words of the Luminaries .......................................................................233
7. 2. 2. Comparison: Strategic Acts of Repentance in 4Q185 and 4Q504 .....................236
7. 3. Conclusion..................................................................................................................244

8. Conclusion .........................................................................................................................247

Appendix I .............................................................................................................................251
Appendix II ............................................................................................................................252
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................................253

iv
Acknowledgements

It has taken time and effort to finish this thesis; and not only mine. It is due time to
acknowledge each and every one who has supported and encouraged me to embark on, and
finally, complete this work.

First of all, thanks to MF Norwegian School of Theology for the opportunity to do this work.
To my supervisor Corinna Körting, who encouraged me to take on this project; Thank you
for believing in me and my work. To a very important mentor in the final phases, Kristin
Joachimsen; Thank you for patiently reading through my chapters, offering helpful and
critical comments that improved the thesis. Gratitude also goes to Kipp Davies: Thanks for
taking time to read through my work, contributing substantial feedback in my 90 % seminar,
and also in the very final phase of this work.

Being part of the Old Testament department at MF has been a joy. I appreciate the way you
know to enjoy a good meal, both at MF and at various OTSEM meetings. A special thank
goes to Gard Granerød and Andrew Donald Wergeland. You have been valuable discussion
partners in my work, for which I am very grateful.

I also wish to thank the people who have shared their knowledge with me during different
phases of my work: Torleif Elgvin, George J. Brooke, Eibert Tigchelaar, and scholars and
students in the OTSEM network. Thank you for your inspiring guidance and encouragement.

I started off as a phd-student together with Hilde Brekke Møller and Silje Kvamme Bjørndal.
I could not have been more fortunate than to share this experience with you. The group of
friends in the hallways at MF expanded over the years: Thank you all, for all the fun, the
poetry, the coffee. I have enjoyed it!

Finally, to my family, and especially Nora Johanne and Åshild, who have patiently stood by
my side, cheering me across the finishing line: Thank you for your love!

Ingunn Aadland Oslo, November 2016

v
Abbreviations

AJEC Ancient Judaism and early Christianity

BEThL Bibliotheca Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium

BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert

DJDJ Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan

DSD Dead Sea Discoveries

DSSR The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader

EJL Early Judaism and Its Literature

ECDSS Eerdmans Commentaries on the Dead Sea Scrolls

FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament

FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

HALOT The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament

HSS Harvard Semitic Studies

IJS Studies in Judaica

JAJ Journal of Ancient Judaism

JAJSup Journal of Ancient Judaism Supplements

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JRS Journal of Ritual Studies

JSJ Journal for the study of Judaism

JSJSup Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement

JSP Journal for the Study of Pseudepigrapha

vi
JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series

LNTS Library of New Testament Studies

NovTSup Novum Testamentum Supplements

RevQ Revue de Qumran

VT Vetus Testamentum

VTSup Supplements to Vetus Testamentum

SBL Society of Biblical Literature

SBLEJL Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature

SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

STDJ Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah

Study Edition The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition

SSU Studia Semitica Upsaliensia

TSAJ Texte unt Studien zum Antiken Judentum

PFES Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenchaft

Q Qumran

DSS Dead Sea Scrolls

1QHa Hodayota

1QIsaa Isaiaha

1QIsab Isaiahb

1QS Rule of the Community

CD Cario Genizah copy of the Damascus Document

PAM Palestine Archaeological Museum

vii
1. Introduction

‫ועתה שמעו נא עמי והשכילו לי פתאים‬

‫והכנעו מן ]ג[בורת אלהינו וׄזכרו נפלאים עשה במצרים‬
ׄ
‫רצ]ונו‬
֯ ‫ומופתיו ֯ב]ים סוף [ויערץ לבבכם מפני פחדו ועשו‬
֯

And now, please listen, my people, and pay attention to me, simple ones. Humble
yourselves before the [m]ight of our God. Remember the wonders he did in
Egypt and his signs at [the Red Sea.] Let your heart tremble before his dread and do
his wi[ll] (4Q185 1–2 i 13–ii 1a)

1.1 The Topic: Rereading 4Q185

The object of this study is 4QSapiential Work (4Q185), a fragmentary manuscript which
reveals Hebrew text in three columns. In the field of Qumran studies, there has long been and
still remains a tendency to organise text into strict and often exclusive literary categories.1
This effort serves a meaningful purpose, but it can also subtly direct the reading of the text, as
these categories equip the reader with assumptions that further shape the interpretations of it.
The aim of this thesis is to reread 4Q185, and to do so with caution regarding the
implications of its literary classification.
4Q185 has always been classified as a sapiential text, which means that it belongs
within the wide-ranging nature of the wisdom genre. It is not the classification itself that
needs to be challenged, but its implications. Present readings of 4Q185 are still guided by
some of the presuppositions of early scholarly research that exaggerated the relationship
between Proverbs and Qumran wisdom texts that rewrite Proverbs, such as 4QBeatitudes
(4Q525) and 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184). According to my reading, 4Q185 could

1.
When using the term ‘literary categories,’ I refer to both literary genres and classifications pertaining to
sectarian and non-sectarian origin.

-1-
very well be characterised as a sapiential text. It is a didactic speech with features commonly
associated with wisdom literature. However, 4Q185 is also at home in the historical traditions
of the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Psalms. Hence, the wisdom genre alone does not
contribute to the understanding of the text, or its use of Scripture. Additional perspectives are
needed.
This thesis offers a rereading of the manuscript and a thorough literary analysis of
4Q185. The overarching question for the present study is as follows: How can the literary
contexts of the (Hebrew) Scriptures and the documents from Qumran shed light upon the
admonition with regard to its genre, its function, and the role of wisdom and Torah? Based
upon a close reading of the manuscript and an analysis of the composition, I explore the
literary settings of 4Q185 within a broader scriptural and Qumran context. There is a textual
overlap with 4QAdmonition Based on the Flood (4Q370) that has not been fully discussed to
date.2 Furthermore, the importance of repentance and Torah piety in the composition has been
neglected in previous studies. The liturgical composition 4QWords of the Luminaries (4Q504)
reflects a use of biblical repentance motifs in a manner that resembles 4Q185. While 4Q185
generally is referred to as an instruction that promotes the acquisition of wisdom, this study
argues that 4Q185 is an admonition that promotes humility and repentance in order to escape
judgment and receive and do Torah.

1.2 4Q185 and the Text Editions

4Q185 was first published by John M. Allegro in 1968 in the Discoveries in the Judean
Desert of Jordan (DJDJ 5).3 In the preface to Volume 5, Allegro states that he only presents
the raw material. The DJD series has published photographs, transliterations, and translations
of the findings from Qumran. This, however, does not mean that the editions are unaffected
by interpretation and categorisation. The selection of manuscripts found in Volume 5 are
organised according to their association with biblical books, and most of them are classified
as commentaries.4 There is no title that indicates what kind of text 4Q185 is, and the text
edition only contains a few comments on the readings. This is notable, since Allegro did label

2.
This is also the topic in a forthcoming study by Mika S. Pajunen; “Creating a Synthesis of Torah-centered
and Proverbial Admonitions: The Direction and Significance of the Textual Connection between 4Q185 and
4Q370” in the JAJ.
3.
J. M. Allegro, Qumrân Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186) (DJDJ 5; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 85–87.
4.
As a general rule in the presentation of the texts in the DJD, the non-biblical texts are grouped according to
their literary genre; see Emanuel Tov and Martin G. Abegg, The Texts from the Judaean Desert: Indices and an
Introduction to the Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Series (DJD 39; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002), 14.

-2-
the manuscript “4QWisdd” in the process of assembling the manuscript (1955–60).5 Likewise,
4Q184, the composition that precedes 4Q185 in the DJD was also labelled “4QWisda.”6 Even
without the labels in DJDJ 5, the association with wisdom was already established. Following
the comments by Strugnell, 4Q185 is generally regarded as an example of wisdom literature.
In 1970, only two years after the DJDJ 5, John Strugnell published additional
comments that further improved the readings. He also suggested material joins and identified
additional fragments. Strugnell did not provide a full Hebrew text edition, and his comments
on 4Q185 have generally been used as a supplement to Allegro’s work. In an introductory
passage to his notes on 4Q185, Strugnell describes the composition as sapiential in its
language and themes, suggesting that the genre is “‘instruction’ ou peut-être même
‘testament’ d’un sage.”7 Strugnell provided some important corrections of the reading of the
text, but he also suggested reconstructions of lacunas and translations that strengthen the
impression of wisdom in the text.
Since the work on 4Q185 by Allegro and Strugnell, a number of scholars have
contributed to the reading of the manuscript. A new edition of 4Q185 was published by
Lichtenberger, first in 1978 and again in 2002.8 Lichtenberger does not analyse the text and
states that his work is limited to improving the reading of the manuscript and providing a
translation. In the headline of this article he labels the work “Der Weisheitstext 4Q185” and
briefly notes that the text should be placed “im weitern Sinne zur Gruppe weisheitlicher
Mahnreden.”9 The text edition does not include the wisdom terminology suggested by
Strugnell, and thus Lichtenberger modifies its connection with the wisdom tradition.
In the Study Edition García Martínez and Tigchelaar offer another edition of the text.
The Study Edition is not equipped with comments on the readings, and the editors state
clearly that it is intended for “classroom use.”10 The transcription of 4Q185 generally follows
the readings suggested by Strugnell, but also includes new readings.
In a preliminary edition of the re-edition of the DJD, Pajunen draws attention to some

5.
There are labels signed by Allegro in PAM 41.711, PAM 41.791, and PAM 43.439.
6.
See PAM 42.621.
7.
John Strugnell, “Notes en marge du volume V des Discoveries in the Judaean desert of Jordan,” RevQ 7
(1970), 269.
8.
Hermann Lichtenberger, “Eine Weisheitliche Mahnrede in den Qumranfunden (4Q185),” in Qumran. Sa
piete, sa theologie et son milieu (ed. M. Delcor; BEThL 46; Paris: Leuven. University Press, 1978); Hermann
Lichtenberger, “Der Weisheitstext 4Q185—Eine neue Edition,” in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the
Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. Charlotte Hempel, A. Lange and H. Lichtenberger; BEThL 159;
Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2002): 127–150.
9.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 129.
10.
They also note that it is intended “for the benefit of specialists from other disciplines (scholars working on
the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament or Rabbinic literature).” See the foreword in Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar and
Florentino García Martínez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Leiden: Brill, 1997), ix.

-3-
problematic readings of 4Q185.11 Pajunen re-labels the work “Sapiential Admonitions B” and
offers a thorough description of the material aspects of the manuscript. He also gives a new
transcription that is accompanied by detailed discussions. He admits, however that there are
still “unsolved challenges” pertaining to the reading of the manuscript.12 The present study
seeks to address these challenges. The latest contribution to the reading of 4Q185 is Qimron’s
edition from 2013.13 These different text editions provide the basis for my discussion of the
readings in ch. 2.

1.3 Categorisation and Interpretation in Previous Research

Scholars work with categories. It is widely agreed upon that genre recognition is necessary in
order to recognise the kinds of meanings a text is capable of having. In order to be an
informed reader, one needs to “discover the conventions governing certain types of
literature.”14 This circularity, constituted by the mutual effect of interpretation and
categorisation, is thus an integral part of the study of literature.
In Qumran research, categorisation applies not only to genres but also to the question
of literary origin. This is seen in relation to the two major blocks: sectarian and non-sectarian
(or pre-sectarian). The mainstream scholarly opinion is that some of the writings found at
Qumran were authored by members of a group that settled there.15 This group and their
writings are commonly referred to as “sectarian.”16 It is not always clear how this sectarian

11.
Mika S. Pajunen, “4QSapiential Admonitions B (4Q185): Unsolved Challenges of the Hebrew Text,” in The
Mermaid and the Partridge. Essays from the Copenhagen Conference on Revising Texts from Cave Four (ed.
George J. Brooke and Jesper Høgenhaven; STDJ 96; Leiden: Brill, 2011): 191–220.
12.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 191.
13.
Elisha Qimron, The Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew Writings (vol. 2 of The Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew
Writings; Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2013).
14.
John Barton, Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study (Louisville: Westminster John Knox
Press, 1996), 16.
15.
See Jodi Magness, “Methods and Theories in the Archeology of Qumran: An Assessment of Old and New
Approaches and Methods,” in Rediscovering the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Maxine L. Grossman (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2010); Ida Fröhlich, “Defining Sectarian by ‘Non-Sectarian’ Narratives in Qumran,” in Sects and
Sectarianism in Jewish History (ed. Sacha Stern; IJS 12; Leiden: Brill, 2011), 68. On the interpretations of the
site; see also John J. Collins, Beyond the Qumran Community: The Sectarian Movement of the Dead Sea Scrolls
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010), 183.
16.
Some writings, such as the various copies of the Community Rule (S), are explicitly sectarian and reflect
sectarian practises, such as admission and organisation procedures. Other texts, such as the Pesharim and the
Hodayot, are classified as sectarian on the basis of their so-called sectarian outlook. This outlook is
characterised by a specific self-consciousness; an anti-Hasmonaean polemic, or a sectarian rhetoric. In a recent
article Dimant identifies three textual markers for sectarian provenance: “terms pertaining to the organization
and institution of the community in question, terms related to its political and theological polemics, and terms
reflecting its religious worldview.” She further notes that terms of the third category also appear in non-sectarian
texts, and point to sectarian origin only in conjunction with other types of terminology; see Devorah Dimant,
“The Vocabulary of the Qumran Sectarian Texts,” in Qumran und die Archäologie (ed. Carten Claussen, Jörg
Frey, Nadine Kessler; WUNT 278; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 395. For general discussion on the sectarian

-4-
outlook is to be distinguished from the more mainstream Jewish way of thinking. Hence, in
recent years the direct relationship between sectarian writings and the site has been given
more nuance. Some of the compositions appear to have a more complicated history of origin,
however, and must have been authored prior to the occupation of the community at Qumran.17
Nevertheless, the dichotomy between sectarian and non-sectarian is very much part of the
categorisation of texts, and also plays a role in establishing date and authorship. 4Q185 is no
exception.
Strugnell dated the 4Q185 manuscript on the basis of palaeography to the late
Hasmonaean period (75–25 B.C.E.),18 but the question of the date and authorship of the
composition was first discussed by Tobin. According to Tobin, 4Q185 does not contain
elements characteristic of the Qumran community, and is thus best situated in the period
“prior to the formation of the Qumran sect,” and “among those groups out of which the sect
eventually emerged, that is, the last part of the third century or the first part of the second
century B.C.E.”19 Tobin does not further identify who “those groups” are, but he suggests that
the author of 4Q185 was “in contact with and had accepted notions similar to those found in
Jewish apocalyptic literature.”20 Lichtenberger also places 4Q185 in what he calls
“vorqumranische Zeit,” based upon four arguments: the defective spelling, the use of
terminology that does not appear in the sectarian corpus, the lack of explicit sectarian
terminology, and the free use of the Tetragrammaton.21 The arguments offered by Tobin and

literature; see Charlotte Hempel, “Community Structures in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Admission, Organization,
Disciplinary Produces,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years. A Comprehensive Assessment, vol. 2 (ed.
Peter W. Flint and James C. Vanderkam with the assistance of Andrea E. Alvarez; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 67–92;
Carol A. Newsom, “‘Sectually Explicit’ Literature from Qumran,” in Hebrew Bible and its Interpreters (ed.
William Henry Propp, Baruch Halpern, and David Noel Freedman; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 167–88;
Devorah Dimant, “Qumran Sectarian Literature,” in Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period (ed. E.
Michael Stone; Van Gorcum: Fortress Press, 1984), 483–550.
17.
Schofield suggests a complex model of transmission; a radial model of textual development. Informed by
social anthropology, she suggests that the Qumran community was a “community within communities” that
interacted with greater Jewish societies. This exchange made the traditions spread outwards but remained in
continuing conversation. See Rethinking the Yahad in Alison Schofield, From Qumran to the Yahad: A New
Paradigm of Textual Development for The Community Rule (STDJ 77; Leiden: Brill, 2009), 49. See also Elgvin,
who discerns between the yaִhad as an elite movement among the Essenes and Qumran as one but not the only
centre of the larger yaִhad; Torleif Elgvin, “The Yahad is More then Qumran,” in Enoch and Qumran Origins:
New light on a Forgotten Connection (ed. Gabriele Boccaccini; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 276.
18.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269. The palaeographic dating only provides a terminus ad quem. See criteria
for dating Qumran compositions in Annette Steudel, “Dating Exegetical Texts from Qumran,” in The Dynamics
of Language and Exegesis at Qumran (ed. Devorah Dimant and Reinhard G. Kratz; FAT 2. Reihe 35; Tübingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 2009), 39–53.
19.
Tobin classifies 4Q185 on the basis of the lack of “distinctive theological themes and terminology found in
the clearly sectarian writings from Qumran”; see Thomas H. Tobin S.J., “4Q185 and Jewish Wisdom
Literature,” in Of Scribes and Scrolls. Studies on the Hebrew Bible, Intertestamental Judaism, and Christian
Origins (ed. Harold W. Attridge, John J. Collins, and Thomas H. Tobin; Lanham; University Press of America,
1990), 149, 152.
20.
Thomas H. Tobin S.J., “4Q185 and Jewish Wisdom Literature,” 151.
21.
Lichtenberger notes the presence of terminology such as the verb ‫חקר‬, the noun ‫דשן‬, and the botanic
vocabulary such as ‫חציר‬, which had not yet appeared elsewhere in the Qumran corpus. See Lichtenberger, “neue

-5-
Lichtenberger were not only put forth for the purpose of dating 4Q185. The question of
sectarian or non-sectarian provenance was also of interest, thus the categorisation as non-
sectarian automatically led to an earlier date. This reasoning is made explicit by Lange: “Der
freie Gebrauch des Tetragramms in 1–2 II 3, und die für essenische Texte untypische
verwendung von ‫ אלהים‬in 1–2 I 14; III 13 zigen, daß es sich um ein mindestens vor 150 v. Chr
anzusetzendes nichtessenisches Werk handelt.”22 The classification of 4Q185 as a non-
sectarian composition is well founded, but this does not necessarily require an early dating.23
We have now looked at the two main blocks: sectarian and non-sectarian (or pre-
sectarian), but there are additional sub-categories, such as “wisdom literature,” that are also
denoted “sapiential literature.”24 These labels are used interchangeably to denote the same
category of text, those that are primarily didactic and paraenetic.25 The idea of wisdom as a
multifaceted category is well appreciated in the scholarship of the Hebrew Bible and Qumran
manuscripts. Wisdom is an elusive term as it does not refer to one form-critical genre as such,
and neither can wisdom be easily captured by a certain set of terminology or themes.26
Nevertheless, in scholarship, wisdom does refer to literature that deals with knowledge, and
contains literary forms that serve a pedagogic intent.27 In the annotated list of texts from the
Judean Desert (DJD 39), 4Q185 is placed under the rubric “didactic speech,” which is a

Edition,” 129. According to Schoors, the Tetragrammaton does not occur in Qumran wisdom texts, with the
exception of 4Q185; see A. Schoors, “The Language of the Qumran Sapiential Works,” in The Wisdom Texts
from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. Armin Lange, Charlotte Hempel, and Hermann
Lichtenberger; BEThL 159; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2002), 81.
22.
Armin Lange, “Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung,” in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and
the Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. Armin Lange, Charlotte Hempel, and Hermann Lichtenberger;
BEThL 159; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2002), 11.
23.
This is noted by Goff; see Matthew J. Goff, Discerning Wisdom: The Sapiential Literature of the Dead Sea
Scrolls (VTSup 116; Leiden: Brill, 2006), 123. We will return to the question of date shortly.
24.
The sapiential texts seem to function more or less as a subcategory of the non-sectarian, as all with the
exception of 4Q298, are considered to be non-sectarian due to the lack of sectarian terminology. 4Q298 is listed
as a didactic speech and considered to be sectarian; see Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 140. De
Roo argues for sectarian authorship of 4Q525 based upon the terminology of the text, see Jacqueline C.R. De
Roo, “Is 4Q525 a Qumran Sectarian Document?,” in The Scrolls and the Scriptures: Qumran Fifty Years After
(ed. Stanley E. Porter and Craig A. Evans; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997). This position has not
received support among other scholars; Elisa Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah” (University of
Helsinki, 2013), 11.
25.
I use the labels “wisdom texts” and “sapiential texts” to denote the same category of texts. There are slighty
different nuances to the terms ‘wisdom’ and ‘sapiential.’ ‘Wisdom literature’ refers to a body of literature,
whereas ‘sapiential literature’ is a descriptive term that serves to describe the contents and style of this
literature. The annotated list in DJD uses the labels “Sapiential texts” and “wisdom texts” interchangeably; see
Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 119–120.
26.
However, the wisdom books have a characteristic vocabulary. See the list presented in R. B. Y. Scott, The
Way of Wisdom in the Old Testament (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 121–122. Tanzer suggests some
adjustments to the “list of wisdom words.” See her implementation of Scott’s list in Sarah Jean Tanzer, The
Sages at Qumran: Wisdom in the Hodayot (Harvard University, 1987), 16.
27.
See the description of the pedagogical characteristic of sapiential literature in Bilhah Nitzan, “Education
and Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls in Light of their Background in Antiquity,” in New Perspectives on Old
Texts, ed. Betsy Halpern-Amaru Esther G. Chazon, in collaboration with Ruth A. Clemens (Leiden: Brill, 2010),
98–101. For a more elaborate discussion and definitions, see ch. 5.1, “Defining Qumran Wisdom.”

-6-
subcategory of sapiential texts. It is further labelled “4QSapiential Work.”28 While some
scholars work with the official title, “Sapiential Work,”29 others have renamed the
composition, such as “Weisheitstext”30 or “Wisdom Composition.”31 The most recent label is
“Sapiential Admonitions B,” which has been suggested by Pajunen for the forthcoming re-
edition of DJD 5.32 Despite the variations of its title, the composition is generally regarded as
sapiential, and with good reason. The composition contains themes and forms found in
wisdom literature: A singular instructor labels his addressees as “my sons” and “my people,”
and addresses them with rhetorical questions and exhortations. He further points to a way of
life and warns against Sheol.
Terminology has been a decisive criterion for the identification and classification of
texts.33 This is particularly so for the wisdom texts, and 4Q185 is no exception. The Hebrew
term ‫“ חכמה‬wisdom” is frequent in sapiential literature, and one of the criteria for the
identification of wisdom texts is the employment of the term.34 In the case of 4Q185, this
seems to have had a bidirectional effect. The classification of the text as a wisdom
composition has subsequently encouraged reconstructions of wisdom vocabulary in the text.
This is most clear in the reading of col. i 14 and col. ii 8 and 13. In the exhortations in col. i
14, Strugnell reads ‫ וחכמו מן ]ג[בורת אלהים‬and translates “draw wisdom from the mighty
Wisdom of God.”35 The critical point in this reading is the verb ‫וחכמו‬. Strugnell only presented
the reading ‫“ וחכמו‬draw wisdom” as a suggestion, admitting that it was a difficult reading
based on material evidence. However, this reading is still shaping current readings and
interpretations of the composition. In the most recent edition by Qimron, the headline for
4Q185 draws on col. i, line 14: ‫חוכמת גבורת האל‬, or “The wisdom of God’s might” (my
translation).36 Hence, line 14 is important for the interpretation of 4Q185. In ch. 2, I suggest
that we should read ‫“ והכנעו מן ]ג[בורת אלהים‬Humble yourselves before the might of our God”
and I argue that this is a better reading of the material evidence. Another reading by Strugnell

28.
In the foreword of DJD 39, Tov, the editor of the volume, admits that the listing of texts according to
categorisations is partly based on subjective data. See the lists in Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction,
140.
29.
See John I. Kampen in “The Diverse Aspects of Wisdom in the Qumran Texts” in The Dead Sea Scrolls
After Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, vol. 1 (ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. Vanderkam with the
Assistance of Andrea E.; Leiden: Brill, 1998), 224. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378.
30.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 127. Lichtenberger also uses the title “Mahnrede” in his article; see
Lichtenberger, “Eine Weisheitliche Mahnrede in den Qumranfunden (4Q185).”
31.
John Kampen, Wisdom Literature (ECDSS; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 250.
32.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges.”
33.
Lange, “Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung,” 4.
34.
Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 5.
35.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270.
36.
Qimron writes for a Hebrew-speaking audience and does not give an English translation; Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.

-7-
that strengthens the connection with the wisdom literature is found in the second column
where there are two beatitudes. Both of them refer to an object only denoted by a feminine
suffix. This object is generally interpreted as a reference to the gift of wisdom, or a
combination of wisdom and Torah. Strugnell made an explicit association with “wisdom” in
the translations of the beatitudes, adding “Wisdom and Law” in parentheses in the first
beatitude, and “wisdom” in the second. Both readings have guided later interpretations and
analyses of the text as a whole. It is the beatitudes of the second column that have received
the most scholarly attention.37 No one has disputed that the beatitudes refer to wisdom, and
some scholars have even argued that the composition refers to Lady Wisdom. This
interpretation of the feminine suffix as a reference to wisdom is legitimate, but is not the only
possibility.
Even though later editors have modified the strong association with wisdom, 4Q185 is
still understood as a wisdom text with strong ties to Proverbs. Wisdom appears to be read into
the text from its literary context, which in this case means 4Q184 and 4Q525: texts that draw
from or even “rewrite” Proverbs. In DJDJ 5, 4Q185 follows 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman
(4Q184), and in Harrington’s Wisdom Texts from Qumran (1996), the two are presented under
one heading: “Folly and Wisdom.” The order of the two in the DJD invites this coupling, and
one may wonder how much effect it has on their interpretation. In the foreword of The
Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought (2002), the editors
state: “The contributions of the present volume try to interpret the new texts in the context of
the history of sapiential thought.”38
The reading of text is never done in a vacuum, and the literary context offers
hermeneutical keys. This is of great help, but it can also become a methodological problem
when the lack of a clear context is substituted by the wisdom genre. This is sometimes the
case, as several of the sapiential texts found at Qumran are very fragmented and are often
preserved in one single copy.39
In the second half of this thesis (chapters 5–7), I reevalute the textual relationship
with Proverbs and consider additional literary contexts that are not constituted by generic
relations. Reading 4Q185 together with 4Q184 and 4Q525 highlights the common sapiential

37.
Marko Marttila and Mika S. Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations: Perspectives from the Hebrew
Bible, Deuterocanonical Literature, and the Dead Sea Scrolls,” JAJ 4, no. 1 (2013); William A. Tooman,
“Wisdom and Torah at Qumran: Evidence from the Sapiential Texts,” in Wisdom and Torah: The Reception of
‘Torah’ in the Wisdom Literature of the Second Temple Period (ed. Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter;
JSJSup 163; Leiden: Brill, 2013). Elisa Uusimäki, “‘Happy Is the Person to Whom She Has Been Given’: The
Continuum of Wisdom and Torah in 4QSapiential Admonitions B (4Q185) and 4QBeatitudes (4Q525),” RevQ
103 (2014).
38.
Charlotte Hempel, Armin Lange, and Hermann Lichtenberger, eds., The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and
the Development of Sapiential Thought (BEThL 159; Leuven: Peeters, 2002).
39.
Lange, “Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung,” 4.

-8-
terms. On the other hand, reading 4Q185 together with 4Q370 and 4Q504 highlight the
emphasis on human rebellion, divine wrath, and judgment.

1.4 The Aim of the Study

The nature of our terms affect the nature of our observations, in the sense that the
terms direct the attention to one field rather than to another (Burke)40

The aim of this study is to fill a gap in previous research by engaging with the unsolved
challenges of reading this manuscript, and to reconsider the evidence and arguments for
current interpretations of the text. My analysis of 4Q185 is motivated by questions of
category and context. We read and interpret in light of categories. Classification is a
pragmatic necessity, but too often it limits the reading perspective. Jonathan Z. Smith’s essay
on classification from 1982 still brings a valid warning against the “imperialistic impulses
toward totalization, unification, and integration.”41 Each member of a class is unique, and
awareness of individuality and difference should be maintained. The categorisation of 4Q185
as a pre-sectarian wisdom composition has shaped the modern scholarly discourse on it as a
wisdom text. In my opinion, the pursuit of wisdom discourse in the text has overshadowed
other salient perspectives. This is problematic.
Of interest for my discussion of 4Q185 is both the historical setting of the text
producer and the hermeneutic enterprise of modern scholarship, i.e. categorisation.42 We
know little about the scribal environment that lies behind a composition like 4Q185. The only
context available for a modern reader is the other texts found in the caves at Qumran. The
modern reader will approach the literature of Qumran in text editions and commentaries.
Naturally, these commentaries are pragmatically organised according to textual categories.43
The generic classification of 4Q185 as a wisdom composition has an impact on the reading of
it.44 The aim of this study is not to write 4Q185 into or out of a particular category, but to

40.
Kenneth Burke and Joseph R. Gusfield, On Symbols and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1989), 116.
41.
Jonathan Z. Smith, “Fences and Neighbors: Some Contours of Early Judaism” in Imagining Religion: From
Babylon to Jonestown (Chicago Studies in the History of Judaism; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982),
18.
42.
I use the term ‘text producer’ simply because it is an open category which can comprise the author, scribe,
and copyist.
43.
Although the criteria for deciding genre have been and still remain somewhat elusive, it is clear that
terminology has been a decisive criterion for the identification and classification of texts. Fragmentary
manuscripts were categorised on the basis of their “weisheitliches Vokabular;” Lange, “Die Weisheitstexte aus
Qumran: Eine Einleitung,” 4.
44.
Generic expectations of works often play an important role in the interpretations of them; see Mary Ann
Tolbert, Sowing the Gospel: Mark’s World in Literary-Historical Perspective (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1989), 48.

-9-
challenge the boundaries that are constituted by the categorisation of text into specific kinds,
and the interpretations that are guided by this categorisation. In my view, 4Q185 is at the
“margins” of the wisdom genre. The composition can rightly be described as sapiential,
although it has much in common with the broader literary context. Such insight is necessary
in order to interpret the contents of this admonition. We do not know the scribal environment
in which 4Q185 might have originated, but 4Q185 was potentially used in a didactic setting.
In my analysis I search for the core idea of knowledge in the speech. In what direction
does the author lead the reader’s attention? 4Q185 is filled with echoes of Scripture and
allusions that affect the composition. The question is, how? Compositions relate to other
compositions in various ways and in various dimensions. These intertextual trajectories do
not follow genre classification. I would argue that there are textual “interrelations” between
4Q185 and the petitionary prayers of 4Q504, Words of Luminaries, and also sectarian
compositions such as the Damascus Document (CD) and the Community Rule (1QS).
Compositions from different categories may shed light upon the mutual reception of
scriptural motifs. By asking questions that are not restricted in terms of genre and category, I
aim to overcome the constrictive effect of textual classifications in Qumran scholarship.
Hopefully, this will bring new insight about 4Q185, and shed further light on the discussion
of wisdom, genre, and the literature from Qumran.

1.5 The Theoretical Basis of this Thesis

Manuscripts, Scribes, and Authors

In the field of scholarship, the terms ‘work,’‘composition,’ and ‘text,’ are used more or less
interchangably. This is examplified by the various suggested labels for 4Q185: “Sapiential
work,” “Weisheitstext,” and “Sapiential composition.” Liv Ingeborg Lied correctly made the
point that it is critical to distinguish between a manuscript as a “text-bearing object” and a
work which is a “conceived compositional unit.”45 A manuscript is a physical copy of a
literary work.46 In the case of 4Q185, there is only one manuscript, and the text on it is in fact
the only representation of the work. Nevertheless, terminological distinction is necessary. In
order to steer away from potentially blurring these concepts, I will distinguish between the
‘manuscript’ as the material text-bearing object, the ‘text’ as the written words on the

45.
A work that is known to a modern audience may be represented in different copies. Thus, the manuscript
and the text on it is a material representation of a work, without these two entities being one and the same; Liv
Ingeborg Lied, “Text–Work–Manuscript: What is an ‘Old Testament Pseudepigraphon’?,” JSP 25 (2015): 152–
153.
46.
A copy is a physical copy of a literary work.

- 10 -
manuscript produced by a scribe, and the ‘work’ or ‘composition’ as the literary or textual
entity produced by an author or a redactor. According to my understanding, a ‘work’ and a
‘composition’ are synonymous terms. I use the label “4Q185” to refer to the fragments that
now comprise the manuscript.47 Even though the manuscript is damaged, I refer to the
preserved text as a composition.48
I refer to the author of 4Q185 as the individual who has composed and arranged the
composition.49 4Q185 was penned by a scribe or a copyist, and authored by an author. There
is a chance, however, that the author and scribe were one and the same, meaning that the
scribe of 4Q185 could be an intellectual interpreter of the Scriptures that penned the text by
his own hand. Normally, the process of writing would have been executed by a professional
scribe and thus would need to be distinguished from the creative “production” of the content.
However, although a scribe, by profession, dealt with the task of copying and writing, it is
widely held that some scribes were also exegetes, meaning, they had the skill to produce texts
both creatively and technically.50 The general scholarly view appears to be that some
members of the community were exegetes who produced text.51 This may apply to
compositions such as 4Q185.

Setting and Social Milieu

There is no way to ascertain the date of the composition 4QSapiential Work (4Q185), but
since there is only one copy of it, there is a chance that it is an autograph.52 I tentatively date

47.
The term ‘manuscript’ is sometimes used for the originally supposed whole from which extant fragments
remain, but more often it is used to refer to the assemblage of the fragments that are hypothesized to originate
from the same original whole; see Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, “Constructing, Deconstructing and Reconstructing
Fragmentary Manuscripts: Illustrated by a Study of 4Q184 (4QWiles of the Wicked Woman),” in Rediscovering
the Dead Sea Scrolls: An Assessment of Old and New Approaches and Methods (ed. Maxine L. Grossman;
Grand Rapids: Eerdmands 2010), 27.
48.
The term ‘text’ should not be used to indicate a physical manuscript or to denote a literary work. Norton
adopts two usages of the term. The first is text as the words inscribed on a manuscript. The second is text as a
modern abstract; see Jonathan Norton, Contours in the Text: Textual Variation in the Writings of Paul, Josephus
and the Yahad (LNTS 430; London: T&T Clark, 2011), 3–4.
49.
On authors in antiquity; see K. van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 47.
50.
According to Christine Schams, some scribes functioned as officials and professional writers, but some
scribes were also known as scholars, intellectuals, sages, and expert interpreters of the Scriptures and the law;
see Christine Schams, Jewish Scribes in the Second-Temple Period (JSOTSup 291; Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1998), 327.
51.
Norton nuances the idea of a sectarian “scribal community,” and emphasises that “a sectarian exegesis is
ultimately a communal product, the exegeses generated from an oral-performative discourse rather than an
intrinsically literary one”; see Norton, “The Question of ‘Scribal Exegesis’ at Qumran,” in Northern Lights on
the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Nordic Qumran Network 2003–2006 (ed. Anders Klostergaard
Petersen, Torleif Elgvin, Cecilia Wassen, Hanne von Weissenberg, Mikael Winninge, and assistant editor Martin
Ehrensvä rd; STDJ 80; Leiden: Brill, 2009), 150.
52.
An autograph is an original composition, and not a copy of an earlier source; Emanuel Tov, Scribal
Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert (STDJ 54; Leiden: Brill, 2004),

- 11 -
4Q185 to the middle of the first century B.C.E. The suggested dating is based upon the
palaeographical dating of the manuscript by Strugnell to 75–25 B.C.E.53
I will not argue against the classification of 4Q185 as a non-sectarian composition,
but 4Q185 contains general ideas couched in rhetorical statements, exhortations, and threats
in common with a wide range of Qumran texts, including sectarian texts. However, the
Tetragrammaton appears to have been avoided in other compositions that are considered to be
sectarian.54 The free use of the Tetragrammaton in 4Q185 is noteworthy, yet it should not be
used as evidence for dating the composition.55 According to Schuller, “the corpus of texts
from the Persian/Hellenistic period which use the Tetragrammaton freely is considerably
larger than had been previously expected.”56 4Q185 most likely originated among educated
members of a scribal class.57 The style of the compositions is “didactic,” and we can assume
that it was applied in a pedagogical setting.58 Admittedly, any text may have a didactic
setting.59 While teaching in ancient Palestine in general was not limited to the temple, it is
very likely that the production of texts with a didactic function would have been connected to
a religious centre.60 This, however, could probably be said about any written document found
at Qumran, either belonging to the sectarian body of texts, or the various so-called non-
sectarian texts. 4Q185 was found in Cave 4, a manmade cave cut into the marl terrace close
to the Qumran site. There is nothing that connects 4Q185 to the settlement at Qumran beyond

28–29.
53.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269.
54.
See Newsom, “‘Sectually Explicit’ Literature from Qumran.” Hartmut Stegemann, “Die
Gottesbezeichnungen in den Qumrantexten,” in Qumran sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu (ed. M. Delcor;
BEThL 46; Paris: Ducolot, 1978), 201.
55.
Stegemann suggested that there was a connection between the use of Tetragrammaton and an early date or
the “canonical status,” which allows for the use of the Tetragrammaton; see Stegemann, “Die
Gottesbezeichnungen,” 216.
56.
The argument is based upon 4Q380 and 4Q381. See Eileen M. Schuller, Non-canonical Psalms from
Qumran: A Pseudepigraphic Collection (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986), 41.
57.
On Judean scribal schools, see Philip R. Davies, Scribes and Schools: the Canonization of the Hebrew
Scriptures (1st ed., Library of Ancient Israel; Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), 74.
58.
On literacy and schools in Israel, see R. N. Whybray, The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study,
History of Biblical Interpretation Series (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 22; David McLain Carr, Writing on the Tablet of
the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature (Oxford Oxford University Press, 2005). See also “Education” in
Catherine Hezser, Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine. (TSAJ 81; Tü bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001), 39–109.
59.
The pedagogical intent is not always reflected explicitly within a text. As an example, some psalm
subscriptions present individual psalms as didactic hymns, without there being a clear connection with teaching
in the psalm (Psalms 32, 89). Nevertheless, the contents of the text are regarded as knowledge for life. The
biblical narrative may also function as a didactic socio-religious commentary on the experience of Israel.
Weston Fields describes narratives as “vehicles” for achieving an aim, which is to form and mould the mind and
attitude of readers; Weston W. Fields, Sodom and Gomorrah: History and Motif in Biblical Narrative (JSOTSup
231; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 15.
60.
The activity associated with the production of Hebrew literature in the Second Temple Period was mainly
centred in the temple priesthood; see David McLain Carr, The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A new
Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 303. See also the “Milieu of Authors and Copyists”
in Gard Granerød, Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm
110 (BZAW 406; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010), 253.

- 12 -
it being deposited in Cave 4. Indeed, it could have been brought there from any other
location.61
There are no clear indications of Greek influence in 4Q185, and the basis of
knowledge lies within traditions that have their origin in the Hebrew Scriptures. For the
purpose of this study, it will suffice to relate 4Q185 to a broad understanding of what a
didactic text could be. We may imagine that the scribe was, or at least had been, connected to
a social milieu that is similar to the later synagogue.62 Naturally, several genres may originate
from the same setting. Different spheres of life intersect with each other, and this intersection
affects the literature. One of my points to argue is that 4Q185 has much in common with the
liturgical composition 4Q504. The two compositions draw from similar parts of Scripture,
and the religious piety expressed in 4Q185 is similar to the ritual/liturgial practice in 4Q504.

Rewriting and Exegesis in the Dead Sea Scrolls

A large amount of the literature found in the caves of Qumran was immediately identified as
“biblical.” Although there was no formal canon at the time when the scrolls were deposited
there, the labels “biblical” and “non-biblical” have long been part of the scholarly
classificatory language when dealing with the scrolls. I use the anachronistic term ‘biblical’
as a reference to the compositions that came to be part of the later canonical collections. The
biblical compositions such as the Pentateuch, the Prophetic literature, and the Psalms
represent written religious traditions. The finding of these compositions at Qumran attest to
their usage and importance at the time, as do the explicit quotations and interpretations of
them in the so-called sectarian literature at Qumran. Nevertheless, the literature found in the
caves of Qumran does not really fit with the modern conceptions of the Bible and canon, as
there is not one edition, but variant copies. Moreover, it can be difficult to establish a
significant distinction between a “biblical manuscript” and a composition that contains

61.
This is a general scholarly opinion regarding many of the manuscripts found in Cave 4. Archeology has
provided us with knowledge about the settlement at Qumran, but there is still no consensus that there was
actually ever a connection between the scrolls and the site. Now, the site has a history of its own. Magness
argues that there was a connection between the site and the caves; see Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of
Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 2002), 43–44. See also Collins, Beyond the
Qumran Community: The Sectarian Movement of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 206–207. Due to the close proximity of
the cave to the site, it is only natural to assume that there at some point was a connection between Cave 4 and
one of the settlements at Qumran.
62.
The earliest evidence of a synagogue is found in Gamla from the second half of the first century B.C.E.
Synagogues from the Hasmonaean period have also been discovered at Modi'in (second half of the first century
B.C.E.) and in Jericho (first century B.C.E.); see Anders Runesson, Donald D. Binder, and Birger Olsson, The
Ancient Synagogue from its Origins to 200 C.E.: A Source Book (AJEC 72; Leiden Brill, 2008), 33, 40, 57. See
also Anders Runesson, The Origins of the Synagogue: A Socio-Historical Study (Stockholm: Almqvist &
Wiksell, 2001), 177.

- 13 -
“biblical interpretation.”63 Despite the increasing awareness of the problems involved when
using the labels “biblical” and “non-biblical,” this distinction still triggers present research
questions. One example that is relevant for this study is the idea of “rewriting.” Geza Vermes
first used the term “rewritten Bible” to denote the exegetical process illustrated by the
haggadic development of the biblical narrative, implying that the term denoted a text type.64
In the intervening years the term has been replaced by “rewritten Scripture” and the weight is
on the scribal phenomenon of “rewriting Scripture” rather than a literary genre.65 The
scholarly interest in the phenomenon of rewriting is in part related the question of textual
classification, but is also prompted by questions related to the authority of Scripture and its
interpretations.66
The phenomena of rewriting and interpretation are intertwined, but it is important to
distinguish between the concept of “rewriting” as a compositional technique in the
production of literature, and explicit and implicit use of literature as a phenomenon of
scriptural interpretation. At one level, “rewriting” is simply composing within a particular
literary heritage.67 The utilisation of specific vocabulary and motifs from one’s cultural
context in the literary production of new compositions is part of being literate. This usage
may also involve a religiously motivated interpretation, but should not necessarily be defined
as rewriting Scripture.68 At another level, “rewriting” may refer to the implicit use of literature

63.
One example is 4QReworkedPentateuch; see Molly M. Zahn, Rethinking Rewritten Scripture: Composition
and Exegesis in the 4QReworked Pentateuch Manuscripts (STDJ 95; Leiden: Brill, 2011).
64.
Vermes did not explicitly define “rewritten Bible” as a genre, but he lists the Palestinian Targum, Jewish
Antiquities, Ps. Philo, Jubilees and Genesis Apocryphon as examples on “how the Bible was rewritten about a
millenium before the redaction of Sefer ha-Yasahr.” He further refers to the “midrashic literary genre” of
Genesis Apocyphon Geza Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism: Haggadic studies (2nd, revised ed.;
Studia Post-Biblica; Leiden: Brill, 1973), 95–96. This publication is regarded as the launching of the term as a
genre; see George J. Brooke, “Genre Theory, Rewritten Bible and Pesher,” DSD 17 (2010): 363; Jonathan G.
Campbell, “Rewritten Bible: A Terminological Reassessment,” in Rewritten Bible after Fifty Years: Texts,
Terms, or Techniques? A Last Dialogue with Vermes (ed. József Zsegellér; JSJSup 166; Leiden: Brill, 2014), 49;
Kipp Davis, The Cave 4 Apocryphon of Jeremiah and the Qumran Jeremianic Traditions: Prophetic Persona
and the Construction of Community Identity (STDJ 111; Leiden: Brill, 2014), 16.
65.
Brooke, “Genre Theory, Rewritten Bible and Pesher.” See the overview of history of scholarship in Anders
Klostergaard Petersen, “Textual Fidelity, Elaboration, Supersession or Encroachment? Typological Reflections
on the Phenomenon Rewritten Scripture,” in Rewritten Bible after Fifty Years: Texts, Terms, or Techniques? A
Last Dialogue with Vermes (ed. József Zsegellér, JSJSup 166; Leiden: Brill, 2014), 19.
66.
The authority of Scripture lies in its power to influence thought and behaviour. Note that “authoritative
texts,” which are texts of normative importance within a given community, are not identical with “Scriptures.”
See Molly M. Zahn, “Talking about Rewritten Texts: Some Reflections on Terminology,” in Changes in
Scripture. Rewriting and Interpreting Authoritative Traditions in the Second Temple Period (ed. Hanne von
Weissenberg, Juha Pakkala and Marko Marttila; Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), 98.
67.
According to Kratz “rewriting” may be understood in the broad sense as revising or editing a literary source
Reinhard G. Kratz, “Rewriting Torah in the Hebrew Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls” in Wisdom and Torah: The
Reception of ‘Torah’ in the Wisdom Literature of the Second Temple Period (ed. Bernd U. Schipper and D.
Andrew Teeter; Leiden: Brill, 2013), 278. The German term Forthschreibung is perhaps a more appropriate
term to describe the phenomenon; see Annette Steudel, “The Damascus Document (D) as a Rewriting of the
Community Rule(s),” RevQ 25 (2012).
68.
On example is the use of Scripture in 1Q/4QMysteries. Elgvin notes that 1Q/4QMysteries display a
complex web of allusions. The “writer (or writers)” plays with biblical phrases, e.g. conflates a number of

- 14 -
as a phenomenon of scriptural interpretation.69 The use of a specific scriptural tradition or
composition is not necessarily signalled by the author, but the use of Scripture may still be
readily apparent to a reader.
The textual relationship between 4Q185 and 4Q370 illustrates how different levels of
rewriting may work together in a composition. The preserved text in 4Q370 1 ii 5–9 partially
overlaps with 4Q185 1–2 i 10–ii 3. In the case of 4Q185 and 4Q370, it seems clear that one
of the two “rewrites” the other unless these are two copies of the same work. This means that
not only scriptural compositions can serve as a model for new compositions.70
Additionally, the two compositions are also interpretations of religious traditions. The
narrative found in 4Q370 draws from the narratives of the Pentateuch, and the overlapping
motifs found in both compositions are widely used in the Psalms and in prophetic literature.
The inherent traditions in both 4Q185 and 4Q370 are what I would call “scriptural.” By the
term ‘Scripture’ I mean a religious composition with special authority in (religious) life.71
4Q185 and 4Q370 are scriptural in the sense that their motifs and narratives originate from
sources which held the highest authority. These religious traditions did not only exist in
textual form, but as memorised narratives, and practices.72 Nevertheless, they were associated
with writings.73 ‘Scripture,’ or the adjective ‘scriptural,’ are not neutral terms, and in one
sense they are as anachronistic as the term ‘Bible.’ However, they appear to be the best
terminology in order to emphasise the function of ancient literature.74 According to my view,
their literary heritage is by definition scriptural, and all the Hebrew ancient writings likely
held some sense of authority. The wide range of Qumran literature that interprets and rewrites

pentateuchal phrases; see Torleif Elgvin, “The Use of Scripture in 1Q/4QMysteries,” in New Perspectives on
Old Texts (ed. E. G. Chazon and Betsy Halpern-Amaru; STDJ 88; Leiden: Brill, 2010), 117, 129.
69.
Sidnie White Crawford, Rewriting Scripture in Second Temple Times (Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and
Related Literature; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008), 3. On implicit and explicit interpretation George J. Brooke,
“Scripture and Scriptural Tradition in Transmission: Light from the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Scrolls and
Biblical Traditions: Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the 1OQS in Helsinki (ed. George J. Brooke, et al.;
Leiden: Brill, 2012), 13.
70.
One can of course not rule out the possibility that one of the two compositions could be regarded as
authoritative.
71.
On ‘use’ and ‘authority,’ see also the contribution in Michael Fishbane, “Use, Authority and Interpretation
of Mikra at Qumran,” in Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading, and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient
Judaism and Early Christianity (ed. Martin Jan Mulder; Van Gorcum: Fortress Press, 1988), 341.
72.
As hard as it is to provide evidence for oral culture, the Rabbinic literature attest to the oral transmission of
the Jewish tradition in the early centuries C.E. (70–500 CE); see Steven D. Fraade, “Concepts of Scripture in
Rabbinic Judaism: Oral Torah and Written Torah,” in Jewish Concepts of Scripture: A Comparative Introduction
(ed. Benjamin D. Sommer; New York: NYU Press, 2012).
73.
See Joachim Schaper, “The Living Word Engraved in Stone: The Interrelationship of the Oral and the
Written and the Culture of Memory in the Books of Deuteronomy and Joshua,” in Memory in the Bible and
Antiquity: The Fifth Durham-Tübingen Research Symposium (Durham, September 2004) (ed. Loren T.
Stuckenbruck, Stephen C. Barton, and Benjamin G. Wold, WUNT 212; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 10.
74.
Crawford Sidnie White, “‘Biblical Text – Yes or no?’,” in Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology,
ed. Karin Finsterbusch and Armin Lange (Leuven: Peeters, 2012), 115. See also Crawford, Rewriting Scripture,
6; Molly M. Zahn, “Talking about Rewritten Texts,” 96–97.

- 15 -
former compositions reflects their role as tradition- and identity-bearing objects.75 Hence, the
concept of “rewriting Scripture” reflects a dynamic and literate self-expression.76

Modern Categories: Genre

As a reaction to the form-critical hegemony, the most common approach to genre has been
that it is a category simply defined by scholarly opinion. According to Collins, “Generic
categorization is a modern enterprise that we undertake for our own pragmatic reasons.”77
This pragmatic approach is productive, but my impression is that far too often there is also an
underlying assumption that generic classification is more than just a modern enterprise. And
why should it not be? There are reasons to assume that authors and text producers did write
according to generic norms.78 According to Bakhtin, the Russian literary scholar who became
a classic in literary studies, all literature is produced according to a generic skeleton. Genres,
in their completed aspect, are more or less “fixed pre-existing forms into which one may then
pour artistic experience.”79
The issue of the generic categorisation of texts is an acknowledged problem in the
scholarly discussion of genre.80 The relationship between wisdom and apocalypticism has
often served as the example of the problematic boundaries of genre. In his programmatic
article on this topic, Nickelsburg observes blends in both trajectories. His conclusion is often
quoted: “Texts are related parts of an organic whole, and need to be studied in context. After
all, texts are historical artifacts.”81 His observations about the wisdom literature are still
relevant, and I would argue that 4Q185 illustrates his point. These blends and mixed
trajectories are transparent in 4Q185, as the composition is filled with prophetic and
sapiential idioms. This is of course not unique to 4Q185, or even to wisdom or prophetic

75.
Brooke argues that in the transmission of scriptural tradition authority is both given and received, and so
“the rewriting processes provide a window into how textual authority was constructed, construed and conveyed”
(“Scripture and Scriptural Tradition in Transmission,” 11).
76.
On “reuse of biblical language,” see Fishbane, “Use, Authority and Interpretation of Mikra at Qumran,”
356. See also Carol A. Newsom, The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran
(STDJ 52; Leiden: Brill, 2004), 111.
77.
John J. Collins, “Epilogue: Genre Analysis and the Dead Sea Scrolls,” DSD 17 (2010): 421.
78.
The Greeks did, and although Second Temple literature may depart from the Hellenistic ideal, there sure are
some resemblance; see Hindy Najman, “The Idea of Biblical Genre,” in Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea
Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen Schuller of Her 65th Birthday (ed. Jeremy Penner,
Ken Penner, and Cecilia Wassen; STDJ 98; Leiden: Brill, 2012).
79.
According to Bakhtin, each genre has a canon. This does not mean that they are isolated; rather, they
mutually interact within a single unified literary period. This is what Bakthin calls the “historical struggle of
genres, the establishment and growth of a generic skeleton of literature.” See M. M. Bakhtin and Michael
Holquist, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, University of Texas Press Slavic series (Austin: University of
Texas Press, 1981), 44–47.
80.
Matthew J. Goff, “Qumran Wisdom Literature and the Problem of Genre,” DSD 17 (2010).
81.
George W. E. Nickelsburg, “Wisdom and Apocalypticism in Early Judaism: Some Points for Discussion,”
in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism (ed. Benjamin G. Wright III and Lawrence M. Wills;
SBL 35; Atlanta: SBL, 2005).

- 16 -
literature, but is seen in various compositions, such as CD, Hodayot, and 1QS.82
A whole issue of the DSD (17) in 2010 was dedicated to various related topics on
genre. Several of the contributions offer a “new” approach as a way out of the strict
boundary-defined thinking. This avenue was already presented by Carol Newsom in “Spying
out the Land,” (2007) an article that discusses cognitive theories on genre in the context of
biblical studies.83 One approach to genre, inspired by cognitive approaches to literature, is that
of prototype theory. Using a Wittgenstein perception of classification according to family
resemblance,84 the prototype theory allows for textual relationships based upon similarity.
Human beings organise conceptual and semantic spaces by recognising and identifying
prototypical examples. The prototype theory thus offers a solution for how to include
marginal and atypical examples. The contribution of Benjamin G. Wright III to the DSD
volume is an example of how the prototype model can be applied in relation to wisdom
compositions.85 There is a dispute, however, concerning the fruitfulness of this “new”
approach. According to John J. Collins, who comments on it in the epilogue, some
“problems” are still not solved. In my view, Collins has a good point. The prototype model
provides a dynamic way to reflect on genre, but it does not suggest how to treat marginal
phenomenon in their own right.86 This is the case with 4Q185, which belongs in the margin of
the wisdom genre. The question of genre is not sufficient, and additional perspectives are
needed.

1.6 Outline of the Study

The overarching question for the present study is how the literary contexts of the Hebrew
Scriptures and documents from Qumran can shed light upon 4Q185 with regard to genre,
function, and the role of wisdom and Torah. Before I proceed with the methodological

82.
As an example, the sapiential traits are found in various kinds of literature, such as Hodayot and Community
Rule; see Reinhard G. Kratz, “Laws of Wisdom: Sapiential Traits in the Rule of the Community (1QS 5–7),” in
Hebrew in the Second Temple Period (ed. Steven E. Fassberg, Moshe Bar-Asher, and Ruth A. Clements; STDJ
108; Leiden: Brill, 2013). See also Tanzer, “The Sages at Qumran: Wisdom in the Hodayot.”
83.
Within the thinking of Bakhtin, there is essentially no strict differentiation between ancient and modern
categories. “As long as there is literature, there are recognisable patterns.” Hence, speech acts, in their essence,
may be organised into kinds; see Carol A. Newsom, “Spying out the Land: A Report from Genology,” in
Bakhtin and Genre Theory in Biblical Studies (ed. Roland Boer; Atlanta: SBL, 2007).
84.
A cognitive approach asks for intuitively “family resemblance;” Carol A. Newsom, “Pairing Research
Questions and Theories on Genre: A Case study of the Hodayot,” DSD 17 (2010).
85.
See Benjamin G. Wright III, “Joining the Club: A Suggestion about Genre in Early Jewish Texts,” DSD 17
(2010): 289–314; Jr. Robert Williamson, “Pesher: A Cognitive Model of Genre,” DSD 17 (2010): 307–331;
Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 160–178.
86.
On overlapping borders between genre, see discussions in Robert Williamson, “Pesher: A Cognitive Model
of Genre;” Benjamin G. Wright III, “Joining the Club,” 303.

- 17 -
considerations, I will give a brief outline of the study.
This first chapter is an introduction to the thesis as a whole. In chapters 2–4, I offer a
reading of the manuscript and provide a literary analysis. I present three approaches to
4Q185: 1) material, 2) philological, and 3) rhetorical. In chapter two, I provide a transcription
and translation of 4Q185. The starting point of this study is the manuscript and all available
photographs. In this chapter, I include material considerations regarding the fragments that
constitute the manuscript. The transcription and translation provided in chapter two are the
basis for further analysis of the text, which is two literary analyses (chs. 3 and 4). Chapter 3
provides a close reading, which is organised according to the structure and content of 4Q185.
In chapter 4, I examine the “instruments of the instruction” assisted by rhetorical criticism
and cognitive theories on emotion.
In chapters 5–7, I explore 4Q185 within a broader literary context and address
questions related to category, genre, and function through three comparative studies. The
overall aim is to narrow the gap between categories in Qumran research. In chapter 5, I apply
a prototype model of genre to discuss the relation of Proverbs in comparison with 4Q184 and
4Q525. In this chapter I seek to re-evaluate the role of wisdom in the discourse. Next, I
broaden this perspective in chapter 6 and examine the didactic function of 4Q185 in
comparison with 4Q370 and the historical traditions in the Hebrew Bible. Finally, in chapter
7, I provide a literary comparison with 4QWords of the Luminaries (4Q504), a liturgical
composition which reflects similar “strategic acts.” This approach seeks to deepen further the
role of history and knowledge/Torah by studying the strategic acts of 4Q185 in comparison
with 4Q504. In the final chapter (ch. 8) I summarise the findings of this study.

1.7 Methodology

Material Reading and Translation

The starting point of this study is a material reading of the manuscript (ch. 2). Previous
scholars have provided solid readings of the manuscript, but it is still possible and necessary
to improve upon them. The technology for photographing the manuscripts has greatly
improved, which in some cases allows for more definite conclusions.
Strugnell suggested a few material reconstructions that have since been rejected in
recent research.87 While Strugnell did suggest material joins that have rightly been refuted,

87.
E.g. Pajunen argues that frg. 3 is not a material join; see Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 194.

- 18 -
and made some unfortunate reconstructions of sapiential terminology, I find that some of
Strugnell’s initial readings are superior to the more recent suggestions by later editors. In
chapter 2, I discuss earlier contributions to the reading of the text, and I also suggest new
readings. As a general rule, when no certain conclusions can be made, I suggest that one
remain inconclusive rather than produce new readings. There are exceptions to the rule, such
as when there are smaller lacunas within an otherwise extant passage. In these cases, tentative
suggestions can be put forth on the basis of available space and the extant context. There are
further exceptions pertaining to the textual overlap with 4Q370. Where a reading is made in
light of this textual overlap, I include it in my analysis, indicating that there is a lacuna in
4Q185. Thus, I allow for some suggestions in the material reading in ch. 2, but the analysis
will not rest on any tentatively suggested reconstructions of text unless the context allows for
it and they are grounded in textual parallels. I am reluctant to make conclusions when such
data is missing. It is an important basis for this study to allow for question marks and
unsolved issues. This means that some passages are more suggestive than conclusive.
In the second column there is a series of suffixed verbs. The specific reference of the
feminine suffix is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is wisdom, Torah, or Lady
Wisdom. The Hebrew feminine noun may also be a masculine noun in English. Hence, in the
translation I have chosen a pragmatic translation of the feminine suffix, “it (f.sg.).” This is
inelegant, but it serves a purpose for this study: to reconsider the reference of the feminine
suffix. Yahweh is understood as the Hebrew God. In line with the text, I will use the terms
“God” and “Yahweh.” Although I am aware of, and sympathetic towards, feminist critique of
employing gendered God-language, I wish to stay close to the grammatical level of the text.
Hence, when a masculine suffix refers to the deity, I translate “his.”88

Motif Complex and Intertextuality

4Q185 is rooted in Scripture; the admonition provides the reader with a network of scriptural
allusions and echoes. It is generally held that 4Q185 is influenced by the sapiential texts, and
in particular Proverbs. According to my reading, the scriptural references in 4Q185 link the
admonition to a wider repertoire of texts, or more precisely, “scriptural discourses.”
Discourse may broadly be understood as language or speech, hence by “scriptural discourse”
I mean language that is drawn from authoritative compositions.89 Moreover, a series of

88.
See the theoretical discussion on God-language and its referent in Hanne Løland, Silent or Salient Gender?:
The Interpretation of Gendered God-Language in the Hebrew Bible, Exemplified in Isaiah 42, 46 and 49 (FAT
2. Reihe 32; Tü bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008).
89.
This kind of language is only available to an elite, whose familiarity with Scripture presumes a privileged
authority. On discourse as speech or utterance, see Bakhtin and Holquist, The Dialogic Imagination: Four

- 19 -
scriptural echoes are put together in order to make a thematic and rhetorical point. Hence, the
use of Scripture does not only reflect the style and language of the author, it may also serve
rhetorical and exegetical purposes.90 One example is the use of Exodus motifs, which clearly
connects the admonition with an authoritative tradition in order to persuade the reader.
In the field of biblical scholarship, the question of text relations, or intertextuality, has
become a matter of great theoretical and methodological interest. One can hardly discuss
intertextuality without making an explicit reference to Kristeva’s essay “Word, Dialogue, and
Novel.”91 Kristeva points out three dimensions, or coordinates, of dialogue: the writing
subject, the addressee, and the exterior text. A text thus constitutes a dynamic discourse
where “the words’s status” is defined horizontally as well as vertically. One may approach
text relations from both a synchronic and diachronic perspective. In my analysis of 4Q185, I
aim to elicit scriptural motifs that may serve a rhetorical and exegetical purpose.92 Hence, my
study of text relations is prompted by a diachronic interest: I ask for the use of anterior texts
in the production of a posterior text. It is not my priority to determine the level of dependency
with so-called source texts, but in order to describe the allusive nature of the admonition in
my close reading (ch. 3), I occasionally use the terminology that has become conventional in
the study of Qumran literature: ‘quotation,’ ‘allusion,’ and ‘echo.’93

• An ‘echo’ is a case of textual resemblance made on the basis of two common words, or a
common phrase. This kind of similarity between texts, recognised by a reader, may be
explained as the use of a scriptural idiom and thus reflects the author’s literary heritage and
tradition.94 Thus, a phrase in 4Q185 could echo different compositions. One example is the

Essays, 427.
90.
The description of “poetic interpretation” is applicable to the first column of 4Q185; see George J. Brooke,
“Biblical Interpretation in the Wisdom Texts from Qumran,” in The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the
Development of Sapiential Thought (ed. Charlotte Hempel, Armin Lange, and Hermann Lichtenberger; Leuven:
Leuven University Press, 2002). The use of Scripture is implicit, and in its final form appears as “a kind of
allusive anthology of memorable scriptural phrases;” see George J. Brooke, “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran,”
in The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. James H. Charlesworth; Waco: Baylor University Press, 2006), 309.
The use of Scripture in 4Q185 may also be described as “exhortative interpretation” as historical recollection
that serves as warning or promise. See George J. Brooke, “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran,” 305.
91.
See “Word, Dialogue and Novel” in Julia Kristeva, Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature
and Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980).
92.
These motifs may also be denoted as scriptural tropes. A ‘trope’ is a recurrent literary motif or theme.
93.
My use of these terms is partly based on recent studies on Qumran literature where intertextuality is an
integral part. See Julie Hughes, Scriptural Allusions and Exegesis in the Hodayot (Leiden: Brill, 2006); Elisa
Uusimäki, “Use of Scripture in 4QBeatitudes: A Torah- Adjustment to Proverbs 1–9,” DSD 20 (2013). See also
the comprehensive list of biblical quotation and allusion in Armin Lange and Matthias Weigold, Biblical
Quotations and Allusions in Second Temple Jewish Literature (JAJSup 5; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and
Ruprecht, 2011), 29. Lange and Weigold do not make a distinction between the various types of intertextual
reference. Admittedly, to decide what is an implicit quotations or an implicit allusion is highly subjective, and
the ancient authors did probably not make these distinctions for themselves.
94.
Lange and Weigold exclude such formulaic and idiomatic language from their list, as these are
“intertextualities which are created by tradition” rather than reflections of a relation to a posterior text; see
Lange and Weigold, Biblical Quotations and Allusions, 23.

- 20 -
 rhetorical question, “who can stand?” which is a recurrent motif in the Hebrew Bible.

• An ‘allusion’ is an evocation of a specific “source” or anterior text. Lange and Weigold’s

definition of allusion is well articulated: Allusions are “employments of anterior texts in
which the anterior text is still linguistically recognizable in the posterior text but not
morphologically identical with it.”95 Hughes’ working definition is similar, but she
highlights the function of an allusion in its new context. She defines an allusion as “a
reference which is recognised by a reader as referring to a textual source, knowledge of
which contributes to the meaning for the reader.” The principles used by Hughes is based
upon 1) levels of verbal similarity, and 2) indications that the adoptive text directs the
reader to a particular interpretation.96

• In contrast to the echo and the allusion, in which the evocation is more free, a ‘quotation’ is
a more direct use of a source. A quotation is sometimes marked by an introductory formula,
but this is not always the case. The quote is not necessarily a verbatim parallel, as an author
may quote a source by memory which will produce some discrepancy with the anterior text.
Furthermore, there may exist different recensions of the quoted passage, which makes it
impossible to determine whether or not the quote is verbatim or not.97

The terms ‘quotation,’ ‘allusion,’ and ‘echo’ denote different phenomena, though on a sliding
scale. Quotations and allusions are categories that imply a level of intentionality by the
author, while an echo denotes a resemblance that does not necessarily reflect the intent of an
author to guide his reader’s attention to a specific source. It is important for me to note that
all scriptural references that are recognised by a reader contribute to the meaning for the
reader. The use of scriptural echoes is a rhetorical device, even though the author does not
make a specific literary connection.
The idea that anterior texts are source texts can be problematic, and one should keep
in mind that an author or a scribe might not necessarily have had the material access to the
religiously authoritative compositions in question.98 Nevertheless, the author/scribe would
have mental access to a wide range of compositions from memory. This factor is difficult to
operate with, but it is important to have in mind when dealing with 4Q185.99 Another

95.
Lange and Weigold, Biblical Quotations and Allusions, 25.
96.
See the criteria in Hughes, Scriptural Allusions and Exegesis in the Hodayot, 53–54. See also Uusimäki,
“Use of Scripture in 4QBeatitudes: A Torah- Adjustment to Proverbs 1–9,” 74–75.
97.
See the discussion in Hughes, Scriptural Allusions and Exegesis in the Hodayot, 42–43.
98.
The idea of exegesis as a scribal pratice may potentially create the idea that there were scribal authors with
access to multiple manuscripts in the process of writing. This was probably not the situation in the antiquity; see
Norton, “The Question of ‘Scribal Exegesis’ at Qumran,” 136.
99.
On citation from memory in the study of Paul’s use of Scripture; see Norton, Contours in the Text, 25–30.

- 21 -
difficulty for the scholarly examination of literary text relations is the lack of source texts. In
many cases, MT is the only textual witness we have. For a modern scholar, the entire canon is
available in the HBS. However, how are we to date these textual traditions of the MT? We
cannot assume that the MT represents the source text that we are looking for in a given text.
Hence, whenever I consider allusive language, it is my strategy to consult the photographs of
the biblical manuscripts found at Qumran. A widely recognised allusion to Isa 40 in 4Q185 1
i 9b–12 illustrates this point. In the case of Isaiah, there is good reason to assume that the
author/scribe of 4Q185 knew of Isaiah as a text, and that a manuscript was accessible to our
scribe in the process of writing.100 If it was, which manuscript or source text is alluded to?101
Cave 4 has disclosed a large number of smaller fragments, some of which may have been
entire scrolls of Isaiah. However, it is mainly the scrolls from Cave 1 that preserve the parts
of Isaiah which are alluded to in 4Q185.102 1QIsaa is dated to the Hasmonaean time (125–100
B.C.E.), and 1QIsab is early Herodian (50–25 B.C.E.).103 Hypothetically, this means that the
author/scribe of 4Q185 may have been familiar with one of these scrolls. This is not a major
point, but it reflects the possibility of physical influence.
As we have seen, the mapping of scriptural allusions involves methodological
challenges. The search for lexical parallels in order to detect literary dependence suggests that
authors made use of multiple manuscripts while writing, when they probably did not.
Moreover, the identification of scriptural influence and the task of classification involves a
degree of subjectivity. Consequently, there are overlaps between the use of terminology, and
what one reader appreciates as an allusion may be disregarded by another.104 In my view, the
distinctions between the different levels of similarity with the anterior text do not play a
significant role in 4Q185. What we regard as either an echo or an allusion may simply reflect

100.
Scholars have pointed at prophetic and, in particular, Isaianic influence on Qumran literature. Kister has
traced prophetic discourse in Sirach; Menahem Kister, “Wisdom Literature and its Relation to Other Genres:
From Ben Sira to Mysteries,” in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls:
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and
Associated Literature, 20–22 May, 2001 (ed. Ruth Clements, John J. Collins, and Gregory E. Sterling; STDJ 51;
Leiden: Brill, 2004). Lesley traces allusions to Isaiah in the 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184); Michael J.
Lesley, “Exegetical Wiles: 4Q184 as Scriptural Interpretation,” in The Scrolls and Biblical Traditions:
Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the IOQS in Helsinki (ed. G. Brooke, et al., STDJ 103; Leiden: Brill,
2012). The popularity of Isaiah at Qumran is demonstrated by the number of copies, and also by frequent
citations in the pesharim, D-, and S-traditions; see Eugene Ulrich and Peter W. Flint, Qumran Cave 1 II: The
Isaiah Scrolls, Part 1: Plates and Transcriptions (DJD 32; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2010).
101.
Would the scribe of 4Q185 know the entire “book” of Isaiah, corresponding to 1QIsaa or 1QIsab or only
parts of it? We cannot know for sure, but the number of manuscripts found in Qumran implies that an educated
scribe was aquainted with the entire book of Isaiah. On the other hand, even the copyist of 1QIsaa does not seem
to have access to an extant scroll; see Drew Longacre, “Developmental Stage, Scribal Lapse, or Physical
Defect? 1QIsaa’s Damaged Exemplar for Isaiah Chapters 34–66,” DSD 20 (2013).
102.
Patrick W. Skehan and Eugene Ulrich, “Isaiah,” in Qumran Cave 4, X: The Prophets (DJD 15; Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1997).
103.
Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 402.
104.
See the examples of disregarded allusions in Lange and Weigold, Biblical Quotations and Allusion, 30–32.

- 22 -
a stylistic choice by the author.
According to Bakhtin, language is always dialogic and associative. There is no neutral
word.105 Rather, reader or listeners will perceive a word with all the notions that they have
already formed about it.106 Of course, the author of 4Q185 would never be able to control the
apperceptive background of the listeners, nor their responses, but the selection of motifs and
their shaping of the text, is the author’s construction. In order analyse the allusive nature of
language, and to consider its effect on the structure and shaping of the message of the
admonition, I use the term “motif complex.” I acknowledge that the literary motifs in 4Q185
can be classified as either echoes or allusions, but in my analysis I am also concerned with
how these play together as part of larger motif complexes. A motif complex consists of
literary motifs that are associated with an overall theme, such as “judgment” and “human
finitude.” A literary motif may appear in different literary contexts and different genres.
Nevertheless, even if a literary motif is only freely connected to a specific context, there may
be an associative link between a motif and a particular theme. It is these larger themes, or
conventional patterns of motifs, that are reflected in my structural analysis and close reading
as motif complexes (ch. 3).
The question of text relation is also relevant for the question of genre. According to
the prototype theory, literary genres are constituted by similarities with a prototypical
example. In order to re-evaluate the literary relation to Proverbs, I compare 4Q185 to texts
that rewrite Proverbs with a particular emphasis on literary motifs associated with Proverbs,
such as Lady Wisdom (ch. 5).

A Persuasive Discourse

There is an internal dialogism in 4Q185 that requires further examination, as it has not been
discussed in previous research.107 The inner relations between segments of the admonition can
be described as a movement from pessimism to a more optimistic outlook, through cols. i–ii.
This movement or change of tone is strengthened by the use of contrast motifs, which are
created by the repetition of terms. These repetitions are not fully captured in a close reading,
and will be examined further within a rhetorical analysis (ch. 4). According to Newsom,
rhetorical analysis is “asking what a text is attempting to do, how it is attempting to affect

105.
Bakhtin and Holquist, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, 276.
106.
Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember, Themes in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1989), 1–3.
107.
“Dialogue” may be studies as a compositional form in the structuring of speech, but there is also an internal
dialogism of the word; see Bakhtin and Holquist, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, 279.

- 23 -
social reality, and what techniques it uses to effect the desired persuasion.”108 In my opinion,
4Q185 proves to be a good candidate for such an investigation. There is a desire to persuade
the addressee, and the admonition is shaped by this intent. Thus, I approach 4Q185 as one
composition and not a collection of admonitions.109 Burke describes persuasion as “the use of
symbols, by one symbol-using entity to induce action in another.”110 According to my reading,
4Q185 can be read as an attempt to induce cooperation. The world of 4Q185 is indeed a
symbolic world, where the addressees are invited to imagine the realities of frightening
judgment and consoling salvation. One example of this is the call to remember Exodus and
the evocation of the history of rebellion. This collective memory offers legitimisation to the
exhortations and reminds the addressees of their identity as a people dependable and
accountable before Yahweh.111
My analysis is not steered by a generic definition of 4Q185, but the formal
characteristics of the text are not insignificant. I refer to the composition as an admonition.
An admonition, as I define it here, is a speech, whether written or not, which has a message
that aims to convince and make changes in the attitude or mind of the addressee. We do not
know the rhetorical situation of the admonition. Then again, when dealing with ancient texts,
how can we? Nevertheless, one can analyse the language of the admonition. Thus, I will
examine the rhetorical tools or the “instrument of the instruction” in order to see what is at
stake in 4Q185. My questions are: How does the instruction seek to move the addressees
from one place to another? What is the motivation behind the admonition?

My Analytic Tools: Body, Emotions and Strategy

Body-centred language is a characteristic feature in the Psalms, and often appears in poetic
self-expression.112 The exhortations in 4Q185 direct themselves towards the human body, and
effect human abasement and fright. These appeals to human emotions are found in various
forms through the admonition, both on an explicit and an implicit level. In order to include
this concern in the rhetorical analysis (ch. 4), I integrate the perspective of “body language”
and use some analytic tools from cognitive science. According to the studies of Damasio,

108.
Newsom promotes the use of rhetorical criticism in Qumran studies; Carol A. Newsom, “Rhetorical
Criticism and the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Methods and Theories in the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. Maxine
L. Grossman; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010), 212.
109.
Lange describes 4Q185 as a sapiential work that consists of three different Mahnreden followed by two
beatitudes, see Lange, “Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung,” 11.
110.
It is human nature to respond to symbols, see Burke and Gusfield, On Symbols and Society, 188–189, 191.
111.
On images of the past as a legitimation of a present social order; see Connerton, How Societies Remember,
3.
112.
Susanne Gillmayr-Bucher, “Body Images in the Psalms,” JSOT 28, no. 3 (2004).

- 24 -
bodily emotions are intimately involved in human processes of reasoning and moral
judgment; or, put in other words, human behaviour is governed by emotions.113 In a recent
study on body language in biblical law, Thomas Kazen argues that body language affects
motivation for ethical behaviour. Drawing on the studies of Damasio, Kazen puts it this way:
“The body is the locus of morality, the arena in which religion is practised, or the means by
which moral and ritual are carried out.”114 Similarly, Angela Kim Harkins shows how stock
images of terror are employed in the Hodayot in an effort to arouse powerful emotions.115 She
proposes that fear and terror could have aided readers in re-enacting the necessary bodily
emotions.116 The emotional exhortation of 4Q185 is comparable to biblical exhortations, and
the rhetoric of fear found in the Hodayot do correspond to 4Q185. In order to analyse the
persuasiveness of the admonition, I thus lean on the theory of Damasio.
In chapter 7, I examine the strategies in 4Q185 in comparison with the petitionary
prayers of 4Q504. Catherine Bell describes ritual as bodily performance and a strategic act.117
Drawing from the work of Bell, I define a ‘ritual’ as a strategic act that seeks to move and
enact change.118 According to my understanding, the acts of humbling oneself before God’s
might and engaging in a collective remembrance of the past are strategic acts, hence theories
on ritual shed some light upon my comparative analysis.119 Ritual theory is a vast field that
has increasingly become a part of Qumran scholarship.120 I do not take on the task of

113.
Damasio’s theory is based on a study on patients with prefrontal damage. The reduction of emotions caused
by prefrontal damage may affect decision-making ability, thus his thesis is that emotion assists reasoning,
especially when it comes to personal and social matters involving risk and conflict. He suggests that “emotion
probably points us to the sector of the decision-making space where our reason can operate most efficiently;”
see Antonio R. Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (London: Picador, 1994),
184–193.The term ‘emotion’ is used to designate all the responses whose perception we call feeling, whereas
‘feeling’ should be reserved for the private, mental experience of an emotion; see Antonio R. Damasio, “A
Second Chance for Emotions,” in Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion (ed. Richard D. Lane and Lynn Nadel;
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 15.
114.
See Thomas Kazen, Emotions in Biblical Law: A Cognitive Science Approach (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix
Press, 2011), 4. Kazen shows how emotions are an integral part of biblical law. “Moral emotions,” such as
disgust, empathy, fear, and sense of justice, all have a bearing on moral issues, as they motivate or prevent
action.
115.
A ‘stock image’ is an image that due to its frequent appearance in a particular context, becomes associated
with that context.
116.
Angela Kim Harkins, “The Performative Reading of the Hodayot: The Arousal of Emotions and the
Exegetical Generation of Texts,” JSP 21 (2011).
117.
Catherine Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 7.
118.
Bell represents a classic and still valid approach to ritual and will be consulted. Catherine Bell, Ritual
Theory, Ritual Practice. See also Gavin Brown, “Theorizing Ritual as Performance: Explorations of Ritual
Indeterminacy,” JRS 17, no. 1 (2003): 3; Harkins, “The Performative Reading of the Hodayot.” See also the
brief presentation (evaluation) in Pamela J. Stewart and Andrew Strathern, Ritual: Key Concepts in Religion
(London: Bloomsbury), 102–04.
119.
I do not distinguish between ritual and liturgical practice. Arnold defines liturgy as “the spoken component
of any particular ritual”; Russel C.D Arnold, “The Dead Sea Scrolls, Qumran, and Ritual Studies,” in The Dead
Sea Scrolls in Context: Integrating the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Study of Ancient Texts, Languages, and Cultures,
(ed. Armin Lange, Emanuel Tov, and Matthias Weigold; Leiden: Brill, 2011). I find this distinction somewhat
problematic, and define liturgy as the script for any ritual, including both verbal an non-verbal components.
120.
For the sake of simplicity, I refer to “ritual theory” in the singular, although there are various theories. For a

- 25 -
examining the diverse aspects of ritual, yet ritual theory allows me to say something about
what the admonition does in relation to “change” and strategic acts, and thus provides my
analysis with terminology and a conceptual frame. As such, ritual theory serves as an
interpretative tool.

Literary Contexts

In chapters 5–7, I address questions of genre, function, and the role of wisdom and Torah in
the admonition. A wide range of compositions could have been discussed, but I have made
my selections guided by present research in the field and my own research questions. One of
my initial questions is related to the hermeneutic effects of scholarly categorisation and
commentaries, thus my study has been limited to the texts found at Qumran. Furthermore, my
aim has been to reconsider the interpretation of 4Q185 as a discourse on wisdom and its
assumed relation to Proverbs. Therefore, my exploration starts off with a comparison of
4Q185 to wisdom compositions within the framework offered by prototype theory (ch. 5).
The comparison is not exhaustive. In order to address recent research regarding the genre of
4Q185, and previous interpretations of Lady Wisdom and wisdom equated with Torah in
4Q185, I have given priority to 4Q184 and 4Q525. These are compositions that, according to
my judgment, have guided the interpretation of 4Q185. This means that Baruch and Wisdom
of Solomon, which appear to have literary affinities with 4Q185, will not be thoroughly
discussed. Portions of Sirach have been found at Qumran, hence I have included a few minor
comments on the literary relationship with Sirach.
In chapter six, I perform a literary comparison with 4QAdmonition Based on the
Flood (4Q370). In this chapter, I look more specifically for the didactic function of the
admonition, and I examine the historical motifs and the reuse of scriptural traditions within
the admonitory discourse. Scholars have noted the resemblance between 4Q185 and the
historical psalms, particularly Psalms 78, 105, and 106.121 But in what way exactly does
4Q185 reflect historical traditions? Reading this passage according to Strugnell’s note en
marge, “gain wisdom from the strength of our Lord,” Kampen claims that the section
establishes a connection between wisdom and the saving activity of God. He further notes
that wisdom is rooted in the events of Exodus and that this theme is “more prominent in

general overview of prayer and ritual studies in Qumran research, see John J. Collins, “Prayer and Meaning of
Ritual in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in
Honor of Eileen Schuller of Her 65th Birthday (ed. Jeremy Penner, Ken M. Penner, and Cecilia Wassen; STDJ
98; Leiden: Brill, 2012).
121.
Matthew Goff notes the reliance on the historiographic psalms, Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 143. See also
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269.

- 26 -
4Q185, than in the closely related text of 4Q370.”122 The call to consider history appears in a
passage that has a textual overlap with 4Q370, col. i 10–col. ii 3. The relationship between
these two compositions is unknown. 4Q370 is written in a late Hasmonaean semi-formal
script and is thus dated to the same time as 4Q185, but within a shorter time frame (75–50
B.C.E.).123 Both compositions are classified as pre-sectarian texts, and the manuscripts are
assumed to be copies of earlier manuscripts. The textual overlap has several implications for
4Q185. Either 4Q185 was partly based upon an already existing composition, or it constitutes
the basis for another composition. It is not of primary interest for this study to establish which
way the dependency goes, but the textual overlap becomes relevant in at least two aspects.
The overlap sheds light on the scriptural influence in 4Q185, as one can compare the use of
scriptural motifs and phrases in the two admonitions. Furthermore, the textual overlap
challenges the question of category and genre. While 4Q185 is classified as a wisdom text,
4Q370 is not.124
In the final analysis of 4Q185 (ch. 7) I examine motifs associated with repentance and
restoration in comparison with 4QWords of the Luminaries (4Q504). One of my initial
questions for the study of 4Q185 was to examine the role of wisdom and Torah in the
admonition. In my view, neither the sapiential texts, 4Q184 and 4Q525, nor the admonition
4Q370 correspond to 4Q185 in relation to the role of history and Torah. The prayers of
4Q504, however, do. This composition, although classified as a liturgical text, provides a
discourse on history, humility, and Torah that is comparable to the instructions in 4Q185.125
Thus, the literary comparison with 4Q504 offers an alternative approach to text categories by
putting the question of genre aside and asking for themes and motifs and their function
instead.

122.
Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 251, 259.
123.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” in Qumran Cave 4 XIV: Parabiblical texts, part 2 (ed.
Magen Broshi, et al.; DJD 19; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 86.
124.
4Q370 is categorised as a “parabiblical text” and described as a rewriting of Gen 6–9; Tov and Abegg,
Indices and an Introduction, 122. Note that Kampen labels 4Q370 a “wisdom admonition” in Kampen, “The
Diverse Aspects of Wisdom in the Qumran Texts,” 234. In Wisdom Literature, however, Kampen follows the
classification offered in DJD 39 and 4Q370 is no longer included; see Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 10. 4Q370
is referred to as a wisdom writing in Mika S. Pajunen, The Land to the Elect and Justice for All: Reading
Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls in Light of 4Q381 (JAJSup 14; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013), 20, 327.
125.
4Q504 is listed as a collection of daily prayers; a subcategory of “poetical and liturgical texts”; Tov and
Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 136.

- 27 -
- 28 -
2. A Rereading of the Manuscript 4Q185 126

4QSapiential Work (4Q185) is the label for the remains of a manuscript. The manuscript was
not found in one piece, and over the years, more pieces have been added. There is still no
consensus regarding which fragments belong to the manuscript, nor their placement within it.
This chapter presents the manuscript and its history after it was found, based on all available
photographs up to the most recent composite pictures that are presented on the IAA
website.127 I have also consulted the original manuscript, which is located at the Israel
Antiquities Authority in Jerusalem.128

2.1 Material Perspectives

Description of Manuscript

4Q185 is the remains of a leather document which consists of one larger fragment that is put
together with multiple smaller pieces. The leather is now yellowish brown, but also dark
brown in larger parts of the manuscript. The manuscript preserves parts of two sheets, still
kept together with linen thread.129 There is reason to assume that there once was at least one
preceding sheet. The right margin of the first preserved sheet has holes for stitches, although
no linen thread is preserved. Some scrolls have a wider first margin, which indicates that it is
the first column (cf. 1QIsaa).130 The size of this margin is the same as the margin of the next
sheet, which may also indicate that this is not the first column of the composition. Pajunen
has suggested that the first column could have been preceded by a handle sheet.131 There is a
possibility that 4Q185 did have a first blank sheet. This habit of having an initial uninscribed
sheet served to protect the inscribed area when holding it.132 However, there is no ruling nor

126.
A preliminary version of the transcription and translation was presented at Ehrhart seminar in Manchester,
February 2014.
127.
See deadseascrolls.org.il, images B-295933 and B-295932 (November 2011). The date given for B-295933
is April 2012, but this is probably wrong, as the manuscript was inside a netting at that point.
128.
I studied the manuscript together with Elgvin at IAA in March 2013 using a Dino-Lite microscope. Images
were taken by Elgvin, March 2013 and February 2014. Unfortunately, the main part of the manuscript was sewn
into a netting at the time. The netting has currently been removed, and new photos have been taken by IAA.
129.
The sheets are not stitched to the very top and bottom edges of the leather. According to Tov, this is a
practice that resembles the later rabbinic instructions for the texts of Scripture; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 36.
130.
Matthew J. Goff, 4QInstruction (Wisdom Literature from the Ancient World 2; Atlanta: SBL, 2013), 8.
131.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 192–193.
132.
Stegemann calls the blank sheets at the beginning and the end “handle sheets”; see Hartmut Stegemann,
“How to Connect Dead Sea Scroll Fragments,” in Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls. A Reader from the
Biblical Archeology Review (ed. Hershel Shanks; New York: Random House, 1992), 250. See also “initial
handle sheet” and “final handle sheet” in Tov, Scribal Practices, 114, 116–117.

- 29 -
traces of a guide line which might indicate a less professional preparation method than used
for the luxury scrolls or the more carefully made scrolls.133 Based on the preparation of the
manuscript, it seems more probable that there was a preceding sheet with text that belongs to
the composition, rather than a handle sheet. We do not know the original length of 4Q185.
This was probably an average sized scroll. With its 15 lines and 12,6 cm leather height,
4Q185 is listed as a scroll with a medium-sized writing block.134
The first sheet has two columns (cols. i and ii). The second column is wider than the
first (9 and 11 cm wide). The width of the right margin to the sewn edge is the same on both
sheets. The upper margin is 15 mm while the bottom margin measures 20 mm. The bottom
margin is usually larger then the top margin, as it allows for the handling of the scroll without
touching the inscribed area.135 As there is no ruling, the lines are somewhat uneven. In col. ii 8
the scribe seems to have redused the size of the letters at the end of the line to squeeze in
more words. Pajunen suggests that the scribe wanted to save space.136 In general, due to the
cost of the material, any scroll, at least those which were intended for private use, were
written with space-saving techniques. The line length in the lower part of col. ii is greater
than the top six lines. However, at the end of lines 9 and 10 the scribe has been less careful
with the available space. Thus, there is no clear indication that the scribe felt a particular need
to save space.

Damage Pattern

The first column is put together by multiple pieces, but there are material joins, and the text is
generally still readable.137
The leather of the second column is in the best shape, and the left part of it is still in
one piece. However, the surface of the leather is damaged. In some parts of the manuscript,
the entire top layer has peeled off (i.e. lower left corner in col. ii), while in other parts the ink
has eroded, leaving only traces of letters. There is a vertical line caused by erosion, that runs
through the entire second column. There is also a horizontal abrasion in the middle that runs
through the entire manuscript, except near the sown edge which appears to have prevented

133.
Tov, Scribal Practices, 59.
134.
Tov has made an exhaustive list of Qumran leather manuscripts according to number of lines per column
and leather height. In the list the manuscripts are organised into leather scrolls with a “small,” “medium-sized,”
“large,” and a “very large” writing block; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 86.
135.
Tov, Scribal Practices, 82.
136.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 192.
137.
A material join can be made when two fragments divide a word or a letter, or where the edge of the
fragments complement each other; see Stegemann, “How to Connect Dead Sea Scroll Fragments,” 249.

- 30 -
further abrasion. Based upon the damage pattern, Pajunen suggests that the manuscript was
folded: “If the remaining parts are folded in roughly 8 cm sections, the places with the
vertical damage correspond very well with each other as do many holes and cuts.”138 It seems
doubtful to me that one would not roll a manuscript with multiple sheets. There are small
manuscripts that were folded, but these consist of one sheet only and are exceptions to the
rule.139 4QTestimonia (4Q175) also appears to have been folded. However, this document was
written on one sheet (see PAM 40.603).140 One could suggest that the sheet has been folded
before it was used, as appears to be the case with 1QIsaa.141 If this is the case, it might explain
the patterns of damage caused by both folding and rolling. The horizontal damage in the
middle may also have been caused by the pressure from a cord bound around the scroll while
being rolled up. Furthermore, the second column shows a pattern of damage at the middle of
the lower margin in col. ii. The same pattern is also found in col. iii very close to the sown
edge. The size of the damaged area expands from 4 cm on col. ii (sheet I) to 5 cm on col. iii
(sheet II). Hence, the damage pattern shows a relative increase.142 The lower part of col. i is
damaged, but pieces of the manuscript can be put together and thus preserve most of the text
and the lower margin. There is a damage at the bottom of the first column, but it is difficult to
interpret it according to the pattern in columns ii and iii. If the manuscript suffered this
damage while being rolled up, col. i was probably inside the scroll, as it has suffered less
damage than col. iii. The innermost section of the scroll has the benefit of being protected by
the outer layers. Normally, a scroll would be rolled up with its beginning on the outside, but a
large amount of scrolls found at Qumran, were probably rolled up with the beginning of the
scroll inside.143 Now, this scroll appears to have been rather short, which explains the heavy
deterioration in both column i and iii.

Palaeography

4Q185 is written in a late formal Hasmonaean script.144 There are no signs of ruling in the
manuscript and the hand appears to be somewhat uneven. Letters with variations both in size

138.
Pajunen suggests that text was “quite short;” see Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 192–193.
139.
Tefillin was folded; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 38–39.
140.
Tov, Scribal Practices, 36.
141.
Årstein Justnes, “The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa) and Material Philology: Preliminary Observations and a
Proposal,” in New Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Essays in Honor of Hallvard Hagelia (ed. Markus Zehnder;
Perspectives on Hebrew Scriptures and its Contexts; Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2014), 98.
142.
The patterns of damage on smaller scrolls are not easy to explain. One example is 4Q370, where the
remains of the second column have no damage, while the first column is substantially worn.
143.
According to Tov, this might indicate that the scroll was in active use; Tov, Scribal Practices, 108.
144.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269; Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 398.

- 31 -
and shape hang down from an imagined ceiling line.145 Sometimes the hand makes “baroque”
curves, and some of the downstrokes has a left hook at the end, especially in the third column
(cf. ‫ הדרי‬iii 13). There is, however, some uniformity, and I will describe the general
tendencies of letters that may cause confusion.
The ‫ א‬shows slight variation in its shape. The left leg meets the diagonal axis almost
at the top, and there is a strong curve to the right at the bottom. Most, but not all have a
curved axis, which gradually drops at the right-bottom of the oblique. The baseline of ‫ ב‬has
an angular corner, which differentiates it from ‫מ‬. Furthermore, the two letters have a different
upper horizontal stroke. Where ‫ מ‬has an additional slightly diagonal downward stroke at the
end, the top of ‫ ב‬has a shorter upward stroke. Where ‫ ד‬has an upward movement at both ends
of the roof, ‫ ר‬has this only at the left end and a more rounded shape in the right corner. ‫ ח‬and
‫ ה‬are rather easy to identify. While ‫ ה‬has a longer horizontal stroke, the horizontal stroke of ‫ח‬
does not cross the vertical strokes. In some occasions, ‫ ו‬and ‫ י‬are very difficult to
differentiate, but the general rule is that ‫ י‬has a larger head with a triangular shape.

Orthography
The Hebrew of the Qumran texts attests to a wide range of orthographic and morphological
peculiarities. It is not my intention to explain the Hebrew spelling and scribal practice of the
time but to read 4Q185 within this scholarly discussion because both have implications for
how we read the Hebrew of the manuscript. Qumran Hebrew differs from MT partly by its
orthography, which is often characterised as archaic.146 One of the main characteristics is the
long forms, marked by long pronominal suffixes.147 Tov has argued that there was a particular
Qumran orthography, invented and practiced by the Qumran community.148 His theory, which
is more or less based upon the orthography of Qumran manuscripts is not unproblematic.149
In 1QIsaa there is a marked change from the first half to the second half of the scroll, hence

145.
The term ‘baseline’ is someimes used referring to an imaginary line, which may cause some confusion as
Hebrew letters are mainly oriented towards the ceiling line, and not the lower, imaginary line.
146.
See Archaic Hebrew Spelling in David Noel Freedman, “The Evolution of Hebrew Orthography,” in
Studies in Hebrew and Aramaic Orthography (ed. David Noel Freedman, Dean A. Forbes, and Francis I.
Andersen; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1992), 9.
147.
The full orthography, or the “baroque style,” may be described as artificial in nature, rather than
conservative. Cross argues that it was devised as an attempt to preserve archaic elevated and poetic speech; see
Frank Moore Cross, “Some Notes on a Generation of Qumran Studies,” in The Madrid Qumran Congress:
Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid 18–21 March, 1991 (ed. Julio
Trebolle Barrera and Luis Vegas Montaner; Leiden: Brill, 1992), 4.
148.
Emanuel Tov, “The Orthography and Language of the Hebrew Scrolls Found at Qumran and the Origin of
These Scrolls,” Textus 13 (1986).
149.
See Tigchelaar’s thorough assessment; Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, “Assessing Emanuel Tov’s ‘Qumran Scribal
Practice’,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Transmission of Traditions and Production of Texts (ed. Sarianna Metso;
Leiden: Brill, 2010).

- 32 -
the manuscript are taken to represents more than one “scribal milieu.”150 Inconsistent
orthography within the scrolls, such as the variation between full and defective forms of ‫לא‬,
may also be explained by idiosyncratic spelling conventions.
4Q185 belongs to the relatively small group of manuscripts where the defective
spelling is predominant (‫כל‬, ‫)לא‬, but there are also some long spellings in this manuscript.
The long pronoun ‫ ואתםה‬is recognised as the only example in the manuscript (ii 7) and there
is a possible Aramaism in col. ii 13 (‫)עלמיה‬. The interrogative ‫ הלוא‬is often written plene in
MT, but not always. Thus, another example from our text is ‫ הלוא‬in col. ii line 4. The spelling
‫ יׄבקשוהו‬is also longer compared to 2 Chr 15:4, but in line with the quote from Chronicles in
4Q461 frg. 1, 5.
Campbell has suggested that the various features of the Qumran scrolls represent
increasing Second Temple preference for a fuller orthography, alongside the continued use of
an older, shorter system from early post-exilic times. This means that elements could be
derived from a variety of more or less unrelated factors pertaining to dialect, genre, or
geography.151 In the case of 4Q185, which quotes and alludes to other texts, the spelling may
also depend on a specific source text.

One or Two Hands?

There are corrections made in the manuscript, yet it is difficult to say whether the supralinear
letters are corrections made by a second scribe or not.152 They could also have been inserted
by a reader of the text.153 On some occasions a word has been erased and new text is written
on top of it. Strugnell notes that the faint ‫ ל‬in ‫( לפעמים‬i 6) was erased by the scribe.154 This is
not as clear as he claims. One clear example however, is found in col. ii 3 (‫)תמרו‬.155 Two
possible examples are found in col. ii 13 (‫ )רגל‬and col. ii 14 (‫)תתן‬. There are also supralinear
additions in col. i 11 (‫ )אנ יקום‬and ii 4 (‫ )טוב‬and 12 (‫)ינחלוה‬.156 The scribe appears to have made
errors while writing, and depending on the error, the misspelling was either erased or fixed by
adding a supralinear letter. Thus, on the basis of the corrections made in the manuscript there

150.
Justnes, “The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa) and Material Philology: Preliminary Observations and a
Proposal,” 105.
151.
Jonathan Campbell, “Hebrew and its Study at Qumran,” in Hebrew Study from Ezra to Ben-Yehuda (ed.
William Horbury; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), 41.
152.
The identity of the correctors usually can not be determined, see Tov, Scribal Practices, 222.
153.
See Tov, Scribal Practices, 29.
154.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269.
155.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
156.
According to Pajunen there is another supralinear letter at the end of col. ii 13; see Pajunen, “Unsolved
Challenges,” 215.

- 33 -
is nothing that indicates that there were a second scribe involved.

2.2 The Story of 4Q185 told by PAM

4Q185 consists of several fragments. Even the largest fragment, frg. 1 consists of multiple
pieces. During the 1950s, the manuscript was put together piece by piece as additional
fragments were added to the manuscript. This process is partly documented by the
photographs and the photographer’s logbook. 4Q185 was among those manuscripts assigned
to John M. Allegro (i.e. 4Q158–186). The PAM numbers reflect different stages in the
compilation of the fragments.157 It is impossible to know exactly how the process went
forward, but from June 1955–April 1960 Allegro’s initials appears on the photographic
plates.158 These PAM photos which are numbered more or less in a chronological order shed
light upon the gradual development. The story of 4Q185 is not yet completed. There are still
discussions pertaining to the belonging of the fragments. These fragments are numbered
differently in the DJD and in later editions. I will follow the numbering of the fragments used
in the DJDJ 5 edition.159

May 1953: PAM 40.615

The earliest PAM photo with a 4Q185 fragment shows a mixed plate with multiple
fragments. The photo, PAM 40.615, was taken in May 1953 and includes the largest piece of
a fragment of 4Q185 (frg. 1).160 The fragment preserves half of the second column together
with smaller remnants of the third, which is on an additional sheet. One can clearly see the
entire sewn edge between the sheets, with most of the linen thread preserved.

157.
Pfann presents five stages in the compilation according to the PAM numbers: PAM 40.575–41.139 present
the original plates of unsorted scroll fragments. PAM 41.140–41.762 present the plates after general sorting.
PAM 41.763–41.995 present plates that are composed by assigned editors, PAM 41.996–42.941 present plated
composed by editors and finally PAM 42.966–43.701 present the final compositions. Pfann notes that these
stages apply to “a lesser degree for Allegro’s lot”; Gregory Bearman, Stephen J. Pfann, and Sheila I. Spiro,
“Imaging the Scrolls: Photographic and Direct Digital Acquisition,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years: A
Comprehensive Assessment, vol. 1 (ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. Vanderkam; Leiden: Brill, 1998), 475.
158.
I owe thanks to Kipp Davies who directed my attention to these notes.
159.
For the additional fragment that was not part of Allegro’s edition in DJDJ, I will use Strugnell’s number,
“frg. 7.”
160.
All dates are from the Chronological list of the negatives made by Tov and Pfann. The Date of PAM
photographs are based upon the photographer’s logbook; see Emanuel Tov and Stephen J. Pfann, eds., The Dead
Sea Scrolls on Microfiche. A Comprehensive Facsimile Edition of the Texts from the Judean Desert (Leiden:
Brill, 1993), 73.

- 34 -
October 1954: PAM 41.307 and 41.348

The first PAM photo to present 4Q185 exclusively is PAM 41.307. The fragment on PAM
40.615 (frg. 1) is now supplemented with an additional fragment that completes the five
lower lines and the bottom margin of the second column. The additional fragment also
preserves the margin between the first and second column. Both fragments are pieces of what
now belongs to Allegro’s frg. 1. Although there are material joins between the two fragments,
they are not joined in the photo.

One other PAM photo from October 1954 also contain 4Q185 fragments. The lower right
edge of column 1 (frg. 1) was photographed on a mixed plate, PAM 41.348, which means that
it was still not identified as a 4Q185 fragment.

April–August 1955

In PAM 41.585 (April 1955),161 the fragment from PAM 41.348 has been identified and
placed together with frg. 1. One can now see the complete lower margin of the first and
second columns. Above the manuscript there are placed five small fragments. Only the upper
fragment to the right, and the lower two to the left belong to 4Q185. The other two are
fragments of 4QDeute and 4QDeuti (4Q32 and 4Q36).162 It is difficult to say whether the
fragments were placed there because of a similar hand, or not.
In PAM 41.636, also taken in April 1955, another two 4Q185 fragments show up on a
mixed plate: frgs. 2 and 3.163 The plate contains multiple fragments, all with faint writing on
them. This photo is taken after the general sorting of fragments and the plate probably
contains fragments that were not yet assigned to a manuscript.
In PAM 41.711, taken in June the same year, frg. 2, which has no material joins, is placed in
the assumed position in the manuscript: the upper right corner of the second column. The
other fragment, frg. 3, is not on the plate. This plate presents all the fragments from the first
and second column of 4Q185 (frgs. 1–2). A small note in the lower left corner contains
Allegro’s initials “JMA.” The note also includes the number “19,” which is probably
Allegro’s way of numbering his plates, and what appears to be Allegro initial labelling of the
composition: “4QWisdd.”164 Above the main grouping of fragments now assigned to 4Q185,

161.
The IAA website notes that the dates are invalid. According to Tov and Pfann, the date was April 1955 for
both PAM 41.584 and PAM 41.587; see Tov and Pfann, The Dead Sea Scrolls on Microfiche, 84.
162.
See my note, Ingunn Aadland, “A Forgotten Deuteronomy Fragment,” RevQ, no. 103 (2014).
163.
The fragment is tagged fragment 7 on B-298321.
164.
I am not sure what the numbers mean, but all labels signed by Allegro have numbers above his initials. The
numbers on later plates are expanding, which indicates that Allegro is numbering his photographs. Compare
with the plates of 4Q184, “14” on PAM 41.815 and “114” on PAM 42.621.

- 35 -
there are placed four additional fragments. The one to the left has later been added to the
upper edge of col. iii. The three other fragments belong to a Genesis manuscript (4QGenh).
The placement of the fragments on the plate indicates that Allegro considered them to belong
to 4Q185. This is further suggested in PAM 41.795 and PAM 41.798, both taken in August.
In PAM 41.795, frg. 2 has been removed and only joined fragments from the first and second
column are on the plate. The plate contains the same note with Allegro’s initials as is found
on PAM 41.711, with the label “4QWisdd” and the number “19.” In PAM 41.798, however,
all of the fragments (4QGenh) are placed together with frg. 2 on a mixed plate with other
candidates for 4Q185. This plate contains a note with Allegro’ initials and the label “4QWisdd
(app).”165 Allegro apparantly placed frg. 2 together with other potential 4Q185 fragments: the
top of column iii and frg. 4. Fragment 2 is placed next to a fragment that looks similar. Either
Allegro was trying to find additional fragments that would match frg. 2, or he had doubts
concerning frg. 2 and whether it actually belonged to 4Q185. Nevertheless, the plate contains
the label that assigns them to 4Q185.

April 1960: PAM 43.439

In PAM 43.439, frg. 2 has been put back on the plate. Fragments 4, 5, and 6 are placed below
the manuscript. This plate is the basis for the edition made by Allegro in DJD5. Again there is
a note on the plate, signed by Allegro. The note contains: “4QWisdd;” “4Qa 21;” “119,”
“JMA,” and “XXVII.”166 The Roman numerals are probably the intended plate numbers for
the DJD edition.167 The number on the note is now “119” instead of “19” as on the earlier
notes.
Fragment 6 has been and still is considered to be a 4Q185 fragment, but it is very
difficult to locate it within the manuscript. It is found on mixed plates: PAM 41.320 (October
1954) and PAM 41.999 (April 1956).168 The fragment does not preserve enough writing to
ascertain whether it belongs to 4Q185.
Two additional fragments are placed as material joins to column iii. The placement of
the lower one is problematic, and is probably incorrect. As Lichtenberger points out there are

165.
It is unclear to me what “app” means. It might be an abbreviation of ‘appendants,’ which implies that
Allegro was uncertain about their designation.
166.
Cave 4 is actually two caves, which in an early stage were referred to as 4a and 4b, hence the label “4Qa
21” makes a connection with Cave 4Qa. The number 21 probably originates from the first stage of assembling
the manuscripts.
167.
Allegro made a similar note “XXVI” on a plate of 4Q184 (PAM 43.432), which is preceding 4Q185 in
DJDJ. The plate numbers in DJDJ5 however, became PLATE XXVIII (4Q184) and PLATE XXIX and XXX
(4Q185), see Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186).
168.
The fragment is tagged “frg. 5” in IAA the website (B-295935).

- 36 -
traces of letters on the lower edge of the upper fragment that do not correspond with the
remnants of letters on the lower fragment.169 Fragment 3 is placed to form a material join with
the third column.

June 1960: PAM 43.514

The last plate, PAM 43.514, contains the note found in PAM 43.439. The plate contains
additional fragments in a similar hand that are now assigned to other manuscripts. There are
three fragments that do not belong to 4Q185 placed above the assemblage of fragments.170
Below the large fragment group are smaller fragments from the previous plate (frgs. 4, 5, and
6), and three additional minor fragments, situated to form distant joins. One of these, “frg. 7,”
(B-295934) was suggested by Strugnell to be placed at the lower right corner of column iii.171
This fragment was not included in the DJD edition. The placement suggested by Strugnell is
probably wrong. The length of the margin below the fragment is only 12 mm from the last
line to the bottom edge. The bottom margin of 4Q185 is 20 mm. The same fragment is also
found on other mixed plates with a higher PAM number: PAM 44.180 and PAM 44.191,
which means that these fragments are of uncertain belonging.172 Based upon the handwriting
both Lichtenberger and Pajunen argue that the fragment does not belong to 4Q185.173

Spring 2014: B-298312174

This tagged coloured image presents all fragments that are connected to 4Q185. Seven
fragments (frgs. 2–8) are presented as distant joins, whereas fragment 2 is placed within the
manuscript. It is notable that fragment 3 (here tagged frg.7)175 is not counted as a material
join, as suggested by Strugnell.

169.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128.
170.
The larger fragment placed in the right corner, was already assigned to 4QpZeph in PAM 43.429. Its
placement on this plate is thus unclear.
171.
Note that this fragment is tagged “frg. 3” in IAA the website (B-295934). Strugnell labelled it frg. 7,
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272. Lichtenberger labels it “frg. h”, see Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128.
172.
The IAA website suggests the date January 1963, but Tov and Pfann list them as photographs without dates;
Tov and Pfann, The Dead Sea Scrolls on Microfiche, 92–93.
173.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128. Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 195–96.
174.
The IAA site posts the date “January 2012” but this can not be correct. The photo must have been taken
sometime after February 2014.
175.
The numbering of the fragments differ from the numbering in the DJD.

- 37 -
Spring 2014: B-295933176

This IR image has only fragments with material joins, which means that fragment 2 is not
there. Fragment 3 is now placed as a material join, and so are also the smaller fragments at
the top of col. iii 1–3.

2.3 Placement of Fragments

There is no dispute regarding the placements of frgs. 1–2. However, there is a number of
smaller fragments that are published as belonging to the manuscript where there is no
consensus regarding their placement within the manuscript. Some possibly form material
joins with the main fragment group, whereas some form distant joins with an uncertain
relation to frgs. 1–2. Generally they are presented according to size, and numbered thereafter.
My following notes on the fragments are based upon all the latest photos publised on
the IAA website (e.g. B-295933 IAA).177
I accept the placement of frg. 3 in col. iii as was suggested by Strugnell.178 Pajunen
argues that frg. 3 cannot be placed as it is by Strugnell partly because the line division seen at
the beginning of the lines (7–10) does not match with the ones on the fragment. Furthermore
he argues that there is an ink trace in col. iii 10 with no counterpart in the fragment. He edits
it as a separate piece, suggesting that it could belong to col. iv.179 I do not follow his argument
as the lines are, in my opinion, compatible. The photo shows that the fragment (frg. 3), and
the lower part of col. iii (frg. 1) have been turned slightly upwards, but when adjusted there is
nothing problematic about the placement according to line division. With the placement, the
ink trace belongs to the first letter of a word that continues on frg. 3.
Lichtenberger is not convinced by the placement made by Allegro, of the two
fragments on top of col. iii (frg. 1) and he presents them separately as frg. 7 and the lower one
as frg. 8.180 Lichtenberger is probably right regarding the miscalculated placements. There are
traces of letters at the lower edge of the upper fragment that are not compatible with the
writing on the lower one. The placement of the lower fragment seems to be wrong, but the
join of the upper fragment is still possible. Pajunen suggests that the lower fragment should

176.
The IAA site posts the date April 2012, which is probably wrong. See previous note.
177.
See criteria for grouping fragments in Annette Steudel, “Assembling and Reconstructing Manuscripts,” in
The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years. A Comprehensive Assessment, vol. 1 (ed. Peter W. Flint and James C.
VanderKam; Leiden: Brill, 1998), 519.
178.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272.
179.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 194.
180.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128, 32.

- 38 -
be placed further to the right on line 3, and thus interprets the remnant of letters on the upper
fragment as the beginning of a word that continues on the lower one. In my view, this is very
problematic. The lower fragment does appear to have a margin, and I hesitantly edit it
separately.181
Lichtenberger further notes that frg. 7 (Lichtenberger labels it “frg. h”), should not be
placed in col. iii as done by Strugnell.182 The height of the bottom margin in col. iii does not
match with the fragment. The argument posed by Lichtenberger is convincing, and I will not
include frg. 7.183 I am also hesitant to include frg. 4 as part of 4Q185. Allegro edited this as a
fragment that preserves a margin and text from two columns, which means that there would
have been at least another column, since it cannot be placed at the margin of the first sheet.184
The margin is in my opinion far too narrow, compared with the margins on 4Q185. The space
between the words could be explained if it is smaller vacats within one column, as in 4Q525
frg. 2 (PAM 43.600), or a text arranged with a stichographic layout.185 There are also some
stylistic differences. In frg. 4 ‫ ע‬have a stronger curve on the right arm. The average ‫ ע‬of
4Q185 is more straight downwards from the top with no curve. The evidence is not
unambiguous, however. The ‫ ע‬on the frg. 4 is similar to the ‫ ע‬in frg. 3 (iii 8). Now, this letter
is only partially preserved, and it is very difficult ot make out the shape of it. The head of ‫ ק‬is
also drawn differently. In 4Q185, the head of ‫ ק‬starts outside the descender and forms a cross
where it crosses the descender. In the one example in frg. 4 the descender is formed to the
right and on the “inside” of the head. The top of ‫ ד‬and ‫ ר‬also looks different in frg. 4. In frg.
4 the hooked head of ‫ ר‬almost forms a vertical angle, whereas ‫ ד‬is slighty upturned at both
ends. In 4Q185, however, the main difference is that the top of ‫ ר‬has one, whereas the top of ‫ד‬
has two hooks at both ends.
According to my evaluation of the evidence, it is good reason to suspect that the text
on the fragment does not belong between cols. iii and iv as Pajunen suggests. If this judgment
is correct, this fragment gives no indication of the length of the text of 4Q185. The additional
two (frgs. 5 and 6) are edited as distant joins.

181.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 194.
182.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128.
183.
Pajunen follows Lichtenberger here, see Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 194.
184.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
185.
The stichographic arrangements is a feature found in poetical texts; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 166–167.
This is a marginal phenomenon, but it does appear.

- 39 -
2.4 Hebrew Text

This study is a further contribution to the study and reading of the manuscript. There has been
a considerable amount of work done on the reading of the manuscript, but there are still some
important details that can improve it. My new transcription and discussion are in close
conversation with those of Allegro, Strugnell, and Lichtenberger, and Pajunen. The Study
Edition and the recent edition by Qimron does not contain discussions, but they both
contribute to the reading of the manuscript.186

2.4.1 Principles for reading

The following transcription is based upon PAM photos, and all the available electronic
photographs. I am also incorporating additional pictures, taken by Elgvin, of the original
manuscript at the IAA. To aid my eyes, I have constantly used Photoshop in order to measure
letters and the space of lacuna.
In my transcription, I only restore words where there are remnants of letters and
where the reading is made probable based on the literary context of the manuscript and the
space of the lacuna. I also restore one word that is part of an extant phrase (ii 1) on the basis
of a textual parallel with 4Q370.
The reading of a manuscript will, at least to some degree, be based upon what the eye
sees but also what one expects to see. My basic criteria for reading are to transcribe only
what I can see, and without prejudicing certain form of words over others. Then, I will
evaluate any “irregular forms” first in their own right as perhaps intentional, and secondarily
as scribal errors.

186.
See Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186); Strugnell, “Notes en marge;” Lichtenberger, “neue Edition;”
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges;” Qimron, The Hebrew Writings 2.

- 40 -
‫‪2.4.2 Transcription187‬‬

‫‪1–2 i‬‬

‫[ם‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫[‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫[‬ ‫[כי֯ ‪]°‬‬

‫֯‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫[◦‬ ‫[טהור וקדוש]‬

‫֯‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫[◦‬ ‫[מתו וכחמתו ◦]‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫[‬ ‫לפע ׄ‬
‫מים]‬ ‫ׄ‬ ‫[ל] [ש ועד עשר‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫ואיׄןׄ מקוה‬
‫[ ואין כח לעמוד לפניה ֯‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪7‬‬

‫[ ומי יכלכל לעמוד לפני מלאכיו כי באש‬ ‫לזעם]‬

‫֯‬ ‫‪8‬‬

‫[כי הנׄה‬ ‫ישפט] לפ[י רוחתיו ואתם בני אדם א]‬

‫֯‬ ‫להבה‬ ‫‪9‬‬

‫נשב]ה בו [רוחו‬ ‫ׄ‬

‫יפרח כציץ חסדו ֯‬ ‫ׄ‬
‫מארצו‬ ‫ׄ‬
‫כחציר יצמח‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫ויבש ֯עג֯ זו וציצו תשא רוׄח עד אנ יקום ֯‬

‫לעמ]וד ויא[בד‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫ולא ימצא כי רוח ]] [[ יׄבקשוהו ולא ימצאהו ואין מקוה‬ ‫‪12‬‬

‫האר]ץ[ ועתה שמעו נא עמי והשכילו‬

‫ימים על ֯‬
‫֯‬ ‫והוא כצל‬ ‫‪13‬‬

‫והכנעו מן ] ג[בורת אלהינו וׄזכרו נפלאים עשה‬

‫לי פתאים ׄ‬ ‫‪14‬‬

‫ומופתיו ֯ב]ים סוף [ויערץ לבבכם מפני פחדו‬

‫֯‬ ‫במצרים‬ ‫‪15‬‬

‫‪1–2 ii‬‬

‫‏ותשמח ֯‬
‫נ[פשכם כחסדיו הטבים חקרו לכם דרך‬ ‫רצ]ונו‬
‫ועשו ֯‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫[ו֯ שארית לבניכם אחריכם ולמה תתנו‬ ‫ומסלה]‬

‫֯‬ ‫לחיים‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫ואל תמרו דברי יהוה‬ ‫ׄ‬

‫מ[שפט שמעוני בני ֯‬ ‫[כם לשאו֯ ]ל‬
‫] ֯‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫י[עקב ונתיבה חקק לישחק הלוא טוב יום‬

‫֯‬ ‫ׄ‬
‫תצעדו][◦]‬ ‫][אל‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫[בי֯ ֯ראתו ולא לעתת מפחד ומפח יקוש‬

‫֯‬ ‫[◦ם בעשו֯ ]ת‬ ‫אחד]‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫מלאכיו כי אין חשך‬

‫[◦◦ ול◦◦◦] [מן ֯‬ ‫] [‪]°‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫ואתםה‬
‫[וענ֯ י ידעתי ֯‬
‫֯‬ ‫[ ◦◦ ֯ל◦ הוא ◦◦]‬ ‫ו֯ ◦◦◦ ◦]‬ ‫‪7‬‬

‫‪187.‬‬
‫‪A special thanks goes to Torleiv Elgvin who have discussed many of these readings with me.‬‬

‫‪- 41 -‬‬
 ‫עה לכל עם אשרי אדם נתנה לו‬
‫[לפניו תצא ֯ר ֯‬ ‫מה תת ◦◦]‬ ‫‪8‬‬

‫[עים ואל תתהללו ׄ ֯רשעים ֯ל ֯אמור לא נתנה‬ ‫ו֯ ֯בן א◦]‬ ‫‪9‬‬

‫[לישראל ו֯ מז ֯ב ֯ד] ט[ו֯ ב זבדה ו֯ ֯כל עמו֯ ג֯ אל‬ ‫לו ולא]‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫יב[קשה‬
‫֯‬ ‫ישאנה]‬
‫[ו֯ יאמר המתי ֯טבה בה ֯‬ ‫אב]‬
‫[ ֯‬ ‫שכנ֯ י֯ ◦◦]‬
‫והרג ֯‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫[◦◦‬ ‫עצם ושמחת לבב עש]‬ ‫[מים ׄ‬

‫ודשן ׄ‬ ‫[כי֯ בה ינחליה ועמה ]ארך י ֯‬
‫וה]ל ֯‬
‫ימצאה ֯‬ ‫‪12‬‬

‫[◦◦ אשרי אדם יעשנה ולא ֯רג֯ ל על]יה בפ[י֯‬ ‫וישעו֯ ת ◦ ֯ל]‬
‫וחסדיו ֯עלמיה ֯‬ ‫‪13‬‬

‫לא י֯ ֯חזׄיקנה כן תתן לאבתיו ׄ כן ירשנה] ויתמ[כנ֯ ]ה[‬

‫מרמה לא יבקשנה ובחלקות ֯‬ ‫‪14‬‬

‫[וב‬ ‫חק ֯ר ויורישנה לצאצאיו וׄדעתי ׄ לע]מו‬

‫[דו לאין ֯‬
‫בכל עזז֯ כחו ובכל ]מא ֯‬ ‫‪15‬‬

‫‪1–3 iii‬‬

‫אלי֯ ה כי טו]ב‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫ו֯ ממגרות יתל◦]‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫][◦◦]‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪4‬‬

‫‪5‬‬

‫‪6‬‬

‫[◦◦◦◦ם כ◦]‬ ‫הוי]‬ ‫‪7‬‬

‫וע ֯ל]‬
‫אל[חים יבחן כל ֯‬ ‫◦ ֯ט]‬ ‫‪8‬‬

‫[ו֯ עשה דברי ברי]ת‬ ‫והוא]‬ ‫‪9‬‬

‫[◦◦י֯ ם י֯ ]ש[פט במסורר]ים‬ ‫ולא ע]‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫הלו֯ ֯א ֯א]להי[ם עשה לבות וי◦]‬

‫֯‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫חד ׄרי בטן ויחפש כליתו ׄ]‬

‫אל ֯כל ׄ‬
‫֯‬ ‫‪12‬‬

‫ׄ‬
‫ידים]‬ ‫לשון ו֯ ידע דברה אלהים עשה‬ ‫‪13‬‬

‫[טוב ואם ׄ‬
‫רע]‬ ‫] ׄ‬ ‫‪14‬‬

‫[כמחש]בת‬
‫֯‬ ‫]‬ ‫‪15‬‬

‫‪- 42 -‬‬
Frg. 5

]◦ ‫ו‬ 1

]‫מיפ‬
֯ 2

]‫הזכ‬
֯ 3

Frg. 6

]◦◦◦◦◦[ 1

]◦‫[והי י֯ ֯אתו א‬ 2

]‫בו֯ ֯ר‬ 3

2.5 Comments and Notes on Readings

4Q185 is a manuscript that is very difficult to read. It has suffered from serious damage.
Moreover, the hand of the scribe does not strive for strict uniformity: the shape and size of
the individual letters vary throughout the manuscript and the space between letters and words
is uneven. This makes the interpretation of the damaged parts even more difficult and it also
challenges the way of arguing for the identification of words and letters that are only partially
restored.

Column i

Line 3: The first visible letter is ‫ כ‬but the second letter is no altogether clear. What looks like
‫“ כי‬for” could also be ‫“ כח‬strength.” The two letters could also be part of a larger
word. The lack of material prevents a certain identification of the word, hence I
transcribe ֯‫ כי‬with Allegro, but without a translation.188

Line 5: One can read: [ ]‫] [מתו וכחמתו‬. The first part is the end of a word.189 Lichtenberger

188.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
189.
This is possibly a feminine noun with suffix. One example is ‫“ אימה‬dread” (cf. Job 9:34). Grammatically, it
could also be an infinitive construct or a participle.

- 43 -
 ׄ
restores ‫כנק[מתו‬ “entsprechend seiner Rache.”190 This is possible, but I will leave it
open. The reading of the second word is difficult due to a horizontal rift in the
fragment, but all the letters are visible. Allegro transcribes this as illegible letters
◦◦◦◦◦‫ו‬, but Strugnell suggests ‫“ וכחמתו‬and according to His wrath.” Although the
letters are faint, they are all readable, and Strugnell’s reading has been followed in all
later editions.191

Line 6: The first word only preserves a trace of the top of ‫ ל‬and a clear ‫ ש‬at the end. Allegro
ׄ
only transcribes ‫ש‬.192 Lichtenberger, noting the ‫ל‬, restores the word, reading ‫ש[ל]ו[ש‬
“three.”193 Pajunen transcribes ‫ ל‬but is not convinced by Lichtenberger’s restoration,
arguing that there is too much space for a ‫ ו‬only.194 In my opinion the suggestion is
plausible, but there is not sufficient evidence for a restoration and I will leave it
ׄ ‫פע‬
open.195 At the end of the line, Allegro reads ‫מים‬ ׄ “(ten) times.”196 Similarly, the
Study Edition transcribes without ‫ל‬.197 There is a clear ‫ ל‬somewhat above ‫פעמים‬.
Strugnell argues that the scribe has erased ‫ל‬.198 This, however, does not explain why
there is little space after the preceding word ‫עשר‬. With Pajunen I transcribe ‫ ל‬as a
ׄ ‫פע‬
supralinear letter, ‫מים‬ ׄ ‫(“ ל‬And up to ten) times.” On the latest photo (B-295933)
there is a small fragment placed at the end of the line. The piece has been dislocated
and preserves the baseline of ‫ מ‬from two lines beneath (‫)מלאכיו‬. On PAM 41.795 the
fragment appears to be still in one piece, but on PAM 43.514 the piece has broken
off.

Line 7: At the end of the line one can read ‫“ אין מקוה‬no hope.”199 The letters are damaged, but
identifiable based upon the remnant of letters and the repetition of the same phrase in
col. i 12.

190.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 132.
191.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269. See also Lichtenberger, “neue
Edition,” 130; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196;
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
192.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. Strugnell does not comment upon this; Strugnell, “Notes en
marge,” 269.
193.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 132.
194.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196, 200.
195.
The editors of the Study Edition have not followed Lichtenberger here, and they only transcribe ‫;ש‬
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378. Qimron however, does; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings,
2: 110.
196.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
197.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378.
198.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269.
199.
The translation in the QUMENG module in Accordance reads “no place to remain” (i 7) and “no place for
it,” (i 12); The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, eds. Michael O. Wise, Martin G. Abegg, Jr. and Edward
M. Cook (San Francisco: Harper: 1996). The ambiguity of the phrase in 1 Chr 29:15 is implied by the Greek
text in LXX: καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν ὑποµονή “and no abiding.”

- 44 -
Line 8: The beginning of this line preserves ‫ לז‬followed by remnants of ‫ ע‬and possibly a final
‫ם‬. Allegro only transcribes the first letter, ‫ל‬.200 Strugnell and all editors after him read
‫“ לזעם‬the indignation.”201 The noun ‫“ זעם‬indignation” would fit semantically in the
context. It should be noted that there is a chance that ‫ מ‬is not final. One can only see
its lower right corner, and the preceding letters, ‫לזע‬, are all letters that stop above the
imaginary line (cf. ‫ עמו‬in i 13 where the oblique of ‫ ע‬meets the downstroke of a
medial ‫ מ‬at its middle). This might give the impression that ‫ מ‬goes beneath the
imaginary baseline. Hence, there is a possibility that the noun was suffixed.
Lichtenberger also suggests ‫לזעף‬
֯ as an alternative reading but restores [‫לזעם] אף אלהינו‬
֯
“angesichts des zornigen [Grimms unseres Gottes].202 This restoration is followed by
the editors of the Study Edition and by Qimron.203
At the end of the line, Allegro reads ‫“ כאש‬like a flame.”204 Strugnell and all editors
after him read ‫“ באש‬with a flaming (fire).”205 The first letter is clear, and Allegro
was perhaps influenced by Mal 3:2 and Nah 1:6 where ‫ כאש‬is found within similar
depictions of judgment scenes collocated with rhetorical questions.

Line 9a: The second word on the line is damaged and this is followed by a lacuna and then
the remnants of a letter that looks like the head of ‫ י‬or ‫ו‬. Allegro only restores the
word before the lacuna, transcribing ‫ישפט]ו [י‬
֯ “They will judge.”206 Strugnell does
not comment upon this, but translates: “for with a flaming fire will they judge the ...
of His spirits.”207 One of the main questions involved, is whether the subject of the
verb is singular, implying the deity, or in plural which would imply that the subject is
the spirits/angels. Deviating from Allegro, Lichtenberger restores the lacuna
ׄ
suggesting: ׄ ‫ישפט] ועמ[ו‬ “richtet er [und bei] ihm sind seine Geister.”208
The Study Edition transcribes .[…]‫“ ישפט‬will he judge.”209 Another suggestion is
offered by Verseput ‫ישפט]ו ביד[י רוחתיו‬
֯ (niphal 3.pl.).210 Another suggestion has been
proposed by Qimron, who restores: ‫ישפט] לפני[ רוחתי‬.
֯ All suggested restorations of the

200.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
201.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269.
202.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 132, 143.
203.
See Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
204.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
205.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 133; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,”
196; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
206.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
207.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272.
208.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 133.
209.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378.
210.
Donald J. Verseput, “Wisdom, 4Q185, and the Epistle of James,” JBL (1998): 697.

- 45 -
 lacuna are contextually possible, but difficult according to space.

There are as, we have seen, two possible readings of the word before the lacuna,
ׄ
either ‫ישפט‬ (niphal 3.m.sg.) “he shall be judged” or ‫ישפט]ו‬
֯ (impf. 3.pl.) “they will
judge.” I suggest that we read: ‫ישפט] לפ[י רוחתיו‬
֯ (niphal 3.m.sg.) “he shall be
judged.”211 There is space for a ‫ ו‬in the lacuna, reading ‫ישפט]ו‬,
֯ but words on this line
are separated with roughly 2 mm, thus I prefer the latter suggestion.
My suggested reading is depending on how I understand ‫“ רוחתיו‬his spirits.” I suggest
that this line should be read in correspondence with CD XX 24 and 1QHa VI 22,
which read ‫“ רוח‬spirit” as a reference not to the angels, but the spiritual qualities of
humans which one is to be judged according to. This use of the noun is not usual in
the Hebrew Bible, but there are some examples; e.g. Prov 16:2.

Line 9b: Strugnell restores ‫“ א]וי לכם [כי הנה‬woe to you; for behold”, which is followed in the
Study Edition.212 “Woe” is often followed by ‫כי‬, which makes his restoration plausible.
Lichtenberger, however, argues that it is unlikely that a woe saying is preceded by
“And you (‫ )ואתם‬sons of Adam” and restores [‫ ” א]ין כח‬i[st kraftlos].”213
Kampen suggests [‫“ א]פס הוא‬Nothing is he.214 Later in 4Q185 there is another “And
you (‫ ”)ואתםה‬at the end of line 7. This is followed by a rhetorical question,
“Who?,” which could be a motif of humiliation. This strengthens the readings
suggested by Lichtenberger and Kampen. As far as I can see, there is not sufficient
evidence for any of the suggested readings, and I will not reconstruct the lacuna.
Pajunen reads ‫“ הגה‬sigh” after the lacuna, departing from all other editors.215 The
second letter is probably not ‫ ג‬due to its size and shape. In more recent photos, one
can see a slightly curved down stroke and a baseline that is characteristic of ‫( נ‬see
image below).

End of line 9: ‫כי הנה‬

211.
Similar phrases are found in the Hodayot and the Community Rule. One example is 1QHa VI 22: ‫כי לפי רוחות‬
‫תבדילם בין‬. Read also 1QS II 20, III 14, and IX 14.
212.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378.
213.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 133.
214.
Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 256.
215.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 201.

- 46 -
Line 10: The third word on this line is best read with Allegro ‫“ מארצו‬from its earth.”216
Lichtenberger suggests ‫“ ֯ופ ׄא ֯ר ׄתו‬und seine Schönheit,” but his reading has not been
followed by later editors.217 The left part of Lichtenberger’s ‫ ת‬belongs to ‫צ‬. The
height of the vertical stroke is too low for ‫ת‬. The foot of ‫ ת‬would also be more curved.
The recent photo (B-295933) leaves no doubt concerning the reading and thus
ׄ
confirms Allegro’s initial reading. The next word is best read ‫יפרח‬ (impf.) “blüht” with
Lichtenberger, against ‫( ופרח‬pf.) “and bears fruit” with Allegro and Strugnell.218 The
size of the first letter corresponds better with ‫ י‬than ‫ו‬.

At the end of the line Allegro reads ‫נשב]ה [רוח‬

֯ “his wind blo[ws]” which is
followed by Strugnell. Lichtenberger further adds ‫ בו‬in the lacuna, reading ‫נשב]ה‬
ׄ ‫“ בו‬weht sein Wind [darüber]”. This reading is plausible based upon the
‫[רוח‬
immediate context and is followed by all editors after.219

Line 11: The second word on line 11 is best read with Strugnell, ‫“ עגזו‬its herbage.”220 The
reading is difficult and has no parallel in Hebrew. The suggestion by Skehan, that the
word is a result of metathesis (transposition of word order) is compelling.221 The
word ‫“ גזע‬stem” which is used in Isa 40:24b, sounds the same, and the immediate
context which appears to be an allusion to Isaiah 40, allows for this explanation.
Pajunen’s suggestion ‫“ ֯ש ֯טו‬its reed” is not convincing.222 One can see ‫ג‬, and the
previous letter is not ‫ש‬, but rather a small and elevated ‫( ע‬B-295933).

The reading towards the end of line 11 is difficult. Allegro transcribes ‫“ עד אי֯ יקום‬into
oblivion” which is followed by the Study Edition “until hardly anything remains.”223
One can read ‫עד‬, but the second letter in the word that follows is probably not ‫י‬. One
can see remnants of the baseline of a ‫נ‬. Strugnell reads ‫ אנ יקום‬but does not translate

216.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. Strugnell does not comment upon this reading but his translation
“from his soil” is in accordance with Allegro, see Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272.
217.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 133; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 201; Tigchelaar and García Martínez,
Study Edition, 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
218.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 134. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 202. For ‫( ופרח‬pf.); see
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Tigchelaar and García Martínez,
Study Edition, 378–79.
219.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 134. The editors of the Study Edition translate “His wind blows [over
him]; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 202;
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
220.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 269. See also Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 134; Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
221.
See Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270. See also the translation “Wurzelstock;” Lichtenberger, “neue
Edition,” 134.
222.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196.
223.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 378.

- 47 -
 the phrase, and renders only “unto …”224 Grammatically, one would expect to read ‫אין‬
rather than ‫אנ‬, but there is not space for three letters. This could be a misspelling.
Pajunen suggests ֯‫” אי֯ נ‬nothing” seeing a supralinear ‫ י‬above the ‫א‬. I cannot see it;
neither in the photos nor on the manuscript using an infrared microscope. Thus, I
transcribe ‫ אנ‬and interpret it as a particle of negation. In this context the preposition ‫עד‬
“until” or “as far as” signals the degree or effect of an action. The larger phrase ‫עד אנ‬
‫לעמ]וד‬
֯ ‫ יקום‬may be translated “until there is no rising up to stand.”
At the end of the line there is a lacuna (15 mm). Before the lacuna one can read ‫לע‬
followed by a baseline. After the lacuna there are two letters, ‫] [בד‬. Allegro only
transcribes ‫[◦ד‬ ]‫לע‬.225 Strugnell suggests to read ‫( לעבו]ר כ … או[בד‬qal inf. cnst.
and qal ptc.) “… so that it pas[ses away like a name that pe]rishes.” He also suggests
that the first word could be restored ‫ לעמו]ד‬in accordance with col. i 7–8.226
ׄ
Lichtenberger reads ‫מל[בד‬ ׄ “[an Seiner St]elle [gar] nichts mehr ist” which is
‫לע ֯מ]דו‬
ׄ 228 but the angle of
also the reading in the Study Edition.227 Pajunen transcribes ‫][פד‬,
the remains of top of the letter looks like the roof of ‫ב‬. Qimron has suggested a
ׄ
reconstruction of the entire lacuna: ‫יא[בד‬ ‫לע]ולם‬.
֯ 229 I restore ‫לעמ]וד ויא[בד‬
֯ “to stand and
it perishes.” The baseline before the lacuna is best read as belonging to ‫מ‬, which
makes the restorations sound. The same infinitive is used in col. i 8. There is space
left on the line, which indicates the average wordspacing in the document (2–3 mm).
Because the remaining space of the lacuna only allows for 2 or 3 additional letters, I
restore ‫ויא[בד‬.

Line 12: The third word on the line has caused confusion. Allegro reads ‫“ ֯מרוח‬from the
wind.”230 Strugnell corrects this and reads ‫“ כי רוח‬for it is but breath” which is
followed by Lichtenberger, the Study Edition, Pajunen and myself.231 Qimron however
ׄ 232 The ‫ י‬attaches to the baseline of ‫כ‬. Even though there is a line of
reads ‫בו֯ רוח‬.
erosion that runs through the middle of the letters, one can identify them based on the
top of ‫ כ‬and its characteristic baseline. The head of the second letter is relatively

224.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270.
225.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
226.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270.
227.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 134. The Study Edition translates “in [its] pla[ce];” see Tigchelaar and
García Martínez, Study Edition, 378.
228.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196.
229.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2:110.
230.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
231.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 135; Tigchelaar and García Martínez,
Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196.
232.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.

- 48 -
 small, but it is somewhat bigger than the ‫ ו‬that follows in the next word (see
B-295933). The conjunction ‫ כי‬can express a causal relation, but after the negative
clause ‫( ולא ימצא‬niphal impf.) “and it is not found” ‫ כי‬signifies “but.” This is
reflected in Strugnell’s translation. I translate “and it is not found, but wind” in order
to keep the subtle meaning of ‫כי‬.

After a vacat one can read ֯‫( יׄבקשוהו‬piel impf. 3.pl.) “They can search for him.”233 The
top of the last letter has eroded, but due to context, this is best read with Allegro, as
3.m.sg. suffix. Lichtenberger transcribes a preceding letter ׄ ‫בקשוהו‬
ׄ ׄ ‫“ ]ו֯ [י‬Man such ihn.”
Although his transcription indicates that the ‫ ו‬is in a lacuna, he notes that the
preceding ‫ ו‬could be “Lederschwärzung” which means that he can see remnants of
ink. On the newly taken photos, one can see a small hole in the surface of the letter
(see B-295933).234 Lichtenberger har mistakenly suggested the existence of preceding
letter where there is none.

The spelling of the next verb with suffix is shorter, ‫( ימצאהו‬qal impf. 3.pl.) “they will
find him.” Compare the corresponding phrase in 4Q461 frg. 1, 5, ‫ובק[שוהו וימצאוה]ו‬,
apparently quoting 2 Chr 15:4.

Line 13: The third word on the line has suffered from erosion. Allegro only transcribes ◦◦◦‫י‬.235
Strugnell suggests to read ֯‫“ ימי֯ ו‬his days”, which has been followed by Lichtenberger,
and Qimron.236 Pajunen, however, reads ‫“ ימי֯ ֯ם‬days.”237 On the latest photo, one can
see the faint traces of a final ‫ ם‬preceded by the head of ‫( י‬see B-295933), thus I read
‫ימי֯ ֯ם‬. The next phrase is obscured by a lacuna (3 mm wide). A smaller piece in
the join between the fragments has broken off. Allegro restores [‫על האו֯ ]ר‬.238 Pajunen
transcribes all letters, arguing that there is a trace of ink after the lacuna that belongs
to the final letter.239 I cannot see the trace of ink on any of the photographs. With
Strugnell I read [‫האר]ץ‬
֯ ‫“ על‬upon the ear[th].”240 The restoration of the biblical idiom
is plausible based upon the immediate context and the space of the lacuna.

233.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110; Tigchelaar and
García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.
234.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 135.
235.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
236.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 135; Pajunen, “Unsolved
Challenges,” 196; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
237.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 203.
238.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
239.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 204.
240.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270. The reading has been followed by all later editors; see Lichtenberger,
“neue Edition,” 135; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2:
110.

- 49 -
Line 14: Allegro reads the second word on the line ‫“ פתאום‬suddenly.”241 The fourth letter
has caused variant readings due to the size of the head which is somewhere between
an average ‫ י‬and ‫ו‬. Strugnell reads ‫“ פתאים‬simple ones” which has been followed by
all editors after.242 Based upon the immediate context I follow Strugnell here.
The reading of the third word on this line is regarded by most as uncertain.
Allegro reads ‫“( ◦תמו‬be destroyed”).243 Strugnell suggests ‫( וחכמו‬qal impv.) “grow
wise” which is followed in the Study Edition and by Qimron.244 Lichtenberger reads it
together with the preceding ‫ פתאים‬as a warning ‫( י ׄ ׄתוׄמו‬qal impf. 3.pl.) “(Toren)
kommen (um vor der Macht unseres Gottes!).”245 Pajunen adds another reading, ‫ותצמק‬
“shrivel up.”246 I do not follow any of the previous readings and suggest that we read
‫( והכנעו‬niphal impv. pl.) “and humble yourselves.” The first letter is ‫ ו‬with erosion on
the head. The next is ‫ ה‬with similar erosion on right part of the vertical stroke.
Allegro, Lichtenberger, and Pajunen render this letter as ‫ת‬. However, the letter lacks
the curved left foot of ‫ת‬. Furthermore, there is a horizontal stroke crossing the left
downstroke, which is compatible with ‫ה‬. Pajunen interprets this horizontal stroke as
the right part of the third letter ‫צ‬, but ‫ צ‬is normally not written on top of the preceding
letter (cf. i 11). Moreover, the third letter has a curved horizontal line, which is the
characteristic top of ‫כ‬. Once can also see the extended baseline going beneath the
following letter (cf. B-295933).247 There is a vertical line of erosion that runs through
the extended baseline toward its end, which disturbes the reading. According to my
reading this is the baseline of ‫ כ‬that touches with the right corner of ‫נ‬. There are
various examples in this manuscript where a subsequent letter starts on the baseline
of ‫( כ‬e.g. ‫ זכרו‬i 14). What some of the previous editors read as one letter, ‫מ‬, is rather to
be read as two letters, ‫נע‬. The baseline of the fourth letter, ‫נ‬, is very long, but there is
a similar length to ‫ נ‬in col. ii 8. The second last letter, ‫ע‬, is small and elevated on the
line (cf. the placement of ‫ ע‬in i 8 ‫)לעמוד‬. The last letter is ‫ ו‬and not part of ‫ ק‬as Pajunen
suggests. This gives the reading ‫והכנעו‬.

241.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
242.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 135; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,”
204; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
243.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
244.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
245.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 135, 144.
246.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 204.
247.
Initially, my reading was based on the older PAM photos (PAM 41.795 and PAM 41.348). Although the
more recent photo is more clear it does not really aid the reading much. I have consulted the manuscript, but it
was inside a netting, hence the best available data is the most recent photo B-295933 (IAA web site).

- 50 -
 Possible renderings of the Hebrew could be: “Let yourselves be humbled by” or
“Humble yourselves before” the might of our God. Normally, when the verb ‫ כנע‬is
followed by ‫ מן‬in the Hebrew Bible, then the compound syntagm used is ‫ מפני‬or
‫מלפני‬.248 In this phrase the preposition ‫ מן‬does not have a locational function in that
sense, but rather expresses the cause or means of the situation. The addressees are
exhorted to listen and remember, thus remembrance of Egypt, and God’s might
produce the humility of the persons in question (cf. 4Q381 frg. 45a+b, 2).249

After the preposition ‫ מן‬there is a small lacuna (2,5 mm) followed by a construct
chain ‫“ ]ג[בורת אלהינו‬the [m]ight of our God.” Allegro reads ‫“ ]ה[בורת‬the
[chast]isement” but it is Strugnell’s suggestion ‫“ ]ג[בורת‬mighty wisdom” that has been
followed in later editions.250 Pajunen transcribes ‫ ג‬with a circlet, but the downstroke
that one can see at the edge is probably part of ‫ב‬.251 The right downstroke of ‫ב‬
sometimes crosses the baseline (cf. ‫ יבש‬in i 11). The word can be restored on the basis
of a textual parallel in 4Q370 1 ii 7.252 It is possible to translate ‫“ גבורה‬mighty deed”
but in the singular I prefer “might.”

The following word is either ‫ אלהינו‬or ‫אלהים‬. Damage on the leather makes it difficult
to ascertain whether to read “our God” or simply “God.” Allegro reads ‫אלהים‬
“God.”253 Strugnell, however, reads ‫“ אלהינו‬our God.”254 Both are possible, but the
space between the two downstrokes makes ‫ נו‬the best reading. The first vertical
downstroke also has the curved shape that is typical of ‫נ‬.
Towards the end of the line, the reading is again difficult because of a rupture in the
manuscript. The word in question is ‫( נפלאים‬niphal ptc.m.pl.) “wonders” or ‫נפלאות‬
(niphal ptc.f.pl.) “wonders.” One can not really see the last letter, only the horizontal
top that looks very much like the crossbar of ‫ה‬. Allegro reads ‫“ נפלאים‬wonders” and
Strugnell reads ‫“ נפלאות‬marvels”255 In my estimation, the last letter is best

248.
See 2 Kgs 22:19, Lev 26:41, and 2 Chr 7:14. See also 4Q511 frg. 35, 7.
249.
A similar phrase is found in Greek, ταπεινώθητε οὖν ὑπὸ τὴν κραταιὰν χεῖραν τοῦ θεοῦ (1 Pet 5:6).
250.
See Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. Strugnell translates “the mighty wisdom;” see Strugnell,
“Notes en marge,” 273. Lichtenberger renders “Macht” see; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 144. The editor of
the Study Edition translates “power;” Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 379; Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 110. Pajunen translates “the mighty deeds of God;” Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 198.
251.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 204.
252.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 144; Tigchelaar and García Martínez,
Study Edition, 1: 379; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 198.
253.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. Pajunen follows Allegro; see Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 205.
254.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270. Lichtenberger and Qimron follow Strugnell; see Lichtenberger, “neue
Edition,” 135; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
255.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270. Lichtenberger is not convinced
by Strugnell and follows Allegro; see Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 135. The editors of the Study Edition
follow Strugnell; see Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved

- 51 -
 explained as a final ‫ם‬, although it lacks the characteristic left corner and is also rather
small. The second last letter could be either ‫ ו‬or ‫י‬, but the size of the head favours ‫י‬.
Pajunen argues that the letter does not go below the imagined baseline, but
there is a clear final ‫ ם‬at the beginning of the same line with a similar location relative
to the imaginary baseline; thus, this argument fails.256 The plural form
‫ נפלאים‬is rare, and is only found in Ps 139:14 and 4Q504 frg.7, line 2.

Line 15: Strugnell suggests a restoration of the lacuna [‫“ ב]ארץ הם‬in [the land of Ham]” in
line with Pss 105:27 and 106:22–23.257 This restoration is followed in all later
editions.258 In the lacuna one could also read ‫שדה צען‬, “in the field of Zoan,” as in
Ps 78:12, 43.259 Another possibility is [‫“ ב]ים סוף‬at the Red Sea” as in Ps 106:7 and
Neh 9:9. Based on context and space, I suggest the latter reading, which is a common
parallel to ‫מצרים‬.260

After the lacuna, Allegro reads ‫“ ◦יערץ‬terrified.”261 As noted by Strugnell, there are
traces of a preceding ‫ו‬, thus one should be read ‫( ויערץ‬qal impf.) “And let (your heart)
tremble.”262

Column ii

Line 1: On the first line of fragment 2, one can read ]‫ועשו רצ‬. Strugnell’s restoration ‫רצ]ונו‬
“his will” is convincing.263 The phrase can be restored on the basis of the context. See
the similar phrase ‫( כל אשר עשה רצוני‬qal pf.) “all who do my will” in 4Q370 1 i 1.
After a larger lacuna (5 cm), one can read ‫ ] [◦שכם‬preceded by the baseline of ‫ פ‬or ‫נ‬,
or possibly ‫כ‬. Allegro restores ‫נ[פשכם‬
֯ “your [soul]s” which was followed by Strugnell,
and also later editors.264 I tentatively suggest a further restoration on the basis of the

Challenges,” 205; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.

256.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 205.
257.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270.
258.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen,
“Unsolved Challenges,” 196; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
259.
Lichtenberger notes this; see Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 136.
260.
See discussion in ch. 3.3.
261.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
262.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270. Strugnell’s transcription have been kept in later editions, but the
translations of the larger phrase differ. See “so daß euer Herz aus Furcht vor ihm erschrecke!;” Lichtenberger,
“neue Edition,” 130; “May your heart tremble;” Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; “Your
hearts will tremble”; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 110.
263.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270. The suggested restoration has been followed by all later editors; see
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 136; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen,
“Unsolved Challenges,” 196. Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
264.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,”
130; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196; Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.

- 52 -
 textual parallel in 4Q370 1 ii 8, ‫נפ]שכם‬
֯ ‫“ ותשמח‬and rejoice [your s]oul.”

Line 2: The first letter after the lacuna is only partly readable. Allegro suggests that the ink
trace belongs to ‫ל‬, reading ‫“ לשארית‬for a remnant.”265 Lichtenberger reads ‫◦שארית‬.266
The remains of the letter after the lacuna is potentially the head of ‫ י‬or ‫ו‬, or the
oblique of ‫ל‬. If ‫ י‬, it does not make sense grammatically. The stroke looks rather long
for ‫ו‬, but the head of ‫ ו‬is sometimes this size (cf. ii 15). The ‫ ל‬is relatively often
placed rather high, and so the height and angle does not exclude any of the
possibilities (cf. ii 1). Materially, I prefer ‫ ו‬over against ‫( ל‬cf. B-295933). I thus read
‫ו֯ שארית‬.267

Line 3: One can read parts of two words at the beginning of this line (frg. 2). Of the first
word, there is only a suffix, ‫] [כם‬. Strugnell restores the word, suggesting ‫]נפש[כם‬
ׄ
“your souls.”268 Lichtenberger, on the other hand, suggests ‫]לבב[כם‬ “euer [Herz].269 It
is impossible to ascertain which reading is the better one, hence I only read “your”
and do not reconstruct the lost word.270 The second word in frg. 2 is also read in
various ways. A clear ‫ ל‬is followed by ‫ש‬. Allegro reads ◦‫“ לשא‬to […]” but his reading
has not been followed by later editors.271 Strugnell reads ‫“ לשוא‬vanity.”272
Lichtenberger suggests the reconstructions ‫“ לשח]ת‬der Verder[ben]”273 while Pajunen
reads [ ]‫לשד‬
֯ “to ruin” and argues strongly that Allegro’s reading is wrong.274 I disagree
as all other readings demand an unusual gap between ‫ ל‬and the following letter.
Qimron has suggested another reading ‫לשנא]יכם‬.275 I can not see any trace of ‫נ‬
between ‫ ל‬and ‫( א‬see B-295932). The remnants are best explained by ‫ א‬with the right
arm eroded. There is further remnant of ink that belongs to a fourth letter. It is
impossible to interpret the remains of the letter, but ‫ ו‬is possible, and I restore ‫לשאו֯ ]ל‬
“to Sheo[l].”

ׄ
After the lacuna one can read ‫מ[שפט‬ ], which appears to be the end of a sentence. A
new sentence is introduced with ‫( שמעוני‬qal impv. m.pl.) “Listen to me.” The three last

265.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186). Allegro’s reading is followed by Strugnell, the Study Edition and
Pajunen. See also Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378;
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196.
266.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 136.
267.
See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
268.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270.
269.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 136.
270.
Note the similar wording with ‫ נתן‬in CD I 5: ‫“ ולא נתנם לכלה‬And he did not give them up destruction.”
271.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
272.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.
273.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 144.
274.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 206.
275.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.

- 53 -
 letters are tightly written and on the older photos the two letters ‫ ונ‬may be confused
with ‫ת‬. Hence Allegro reads ‫( שמעתי‬qal pf. 1.sg.) “I have heard.”276 All editors after
read ‫שמעוני‬, with Strugnell.277 All letters are readable already on the PAM photos; see
PAM 41.795.

Damage to the fragment has created a vertical line of erosion that runs through
column ii and obstructs the reading of the phrase: ‫ואל תמרו‬
֯ (hiphil impf. 2.pl.) “and do
not rebel.” Where Strugnell and most scholars after him read ‫ואל‬,278 Allegro reads ‫יצל‬
֯
(qal impf. 3.sg.) “Let him deliver.”279 The first letter is ‫ ו‬as the head is rather small,
but the next letter is difficult to interpret. One can see a right arm of the second letter,
and a horizontal stroke that slopes to the left. According to my reading, ‫ א‬is possible
on a material basis. The shape corresponds with ‫ אל‬at the beginning of frg. 2 ii 4
(cf. B-295932). The context implies ‫אל‬, and the word may also be restored on the
basis of a textual parallel in 4Q370 1 ii 9.280

Line 4: Again there is a large gap between fragments 1 and 2. Strugnell, Lichtenberger,
and also Qimron suggest a reconstruction of the gap. Strugnell reads: “[n]or walk in
[… but in the way he laid down for Ja]cob”, but he does not provide the Hebrew.281
Lichtenberger suggests a Hebrew reconstruction: ‫]ו[אל תצעדו ]דרך אשר יצוה לי[עקב‬.282
Qimron suggests a slightly different reading: ‫]ו[אל תצעדו ]מדרך צוה אלהים לי[עקב‬.283 The
gap is 3 cm wide, and any suggestions remains tentative. However, the context allows
for both readings.284 I will not suggest a reconstruction and read ‫“ ]ו[אל תצעדו‬Do not
deviate” in line with Lichtenberger’s reading. The restoration of ‫י[עקב‬
֯ “[J]acob” is
contextually and materially sound. A clear ‫ ק‬is followed by ‫ב‬. The following word is
difficult to read. Allegro reads ‫“ ׄח ׄתימה‬the formula,”285 while Strugnell suggests
‫“ ונתיבה‬path.”286 The two first letters (or three) suffer from erosion, but ‫ יבה‬is certain.
I prefer Strugnell’s reading, which appears to be the best interpretation of the

276.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
277.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 136; Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196. Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
278.
See Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130; Tigchelaar and García Martínez,
Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings 2. Pajunen reads ‫פעל‬, Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,”
207. In a conversation (08/2013), however, Pajunen confirms that he has changed his mind about this reading,
now reading ‫ואל‬.
279.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186).
280.
See Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood.” See also ch. 6.2.
281.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.
282.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 137. See also Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 144.
283.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
284.
See further discussion in the close reading.
285.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
286.
Strugnell translates “and the path he appointed to Isaac;” see Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271.

- 54 -
 remnants of letters based upon the immediate context (cf. Jer 6:16).287

Line 5: Frg. 2 preserves the remains of three words.288 Allegro reads ‫מעשר]ה‬
֯ ◦◦◦ [ ]‫(“ אחד‬is
not) one day […] better than ten.”289 Strugnell further suggests a reconstruction of the
the lacuna and the remnants of letters, reading: ‫“ אחד ]בבי[תו‬one (day) in his house.”290
Lichtenberger reads ‫בעשר‬
֯ ‫“ אחד ]תער[ו֯ ֯ך‬Re[icht] sie (nicht täglich Gutes) dar an
Reichtum[. . .].291 Pajunen, however, strongly argues that the third letter of the first
ׄ
word is ‫ ר‬and not ‫ד‬, and thus reads ‫בעשר‬ ‫(“ אחרו]ן מי[ו֯ ׄם‬Is not welfare in the time) to
come [better than a d]ay in riches[. . .].292 One can see the right protrusion of the
horizontal stroke of ‫ד‬, thus I read ‫“ אחד‬one.” However, Pajunen appears to be right in
reading a final ‫ם‬. Qimron reads ‫אחד ]הי[י ׄ ׄם בעשו]ת רצונו מאלף בלא[ י ׄ ׄראתו‬, which is
possible.293 The reading of the third word ‫ בעשו]ת‬depends on the larger
reconstruction. The fourth letter is only a vertical stroke; thus, both Allegro’s and
Qimron’s are possible. I will not suggest a reconstruction of the lacuna, but the shape
of the stroke hints towards Qimron’s reading, so I transcribe ‫“ בעשו֯ ]ת‬when doing.”

After half a line with no extant text the last word of a phrase appears: ‫][ביראתו‬
֯ “in fear
of him.” Allegro, followed by Strugnell, the Study Edition, as well as Qimron, read
this word as a noun with suffix, ‫“ יראתו‬fear of him.”294 There is also a preceding
letter. One can see a short stroke with a curved angle at the top. Lichtenberger
suggests that the letter could be ‫ב‬, but he does not transcribe this in the edition.295
Pajunen transcribes ‫ב‬, which I follow. The curved stroke is unusual for ‫ב‬, but it is
possible (cf. ‫ הטובים‬in ii 1).

The word ‫ לעתת‬is a puzzle. All letters are readable, but there is no parallel in the
Hebrew Bible, or in Qumran texts. This could be an infinitive of the root ‫“ עות‬to
bend” or “pervert.”296 This root is common within wisdom texts of the Hebrew Bible.

287.
Strugnell’s reading is followed in all later editions; see Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 137; Tigchelaar
and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 196; Qimron, The Hebrew
Writings, 2: 111.
288.
The best photo is B-295932.
289.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271.
290.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. The Study Edition follows Strugnell; see Tigchelaar and García Martínez,
Study Edition, 1: 378.
291.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 137.
292.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
293.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
294.
Strugnell and Qimron read this as part of the preceding rhetorical question. See also Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
295.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 137; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 207.
296.
L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm “‫ט‬-‫ע‬,” in The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old
Testament (ed. M. E. J. Richardson; Leiden: Brill, 1995), 804.

- 55 -
 Strugnell suggests “afflict.”297 Lichtenberger translates “und nicht (vom Wege)
abgedränkt zu werden” on the basis of the root ‫עות‬.298 The Study Edition presents its
translation with a question mark, “and not be afflicted (?).”299 One possible reading is
‫“ עת‬time, era” (See 1QS VIII 13 ‫)לעת‬. Pajunen translates “for ages.”300

It is notable that the infinitive form ‫“ לתעות‬to err” is relatively frequent in the Qumran
literature.301 This meaning would fit with the context in 4Q185 (cf. Ps 119:110). There
is a possibility that ‫ לעתת‬is a spelling mistake.302 This kind of letter transposition is
possible, but one must wonder why the scribe did not correct it. I follow one of the
previously suggested interpretation and translate according to the root ‫ עות‬in piel inf.
“not be perverted (?).”303

Line 6: The first half of this line is illegible. One can see traces of letters, but they are difficult
to identify. The end of the line reads ‫מלאכיו כי אין חשך‬
֯ ‫] [מן‬, but the translations
differ according to the interpretations of the preceding text. After the lacuna, Allegro
only reads ◦◦‫ולה‬,304 but Strugnell reads ‫( ולהבדיל‬niphal inf.) “to be separated from His
angels.” Strugnell also suggests ‫( ולהשמר‬niphal inf.) “to be watched” or “to be
kept.”305 Neither of Strugnell’s suggestions are good on the basis of the material
evidence. There is a letter with a baseline, and it cannot be the fourth as ‫ולהבדיל‬
requires. Thus ‫ ולהשמר‬is better, but ‫ ש‬does not work well with the space nor the traces
of ink. Lichtenberger reads ‫מלאכיו‬ ׄ
֯ ‫ולהא]מן[ מן‬ “und sicher zu sein vor seinen
Engeln.”306 This is possible. One can see a clear ‫ ל‬preceded by ‫ י‬or ‫( ו‬cf. B-295933).
The following text is too damaged to be certain. Pajunen argues that the third letter is
not ‫ה‬, but I do not agree with his argument that there is both an upper and lower
horizontal stroke.307 The letter could be ‫ ה‬or ‫י‬. In light of the context, one may also
read ‫ולא‬
֯ followed by a verb, possibly ‫( מלט‬niphal impf.) “to escape.” The ‫ א‬is difficult,
but it is not impossible: ‫ולא י֯ ֯מ]לט[ מן‬.
֯ If it is, the two vertical traces belong to ‫א‬. The ‫מ‬
is probable, and the number of letters fit with the space.

The last word on the line, ‫חשך‬, can be construed either as a verb (qal pf. 3.sg.)

297.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. See also 1QHa XVI 37 ‫( ולעות‬qal inf. const.).
298.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 144, 148.
299.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 379.
300.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 198.
301.
Cf. 1QS V 4; CD IV 1; 4Q510 frg. 1, 6.
302.
One example of a similar letter transposition is found in 1QS VI 27 ‫( וננעש‬cf. ‫ ונענש‬VII 2).
303.
Kampen suggests “be led astray.” See Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 262.
304.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
305.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 137.
306.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 137.
307.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 208.

- 56 -
 “spare” or a noun “darkness.” ‫ אין‬sometimes functions as a denial in front of a verb
(e.g. Job 35:15), but grammatically, the easiest reading of the ‫כי‬-clause is “for there is
no darkness.”308

Line 7: The top of this line is damaged but there are traces of letters. Allegro does not
transcribe any reading here, but Strugnell suggests ‫“ ואפלה‬and gloom.”309 The first
letters could be ‫ ואפ‬but there is no trace of ‫ל‬, which means that its oblique would stop
high above the imaginary line. The reading is possible but the scarcely preserved
material does not allow for any good reading.

After the larger lacuna, one can see traces of three or four letters (B-295933). A
possible reading is ‫לה‬
֯ ‫“ ו֯ ֯כ‬complete destruction.” The first visible trace could
hypothetically belong to a ‫ו‬, but the second trace is probably ‫כ‬. One can see remnants
of a curved baseline, which appears to be connected with a trace stemming from a
horizontal stroke. Above this, one can see the hook of ‫ל‬. There is also two small traces
that belong to the top of ‫ל‬. The last letter could be ‫ה‬, as suggested by Allegro.310 Due
to the uncertainty of the reading, I will not include it in the transcription.

After a lacuna, one can see traces of letters. I read ‫ועני‬

֯ “and afflicted.” Allegro reads
‫ ] [יעי‬and gives no interpretation of it.311 The distance between the first ‫ י‬and ‫ ע‬is
problematic. Strugnell reads ‫[“ ] ר[צונו ודעתו‬His good pl]easure and His knowledge.”312
The ‫ נ‬is convincing, due to the long baseline, but ‫ צ‬and ‫ ו‬are not. Lichtenberger reads
ׄ
‫ב[י]נ[תו‬ “seine Erkenntnis” but the baseline is too long for ‫ת‬.313 There are two
downstrokes, but in a good photo there is nothing that indicates that these are
connected (B-295933).314 It is better to interpret them as two different letters. The left
part of ‫ ע‬is possible. Pajunen does not restore this word, but transcribes ‫ו◦ה‬.315 He
argues against all previous readings that the final letter is not ‫ ו‬nor ‫י‬, but ‫ה‬, as the
vertical stroke continues to the right. This observation is correct, as the letter could
suffer from erosion. But if ‫ה‬, the preceding letter has a very long baseline, as it

308.
According to Psalm 78, which retells the terror of Exodus, “He spared not (‫ )לא חשך‬their soul” (v. 50). It is
the angels who are executors of destruction, and Psalm 78 denotes them “angels of destruction” (v. 49).
309.
See Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271; Lichtenberger, “neue
Edition,” 137; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
310.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378;
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
311.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
312.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.
313.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 138. Qimron follows Lichtenberger here; see Qimron, The Hebrew Writings,
2: 111.
314.
See (B-295933).
315.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 209.

- 57 -
 continues below the entire last downstroke. The baseline of ‫ נ‬is sometimes long, but it
never exceeds to the end of ‫ה‬. A possibility is ‫נה‬, but as Pajunen’s transcription
indicates, this does not allow any good restoration.
The next word could be either ‫( ידעתי‬qal impf. 1.sg.) “I know” with Allegro,316 or ‫ודעתו‬
“and His knowledge” with Strugnell.317 The fragmentary context does not aid the
interpretation of this word. The size of the first letter favours ‫י‬, and so I follow
Allegro.

At the end of the line there is some irregularity. A final ‫ ם‬is followed by a letter.318
This letter is narrow at the top but has the horizontal stroke of ‫ה‬. The same pronoun,
‫אתם‬, is spelled differently in col. i 9. 319

Line 8: The third word after the lacuna preserves three letters. The first and last letter is read
differently. Allegro transcribes ‫“ רעה‬evil” in his edition.320 Strugnell suggests the
alternative reading ‫“ דעה‬knowledge” but he does not offer a definite conclusion and
translates “evil.”321 Lichtenberger reads ‫“ דעה‬Erkenntnis.”322 In my opinion, the
physical evidence points to ‫ר‬, not ‫ד‬. One can only see a right protrusion but
more important is the rounded corner (cf. in ‫ אשרי‬ii 8). The context allows for both
options, ‫ רעה‬and ‫דעה‬, but the material evidence points to ‫“ רעה‬evil.”323 Pajunen has
suggested yet another reading, ‫“ רעד‬trembling.”324 The last letter is not clear, but the
ink traces do not correspond to ‫( ד‬B-295933). There appear to be two downstrokes,
and the size and shape of the letter are comparable to the ‫ ה‬at the end of line 7.

Line 9: The first word on the line is read in various ways: Allegro reads ‫ מן‬while Strugnell
reads ‫כן‬.325 Better is the reading suggested by Lichtenberger ‫“ ׄבןׄ ׄא ֯ד]ם‬der Mens[ch.”326

316.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85. Pajunen reads ‫“ ידעתי‬I know;” Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,”
199.
317.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Lichtenberger,
“neue Edition,” 138; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
318.
Final letters, in this case ‫ם‬, can sometimes be found in other than a final position, especially in penultimate
position as it is here; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 19.
319.
A similar variation within one composition is also found in 1QM XVII 2 and 8; see Eric D. Reymond,
Qumran Hebrew: An Overview of Orthography, Phonology, and Morphology (ed. Marwin A. Sweeney.
Resources for Biblical Study 76; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2014), 156.
320.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 85.
321.
In his translation he reads: ”Before him shall go forth evil unto every people;” see Strugnell, “Notes en
marge,” 273.
322.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 138, 145.
323.
See 4Q504 1–2 iii 13–14.
324.
Pajunen makes a connection with the universal perspective that is found in Ezek 38:19–20; Marttila and
Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18.
325.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271.
326.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 138. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.

- 58 -
 ֯ ׄ‫ובן‬.
Qimron restores a preceding ‫ ו‬and reads ‫אד]ם‬ ׄ 327 Pajunen does also see three letters
and suggests ֯‫( י֯ ׄתן‬qal impf. 3.sg.) “He gives.”328 The first letter is only a faint trace, but
on the basis of the recent photos, ‫ ו‬is plausible. The second letter is puzzling, but it is
best read as ‫ב‬. The top is very typical of ‫ב‬, and the shape of the horizontal stroke
conforms better with a baseline than the curved foot of ‫ת‬. There is a trace that may be
interpreted as part of a left downstroke, but on the latest photo this looks like a
shadow rather than ink. Thus, the restoration proposed by Lichtenberger, with the
preceding ‫ ו‬noted by Qimron, ‫ ובן אדם‬is sound.329 The ‫ א‬is certain and ‫ ד‬is possible.
After the lacuna, there are remnants of three letters. Allegro transcribes ‫◦דם‬, but better
is ‫ עים‬with Strugnell.330 Pajunen suggests ‫ב ֯כם‬.֯ The ‫ ם‬is clear, but the preceding
letter is not ‫כ‬. There is no visible trace of a baseline stroke. Furthermore, in all other
cases with the suffix ‫כם‬, the horizontal top of ‫ כ‬is at the same height as ‫ם‬. The
top stroke goes downwards towards the ‫ם‬, which makes it more likely ‫י‬. The ink trace
from the preceding letter corresponds well with the height of ‫ע‬. When compared with
the end of ‫ רשעים‬in the same line, the remnants of letters match perfectly. Strugnell
restores i ‫“ ר[עים‬evil” but another possibility is ‫“ רשעים‬wicked.”331 Due to the
uncertainty, I will leave it open.
Previous editors, except from Qimron have read with Allegro [‫( י֯ תהלל]ו‬hitpael impf.
3.pl.) “(Do not) let the (wicked) boast.”332 The fragment is torn and has a horizontal
gap that has displaced the upper and lower part of the line and disturbs the reading. In
Photoshop, it is possible to join the pieces together using the length of ‫ ל‬as a
measure. When the pieces are put together, one can see clearly that the first letter is ‫ת‬
and not ‫י‬. There is an ink trace that belongs to the right corner of the ‫ת‬. Infrared
photos taken at IAA confirm this. At the end of the word, there is a small ink trace
that probably belongs to ‫ו‬. I read ׄ ‫( ואל תתהללו‬hitpael impf. 2.pl.) “Do not boast.”333 The
common translation of the verb ‫ הלל‬is “boast” but another possibility is “act mad” (cf.
1QHa XII 18–20a). There is no room for a preposition before ‫רשעים‬.֯ There is only the
remnants of one letter and ‫ ר‬seems to be the best reading here, with Allegro.

Line 10: The lacuna in line 10 probably contained 4 or 5 words (4 cm). Allegro leaves the

327.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
328.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
329.
See Isa 56:2 where ‫ בן אדם‬parallels ‫ אנוש‬in a beatitude saying.
330.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. See Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.
331.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271.
332.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86–87. See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
333.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.

- 59 -
 lacuna open.334 Boldly, Strugnell suggests a reading without commenting upon it,
“‘nor [hath she been measured out to me.’ For God gives her] to Israel”.335
ׄ ׄ‫ו‬
Lichtenberger also suggests a restoration of the lost text and reads: [‫לא] אדרשנה אלהים‬
‫“ נתנה‬und nicht [will ich nahr ihr fragen].[Gott hat sie].”336 This is followed by
ׄ ׄ ‫“ ו‬and not
Qimron and partially adopted in the Study Edition: [‫לא ] … אלהים נתנה‬
[…God has given her].”337 The suggestion posed by Lichtenberger is possible, but I
will suggest neither a reconstruction nor a translation.

The first three words following ‫ לישראל‬after the lacuna are difficult to read. Allegro
suggests the reading: ‫ומ ֯מ ֯ד]ת ט[ב ימדה‬
֯ “and with the meas[ure of good]ness he will
measure her.”338 His reading makes good sense in the context, but is difficult on a
ׄ ׄ‫וכז‬
material basis. Lichtenberger suggests ‫בד ]ט[וב זבדה‬ ׄ “und als ein gu[tes] Geschenk
hat er sie geschenkt” which is followed in the Study Edition and by Qimron.339
Pajunen departs from previous readings and suggests that the last word is ֯‫( נמדו‬niphal
impf 3.m.pl.) “they have been measured” arguing that the final letter is not ‫ה‬.340
However, the last word is clear in the new photo and one can see the entire letter (cf.
B-295933). There are irregularities with the second letter of the first word. Between
the second and third letter there is an ink trace that could be the downstroke of a
supralinear letter, and possibly ‫ז‬. Pajunen reads ‫ומל ׄבד‬
ׄ which is possible.341 The second
letter could be either ‫ מ‬or ‫כ‬. There is a trace of ink that looks like the top of ‫ מ‬next to
the downstroke of the superlinear letter. However, it is very difficult to interpret the
ׄ ׄ‫וכז‬
ink traces. Grammatically, ‫ כ‬is the only sensible reading. Thus, I read ‫בד ]ט[ו֯ ב זבדה‬ ׄ
“And as a good gift, he offers it.”

One should note that the fourth (fifth when counting the supralinear letter) letter is
not necessarily a ‫ד‬, as one cannot be sure that we are seeing the entire letter. This
letter could thus also be ‫ ח‬or ‫ה‬. If ‫ד‬, it could also be followed by a suffix. In the
coloured photo (B-295371) one can see clearly that the surface of the leather is
eroded.

334.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
335.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.
336.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 138–139, 145; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
337.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.
338.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86. Strugnell does not comment on it, but translates “and with the
measure of goodness he measures it out;” Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.
339.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 139. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378;
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
340.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 212.
341.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.

- 60 -
Line 11: The first word on the line is generally read ‫( והרג‬qal pf. 3.sg.) “and he kills” but
ׄ
Qimron reads ‫והוא‬ “and he.”342 There is ink erosion on the two last letters and
Qimron’s suggestion is possible as the top of the penultimate letter is split. The right
part of it could very well be ‫ו‬. Nevertheless, if the last letter is ‫א‬, the right arm would
be rather low and the left foot lacks the curved shape distinctive of ‫א‬. On a material
basis, ‫ והרג‬is the better reading.

The second word has suffered from erosion and the reading is difficult. Allegro,
followed by Lichtenberger, only transcribes ◦◦◦◦‫ ש‬but Strugnell reconstructs the
phrase ‫( שנאי] ח[כמ]תו‬qal ptc. pl. const.) “those who hate His wisdom”, which is
followed in the Study Edition.343 This reading is difficult as there is not space for all
the letters. Pajunen suggests ‫( שנ֯ ֯א ֯ע ֯מ ֯מ]י‬qal ptc. sg. abs.) “the one who hates people[of
. . .],” which is also difficult.344 There is little space and no trace of ‫ע‬. Various
readings are possible. The second letter could be any letter with a horizontal baseline.
The slightly curved baseline favours ‫כ‬. The third visible trace could belong to more
than one letter. There is vertical down stroke, possibly touching a long baseline. In
light of the context, I suggest ‫שכנ֯ ֯י‬
֯ (qal ptc. pl. const.) “Those who dwell.”345
The next word preserves remnants of two letters. Both letters have a downstroke with
a horizontal baseline. The first is probably ‫כ‬, or possibly ‫ ב‬or ‫פ‬. There is not much
space between the two letters, which appears to be typical of ‫ כ‬and ‫פ‬. The length of
the baseline favours ‫ב‬, but ‫ ב‬does not often descend below the surrounding letters.
One can see a small ink trace that stems from the top of the letter, which thus excludes
‫ מ‬and ‫נ‬, unless the second letter is ‫צ‬. The next letter could be any letter with a
baseline. The angle is square, but due to space ‫ צ‬is unlikely. I tentatively suggest ‫כ ֯מ‬.֯ 346
Materially and contextually, there are other possibilities; hence, the data does not
allow for any conclusions.347

In the middle of the line there is a word with serious erosion. Only the three first
letters ‫ המת‬are readable and Allegro transcribes ◦◦◦‫המתמ‬
֯ which does not produce

342.
All editors but Qimron read ‫הרג‬. See Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,”
271; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Pajunen,
“Unsolved Challenges,” 212. Note that Qimron does not provide an English translation; see Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
343.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,”
271; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.
344.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 212.
345.
See Ezek 23 and Psalm 78.
346.
One may consider ‫( ֯ב ֯מ]צות‬see CD III 12, VIII 19, and XIX 5, 32).
347.
Reading ‫שכ ֯ח‬,
֯ could be an option but semantically one would not expect ‫שכ ֯ח‬
֯ to be followed by a
preposition.

- 61 -
 any reading.348 Strugnell suggests ‫( המתשבח‬hitpael ptc. sg.) “the self-glorious” and
Lichtenberger ‫המתכ ׄב ׄד‬
ׄ (hitpael ptc. sg.) “Der sich ihrer Rühmt.349 The fourth letter has
a baseline, that does not go well with ‫ש‬. The next letter is probably ‫ב‬, which both
Strugnell and Lichtenberger read. The remains of the last letter is best interpreted as
the left part of ‫( ה‬see the image below). The apparant space between ‫ ב‬and the
subsequent letter is caused by erosion, which is easier to see on the coloured photo
(B-295371). Pajunen reads ‫“ המתי֯ ֯טו֯ ׄב ׄה‬shall man have prosperity (in her)?”350
Reading ‫ ט‬is possible and fits with the left rounded downstroke. There is a small
horizontal stroke above ‫ט‬. Pajunen interprets this as ‫י‬, which is possible, although
there is not really space for it. Pajunen further reads a supralinear ‫ו‬, which is possible,
but there is no trace of it.

This image shows remnants of five

letters: ‫המתי֯ ֯טבה‬.

The reading ‫( המתי֯ ֯טבה‬hitpael ptc. sg.) makes good sense in the context, but the exact
reading and translation remains difficult. I tentatively read this as a participle (hitpael,
root ‫המתי֯ ֯טבה )יטב‬. The feminine suffix may be proleptic, anticipating the subsequent
feminine suffix. The root ‫ יטב‬is not attested in hitpael in the Hebrew Bible (hiphil
impv. Jer 7:3). The hitpael can have a benefactive reflexive value (qal “be good,”
“pleasing”) in the sense “the one who makes himself “good” or “pleasing.”

The following word is best interpreted as a suffixed preposition ‫“ בה‬in it.” There is a
trace of ink between these words, but this could be just spilled ink. In order to

348.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
349.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271, 273; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131, 145. The Study Edition and
Qimron follow Lichtenberger here; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew
Writings, 2: 111.
350.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 212. The same Hebrew phrase is translated differently: “When shall there
be prosperity in her?” in Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah,” 7. Tooman refers to Pajunen’s earlier
translation “And he will say, shall man have welfare in her?”; see Tooman, “Wisdom and Torah at Qumran,”
215.

- 62 -
 make sense of the whole phrase, I suggest that the hitpael has a declarative reflexive
value: “the one who shows his goodness.” A possible translation of the phares is thus
“the one who shows his goodness by it.”

The trace of ink that follows is best interpreted as the left part of ‫( ה‬cf. ‫ ימצאה‬ii 12).
The next word is readable, ‫( ישאנה‬qal impf.) “he will carry it (f.sg.).”351 Departing
from all other editors, Pajunen reads [‫“ ושאנה ב]ה‬and security in her?” According to
my reading the first letter is ‫י‬. At the end of the line the top layer is damaged, and the
letters are completely lost. Allegro only transcribes ‫] [שה‬. Strugnell does not comment
upon it, but reads “Seek Her.”352 Lichtenberger reads ‫“ י]רו[שה‬als Bes[it]z.”353 Pajunen
notes that there are two small traces of ink and reads ‫( ל]יר[ושה‬qal inf.) “To [pos]sess
her.354 The traces of ink are probably remnants of letters, but it is impossible to
identify them. Based upon the immediate context I restore ‫יב[קשה‬
֯ (qal impf.3.sg.)
“[The one who see]ks it.”

Line 12: The second word ֹis damaged by erosion and scholars have suggested various
֯ ׄ ‫יכי‬
readings. Allegro only transcribes ‫לה‬ ׄ ‫בה‬
֯ ◦[ ]◦ ֯‫ ]…[“ ו‬by her he will sustain
her.” 355 Strugnell however suggest ‫“ וחזק בה ונחלה‬and hold fast to Her and get Her as
inheritance.”356 Strugnell’s reading is followed in the Study Edition and
partially by Qimron, who suggests another reading of the first word ‫“ אחז‬to hold.”357
ׄ ‫(“ ׄלו ׄ ]כי[ ׄר ׄב ׄה‬und sie reicht
Lichtenberger departs from Strugnell, reading ׄ ‫יבו ׄ ׄלו‬
aus) fur ihn. [Führwahr], sie reicht aus für ihn” which is partially followed by Pajunen
ׄ ‫[ת‬
in his preliminary edition: ‫בה יבולה‬ ֯ ] ֯‫“ ׄלו‬..[. . .]. . in her and carries her and with
her.”358 According to Uusimäki, Pajunen has recently changed his reading, now
reading ‫“ לד]ע[ת‬to ga[in know]ledge.”359All these readings are problematic. I suggest
to read ‫( והלכי בה‬qal ptc.pl.) “Those who walk in it.” According to my reading, the
first letter cannot be ‫ל‬. One can see the lower part of a downstroke and a small head
(see image below). The first letter cannot be ‫א‬. A better choice is ‫ו‬, as suggested by
Allegro. The second letter has a vertical stroke and could be ‫ ח‬or ‫ה‬. The shape of the
letter after the lacuna looks odd, as it has suffered from erosion. It does correspond

351.
See Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. See also Tigchelaar and
García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
352.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271, 273.
353.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.
354.
Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah” 350.
355.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
356.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271.
357.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
358.
See Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
359.
Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah” 350.

- 63 -
 with the head of ‫ק‬, but there is no downstroke. Nevertheless, it is compatible with ‫י‬
standing on the baseline of the preceding letter, which is either ‫ נ‬or ‫כ‬. The size of the
head can be compared to the ‫ י‬on the same line (cf. ‫)ינחלוה‬.

This image is an excerpt from PAM 41.585.

The image shows remnants of two words:

‫וה]ל[כי בה‬.

The next word is also difficult to read. Strugnell suggests ‫“ ונחלה‬and inheritance,”
noting the prolonged baseline of ‫נ‬.360 There remains little doubt about the first and the
last letters, but the rest are problematic. A better explanation is the reading ‫( ינחלוה‬qal
impf. 3.pl.) ”they will inherit her.” The second letter is a ‫ נ‬with an extended horizontal
line. The long baseline of ‫ נ‬is seen elsewhere in the manuscript (cf. ii 8). The top of
what every former reading has noted as ‫ ל‬is better read as a superlinear ‫ו‬. The “hook”
on it looks more like ‫ ו‬than the top of ‫ל‬. The placement of the letter is also peculiar,
but it makes perfect sense if there is a preceding ‫ל‬. If this is correct, this would also
account for the ink trace above the line. This is not remnants of a letter on the line
above but the top of a ‫ל‬.361

‫ו‬
My reading: ‫ינחל ה‬

In the middle of the line I follow Strugnell’s suggested restoration ‫י[מים‬

֯ ‫ועמה ]ארך‬
“Yea with Her is length of days.”362 The second and third word after the lacuna are
again unclear. Allegro reads ‫עינ֯ י֯ ם‬
֯ ‫ורשף‬
֯ “and sparkling eyes” which is followed by

360.
John Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271.
361.
See a similar expression in 4Q521 frg. 11, 3 and 4Q535 frg. 13, 5.
362.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. This is followed by all editors but Pajunen, see Pajunen, “Unsolved
Challenges,” 197. See also Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition,
1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.

- 64 -
 Pajunen, whereas Strugnell reads ‫“ ודשן עצם‬and fatness of bone,” which is followed in
the Study Edition and by Qimron.363
Pajunen, following Allegro’s reading, transcribes the phrase with less circlets. He
argues strongly that the second letter of the first word is ‫ר‬, and posits that there is
nothing “hampering the reading.”364 The two letters can be difficult to distinguish, and
I agree that the top is shaped like ‫ר‬. Nevertheless, there is an ink trace above the right
corner. It is only a faint trace, but it could be the right protrusion of ‫ד‬. The colour
photo (B-295371) indicates that there is erosion above the letter. Another issue is
Pajunen’s reading of the last letter, which according to him, is not typical of a final ‫ן‬
as the stroke curves strongly to the left. However, there is one example of a final ‫ן‬
with the exact same shape (cf. ‫ אין‬ii 6). Pajunen further recognises a faint superlinear
addition above the ‫ נ‬in the last word. The trace that he construes as a supralinear ‫ י‬is
better read as the left top of ‫צ‬. Hence the horizontal baseline that crosses into ‫ ם‬is not
‫נ‬, rather ‫צ‬. The last word is probably ‫עצם‬, and thus ‫ ודשן‬is preferable based upon the
immediate context.

At the end of the line one can read [ ]‫עש‬. Licthenberger restores ‫וכבו[ד‬
֯ ׄ
‫עש]ר‬
“Reichtum und Ehre.”365 The restoration ‫“ עשר‬riches” is possible, but there is a
break from the preceding list, as there is no conjuction, ‫ו‬.366 This could indicate that
the list consists of only three rewards, and that [ ]‫ עש‬could be restored otherwise.
Alternatively, it could be read as a participle, ‫עשה‬. I choose not to restore the word.

Line 13: The first two letters of the second word are damaged. Allegro, followed by
Strugnell, and recently also Pajunen, reads ‫“ עלמיה‬her youth.”367 Lichtenberger,
followed by the editors of the Study Edition, reads ‫“ לעמיה‬für ihre Völker.”368 The
shape of ‫ ע‬and ‫ ל‬varies in the manuscript, and ‫ ע‬is sometimes narrow and sometimes
wide. In my view, Allegro’s reading is the better one. The second letter is probably ‫ל‬
as one can see the complete “hook” of the ‫ל‬. This leaves us with another, not less
important question on how to interpret the construction ‫וחסדיו עלמיה‬. One
possibility is to read the second word as an Aramaism. The word ‫“ עלם‬eternal” is

363.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. See also Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378. Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
364.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 214.
365.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 130, 145.
366.
See Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
367.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. In his preliminary edition,
Pajunen argues that the first letter could not be ‫ ;ע‬see Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197. In a recent article
he reads with Allegro; see Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18. See also Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
368.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 140. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.

- 65 -
 often found in colocation with both ‫“ חסד‬mercy” and ‫“ ישעות‬salvation” (e.g. Isa 54:8;
Psalm 106:1) and it is the more probable reading in light of the context.369 Another
possibility is to interpret it as a derivation from the verb ‫“ עלם‬conceal” (“her
secret”). However, this does not really produce a good reading. Tentatively, I read
“his everlasting mercies.”

At the end of the line the surface of the leather has peeled off, creating a lacuna.
The lacuna is preceded by ‫“ ולא‬and not,” followed by a word with illegible letters,
then ‫על‬. The illegible letters are read in multiple ways, but the last one is clearly ‫ל‬.
ׄ ‫“ ולא יאל‬and is not willing.”370 Strugnell suggests ‫ולא דגל עליה‬
Allegro reads [ ]‫על] [ו‬
ׄ ‫“ ולא יגׄ]ע[ל‬und
“and does not play tricks against her.”371 Lichtenberger reads ◦[.. ‫על]ה‬
ihr Joch nicht verach[tet].”372 The editors of the Study Editions read: ‫ולא רגל על]יה‬
“does not deceive her.”373 Partly in line with Lichtenberger, Pajunen notes that ‫ י‬is
written on top of an erased ‫מ‬. Furthermore, Pajunen can see a superlinear ‫ מ‬above the
ׄ ‫“ י֯ ג֯ ֯מל‬and does not repay [. . .].” It is difficult to follow him when
‫ג‬, and reads ◦[ ]‫על‬
looking at the photos and the manuscript.374 If Pajunen is right about the erased first
letter, it could also be a ‫ ר‬or a ‫ד‬. There is however similar erosion on the lines above,
which indicates that this could actually be a letter with a baseline, such as ‫ב‬. The next
letter looks like ‫ג‬, and the third is ‫ל‬. This, however, does not give any good reading.
Following the Study Edition, I read ‫“ ולא רגל‬and do not slander” before the lacuna.
Towards the end of the line there is a trace of a letter. This is not necessarily the last
letter on the line as there is space for further writing. The text on the next line,
‫מרמה לא יבקשנה‬, “lacks” a preceding preposition (cf. the syntax of the parallellistic
phrase ii 14). Hence, the Study Edition suggests ‫“ ולא רגל על]יה וברו[ח‬and does not
slander against [her and], (does not [with] a fraudulent) [spir]it (seek her).”375 The
lacuna measures 10 mm, and their restoration is possible, especially since this is at the
end of the line. Another possibility is ֯‫“ ולא ֯רגל על] לשונ[ו‬and does not slander with his
tounge.” A similar phrase is found in Ps 78:36, and the same phrase is used in 4Q525
2 ii 3, 1, where Ps 15:3 is alluded to. In that case, the next phrase is left without a
preposition. It is impossible to decide as the text is lost. The trace of letter at the end

369.
See ‫ עלם‬in the Aramaic text, 4Q542 ‫( עלמיה‬frg. 1 i 2) and ‫( עלמא‬frg. 1 ii 3).
370.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86–87.
371.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271, 273.
372.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
373.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378–379.
374.
The three letters are with circlets in his first edition, and with dots only in his later article; see Pajunen,
“Unsolved Challenges,” 197; Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18.
375.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.

- 66 -
 of the line could be the left corner of ‫ח‬, and it could also be ‫ ו‬or ‫י‬. According to my
reading, the material favours ‫י‬, which suggests a construct plural noun or a noun
ending with ‫ י‬such as ‫( פי‬cf. Ps 109:2). I tentatively suggest ֯‫“ ולא ֯רגל על]יה בפ[י‬and
does not slander against it. With a mouth of (deceit).”

Line 14: Most editors read ‫( תתן‬niphal impf.) “She is given.”376 This reading does not
account for all the ink traces. The first letter has a baseline. It seems to have a curved
top, but there is a vertical line of damage through the letter, and also some disturbance
on the surface of the leather. Qimron suggest ‫( נׄנׄתן‬niphal impf.).377 What he reads as
the second letter is what others have interpreted as the left part of ‫ת‬. Qimron’s
reading is possible, the baseline of his second ‫ נ‬looks far too long for ‫ת‬.
Moreover, one would expect the initial ‫ נ‬to assimilate to the first root letter.378
Grammatically, I struggle to translate Qimron’s reading. The best explanation appears
to be that the scribe erroneously started with ‫נ‬, but then corrected himself by writing
a ‫ ת‬on top of it.379

On the end of the line there are traces of two letters following a lacuna formed by pell
off of the skin. Allegro transcribes [ ]◦◦ [ ].380 Strugnell suggests ‫[“ ]וחזק [בה‬and hold
fast] to Her.”381 Lichtenberger reads ‫ נ֯ ֯ה‬after the lacuna and restores ‫[“ ]ויעש[נ֯ ֯ה‬und er
soll] sie [tun].”382 In the photograph, however, the first trace looks like ‫כ‬. One can see
the shorter horizontal stroke above, and the characteristic baseline of ‫כ‬. The other
could be any letter with a horizontal stroke. In light of the close context, this is
probably a verb with suffix. I suggest that ‫ כ‬is the last consonant of the verb, followed
by a suffix. I tentatively suggest [‫[“ ויתמ[כנ֯ ]ה‬And he can hol]d i[t].”

Line 15: Damage to the second word on the line makes the reading difficult. There is a
rupture in the skin that has destorted the reading of the third letter. Allegro reads
‫“ עוז‬strength.”383 Lichtenberger does not comment his reading, but transcribes ‫עז‬

376.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,”
131; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
377.
Qimron does not translate the Hebrew into English, but in the footnotes he indicates that he interprets ‫ננתנ‬
as a niphal; see Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
378.
The initial ‫ נ‬is occasionally non-assimilated (cf. 1Q29 frg. 2, 4).
379.
There is also a chance that the scribe was about to repeat the former word, thus writing ‫כ‬. This would
explain both the baseline and the top corner of the letter.
380.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
381.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. Strugnell’s propositions is followed in the Study Edition and by Qimron;
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378. See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
382.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131, 140.
383.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86. Strugnell does not comment upon it, and translates; “the power of
his strength;” see Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 214.

- 67 -
 “Kraft.”384 One can see three letters, and the second letter appears to be ‫ ז‬rather then ‫ו‬.
The third letter only preserves a vertical line. One cannot see a head, but the vertical
rupture in the leather makes it impossible to ascertain. The colour photo (B-295371)
shows no indication of damage to the surface of the letter. Hence, the best reading is
‫עזז‬. However, the verb ‫( עזז‬qal pf. 3.sg.) “to be strong” does not produce a good
reading in the context. One possibility is to read ‫( עזי‬adj.const.) “strong,” but in light
of the material evidence it is better to interpret the letters as ‫עזז‬. This could be a
variant spelling, or possibly a spelling mistake. Hence, I interpret the word as a noun,
either ‫ עז‬or ‫“( עוז‬power” or “strength”) that is part of the genitive construction
“the power (of his strength).”

The fifth word on the line is distorted by a pattern of damage on the lower margin.
The length of the lacuna is 6–7 mm. Strugnell suggests the restoration ‫“ ]מא[דו‬hi[s
mig]ht”, which is followed by Lichtenberger and Pajunen.385 Due to context, one
would expect a synonym; thus, the restoration makes good sense.

After the first lacuna, Allegro reads ‫חק ֯ר‬

֯ ‫“ לאין‬immeasurable.” This reading is followed
by Strugnell, the editors of the Study Edition, and Qimron.386 Lichtenberger and
Pajunen, however, read ‫חס ׄר‬
ׄ ‫“ לאין‬without lack.”387 The latter reading is problematic on
a material basis. There is a small trace of a vertical stroke that goes somewhat below
the imaginary line. There is also a clear horizontal stroke that conforms with a ‫ק‬. One
can only see the right part of the head, and the trace indicates a narrow angle, as in
line 14 (‫)בחלקות‬. In the new photos (B-295933) one small piece has fallen off. In
PAM 41.307, one can see the top and right corner of ‫ר‬. Thus, I read with Allegro
‫חקר‬
֯ ‫לאין‬. The preposition ‫ ל‬never precedes the idiom ‫ אין חקר‬in the Hebrew Bible, but
it does so relatively often in the Qumran literature (1QHa XI 21, XVI 6, XXI 16).

Towards the end of the line Allegro reads: ‫“ ידעתי לעמ] ש[וב‬I have knowledge
concerning […].”388 Strugnell, however, suggests ‫“ ידעתי לעמ]ל לט[וב‬I know how to
labour at doing good.”389 Regarding the first word, it is very difficult to decide
whether one should read ‫ י‬or ‫ו‬. The size of this first letter is somewhere between an

384.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 140. See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
385.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,”
140. See Pajunen’s more recent reading in Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18.
386.
Allegro, Cave 4:I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271, 273; Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
387.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 140. Pajunen has a circlet above ‫ס‬, Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
388.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
389.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273. The Study Edition follows Strugnell and translates “I know the strug[gle
it takes to do go]od,” Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380.

- 68 -
 average ‫ י‬and ‫ו‬. Lichtenberger makes another proposition ‫לע ׄמ]יה ר[וב‬ ׄ “Und die
֯ ‫ודעתו‬
Erkenntnis von ihm [Ihnen] Völkern [in] Menge.”390 It is notable that most editors
read the first word in line with ii 7, but one does not have to read them in the
same way. In ii 7 I read ‫( ידעתי‬qal impf. 1.sg.) “I know”, whereas in this line I read
‫“ ודעתי‬and my knowledge” in line with the latest reading of Pajunen.391 According to
my judgment, the first letter is best read as ‫ו‬. The shape of the first and the last letter is
not identical, and the last letter is somewhat bigger than the first. Further, due to the
syntax, a noun is preferable.392 The following word with the preposition ‫ ל‬could be
read as a continuation (or a parallel) to the former ‫“ לצאצאיו‬to his offspring” and
connects it with the preceding noun “possession.” Towards the end of the line, I
tentatively suggest the reading ‫“ לעמ]ו לש[וב‬to his people, to return (towards it)” Due
to the uncertainty of the reading, I will only put ‫“ לעמ]ו‬to his people” in the
transcription. The length of the lacuna is 8 mm and the space allows two or
three letters plus word spacing (8 mm).

Column iii

Line 1: At the end of the line, Allegro reads ]‫“ ׄפנ֯ י‬the face of.”393 Strugnell interprets the letters
differently, suggesting ‫“ טו]ב‬good.”394 The last letter could be either ‫ ו‬or ‫י‬. The
preceding downstroke looks more like the left part of ‫( ט‬cf. iii 12) than the top of ‫נ‬.
The top slants to the left wich is rare, although ‫ נ‬may have a short hook (‫ בניכם‬ii 2, 9).
Thus I read with Strugnell ‫“ כי טו]ב‬For goo[d … ].”

Line 2: Allegro, followed by Lichtenberger and Pajunen, read ‫“ וממאורות‬and from the
luminaries,”395 but the word is best read with Strugnell: ‫וממגרות‬. The editors of the
Study Edition translates “and from the horrors (?)”.396 This is a plausible interpretation
of the word. The fourth letter is ‫ג‬. The top of ‫ מ‬is connected to ‫ג‬, which makes it look
like ‫( א‬cf. B-295933). There is also a small trace of ink between ‫ ג‬and ‫ ר‬that does
not belong to any letter.

Line 3: Allegro transcribes ]◦‫ ומ‬at the beginning of the line. These letters are readable on a

390.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 140. See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
391.
In his preliminary edition, Pajunen reads ‫וד][עתי‬, but in a later article he reads ‫ ;ודעתי‬see Marttila and
Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18.
392.
“I know” is often followed by ‫( כי‬cf. CD I 8 and 1QHa VII 26, 36).
393.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 216.
394.
Strugnell does not provide any translation of the Hebrew text from col. iii onwards. See Strugnell, “Notes
en marge,” 272. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380.
395.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128; Pajunen, “Unsolved
Challenges,” 216.
396.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272. The editors of the Study Edition follow Strugnell; see Tigchelaar and
García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380.

- 69 -
 small fragment with a margin, which Allegro places in this position (frg. 1).397
The editors of the Study Edition follow Allegro here, but Lichtenberger is probably
right when he argues that this is a mis-assigned piece.398 There are traces of letters
on frg. 1 that are not compatible with the writing on the fragment. Pajunen suggests
that the fragment belongs to col. iii but moves it further to the left on the same line
and reads ◦‫][◦][ע][ומ‬.
֯ 399
The right end of the fragment appears to have a stitch hole,
and the placement at a margin seems well founded. There is, however, a trace of ink at
the right end, which is odd. There is also an ink trace at the upper edge of frg. 1,
which could have strengthened Allegro’s placement.400

It is difficult to think that the hole at the right end is something else than rupture
caused by the stitching. Perhaps the fragment could be placed at the bottom of col. iii
(line 14)? The colour of the skin is somewhat darker than the upper fragment (cf.
B-295371). The placement in line 3 is difficult, hence, I do not include the fragment
in col. iii and edit it as a separate fragment (frg. 8).401

Line 7 (frg. 3, line 1):402 I suggest that the first word on the line is ‫“ הוׄי‬woe.” Allegro only
reads ‫ה‬, and Lichtenberger reads ‫“ הנׄו]תן‬Wer hat gege[ben …].”403 Pajunen reads ‫הנו‬
without the reconstruction.404 The second letter is only a downstroke and the top may
have suffered from erosion. The best reading of it is thus ‫ ז‬or ‫ו‬. The third letter has a
large head and is probably ‫( י‬cf. iii 9).

There are traces of letters on the top of the fragment that belong to the end of line 7.
Allegro, Strugnell, and the editors of the Study Edition have no transcription of any of
the letters in this line, but Lichtenberger reads: ‫אל[ה]י[ם כו ׄ]נן‬
֯ “[G]o[tt] hat
fest[gesetzt …]”.405 According to my reading the first trace of a letter cannot be ‫ה‬.
The first letter has a baseline with a slightly rounded shape that could belong to ‫ ב‬or ‫כ‬
(B-295933). Normally, the subsequent letter is placed on top of the extended baseline,

397.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
398.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 128. Qimron does not include this fragment in his transcription; Qimron,
The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
399.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
400.
There are two traces of ink in the left corner. The upper one is on the small fragment, and the lower one is
on the edge of frg.1.
401.
The fragment is only edited as a separate piece with Lichtenberger, and I use his label “frg. 8.”
402.
Note that Pajunen edits frg. 3 separately and argues that it is not part of the third column; Pajunen,
“Unsolved Challenges,” 197; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272. Lichtenberger, the editors of the Study Edition
and Qimron include it as part of col. iii.
403.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
404.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197. See also Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112. The editors of the
Study Edition do not transcribe any text in iii 7; see Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380.
405.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. This reading is followed in Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
Pajunen only transcribes ] ֯‫[ם כו‬
֯ ]◦; see Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.

- 70 -
 but in this case there is space before the next visible trace of a letter. If the first letter
is ‫כ‬, there could be a ‫ ל‬standing on its baseline (cf. the line below where ‫ ל‬is written
on the baseline of ‫)כ‬. In addition to the vertical downstroke, there appears to be a
curved stroke at the top edge of the fragment. Due to the erosion, it is impossible to
ascertain, but there seems to be a faint trace of a baseline that would have been
connected to the vertical stroke. One possibility is ‫מ‬. There is no trace of the next
letter, but space indicates that there was one letter before a final ‫ם‬. Due to the
uncertainty of the reading, I will only transcribe the final ‫ם‬.

Line 8 (frg. 3, line 2): There are faint traces of letters at the beginning of this line. Allegro,
followed by Lichtenberger, does not transcribe any letters but renders ◦◦.406
Pajunen reads ◦‫ת ֯ב‬.֯ 407 The first letter is not ‫ת‬, as one can see a baseline. It could be
‫ ב‬followed by a letter with a vertical stroke. The traces of ink would also correspond
well with the shape of ‫ט‬. There is a small trace of ink near the baseline. This could be
a remnant of a preceding letter, but it looks more like a trace of ink as is found in the
margin above line 7.

On the joined fragment (frg. 3), Strugnell suggests to read ‫אל[הים יבחן כל מזמ]ות‬
“[…Go]d tests all the pl[ans…].”408 This reading is followed by Lichtenberger, the
Study Edition, and Qimron, who also add ‫“ לבב‬of the heart” to the reconstructed
phrase.409 However the last word cannot be ‫“ מזמ]ות‬plans” (“intents”). The first letter
is ‫ ו‬followed by ‫ ע‬as suggested by Pajunen.410 The third letter only preserves a right
corner and could be ‫ל‬. One possibility is to read ‫וע ֯ל‬
֯ “and upon.” One would
anticipate a further clarificatian of the object of the phrase ‫אל[הים יבחן כל‬, although ‫כל‬
can sometimes function as the object and thus stand alone (i.e. Jer 44:18; Prov 26:10).

Line 9 (Frg. 3, line 3): The first preserved text on the joined fragment is ‫◦עשה‬.411 After the
lacuna Lichtenberger restores the preceding word, reading ‫( ]… אלהים[ עשה‬qal pf.)
“[Gott] hatt (die Worte des Bund[es]) gemacht [und er …]”.412 As noted by Pajunen,
there is a stroke that precedes ‫ ע‬that does not fit as part of a final ‫ם‬.413 Pajunen does

406.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
407.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
408.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272.
409.
See Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380; Qimron,
The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
410.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
411.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380;
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
412.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. Pajunen does not restore the word, reading ֯‫ברי‬, Pajunen, “Unsolved
Challenges,” 197.
413.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 218.

- 71 -
 not suggest any reading. I suggest ‫( ו֯ עשה‬qal pf. m.sg.) “And (he) does” and do not
restore any preceding text.

One cannot see the entire last letter on line 9 (frg. 3). Allegro restores ‫ברי]ת‬
“covenant,” which is followed by Lichtenberger and Qimron.414 The editors of the
Study Edition transcribe ‫ברי]תו‬, “his covena[nt].”415 Pajunen transcribes ֯]‫ ברי‬and does
not give a translation of this word.416 The foot of the last visible letter has a left curve.
This is an increased tendency for the downstrokes in this third column compared to
col. i and ii (cf. also iii 10). Despite the irregular shape of the foot, the top is best
explained as the head of ‫י‬. Based on the context, I restore and read the word
‫“ ברי]ת‬covena[nt].”

frg. 3 iii 9: ‫ברי]ת‬

Line 10: In line 10, Allegro reads] ‫ו◦א ֯ע] [◦◦ ם‬. On frg. 3 he further reads ]‫במסורת‬
֯ ‫ש[פט‬.417
Strugnell, placing frg. 3 in col. iii 10 suggests ‫“ ולוא ע]שה א[להים ]מש[פט במסורר]ים‬Nor
does God perform judgment upon those that turn away [from Him.”418 Lichtenberger
follows Strugnell partially. He corrects the spelling of the first word, which is not
plene. Furthermore, Lichtenberger places ‫ ל‬in ‫ אלהים‬inside the brackets.419 However,
one can see traces of a letter, but it is not possible to verify whether or not it is ‫( ל‬see
image below).420 According to my reading, ‫ אלהים‬is possible, but not certain. It seems
to be clear that the two latter letters are ‫ים‬. There is a shadow on the top of the

414.
See Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Qimron, The Hebrew
Writings, 2: 112.
415.
Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380–81.
416.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197. In a more recent article he notes that this phrase speaks about
“fulfullling the terms of the covenant,” thus he interprets the word as ‫ברית‬. See Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom,
Israel and Other Nations,” 19.
417.
Allegro does not translate the Hebrew on the frgs. 3–6; Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
418.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272.
419.
See Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. Besides the corrections, Strugnell’s proposition is followed by
Lichtenberger, the editors of the Study Edition, and by Qimron; see Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study
Edition, 1: 380; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
420.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.

- 72 -
 fragment on PAM 43.415. There is no shadow in the newly taken photos, and one can
see a clear ‫ ם‬preceded by ‫י‬. The preceding letter is probably ‫ ה‬and possibly ‫ת‬. The
letter has a rounded right corner, and the horizontal stroke appears to be made in the
same stroke as the right vertical stroke. Moreover, it appears to have a top left corner,
and both downstrokes slope inwards.421 Due to the uncertainty, I will leave it open.

frg. 3 iii 10

My reading: ‫[◦◦י֯ ם‬

The last word is best read with Strugnell, ‫( במסורר]ים‬qal ptc. 3.m.pl.) “those that turn
away” and not ‫במסורת‬
֯ “als Richtsnur,” suggested by Lichtenberger.422 The remnant of
the last readable letter is shaped in the same way as the former ‫ר‬, and the angle of the
right corner favours ‫ ר‬rather than ‫ת‬.

Line 11: At the beginning of the line one can read a clear ‫ה‬, followed by the top of ‫ל‬. Allegro
transcribes ‫הל◦◦◦] [ם‬.423 Strugnell suggests ‫“ הלא א]להי[ם‬doth not God (perform),”
which is followed by Lichtenberger, and the editors of the Study Edition.424 The ink
trace of the third letter is curved to the right at the top and slanting to the left at the
bottom. It looks like a vertical downstroke, hence Pajunen reads ‫ו‬.425 Below the
horizontal abrasion, one can see the lower left part of ‫א‬. The slanting foot
corresponds well with the “baroque” style in this passage (cf. ‫ א‬in iii 13). I thus read
‫הלוא‬.

There is trace of ink above the abrasion that is is probably spilled ink as it is too
low for ‫ל‬. There is another trace of ink at the lower edge of the abrasion that could
belong to ‫א‬. Hence, the restoration ‫ א]להי[ם‬is possible.

Towards the end of the line on the fragment, I read ‫“ לבוׄת‬the hearts.” Allegro
reads ‫“ לביתו‬his house”, which is followed by Strugnell and Pajunen.426 The size

421.
Compare the straight legs of ‫ ה‬in ‫ אלהים‬in iii 13.
422.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 141, 146. See also Pajunen who translates “in bonds;” Pajunen, “Unsolved
Challenges,” 197, 199; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
423.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
424.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272. See also Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Tigchelaar and García
Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380.
425.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
426.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273; Pajunen, “Unsolved

- 73 -
 of the head of the third letter is somewhere in the middle of ‫ ו‬and ‫י‬. However, there is
no trace of a fifth letter (B-2959339), thus I read with Lichtenberger, ‫“ לבוׄת‬the
hearts.”427

Line 12: The reading ‫חד ׄרי‬

ׄ “the innermost parts” which was initially proposed by Allegro,
should be kept.428 Pajunen departs from all previous editors, reading ‫“ חרמי‬bans.”429
Pajunen argues that the third letter cannot be ‫ ר‬as it curves into a “baseline
horizontal stroke.”430 However, in the third column there is a tendency that
vertical strokes slopes to the left (cf. ‫ ברית‬iii 9).

The reading proposed by Lichtenberger at the end of the line, ‫“ כליתו‬ihre Nieren,” is
preferred over ׄ ‫“ כלותו‬his destruction,” suggested by Allegro, and ‫“ כליתי‬its inmost
parts,” suggested by Strugnell.431 The head of this letter distinguishes is from ‫ ו‬and
‫ י‬the best reading. The head of the last letter is smaller, which favours ‫ו‬. I thus read
‫“ כליתו‬its kidneys.”

Line 13: The first letter of the second word has suffered from erosion, but its head is smaller
than the second letter. In a good photo all letters are readable, and one should read ‫וידע‬
(qal pf. 3.m.sg.) “and he knows” with Strugnell, against ‫( י֯ ודע‬qal ptc. m.sg.) “of him
who knows,” with Allegro.432

ׄ ‫[“ ]אם[ ׄטוב ואם‬whether] good or

Line 14: The reading suggested by Strugnell is sound, [ ]‫רע‬
evil” (cf. Jer 42:6; Eccl 12:14).433

Line 15: Allegro reads ‫במחש]בות‬,֯ “with devi[ces.”434 This is followed by Strugnell, who
further renders “sons of His people and all […] with devices…”435
Lichtenberger follows Allegro, and so do the editors of the Study Edition, and

Challenges,” 197.
427.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131, 146. See also Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
428.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86. See Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273; Lichtenberger, “neue
Edition,” 131; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
429.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 199.
430.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197, 217.
431.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272. The Study Edition follows
Strugnell; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380. Qimron further restores ‫ כליתי]הם‬Qimron, The
Hebrew Writings, 2: 112. Pajunen follows Lichtenberger; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
432.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86; Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272. Strugnell is followed by all
editors after; see Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380;
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197. Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
433.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 272–273. This reading is followed by all editors after; Lichtenberger, “neue
Edition.”; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197;
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
434.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 86.
435.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.

- 74 -
 Qimron.436 Pajunen only transcribes ‫ ◦מחש‬and does not provide a translation.437 The
first letter is probably ‫ כ‬as one can see nothing of the top of the letter. If it is ‫ ב‬or ‫מ‬,
part of the top should be visible, but it is not. It could be ‫ ב‬with a very short top.438
However, the main tendency it that where the rounded baseline of ‫ ב‬turns downwards
at the end, ‫ כ‬turns slightly upwards as this letter does. Hence, I suggest to read
‫[כמחש]בת‬
֯ …] “according to the though[ts…].”

Fragment 4439

I have already suggested that this fragment does not belong to 4Q185. Yet, I include a
a transcription of it. If the space between the words on each line is a margin, the
fragment belongs to a manuscript with a narrow margin. Alternatively, the fragment
does not preserve remnants of two columns, but rather is one column with in line
vacats.440

Line 1: Allegro reads ‫לעול]ם‬

֯ ◦[ . This reading is followed by Lichtenberger.441
I read: ]‫[◦לעול‬
֯ , and tentatively translate “to the unjust.”442

Line 2: On line two, one can read ‫◦נוטי נ֯ זר וישב‬. Allegro only reads ]◦◦‫[◦וטי ◦◦◦ ויש‬, whereas
Lichtenberger reads ‫שפטי‬.443 In the more recent photo it is rather clear that
Lichtenberger’s reading is wrong (B-295936). Pajunen suggests ‫( עוטה‬root ‫“ עטה‬to
enwrap” or “envelope”) and argues that part of the last letter is lost.444 The first
letter may be ‫ע‬, but this is not the only option. One can see remnants of a baseline that
extends to the ‫ו‬, which makes ‫ נ‬a better alternative. Compared with ‫ ע‬in line 1, this
slanting downward stroke appears to be rather long. Thus, the traces may be read as
two letters. Furthermore the last letter cannot be ‫ה‬. There is no trace of a second
vertical downstroke, which makes ‫ י‬the only plausible reading. We may have here a
participle of ‫“ נוט‬to shake” (cf. Ps 99:1).

436.
See Lichtenberger, “neue Edition”; Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 380. Qimron
transcribes ‫מחש]בת‬
֯ ‫;ב‬֯ see Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 112.
437.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
438.
See the wording in 4Q370 1 i 3.
439.
See B-295936 (and B-298321) [IAA].
440.
This fragment has no material joins and is not included in the discussions of Strugnell, nor is it presented in
the Study Edition, and the edition by Qimron.
441.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
442.
Cf. Job 31:3, where this word is a substantive affixed with an inseparable ‫ל‬.
443.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87. Lichtenberger gives a transcription of the fragment, but he does not
provide a translation; see Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
444.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197, 218–219.

- 75 -
 The next word is damaged. Allegro, followed by Lichtenberger, only transcribe
illegible letters.445 Pajunen reads ‫“ איר‬light” but I cannot see the top of ‫ א‬here (see
image below).446 The medial letter has not the head of ‫י‬, thus ‫ ז‬is better. The first letter
has a slightly curved vertical line which fits ‫נ‬. I read ‫“ נזר‬crown.”

Frg. 4, 2: ‫נזר‬

On the end of the third line Allegro reads ]‫ול ֯ע ֯מי‬.

֯ 447 This reading is followed by
Pajunen.448 This reading however does not explain the large gap between the third and
fourth letter. On the photo below, one can see a trace of ink between ‫ ע‬and ‫מ‬. Thus one
should read ]◦‫◦מ‬
֯ ‫ול ֯ע‬:
֯

Frg. 4, 3

Frg. 4449

]‫לעול‬
֯ ◦[ 1

]◦‫וישב‬
֯ ‫[עוטי נ֯ ז֯ ר‬ 2

]◦‫ ולע◦מ‬vacat ‫[ קודש‬ 3

]◦‫ ונריבה ו‬vacat[ 4

445.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
446.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
447.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
448.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 197.
449.
This fragment consists of two pieces. The left part of it is found on a mixed plate, PAM 42.640. Note also
that the fragment is placed on PAM 42.858.

- 76 -
1 [...]. to the unjust [...]

2 [...]... a crown. And they dwell [...]

3 [...] holy vacat And to [...]

4 [...] vacat (?) And let us strive and [...]

Fragment 5

Frg. 5, 3: ]‫הזכ‬
֯

There are three lines with remnants of letters. In the third line Allegro reads ]◦‫הד‬.450
ׄ
Lichtenberger and Pajunen read ]‫הדר‬, but neither of them give a translation.451 The
second letter cannot be ‫( ד‬see image above). There is only space for either ‫ ו‬or ‫ז‬. The
third letter has a baseline and is probably ‫כ‬. It could possibly also be ‫מ‬. I suggest
]‫הזכ‬.
֯ The lack of context does not allow for any translation.

Fragment 6452

Line 1: The upper line contains three parallel strokes that slant to the left. These are preceded
by traces of letters. Allegro transcribes ]◦‫[◦מ‬.453 These traces do not accord with the
hand of 4Q185. The strokes could be the lower part of ‫מע‬, as Pajunen suggests,454 but
the direction and shape of these three diagonal traces are not compatible with any
in 4Q185. With Lichtenberger I transcribe ◦◦◦◦.455

450.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
451.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.
452.
See B-295935.
453.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
454.
Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 198.
455.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131.

- 77 -
Line 2: Allegro reads ‫וה◦◦אתי‬.456 With Lichtenberger, I read ◦‫והרי֯ אתי א‬
֯ (Hiphil impf. 1. sg.)
“and I will show.”457 One can see a faint shadow that is probably the left
protrusion of ‫ר‬.

Line 3: On the third line Allegro reads ]◦◦‫[ב‬.458 Lichtenberger suggests ‫בני‬. Pajunen only reads
◦‫בנ‬.459 The second letter preserves only a vertical stroke but it could be ‫ ו‬with erosion
or possibly ‫( ז‬see B-295935). The third letter could be ‫ ר‬or possibly ‫ב‬. The
preserved text does not allow for any translation.

2.6 Translation

1–2 i

1 [ …]..

2 [ …]

3 [ …] …[ …]
4 [ …]pure and holy[…].
5 [ …] … and according to his wrath[ …].
6 [ …]and up to ten times[ …]
7 [ …]and no strength to stand before it (f.sg.), and no hope
8 before the anger[ …] Who can endure to stand before his angels? For with flaming
9 fire he shall be judged [according to] his spirits. And you, children of Adam, .[ …]
For look,
10 like grass he sprouts from his soil. His faithfulness blossoms like a flower.
His wind blows[ on it]
11 and its stalk withers. And the wind carries its flower, until there is no rising up to
st[and and it perish]es.
12 And it is not found, but wind. vacat They can seek him, but will not find him,
and there is no hope.
13 And he, like a shadow are his days upon the ea[rth.] And now, please listen,
my people and pay attention
14 to me, simple ones. Humble yourselves before the [m]ight460 of our God.

456.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
457.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 200.
458.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 87.
459.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 131; Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 198.
460.
Alternative reading: “mighty deed.”

- 78 -
 Remember the wonders he did
15 in Egypt and his signs at [the Red Sea.] Let your heart tremble before his dread

1–2 ii

1 and do his wi[ll … rejoice ]your [s]oul according to his good loving-kindness. Search
for yourself a way
2 of life and a path[…] and a remnant for your children after you. Why would you give
3 your[... ] to Sheo[l … j]udgment. Listen to me, my children, and do not rebel against
the words of Yahweh.
4 [And] do not deviate[ … J]acob, or the path he instructed for Isaac. Is not one day
better
5 [ …].. when doing [ …][ …]in fear of him. And not be perverted (?) by dread or the
snare of the fowler
6 [ …] and ..[ ... ] from his angels, for there is no darkness
7 and …[] .[ …] …he [ …] and affliction. I know, and you,
8 what ..[ …] before his presence, evil goes forth to all people. Happy is the human to
whom it (f.sg.) is given
9 and the one [ …] … And do not act mad,461 wicked ones, by saying it is not given
10 to him. And not [ …] to Israel. And as a good gift462 he offers it (f.sg.). And he
redeemed all his people
11 but destroyed those who dwell ..[…] And he says “the one who shows his
goodness463 by it (f.sg.) will carry it (f.sg.).” […The one who see]ks it (f.sg.),
12 will find it (f.sg.), and those who w[al]k in it (f.sg.) will inherit it. And with it (f.sg.)
is [length of d]ays, and fatness of bone, and a joyful heart ..[…]
13 and his everlasting464 mercies and acts of salvation [ …] Happy is the human who
does it (f.sg.), and does not slander against [it. With a mouth] of
14 deceit one cannot seek it (f.sg.) nor hold on to it (f.sg.) by flattery. As it (f.sg.) was
given to his fathers, so he will possess it (f.sg.). [ And he can hol]d i[t]
15 with all the power of his strength and with all his [migh]t without limit. And he can
cause his offspring to possess it (f.sg.), and my knowledge for [his] p[eople …]..

1–3 iii

1 to it (f.sg.), for goo[d …]

2 And from the horrors (?) …[ …]

461.
Alternative translation: Do not treat with content.
462.
It is not clear if this is a verb or a noun.
463.
The construal of this word is not clear.
464.
This word is not clear.

- 79 -
3–6 [ …]
7 Woe[ …]….[ …]
8 ..[ … G]od tests all, and upon [ …]
9 And he[ …]And he does the words of the covena[nt …]
10 And d[oes] not[…].... [he j]udges the rebellious[ …]
11 Did no[t Go]d make the hearts, and[ …]
12 to all the innermost parts of the belly, and searches out its kidneys […]
13 the tongue and he knows its speech; God made the hands[ …]
14 [whether] good, or evil [ …]
15 [ …] according to the though[ts …]

Fragment 5

1 and.[…]

2 …[ …]

3 …[ …]

Fragment 6

1 [ …] …[ …]

2 [...] and I will show.. [ …]

3 [ …] …[ …]

- 80 -
3. A Close Reading of 4Q185: Structure and Content

The aim of this chapter is to read and analyse the text based upon my transcription of the
manuscript. The close study of the manuscript reveals new readings that warrant a new
literary analysis. For the most part, 4Q185 has been interpreted on the basis of the text edition
in the DJD together with Strugnell’s comments.465 4Q185 was presented in DJDJ 5 without a
label, but the association with wisdom was already established, and since the comments of
Strugnell, 4Q185 is generally regarded as an example of wisdom literature. 466 DJD 39 labels
the composition “4QSapiential Work” and lists it as a “Didactic speech,” which is a
subcategory of “Sapiential texts.”467 I do not object to this generic classification, but the
author of 4Q185 did not appear to make use of explicit wisdom vocabulary and the preserved
portions of the text do not support the idea that an association with the Hebrew wisdom
literature is dominant in the speech. The manuscript is damaged, and the reading of the
compositions is fragmentary. As a result, recent research has focused more on one part of the
composition, the beatitudes, on the expense of the larger context.468 This close reading will
give a detailed analysis of all the preserved portions of the text. My questions in this chapter
are mainly as follows: What does the extant text of 4Q185 say? What are the themes of the
speech?

3.1 The Approach of Close Reading

There are several obstacles to reading and analysing a fragmentary composition. As we have
seen in the previous chapter, extensive portions of the composition are lost, and the text is
often distorted by erosion or lacunas. The fragmentary condition of the manuscript presents
methodological and hermeneutical challenges to the analysis. In order to approach the text as
it is, my analysis of the textual contents starts with a presentation of the overall structure. The
basis for this structure are the transitions in the text, which are signalled by formulaic
expressions, but also thematic shifts. According to my reading, the composition draws on

465.
See the commentary on 4Q185 in Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 122–145. See also Kampen, Wisdom
Literature, 250–269.
466.
Allegro did label 4Q185 “4QWisdd” in his process of assembling the manuscript. See Allegro, Cave 4: I
(4Q158–4Q186).
467.
Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 140.
468.
See the definitions of ‘manuscript,’ ‘text,’ and ‘composition’ in ch. 1.5.

- 81 -
biblical motif complexes. There are no explicit quotations in 4Q185, but the use of biblical
idioms and motifs is extensive. These motif complexes are important in that they establish the
themes of the admonition.
There has been and still exists a major interest in identifying the scriptural influence
on Qumran writings. In textual analyses, the broad concept of intertextuality is commonly
concretised in different levels of scriptural influence, classified as echoes, allusions, and
quotations.469 I apply these categories in the close reading, but it is not my aim to present a
mapping of them in 4Q185. First of all, it is almost impossible to establish direct scriptural
influence. A similarity between texts does not necessarily point to a direct relationship
between them. Moreover, 4Q185 is a particularly difficult case due to the heavy deterioration
of the manuscript. However, in the best preserved parts of the manuscript, such as col. ii, it is
possible to examine the allusive language. The phraseology and imagery appears to be drawn
from Scripture, but several of these are motifs and idioms found in more than one scriptural
context and there is a danger that the task of establishing scriptural parallels becomes a
generally subjective activity. Despite these limitations, it can be a rewarding approach to
examine scriptural influence in 4Q185. I do not suggest that the meaning of the scriptural
allusions and echoes is determined by their scriptural origin. The new text is what bears the
meaning. However, I assume that the “speaker” or author is selective, either the selection is
motivated by a certain agenda, or is the result of mere association. The echoes or allusions
found within a work, in this case an admonition, likely originate from a corresponding mental
space and are in tune with one’s mood.470 Hence, the use of biblical motifs and phraseology,
regardless of whether or not they have an exact textual reference, has an impact upon the
structure and also the message of the speech. This deserves a fuller treatment than has been
given in previous research, and is therefore an integral part of this close reading.
The aim of this close reading is to provide a detailed analysis of the extant text, and to
explore the themes and motifs of the admonition as they now fit together to inform the
meaning and function of the whole composition. In order to map the textual contents of
4Q185, I will use the structure as a basis. Each textual unit will be described in terms of form
and content. Subgenres and formal concepts within the text will also be commented upon.
The admonition is to a large degree based upon imperatives and prohibitions, but it also
entails narrative elements, as well as poetry. The style is parallelistic, and at times the
symmetry of the composition aids the reading. Another central feature of 4Q185 is the use of

469.
See definitions and discussion in ch. 1.7.
470.
By the term ‘mood’ I do not refer to the grammatical term associated with modality, but simply the
psychological state of the author.

- 82 -
imagery and metaphorical language. I use the term ‘imagery’ as a general notion of figurative
language. A metaphorical statement makes a comparison between a source and a target. It is a
general idea that a ‘simile’ is a comparison, whereas a ‘metaphor’ is conceptually a
comparison, but without this being explicated. The first column contains a series of similes
on humanity, and even though these are not metaphors by definition, the language can
arguably be described as metaphorical.471

3.2 Structure of the Text

As part of my close reading I have organised the extant text according to its formal and
thematic structure. The most important structural device in the composition is the addressee
formulas. These provide clear indications of structure as they signal shifts in the speech.
Hence, they provide my reading with a starting point for the structural analysis. There are
also envelopes, one vacat,472 and two beatitudes that inform the structure of the composition.
Another guide to the structure is the themes within the motif complexes.
The structural analysis deals with the extant text, beginning in col. i 4 and ending in
col. iii 15. The material evidence indicates that the composition was longer, perhaps
including a preceding sheet and possibly an extra column.473 I designate the missing first sheet
as the first subdivision within the text, Part I. The last part, referred to as Part IV, comprises
only fragmentary text from the second half of the third column. I will not include smaller
fragments without a placement in the manuscript, the so-called distant joins; thus, the
analysis ends in the third extant column with Part IV.474 There are three main thematic
subdivisions in the surviving text: Part II: Judgment, Part III: Restoration, and Part IV:
Judgment.
Part II (i 4–ii 8a) is a longer sequence that moves from poetry to prose, but the overall
theme is judgment and human weakness. I have organised this part into three subsections
according to style and theme. The first is a poetic passage from col. i 4–13a. It consists of two
larger motif complexes that both revolve around a fearful scenario: judgment. The wrath of
God, expressed through his judgments, exposes humans as powerless and frail beings without

471.
In order to clarify the difference between the two categories, Isa 40 will serve as an example. In Isa 40:6
there are two metaphorical statements. The first is without a comparative particle ‫“ כל הבשר חציר‬all flesh is
grass” and may be defined a metaphor. The second is with the comparative particle ‫“ כל חסדו כציץ‬all their
faithfulness is like a flower,” hence it is a simile. For a theoretical discussion on the difference between a
metaphor and a simile; see Løland, Silent or Salient Gender?, 32, 47–51.
472.
A vacat is an uninscribed space in the running text.
473.
See discussion in ch. 2.1.
474.
On distant and material joins; see Stegemann, “How to Connect Dead Sea Scroll Fragments.”

- 83 -
hope. The poetical passage elaborates upon human character by drawing from a scriptural
motif cluster about the Lord’s day and human weakness. The first passage on judgment (i 4–
9a) is fragmentary and there is no addressee formula preserved. The extant text consists of a
series of rhetorical statements ending with, “For with flaming fire he shall be judged
[according to] his spirits.” The second motif complex is introduced with the address “And
you” (i 9b–13a). This passage draws from a motif complex on human finitude, and it
transforms passages from Isaiah by combining them with the pessimistic outlook of 1 Chr
29:15: there is no hope. Towards the end (ii 12), there is a vacat before a pessimistic
conclusion repeats phraseology from the two passages, the judgment scene and the botanical
imagery, forming an inclusio.475
The second subsection (i 13b–ii 5a) consists of exhortations. An addressee formula,
“And now, please listen, my people,” moves the discourse from poetic imagery to exhortation
based upon history (i 13b). The exhortation can be divided into two units. The first is a series
of “calls to act” (i 13b–ii 2). There is a lesson to be learned: the recipients are exhorted to
humble themselves, to remember God’s doings, and make their hearts tremble. The aim of the
exhortation is to move the addressees on to the way of life, else they will go down a path of
destruction. The positive appeals end with a rhetorical question (ii 2b). After an introductory
address, “Listen to me, my children,” the exhortation moves on with two negative appeals (ii
3b–4a). These are also followed by another rhetorical question (ii 4b–5a). While the “calls to
act” are more or less grounded in the character of God, the prohibitions evoke the history of
sin. Throughout the exhortation, there are references to historical events, mainly God’s acts of
judgment but also the human response to God.476 The instruction points towards and prepares
the shift of “restoration,” but the orientation towards judgment is continued within this part of
the speech. The third and last sequence of Part II is a series of threats (ii 5b–8a). This section
is very fragmentary, but there seems to be an address formula in line 7, corresponding to the
one in i 9: “and you.”
A new major subdivision begins with the beatitude in line 8b (ii 8b–iii 2). This section
(Part III), which is concerned with restoration, is more mixed and changes between beatitude,
instruction, and statements of warning and promise. Having judgment as a constant backdrop,
there is now emphasis on something “given” and something “they” will inherit. The listener
is encouraged to “search” and “find” the God-given object. The admonition further asserts
that those who walk in “it” will inherit it. This inheritance is associated with strength, joy,

475.
See a table of the inclusio in ch. 4.2.1.
476.
The wonders and signs of Egypt (i 14–15), the instructions given to Jacob and Isaac (ii 4), and the
prohibition not to rebel appears to allude to the wilderness sin (ii 3).

- 84 -
and salvation. In the centre are two beatitudes. While the first (ii 8b) congratulates the happy
receiver of God’s gift, the second (ii 13) congratulates the one who “does” according to it.
Just as Part II is concerned with human weakness and points to the correct attitude towards
God, Part III presents a transformed human. The larger sequence is both associative and
elaborative but never explicit concerning the given entity, which is only referred to by a
feminine suffix. Although the text can be structured according to the beatitudes, the thematic
shift from receiving to doing is found at the end of line 10. Thus, the two beatitudes are
thematically intertwined.
Most of the third column is lost, but the two fragments have text that refers to God’s
knowledge about humans. He knows the word of the tongue and he searches their inner parts.
Thus, Part IV (iii 8–15) deals with God’s activity as judge, testing the human body and mind.
Lines 14–15, which only preserve a few extant words, are best understood in relation to the
same theme. Again there is emphasis upon human character and God’s power, which is
reflected earlier in the composition.

The analysis in my close reading will reflect the following structure:

Part I

1.1 Lost sheet

Part II: Concerning God’s Judgment and Human Condition, Cols. i 4–ii 8a

2.1 Column i 4–13a: Human weakness and hope

2.1.1 Column i 4–9a: Motif complex on judgment

a. Fragmentary phrases concerning wrath and punishment, i 4–6
b. No strength and no hope, i 7–9a
1) Negative statements
2) Rhetorical question
3) ‫כי‬-sentence: Judgment with fire

2.1.2 Column i 9b–13a: Motif complex on human finitude

a. Introductory formula, i 9
b. Simile on human ‫חסד‬, i 10–12a
1) The flower and the wind, i 10
2) Withering and perishing, i 11
3) Not finding him, i 12a
(Vacat)
c. Negative envelopes: No hope, i 12b

- 85 -
 d. Simile on human days, i 13a

2.2 Columns i 13b– ii 5a: Yahweh’s might and human attitudes

2.2.1 Columns i 13b–ii 3a: Concerning proper behaviour

a. Introductory addressee formula, i 13b–14a
b. Positive appeals, i 13a–ii 2
1) Learn from me
2) Humble yourselves
3) Remember
4) Tremble before his dread
5) Do his will
6) Rejoicing
c. Way motifs and judgment, ii 1–2
1) Way of life and the path (of destruction)
2) Remnant for children after you
d. Rhetorical question, ii 3a
2.2.2 Column ii 3b–5a: Concerning improper behaviour
a. Introductory/addressee formula, ii 3b
b. Two vetitives, ii 3–4
1) Do not rebel
2) Do not deviate
c. Rhetorical statement, ii 4b–5a

2.3 Column ii 5b–8a: Threats and reminders of judgment

a. Threats, ii 5b–7
1) Dread
2) Fowler’s snare
3) Threat of angels
b. Rhetorical question (?), ii 7b–8a
c. Statement about judgment, ii 8

Part III: Concerning Restoration and Salvation, Cols. ii 8b–iii 2

3.1 Columns ii 8b–iii 2: The Gift and its Recipients

3.1.1 Column ii 8–13a: First beatitude

a. Concerning the begifted human, ii 8b–10a
1) Statement of identification
2) Warning
b. Concerning the gift to Israel, ii 10b–13a
1) Promise of salvation and warning
2) The identification of the recipient
3) Rewards

- 86 -
 3.1.2 Column ii 13a–iii 2: Second beatitude
a. Concerning the human who puts it into practice, ii 13b–14
1) Statement of identification
2) Warnings concerning incorrect behaviour
b. Concerning transmission, ii 14b–iii 2
1) Transmission through generations
2) Unlimited strength
3) Warning?

3.2 Lost part

Part IV: Concerning Judgment and Testing Col. iii 7–15

4. 1 Column iii 7–15: God’s knowledge of the Human Body

a. God tests all, iii 7–10
b. God searches the human body, iii 11–15

3.3 A Close Reading

This close reading follows the subsequent structure. The headlines accord with the structure
presented in 3.2 and serve to organize each passage according to the overall structure. Each
larger subsection will be briefly introduced according to themes and overarching perspectives
before I engage in a more detailed analysis. At the end of each subsection I provide a
summary.

Part I: No extant text

Part II: God’s Judgment and Human Condition

The main topics in part II are God’s powerful judgments and human finitude. These topics are
interrelated, and both are elaborated through poetical imagery followed by instructions.
According to my structural analysis, there is a connection between the poetic imagery and the
following exhortations and threats. The motif complexes on judgment and human finitude
prepare for the following exhortations as they remind the recipient of their finite state and of
God’s indefinite power.

- 87 -
Part II, 1: Human Weakness and Hope (Col. i 4–13a)

As we have seen in the outlined structure, I have identified two larger motif complexes in the
first subsection of Part II: “motif complex on judgment,” and “motif complex on human
finitude.” These are separated by a transition in the admonition made by an addressee
formula; but an inclusio towards the end, the refrain “there is no hope,” connects the larger
passage and indicates that there is one continued emphasis throughout the two motif
complexes.

Column i 4–9a: Motif Complex on Judgment

◦[ ]‫[טהור וקדוש‬
֯ ] 4
◦[ ]◦ ‫[מתו וכחמתו‬ ] 5
ׄ ‫לפע‬
[ ]‫מים‬ ׄ ‫[ל] [ש ועד עשר‬ ] 6
‫ואיׄןׄ מקוה‬
֯ ‫[ ואין כח לעמוד לפניה‬ ] 7
‫[ ומי יכלכל לעמוד לפני מלאכיו כי באש‬ ]‫לזעם‬ 8
‫ישפט] לפ[י רוחתיו‬
֯ ‫להבה‬ 9

4 [...]pure and holy[...].

5 [...]... and according to his wrath[ ...].
6 [...]and up to ten times[ ...].
7 [...]and no strength to stand before it (f.sg.), and no hope
8 before the anger[ ...] Who can endure to stand before his angels? For with flaming
9 fire he shall be judged [according to] his spirits.

The preserved text on lines 4–9 all centre on different aspects of judgment. Speeches in the
prophetic literature that pronounce doom generally associate the forthcoming judgment of
Yahweh with wrath. Human conditions have provoked Yahweh’s anger, which is manifested
in powerful demonstrations of Yahweh’s power. The language in this section is allusive and
draws on this topos in the prophetical literature, hence I call this section “Motif complex on

- 88 -
judgment.”477 It is not clear how extensive the first judgment passage was. The top of the first
column is damaged, and larger parts of it have broken away.478 The terms ‫‘ טהור‬pure’ and ‫קדוש‬
‘holy’ are found in collocation with the theme of judgment in other texts (e.g. Isa 66), and
therefore it is plausible to assume that the text in col. i 4 belongs to the larger theme of
judgment in 4Q185. Thus, I choose to include line 4 in this section. I will now examine the
smaller units of the text in a more detailed manner, before summarising the larger motif
complex found in this section.

Column i 4–6: Wrath and Rebuke?

The extant text in 4–6 leaves only semantic clues, but can be related to the theme of
judgment. “Pure” (‫ )טהור‬and “holy” (‫ )קדוש‬are here best understood as singular adjectives, but
it is not clear what they describe. It is not possible to determine whether the two terms refer
to something or someone in a positive or negative sense solely on the basis of the
collocation.479 Purification may be part of the logic of judgment. In 4Q370, purification is
connected with God’s judgment in a passage that precedes a textual overlap with 4Q185.
4Q370 1 ii 3 reads: ‫“ ויטהרם מעונם‬And he will purify them from their iniquity.” In 4Q370, the
term “purify” is used as a verb. The occurrence of the term in 4Q185, thus calls for a slightly
different reading.480 Nevertheless, the collocation with “holy” in 4Q185 is probably connected
with judgment, as this theme is brought up in the following lines. The two terms ‫“ טהור‬pure”
and ‫“ קדוש‬holy” might thus have a positive reference, such as the renewed human.481 “Pure”
and “holy” may also have cultic associations. A connection with the wrath of God is implied
by the context, as ‫“ חמתו‬his wrath” appears to be initiative for the whole passage (i 5). In a
judgment speech in Isa 66:17, the terms are used as active participles, describing those who
cause the anger of God to flame up:
Those who sanctify (‫ )המתקדשים‬and purify (‫ )המטהרים‬themselves to go into the
gardens, after one in the midst, eating the flesh of pigs, vermin, and rodents,
shall come to an end together, says the Lord. (Isa 66:17)

477.
I use the term ‘topos’ to denote a literary theme.
478.
The remaining pieces can be put together as they are on PAM 43.439.
479.
The two terms appear to be collocated in 4Q504 ‫“ קדו[שים וטהור]ים‬holy and pure” (frg. 6, 16). The close
context is a prayer that recalls Exodus, the giving of the law, and God’s dwelling among his people, but the
exact reference of the two terms is unclear. The two plural nouns, “holy” and “pure,” may serve to describe
people, and possibly a specific group of people that are purified (cf. Ezra 6:20; 2 Chr 30:17).
480.
According to 1QS and Hodayot, one may be purified from sin (1QS XI 14; 1QHa XV 33). On moral
impurity, see Jonathan Klawans, Impurity and Sin in Ancient Judaism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000),
43–60.
481.
The terms are collocated in Psalm 51, where the psalmist requests for a pure heart (Ps 51:12) and begs the
deity not to take his holy spirit away from him (Ps 51:13)

- 89 -
A similar critique of the profanation of the cult is found in Ezekiel (Ezek 22:26). Hence, the
context in 4Q185, which puts emphasis on God’s wrath, points in the direction of
condemnation or accusation, in line with Isa 66 or Ezek 22.482 The combination of ‫חמה‬
“wrath” with the particle ‫ כ‬is only found in Ezek 25:14, but the suffixed noun ‫“ חמתו‬his
wrath” is repeatedly used to describe God’s wrath as directed towards people (Nah 1:6; Isa
51:17; Ps 78:38).
ׄ ‫לפע‬
Line 6 reads ‫מים‬ ׄ ‫“ ועד עשר‬and up to ten times.” The repetition of a specific act or
event may be part of the strategy within a ritual-like performance.483 The number seven, for
instance, sometimes carries a symbolic function. For example, the pure promises of God are
purified seven times (Ps 12:7). According to Lev 26:23.27, God will punish the people
sevenfold, corresponding to the evil of the people. The number ten, however, is not a frequent
symbolic number, but may be associated with the ten commandments, or the ten plagues.484 In
Num 14:22 the number ten appears to be used in a symbolic way: just as the people tested
God ten times, so God will punish with plagues that correspond to the ten plagues of Egypt.
The number ten is not of importance in the historical summaries in Psalms 78 and 106, but
the punishments are congruous with Egypt. According to Psalms 78 and 106, the people
tested God again and again, and the punishments were associated with great wrath. God
almost destroyed them because of his ‫“ חמה‬wrath.”485 Read within the context of judgment,
the “ten times” may be understood as a reference to rebuke or punishment.486

Column i 7–8: No Strength to Stand and No Hope

The first extant verbal phrase of this unit is an infinitive, ‫“ לעמוד‬to stand.” It is a statement
rather than an actual event: “There is no strength to stand in front of it (f.sg.)” The standing is
situated before something or someone, but the exact reference of the feminine suffix is not
clear. Goff vaguely suggests that it could be wisdom, but concludes that the antecedent is a
feminine noun from a section that is lost.487 In my opinion, there is nothing in this context that

482.
The reconstruction ‫“ כנק[מתו וכחמתו‬entsprechend seiner Rache und entsprechend seines Zorns;” is suggested
by Lichtenberger, “neue Edition.” See ch. 2.5.
483.
I define ritual as a strategic act. See further on ritual in ch. 7.
484.
Ten is sometimes used as a standard round number (cf. Dan 1:12). The same appears to be the case in 1QS
VII 11–15. See discussion on “ten days” in John Goldingay, Daniel (WBC; Dallas: Word Books, 1989), 20.
485.
See similar idea in Ezek 20:8.
486.
The complaint of Job refer to “ten times” (Job 19:3) and seems to hint at Num 14:22. This might indicate
that the number ten is conceptualised, see Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 257.
487.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 124. See also Benjamin G. Wold, “Memory in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Exodus,
Creation and Cosmos,” in Memory in the Bible and Antiquity: The Fifth Durham-Tübingen Research
Symposium (Durham, September 2004) (ed. Loren T. Stuckenbruck, Stephen C. Barton, and Benjamin G. Wold;
WUNT 212; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 52.

- 90 -
implies wisdom. The feminine suffix might refer to the anger of God, as both ‫ חמה‬and ‫ אף‬are
feminine nouns. God’s wrath is already introduced in line 5 and repeated at the beginning of
line 8. This would be in line with Psalm 76, which has a similar expression about standing
before the wrath of God in connection with judgment: “Who can stand (‫ )ומי יעמד‬before you
when once your anger is roused?” (Ps 76:8).
The statement affirms that there is no ‫“ כח‬strength” to stand. The meaning of ‫ כח‬is
often associated with the vital strength of humans.488 Strength is something given by God, but
also taken away by the deity.489 The motif of having no strength to stand is found repeatedly in
the Hebrew Bible, and the exact phrase ‫ אין כח לעמוד‬is found in Ezra 10:13. In Ezra 9:15, the
lack of strength indicates mental strength and is explicitly connected to the sin of the people,
while in Ezra 10:13 it has a double meaning: the people cannot stand because of the heavy
rain. The statement clearly echoes the previous note in Ezra 9:15, and their lack of power is
ultimately reflected in their sin.
In the context of 4Q185, the lack of strength to stand seems to imply both a physical
and a mental or moral condition. Line 7 parallels the phrase in Ezra 10:13. It is notable that in
the context of Ezra, it is mentioned that there is still hope (‫( )יש מקוה‬Ezra 10:2). In 4Q185,
there is neither strength nor hope. The phrase ‫“ ואין מקוה‬and no hope” is the end of the line,
but it appears to be continued in the next line. Hence, one could read [...]‫“ ואין מקוה לזעם‬no
hope before the anger[...].”490 In the Hodayot ‫“ מקוה‬hope” is repeatedly connected to human
fate in relation to judgment.491 In the context of 4Q185, the phrase ‫“ ואין מקוה‬and no hope”
needs to be read in light of the larger passage, as the phrase is repeated in line 12, forming an
inclusio. Thus, the statement that there is no hope is connected with more than just wrathful
judgment; it is also associated with human life in general.

Column i 8: Standing Before Angels

The meaning of the statements that deny strength and hope is further hinted at in a rhetorical
statement in line 8, which may function as a third denial: “Who can endure to stand before
his angels?” The rhetorical question repeats the emphasis on the inability to stand, again with
an infinitive, but adds another verb ‫( כול‬pilpel impf.) “endure.” Thus, the tension is increased.

488.
Dörte Bester, Körperbilder in den Psalmen: Studien zu den Psalm 22 und verwandten Texten (FAT 2. Reihe
24; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 201.
489.
See Pss 22:16 and 102:24.
490.
A similar syntax with the prefixed ‫ ל‬is found in Nahum 1:6; Ps 38:4; 4Q417 frg. 2 i 16.
491.
1QHa XVII 14. See also Job 14ff, which claims that here is hope for the tree, but not for the human as she
will not rise again after she has been cut down.

- 91 -
The interrogative ‫ מי‬introduces information as it implicitly states that no one can.492
Again the phraseology is allusive, and the echoes of judgment motifs evoke the theme
of judgment. Variants of the rhetorical question ‫“ ומי יכלכל לעמוד‬and who can endure to
stand?” can be found in e.g. Mal 3:2 and Joel 2:11.493 In Ps 130:3 the psalmists calls from the
depths: “If you should mark iniquities, who can stand (‫ ”?)מי יעמד‬The connection with
iniquities or moral flaw in 4Q185 is not explicit, but it is implied.
The adverbial phrase ‫“ לפני מלאכיו‬before his angels” brings about the context of
judgment (e.g. Mal 3:2). The infinitive ‫“ לעמוד‬to stand” does not refer to the same situation,
as the suffix in line 7 ‫( לפניה‬f.sg.) “before her” cannot refer to ‫( מלאכיו‬m.pl.) “his angels.”
Still, there is an association between the standing in front of ‫“ חמתו‬his wrath” and ‫“ מלאכיו‬his
angels,” and the two lines parallel each other. God’s wrath and his angels occasionally appear
as identical entities. The angel symbolises the presence and voice of God and is also referred
to as an instrument of destruction (Exod 33:2; Ps 78:49).494
The judgment scene in 4Q185 depicts a group of angels that take part in the event.
‫‘ מלאך‬angel’ or ‘messenger’ is a heavenly being which sometimes acts on behalf of God. In
the narrative texts of the Hebrew Bible it is mostly singular, ‫“ מלאך יהוה‬the angel of Yahweh.”
However, there are also examples of angels executing judgment. The recollection of the
Exodus event in Psalm 78 notes that ‫“ מלאכי רעים‬evil angels” are God’s servants in the
execution of the plagues (Ps 78:49). Correspondingly, ‫“ מלאכי חבל‬angels of destruction” take
part in judgment in CD II 6 and 1QS IV 12.495 4Q185 appears to be in line with the latter idea,
but the language is drawn from Scripture.
Lines 7–8 constitute a series of statements that are chained to each other by repeated
pessimistic emphasis. The double denial, no strength to stand and no hope, underlines the
impossible condition of humanity, but it also demonstrates the power of God’s wrath. While
line 7 declares that there is no strength to stand, line 8 continues the emphasis on the inability
to stand. Apparently no one is able, thus there is no hope.

492.
On self-abasement and insult formulas; see Bruce K. Waltke and Michael Patrick O’Connor, An
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 322. See also “Emphatic statement”
in Lénart de Regt, “Rhetorical Questions in the Book of Job,” in Biblical Hebrew and Discourse Linguistics, ed.
Robert D. Bergen (Wiona Lake: Summer Institutes of Linguistics, Inc, 1994), 362.
493.
The rhetorical question ‫“ ומי מכלכל‬Who can endure?” is found in Mal 3:2 and Joel 2:11. See also the
judgment speech in Amos 7:2, where the prophet advocates for the people: “How can Jacob stand? He is so
small!” A similar idea is found also in 4QInstruction (4Q417) 2i: 15–16: ֯‫לפני ]אפו[ לוא יעמוד כול ומי יצדק במשפטו‬
“before [his anger] no one will stand; and who will be acquitted in his judgment?”
494.
See also 1 Chr 21, Exod 14, Isa 37, and Ps 35:5.
495.
On angels in the Qumran Literature, see Maxwell J. Davidsen, Angels at Qumran. A Comparative Study of
1 Enoch 1–26, 72–108 and Sectarian Writings from Qumran (JSPSup; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992).

- 92 -
Column i 8b–9a: Judgment with Flaming Fire

The accumulation of negative statements creates a tension that is resolved by the ‫כי‬-clause: ‫כי‬
‫ישפט] לפ[י רוחתיו‬
֯ ‫“ באש להבה‬for with flaming fire he shall be judged [according to] his spirits.”
The ‫כי‬-clause offers a rational explanation to the forgoing statements and the rhetorical
question.496 The association of divine judgment with fire and wrath is implied within the close
context in 4Q185, and it is a common association within the Hebrew Bible.497 The phrase, as
it is in 4Q185 ‫“ באש להבה‬with flaming fire,” is rare, but Psalm 105 describes the seventh
plague in similar terms: as ‫“ אש להבה‬flames of fire” (Ps 105:32).498 The phrase is also found in
Isa 66:15, one of the prime examples of judgment with fire, only inverse:499

For look, Yahweh will come in fire (‫)באש‬, and his chariots like the whirlwind, to pay
back his anger in wrath, and his rebuke in flames of fire (‫)בלהבי אש‬. For by fire (‫)באש‬
will Yahweh execute judgment, and by his sword, on all flesh; and those slain by
Yahweh shall be many (Isa 66:15–16).

The “flaming fire” symbolises God’s wrath and power, but it may also be a purifying force
that prepares for judgment (cf. Mal 3:2–3) and also refines (cf. Zech 3:19). Thus, fire may
also be connected with purification.
The association of fire and angels in connection with judgment is a common feature
within the apocalyptic genre,500 and some scholars has made this connection, assuming that
the angels are executing judgment in 4Q185.501 The association of judgment with fire appears
to have been an increasingly common concept, as the idea is rather frequent in the texts from
Qumran. The idea that judgment is executed with fire, and at times that judgment takes place
at a location with fire, is not only found in text within the apocalyptic genre, but included in
brief notes on judgment in the Community Rule (1QS), in the Damascus Document, and in
sapiential compositions.502 The passage in 4Q185 clearly has an eschatological reference, and
textual parallels can be found with texts that deal with human sin, judgment, and the Lord’s

496.
On causal clause, see paragraph 38.4 in Waltke and O’Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax.
497.
See Deut 32:22, Nah 1:6, and Ps 78:21. The dream vision in Dan 7:9–11 reports a scene from a lawsuit
where the ruler’s throne is depicted as flaming fire and thousands of people are standing before it. The beast is
killed and thrown into the burning fire.
498.
Note that Ex 9:23–24 refers to the seventh plague as an instance of thunder, hail and fire (‫)אש‬. See also Lam
2:3.
499.
See also Isa 29:6, 30:30, and Joel 29:6.
500.
An ‘apocalypse’ is “a genre of revelatory literature within a narrative framework, in which a revelation is
mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both
temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another supernatural
world;” see John J. Collins, “Introduction: Towards the Morphology of a Genre,” Semeia 14 (1979): 9.
501.
Tobin makes a connection with 1 Enoch, especially 91–105; see Thomas H. Tobin, “4Q185 and Jewish
Wisdom Literature,” 151. Goff notes the similarity with 1 En 68:2. See Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 124–25.
502.
See Judgment with flaming fire in CD II 5 and ‫“ אש עולמים‬eternal flames” 1QS II 8. See also 1QpHab X 3–
5,13, 4Q184 and 4Q525.

- 93 -
day. Still, the statement does not necessarily disclose an event in the future. In a strict sense,
the infinitives are not located in time or place. 4Q185 makes a rhetorical point and not a
report of a vision, thus there is nothing within the larger passage on judgment that demands
an apocalyptic reading.503
Unfortunately, a lacuna disturbs the reading, and it is not clear who is the agent in the
act of judgment. One possibility is that the angels execute judgment: [ ‫[“ ישפת]ו‬they] will
judge.”504After the lacuna, there is a noun with suffix, ‫“ רוחתיו‬his spirits.” “Spirits” may refer
to the angels of line 8. As we have seen, angels are sometimes associated with judgment,
hence it makes sense to identify the angels as agents of destruction.505 Nevertheless, in light of
the syntax, the execution of judgment does not necessarily imply the agency of angels. In the
forgoing phrase, angels are presented as a jury in a court, as the rhetorical question implies:
“Who can endure to stand before his angels?”506 The actual judgment, however, is initiated
and executed by the power of Yahweh. I read ‫ישפט] לפ[י רוחתיו‬
֯ “he shall be judged [according
to] his spirits” and suggest another interpretation of the term ‫רוח‬: the spirits may refer to
something other than servants of God. “Spirit” may also refer to the spiritual quality of
humans. In Mal 2:16, one is exhorted to watch one’s ‫רוח‬, “spirit”, and not act treacherously.
This warning is found in immediate context with purification and judgment (Mal 3:1–3). The
human ‫ רוח‬may refer to her breath, feeling, or will.507 One may err in spirit (Isa 29:24) or
regain a new spirit (Ezek 36:26). Thus, to be judged according to one’s spirits points to the
testing of human attitude and mind (Prov 16:2).508 The same theme is taken up later on in col.
iii 13–15. In order to summarise, 4Q185 is in line with most texts that describe the Lord’s
day, and presents Yahweh’s act of judgment with flaming fire. I suggest that the noun with a
suffix ‫ רוחתיו‬is an indirect object, which would be more in line with the syntax of this
sentence. The niphal ‫“ ישפט‬to be judged” would maintain the preceding focus on the state of
human: his lack of strength and the inability to stand.

503.
The judgment scenes within the apocalyptic texts are presented as visions and often with a spatial concern.
On his journey (1 Enoch 21) Enoch gets to see the place of punishment for the disobedient and the prison of the
rebel angels. The location is neither in heaven nor on earth but in a “chaotic and terrible place.” From there he
travels to another place, even more terrible, and he sees “a great fire burning and flaming there.” See George W.
E. Nickelsburg, Klaus Baltzer, and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch (2
vols.; Hermeneia Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001). See also Carol A. Newsom, “The Development of 1 Enoch 6–
19: Cosmology and Judgment,” CBQ 42, no. 3 (1980); P. M. Venter, “Spatiality in Enoch’s Journeys,” in
Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition (ed. Florentino García
Martínez; Leuven: University Press, 2003).
504.
See discussion on readings in ch 2. 4.
505.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 124.
506.
The beings that minister on God’s behalf are named differently. In the heavenly throne scene in 1 Kings
22:21 they are called ‫רוח‬, in Isa 6:2 ‫שרפים‬, whereas in Job 1:6 ‫ בני האלהים‬.
507.
Hans Walter Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974), 32–39.
508.
This is also implied in CD XX 24, which states that each member of the congregations shall be judged
according to his spirit. See also 1QHa VI 22. Note the plural in 1QHa IV 17.

- 94 -
Summary: Motif Complex on Judgment

According to my reading, the prophetic traditions in the Hebrew Bible that describe the
Lord’s day serve as the basis for the ideas and expectations of God’s judgment in this
passage. This does not mean, however, that I exclude the possibility of other influences. I
further suggest that the Exodus motif may function as a key to this motif complex, partly due
to a reference to the Exodus motif later on in the admonition (i 14–15) and partly in light of
its use within the prophetic Lord’s day. There the Exodus event is recalled as the prototypical
judgment, and God reveals his strength through his punishments and plagues.509 Judgment is
not merely an eschatological event, but it may also refer to the perpetual acts of punishment
by God as rehearsed over and over in the historical texts of the Pentateuch, in the historical
psalms, and in the prophetic judgment speeches. Thus, judgment may be experienced as
ׄ ‫לפע‬
punishment and plagues, as possibly referred to in the phrase ‫מים‬ ׄ ‫“ עשר‬ten times” (i 6).
The angel of God, either in singular as in the Exodus narrative, or in plural as in the recalled
narration of the same event in Ps 78:49, is connected with the plagues and punishment, and
thus has a natural role in the execution of God’s judgment.

Column i 9b–13a: Motif Complex on Human Finitude

‫[כי הנׄה‬ ]‫ואתם בני אדם א‬ 9

‫נשב]ה בו [רוחו‬ ׄ
֯ ‫יפרח כציץ חסדו‬ ׄ
‫מארצו‬ ׄ
‫כחציר יצמח‬ 10
‫לעמ]וד ויא[בד‬ ‫י‬ ׄ
֯ ‫ויבש ֯עג֯ זו וציצו תשא רוח עד אנ קום‬ 11
‫ולא ימצא כי רוח ]] [[ יׄבקשוהו ולא ימצאהו ואין מקוה‬ 12
[‫האר]ץ‬
֯ ‫ימים על‬
֯ ‫והוא כצל‬ 13

9 And you, children of Adam, .[...] For look,

10 like grass he sprouts from his soil. His faithfulness blossoms like a flower.
His wind blows[ on it]
11 and its stalk withers. And the wind carries its flower, until there is no rising up to
st[and and it perish]es.
12 And it is not found, but wind. vacat They can seek him, but will not find him,
and there is no hope.
13 And he, like a shadow are his days upon the ea[rth.]

A formal transition moves the attention to the addressees and their finitude. Just as we have

509.
See Joel 1–2.

- 95 -
seen in the former passage on judgment, the cluster of motifs found in this passage are
similarly drawn from Scripture. The word picture appears to allude very closely to Isa 40, but
it is also drawn from other scriptural passages associated with human finitude. This theme,
and the motifs associated with it, are found throughout the wisdom literature, the Psalms, and
the prophetic literature. Moreover, the two literary motifs, the flower and shadow similes, are
also found in the textual overlap with 4Q370.
The manuscript preserves the text relatively well, and a close reading is possible.

Column i 9b: Introduction Formula

The introduction formula ‫“ ואתם בני אדם‬And you, children of Adam” signals the beginning of
a new unit. The inclusion of the independent pronoun in the vocative is emphatic and
sharpens the attention of the addressees, moreover it invites the addressee to relate
themselves to the pessimistic similes that follow. The appositional phrase “children of
Adam,” which identifies the addressees, is a general label on humankind, but it is also
associated with mortality and sinfulness.510 The designation of the introduction formula
implies that the following concerns every mortal human being.
Before the end of the line, there is a lacuna that interrupts the reading. One can only
read the first letter of a word, [ ]‫א‬. After the lacuna, a new sentence is introduced by ‫כי הנה‬.511
Some scholars suggest restoring the lacuna with statements about the children of Adam, such
as ‫“ אספ הוא‬nothing is he” or ‫“ אין כח‬no strength.”512 I have refrained from reconstruction,
although it seems clear that the lost statement is further explained or argued in the subsequent
text. After the lacuna, one can read ‫“ כי הנה‬for look,” which hints at the special significance of
the message. The formula ‫ כי הנה‬has prophetic overtones and is sometimes used to signal a
prophetic utterance (e.g. Isa 66:15; Jer 30:3; Mal 4:1). Hence, the poetic imagery that alludes
to Isaiah can be understood as mediation of a prophetic message.

Column i 10–12a: Human Nature

The main object of the comparison is the human and ‫“ חסדו‬his faithfulness.” The comparative
ׄ
particle ‫ כ‬is attached to two nouns, ‫כחציר‬ “like grass” and ‫“ כציץ‬like a flower.” These similes
complement each other, as they are both part of the same larger metaphor.513 One could easily

510.
Cf. Isa 51:12 (‫)בן אדם‬, Jer 32:19 (‫)בני אדם‬, and Ezek 31:14 (‫)בני אדם‬. In Prov 8:4, ‫ בני אדם‬is paralleled with
‫אישׁים‬, in 2 Sam 7:14 the phrase is paralleled with ‫אנשים‬.
511.
The size of the lacuna is roughly 1 cm which indicates that two words are lost. See the discussion in ch. 2.5.
512.
Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 256; Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 133. See the discussion in ch. 2.5.
513.
A simile is a comparison, whereas a metaphor is a comparison that predicates or identifies something.

- 96 -
read this as two different similes, but the whole passage appears to refer to the same plant:
first the grass that grows from the earth, then the flower that sprouts from it. It is the stalk that
withers, and the wind that takes its rosette. Hence, all references may be read as variations or
components of the same flower. The metaphor covers the natural cycle of a flower, from the
sprouting of its grass, to the withering of its rosette and the state of no longer being. The
metaphor can be divided into three, following three different phases of this cycle. The first
verbs are imperfect and describe the initial phase, ‫( יצמח‬qal impf. 3.sg.) “he sprouts” (or
ׄ
“grows”) and ‫יפרח‬ (qal impf. 3.sg.) “it blossoms.” This is interrupted by the blowing of the
wind, ‫( נשב‬qal pf. 3.sg.) “it blows,” so that it ‫( יבש‬qal pf. 3.sg.) “withers.” The deterioration
of the flower represents a turn in the metaphor, which is marked by the shift from imperfect
to perfect tense. The third and last phase depicts the nothingness of the flower. Again the
tense is imperfect; the wind ‫( תשא‬qal impf. 3.sg.) “carries” the flower away from where it
stood. The last part of the line is fragmentary but the final phrase is preserved. The verb is
still imperfect, ‫“ ולא ימצא כי רוח‬and it is not found, but wind.” This last phase is the final state
of the flower: it is no more.
The agent in the metaphor is ‫“ רוח‬wind,” and the role of the wind is repeated three
times: “his wind” blows on it and it withers (i 10), the wind brings it to the state of not
standing (i 11), and last, the flower cannot be found. All that is left is the wind that destroyed
it (i 12). “His wind” can only be understood as the wind of God. It is notable that God is not
ׄ
directly portrayed as creator. One could read the masculine suffix ‫מארצו‬ “his soil” as a
reference to God’s earth, and not the plant, but no one is causing the flower to grow and
blossom.514 The emphasis is put on the reversal of creation: that his wind can turn the whole
process into a state worse than all, as if it was never there.
There are two similes, but as already noted, the parallelistic language ends up in one
greater image. There are various points of contact with the things compared. The analogy
between the grass, the flower, and humanity and its ‫ חסד‬is the combination of weakness and
beauty. First of all, the grass and human beings share a destiny, as their lifetime is limited on
earth. One prime example of this metaphor is found in Isa 51:12, where ‫ בן אדם‬is compared
with ‫ חציר‬grass, as a parallel to the statement ‫“ אנוש ימות‬a human who must die.” This kind of
metaphorical language is found in a number of texts, and often to emphasise moral character
(e.g. Isa 37:27; Ps 37:2). The other comparison is the portrayal of human loveliness or
faithfulness (‫ )חסד‬as momentary as the flower. The association of ‫“ ציץ‬flower” with a short

Hence, the simile maintains a distance between the things compared. For a theoretical discussion on the
difference between these categories; see Løland, Silent or Salient Gender?, 32, 47–51.
514.
See also the discussion on the reading of this line in ch 2.5.

- 97 -
lifespan is found in Isa 40:6–8; Ps 103:15; Job 14:2, but the combination of ‫“ ציץ‬flower,” ‫חציר‬
“grass,” and short lifespan is found only in Isa 40:6–8 and Ps 103:15. Only Isa 40:6 makes a
connection with human ‫חסד‬. On lexical grounds, 4Q185 appears to allude to this larger topos
of human finitude. In this light, the meaning of ‫ חסד‬is best understood as referring to the basic
character of humans: their finitude, but also their lack of faithfulness.
The agency of ‫ רוח‬is also important. Both Psalm 103:16 and Isa 40:7 makes mention
of the wind:

‫ כי רוח עברה־בו‬Ps 103:16

‫כי רוח יהוה נשבה בו‬ Isa 40:7

4Q185 is very close to Isa 40:7, when stating that the grass withers and the flower fades away
when Yahweh’s wind blows on it (‫)נשב]ה בו[ רוחו‬. The literary connection with Isa 40 is
widely recognised. This literary relationship is best described as an allusion, and not a
quotation.515 But in order to decide, one has to consider which version of Isaiah the author
was familiar with. In Isa 40 there is textual variation. In 1QIsaa XXXIII 7, there is a larger
textual addition written above the line that continues in the margin.

‫כי רוח ◦◦◦◦ נשבהבוא הכן חציר העם יבש חציל‬

‫( כול הבשר הציר וכול חסדיו כציצ השדה יבש חציר נבל ציצ‬1QIsaa 40:6–8)516
‫נבל ציצ ודבר אלוהינו ודבר אלוהינו יקום לעולם‬

1QIsaa is generally seen as a manuscript with multiple scribal errors and free renderings.517
There is no immediate reason to assume that this is a later elaboration of the text, although
the Greek Septuagint does have a shorter version without the phrase “because the spirit of the

515.
Flint argues that 4Q185 is not quoting Isa 40:6–8 as there is less than 50% correspondence in lexemes; thus,
technically, there is too much textual variation to define it as a quote; Peter Flint, “Interpreting the Poetry of
Isaiah at Qumran,” in Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of
Eileen Schuller of Her 65th Birthday (ed. Jeremy Penner, Ken Penner, and Cecilia Wassen; Leiden: Brill, 2012).
516.
The Tetragrammaton is referred to with dots instead of letters as it is elsewhere in the manuscript, even in
the same column, see Isa 40:3.
517.
The manuscript of 1QIsaa is written by two hands and there are many corrections in the manuscript. It has
been suggested that the correcting hand is the same scribe who copied 4QSamc (see the tetrapuncta once at 1
Sam 25:31 and twice at 2 Sam 15:8), lQS (see VIII 14), and 4Q175 (line 1), Jr. Martin G. Abegg, “Linguistic
Profile of the Isaiah Scrolls,” in Qumran Cave 1, II: The Isaiah Scrolls. Part 2, ed. Eugene Ulrich and Peter W.
Flint, DJD 32 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2010), 39–40. Longacre suggests that the scroll was copied from a
damaged scroll, and that the scribe continually left space to be filled out later on; see Longacre, “Developmental
Stage, Scribal Lapse, or Physical Defect? 1QIsaa’s Damaged Exemplar for Isaiah Chapters 34–66.” This theory
could explain many of the textual variants, but not all as there are no corrections in Isaiah 41. The deviations in
Isa 41 could be explained if the scribe wrote the last line from memory, and then left a space to be filled out later
on. Thus, by mistake, the scribe omitted a few words.

- 98 -
Lord blew upon it:”

Πᾶσα σὰρξ χόρτος, καὶ πᾶσα δόξα ἀνθρώπου ὡς ἄνθος χόρτου·ἐξηράνθη ὁ χόρτος,
καὶ τὸ ἄνθος ἐξέπεσεν, τὸ δὲ ῥῆµα τοῦ θεοῦ ἡµῶν µένει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα.
(LXX Isa 40:6b–8)

All flesh is grass, and all the glory of man as the flower fades: The grass withers, and
the flower fades: but the word of our God abides for ever. (LXX Brenton)

Unfortunately, this portion of Isa 40 is lost in 1QIsab, and we only have the text in 1QIsaa to
compare it with. Nevertheless, it seems probable that 4Q185 alludes to a text that resembles
the expanded text of 1QIsaa and not the shorter Septuagint version of it. On the other hand,
4Q185 expands further on the same imagery, stressing the role of the wind which carries the
flower away. Here 4Q185 is more in line with Isa 40:24, which notes that God blows upon
the wicked and “carries them off like stubble,” and thus could be in line with the shorter
version after all.518 4Q185 does not include a statement about the words of God. What is
interesting when comparing the conclusion of this metaphor with the one in Isa 40:6–8 is the
contrast motif. Where Isa 40:8 states ‫“ ודבר אלהינו יקום לעול‬the word of our God will stand
forever,” 4Q185 concludes with this rather pessimistic statement: the human being will not be
able to arise and stand. It will disappear. Hence, the comparison of human ‫ חסד‬with the flower
should be read along with the larger judgment theme within 4Q185. The destructive power of
the wind can be read as an act of wrath. God controls the destiny of human beings, and
judgment is more than an eschatological event. It is an ongoing act and part of human life.
Verseput argues that 4Q185 conflates Isa 40:6–8 with Isa 51:12, where humankind is
likened with grass. The result, according to Verseput, is that the imagery found in Isa 40:6–8
is transformed into an oracle of doom along with Isa 51.519 Verseput is correct about the
function of the simile, but the phraseology of its pessimistic conclusion appears to be alluding
to Isa 40:24b and 41:11–12 as well.520 These are also passages of judgment:

Scarcely are they planted, scarcely sown, scarcely has their stem (‫ )גזעם‬taken root in
the earth, when he blows (‫ )נשף‬upon them, and they wither (‫)ויבשו‬, and the storm
carries them off (‫ )נשא‬like stubble. (Isa 40:24)

Yes, all who are incensed against you shall be ashamed (‫ )בוש‬and humiliated; those
who strive against you shall be as nothing and shall perish (‫)אבד‬. You shall seek

518.
The use of Isa 40:24 in 4Q185 is only partially seen on a terminological level. The verb ‫“ נשף‬to blow” and
‫“ סערה‬storm” is different from 4Q185, whereas the verbs ‫“ יבש‬to wither” and ‫“ נשא‬to lift, carry” correspond.
However, the imagery of the wind carrying the plant away is the same.
519.
Verseput, “Wisdom, 4Q185, and the Epistle of James,” 697.
520.
Pajunen suggests that these lines draw from Isa 40:6–7, 40:23–24, Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges,” 201.

- 99 -
 (‫ )תבקשם‬those who contend with you, but you shall not find (‫ )ולא תמצאם‬them; those
who war against you shall be as nothing at all. (Isa 41:11–12)

Isa 40:8 notes only that the wind blows on it (‫ )נשבה בו‬so that it withers. Isa 40:24 contains
the same image, using a different verb ‫נשף‬. The continuation of it, that the storm carries them
off like stubble, is similar to 4Q185, which notes the wind carries (‫ )נשא‬what is left of the
flower away. A similar wind motif is also found in Isa 41:16, “the wind shall carry them away
(‫)תשאם‬.” Hence, the potential borrowings in 4Q185 are not only at the lexical level, and the
imagery used in 4Q185 appears to be drawn from more than Isa 40:6–8.
The last phrase in 4Q185 before the vacat notes that the flower will not be found,
which corresponds to the seek and not find motif in Isa 41:11–12. There is no botanical
imagery in Isa 41 (MT), but the verb ‫ בוש‬is closely associated with withering. The textual
variant in 1QIsab suggests a stronger link between Isa 40:24 and Isa 41:11, in that the verb
‫“ יבש‬to wither” is used in 41:11 where the MT has ‫“ אבד‬to perish:”

Yes, all who are incensed against you ‫( יבשו‬impf. 3.pl.) shall be ashamed and
disgraced; those who strive against you shall be as nothing and ‫( יבשו‬pf. 3.pl.) they
shall wither (1QIsab XVII 8–9)

The two verbs ‫“ בוש‬to be ashamed” and ‫“ יבש‬to wither” have the exact same consonants.
Hence, the wording in 1QIsab could be explained as unintended assonance, but it could also
be association that plays on this alliteration. The use of the verb “wither” has a botanical
flavour, and thus passages with botanical imagery can be easily associated, as they appear to
be in 4Q185. Naturally, it is impossible to assess whether the borrowings are specifically
alluding to particular passages from Isaiah or whether the correspondence reflects the use of
stock biblical phraseology and motifs, but the specific expansion of Isa 40:6–8, the seek and
find motif, can arguably be interpreted against the two passages in Isa 40 and 41.521
1QIsab and 1QIsaa show variation in Isa 41:11–12.522 The two phrases, ‫“ כאין‬as
nothing” (Isa 41:11) and ‫“ תבקשם ולא תמצאם‬seek but not find” (41:12a) are not found in
1QIsaa.523 1QIsab, however, witnesses both phrases in col. XVII 9: ‫אנשי ריבך תבקשם ולא תמצאם‬
‫אנשי מצתך יהיו כאין‬. This could be examples of textual variation, but may also be explained by
the nature of 1QIsaa. Nevertheless, the textual variance seen in these manuscripts attests to
the freedom of poetic language.524 Hence, if we are to decide whether or not the author of

521.
A ‘stock phrase’ is a phrase that due to its frequent appearance in a particular context, becomes associated
with that context. Hence a biblical stock expression or motif is associated with biblical texts.
522.
See Appendix I.
523.
1QIsaa preserves the phrase ‫ יהיו כאין‬which is repeated in 41:12a; Eugene Ulrich, “The Developmental
Composition of the Book of Isaiah: Light from 1QIsaa on Additions in the MT,” DSD 8, no. 3 (2001): 410.
524.
The verbs “seek” and “find” in Deut 4:29 shows variation in different manuscripts and differ between

- 100 -
4Q185 relied on certain scriptural passages, we have to bear in mind both the freedom of
poetic language and the textual variations that follow from it.525
So far I have mainly considered the similarities with Scripture, but the passage in
4Q185 on human finitude has a textual parallel in 4Q370 1 ii 5–9. The textual parallel
between 4Q185 and 4Q370 starts with the verb ‫צמח‬, a term that is not actually an integral part
of the human as grass motif within Psalm 103, Job 14, and Isa 40.526 This parallel is striking
and suggests that one of them is a copy or a rewriting of the other.527 However, there are also
significant differences between the two compositions. While 4Q185 presents an exhaustive
metaphor on humans as a withering flower, 4Q370 only employs a short phrase. The imagery
found in 4Q185 and 4Q370 is the same, but the two compositions appear to be influenced by
different sources. In the DJD edition of 4Q370, Newsom discusses literary dependence. She
considers Psalm 103 first and foremost as the source text for the similes in both 4Q185 and
4Q370 due to the closely related expression of the theme of the “ephemeral nature of human
existence.”528
As for the human, his days are like grass; he flourishes like a flower of the field; for
the wind passes over it, and it is gone, and its place knows it no more. But the
steadfast love of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting (‫ )מעולם ועד־עולם‬on those
who fear him (Ps 103:15–17)

4Q370 has a phrase without parallel in 4Q185 that seems to be drawn from Ps 103:13
and 17, ‫“ ועד עולם הוא ירחם‬And forever. He will have compassion” (4Q370 1 ii 6).529 In
4Q185, there is no mention of God’s compassion in the corresponding context. On the
contrary, the flower imagery is followed by a pessimistic statement that denies human hope.
֯ “his wind blows [on it]” and ‫“ וציצו תשא רוׄח‬the wind carries its
The two phrases ‫נשב]ה בו [רוחו‬
flower” do resemble the wording of Psalm 103, but they are even closer to Isa 40:24, where,

singular and plural. Where BHS reads ‫( ובקשתם‬piel pf. 2.pl.) “you will seek” and ‫( ומצאת‬qal pf. 2.sg.) “you will
find.” Some manuscripts (Vg. and the Tg.) read ‫( ובקשת‬piel pf. 2.pl.) “you will seek.” Moreover, some
manuscripts (Vg.) read with suffix ‫( ומצאתו‬qal pf. 2.sg.) “you will find him.” There is no Qumran manuscript
that preserves this passage.
525.
On citation from memory in the study of Paul’s use of Scripture; see Norton, Contours in the Text, 25–30.
Memory and orality are important factors in the Judean society. This is not at odds with the role of writing and
textuality in the same society; see Schaper, “The Living Word Engraved in Stone,” 9, 20.
526.
The verb ‫ צמח‬is used in the branch metaphor in Isa 45:8 and 61:11 and CD I 7 in relation to the branch (see
also Pss 85:12, 104:14, and Ezek 16:7).
527.
When using the term ‘copy’ I do not suggest that the two manuscript are copies of the same compositions,
only that one of the two authors (scribes) copies text from an already existing manuscript. According to
Newsom, “the unusual use of this word suggests a direct relationship between the two texts”; see Carol A.
Newsom, “4Q370: An Admonition Based on the Flood,” RevQ 13 (1988): 40. See also Carol A. Newsom,
“Admonition on the Flood,” 96.
528.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” 89.
529.
4Q370 ii 6 appears to be a juxtaposition of two elements from the promises on those who fear YHWH in Ps
103:13, 17. Ps 103:13 asserts that YHWH has ‫“ רחם‬compassion” for those who fear him, whereas v. 17 claims
‫“ עד עולם‬everlasting” steadfast love on those who fear him.

- 101 -
as images of his judgment, God intentionally blows upon the rulers of the earth and the storm
carries them away. The imagery in Psalm 103 is the same but the function of it is different, as
Psalm 103 draws an image of human nature in general. Before we can consider what is going
on in the larger passage of 4Q185, we must also examine the final sequence, this pessimistic
closure.

Column i 12b–13a: Pessimistic Closure: Seek and not Find and no Hope

The poetical imagery goes on. There is a vacat after the pessimistic phrase: ‫ולא ימצא כי רוח‬
“And it is not found, but wind.” There is no damage in the leather, and the vacat is most
likely an intentional compositional technique to highlight the following phrase.530 Thus, a
pause is used before another pessimistic conclusion is presented. The phrase ‫יׄבקשוהו ולא‬
‫“ ימצאהו‬They can seek him, but will not find him” is connected to the following phrase using
a conjunction: ‫“ ואין מקוה‬and there is no hope.” The two chained negative phrases form an
envelope to the two larger motif complexes by repeating one key phrase from each (i 8 and
12). Thus, the repetition elaborates on the conclusion of the imagery that “it is not found” (i
12).
This motif ‫“ יבקש וימצא‬seek and find” and the negative ‫“ יבקש ולא ימצא‬seek and not
find” are recurrent in the Hebrew Bible.531 As we have already seen, it appears in Isa 41:12 to
underline the destiny of Israel’s enemies. In 4Q185, the object of seeking is the flower, but
the wording allows for an association with the use of this motif as a repentance motif. Just as
4Q185 appears to be a reversal of Isa 40, one could read 4Q185 as a reversal of the seek and
find motif in Chronicles: “When in their distress they turned to Yahweh, the God of Israel,
and sought him, he was found by them” (2 Chr 15:4). One reason to suggest this, is the
connection with Chronicles in the next and concluding simile. “And he, like a shadow are his
days upon the ea[rth].” Although the wording of the shadow simile represents biblical stock
phraseology associated with human finitude,532 the shadow simile is found in 1 Chr 29:15 in
collocation with “no hope,” which strongly suggests that 4Q185 draws from Chronicles:

530.
This seems to be a technique in 4Q525 2 II, and perhaps also in 4Q184 1 line 10. See Brooke, “Scripture
and Scriptural Tradition in Transmission,” 208.
531.
The positive “seek and find” is found in e.g. 2 Chr 15:2–4 and Jer 29:13. In Deut 4:29 the “seek and find”
motif symbolises the turn towards Yahweh, and makes Yahweh the object of the seeking. See also Isa 55:6. A
corresponding pessimistic outlook “seek and not find” is found in Hos 5:6. See also Prov 1:28, 65:1, Ps 37:36,
Ezek 26:21, and 4Q461 frg. 1, line 5.
532.
E.g. Job 14, where the shadow simile is collocated with the withering flower.

- 102 -
 For we are aliens and transients before you, as were all our ancestors; our days on
the earth are like a shadow (‫)כצל ימינו על הארץ‬, and there is no hope (‫)ואין מקוה‬533
(1 Chr 29:15)

There is no extant Qumran manuscript that preserves this passage, but Chronicles appears to
be alluded to in other texts, and it is likely that it was available to or known by the author.534
The similarity may be categorised as an allusion, or even a quote, but the extent of the
parallel makes it difficult to ascertain which category best describes the intertextual
connection. In my view, the phrase serves to further develop the motif complex on human
finitude. In the context of 4Q185, the shadow simile and the denial of hope continue the
pessimistic tone of the overall passage, and elaborate further on human finitude. In this way,
it functions like a conclusion to the whole unit and does not elaborate any further. The
experienced-based acknowledgment of Ecclesiastes states: “But it will not be well with the
wicked, neither will they prolong their days like a shadow, because they do not stand in fear
before God” (Eccl 8:13). In 4Q185, there is no direct accusation of wickedness, but the
shadow imagery is indeed associated with lacking the ability to stand.
According to Klein, the ultimate expression of human frailty is its hopelessness in the
face of mortality.535 Hopelessness constitutes the framework in the larger section of 4Q185 (i
4–13a), since the phrase “no hope” also evokes the judgment scene. It is the wrath of God
that ultimately is the problem of human finitude, and it is God’s judgment that constitutes the
basis of hopelessness.
The whole section is addressed to a plural “you,” but the simile is concerned with a
singular “he.” The additional emphatic pronoun ‫“ הוא‬he” directs the attention to the
typological example of humans in general and not a particular group, such as the wicked. If
Kampen is correct in his restoration of the lacuna in line 9, ‫“ אספ הוא‬nothing is he,” this
closure would form some sort of inclusio. It is likely that the listener is meant to identify

533.
In LXX Chronicles has καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν ὑποµονή “and no endurance.” This shows the ambiguous meaning of
the phrase, but it also hints of the flexibility and associate nature of the motif cluster.
534.
The same phrase is quoted in 4Q461 frg. 1, 5 […] “they sought him and they found him” (15:4) […]. Only
smaller fragments from Qumran preserve passages from Chronicles and the importance of Chronicles has been
discussed. The relative absense of the composition can be interpreted as an attempt to avoid it due to its
emphasis on Jerusalem and the temple, and also because of its association with the political agenda of the
Hasmonaeans. See the discussion in George J. Brooke, “The Books of Chronicles and the Scrolls from
Qumran,” in Reflection and Refraction. Studies in Biblical Historiography in Honour of A. Graame Auld (ed.
Robert Rezetko, Timothy H. Lim, and W. Brian Aucker, VTSup 113; Leiden: Brill, 2007), 47.
535.
Ralph W. Klein and Thomas Krü ger, 1 Chronicles: A Commentary (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2006), 538.

- 103 -
himself with “he;” hence, the metaphor is a frightening reminder of the finitude of all people.

Motif Complex and Compositional Technique

That Isaiah provided some kind of source for 4Q185 is undisputed. The flower
imagery alludes to Isa 40:6–8 and possibly also phraseology elsewhere in Isa 40 and 41. The
textual connections between 4Q185 and Isaiah exist not only on an associative level, but also
on a terminological and structural level. The poetical passage in 4Q185 has transformed the
imagery of the withering flower into a passage about judgment. Despite the variants, the
scribe is paraphrasing Isaiah, but the passage appears to be shaped also by the larger motif
complex on human finitude. The associative “bridge” from the last phrase in the flower
metaphor, “nothing is found but wind,” evokes not only Isa 41:12, but it also introduces the
following statement: “they can seek him, but will not find him.” From this phrase onwards,
the perspective is somewhat changed and we are no longer in the context of Isaiah. As
already noted above, the following and concluding phrases are the reverse order of the
phraseology in 1 Chr 29: “our days on the earth are like a shadow, and there is no hope” (1
Chr 29:15b).
What can we learn from this with regard to the use of Scripture in 4Q185? It is
worthwhile to take a look at the larger section on human finitude. This is the best preserved
passage of the manuscript, and it allows for a detailed analysis of the text. There are different
ways of describing the use of Scripture as a compositional technique.536 Common terms are
‘florilegium,’ ‘pastiche,’ and ‘modelling.’ A ‘florilegium’ is a series of biblical quotations.
The technique of ‘pastiche’ is the patching together of elements from different sources
combined with non-scriptural material, whereas ‘modelling’ uses a scriptural passage as the
basis for a textual unit.537 4Q185 links together chains of biblical phrases, but not in a manner
that resembles the florilegium. The extent of the parallels ranges from allusion to quote, and
so the passage on human finitude is best explained as pastiche and somewhat “free.”
However, it is almost impossible to distinguish between what is biblical and “extra-biblical,”
and so it is the alternation of the scriptural motifs, the inversions and transformation of the

536.
Berlin denotes the various uses of Scripture in 4Q179 “compositional techniques,” because “they form the
ways in which the poem is constructed.” Among these are additions of annotations, substitutions of terms, and
conflation of biblical phrases; see Adele Berlin, “Qumran Laments and the Study of Lament Literature,” in
Liturgical Perspectives: Prayer and Poetry in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Fifth
International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature,
19–23, January, 2000 (ed. Ester G. Chazon, Ruth A. Clements, and Avital Pinnick; Leiden: Brill, 2003), 5.
537.
On florilegium, pastiche, and modelling; see Esther G. Chazon, “Scripture and Prayer in ‘The Words of the
Luminaries’,” in Prayers that Cite Scripture (ed. James L. Kugel; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006),
27–28, 34.

- 104 -
imagery, that contribute to the scriptural discourse. In my opinion, these categories of
compositional techniques do not really suit the use of Scripture in 4Q185.
The passage on human finitude has a textual overlap with 4Q370, but 4Q370 is not
the source for the scriptural parallels in 4Q185.538 Both 4Q185 and 4Q370 combine the flower
motif with the shadow simile, but where 4Q185 appears to draw from Isa 40 and connects it
with 1 Chr 29, there is no such connection in 4Q370. This is intriguing and suggests that the
authors (or scribes) of 4Q370 and 4Q185 drew from the same motif complex as a cognitive
placeholder, but the specific wording reflects different sources. Newsom suggests that Psalm
103 was the source of 4Q370.539 This is highly possible, as Psalm 103 combines a flower
simile with the notion of God’s steadfast love. However, 4Q370 is also close to Job 14:1–2,
where the flower simile is combined with a shadow simile. “A mortal, born of woman, few of
days and full of trouble, comes up like a flower and withers, flees like a shadow and does not
last (‫( ”)ולא יעמוד‬Job 14:1–2). As I see it, the authors could easily compose each textual unit
on the basis of the other, and add additional or alternative elements. Isaiah appears to be a
source of inspiration for 4Q185, but it is difficult to claim that Isaiah formed the basis for
4Q370. Hence, if 4Q185 is a copy of 4Q370, the flower simile in 4Q185 is a larger expansion
of the textual sequence in 4Q370 that may be explained by free association and allusion to
Scripture. On the other hand, if 4Q370 is dependent on 4Q185, a scribe could have copied
4Q185 and associated the metaphor with Psalm 103 or Job 14 without even recognising
Isaiah as a source.540
The passages on human finitude in both 4Q370 and 4Q185 appear to be the result of
free rendering, perhaps based upon the memory and the associative mind of a scribe who
blended the work he copied with appropriate motifs from similar motif complexes.541 The
textual overlap is thus a great example of the associative nature of these motifs.542 4Q185 may
be a copy of 4Q370, but the author (scribe) is not limited by the text in the manuscript that is
being copied. A comparison of the two compositions thus proves that the question of direct
literary dependency is insufficient.

538.
See further discussions on the textual overlap in ch. 6.2.
539.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” 89–90.
540.
The phrase in 4Q370 ‫ עד עולם‬does not have to be derived from Psalm 103 or from any specific source at all.
Of course, there is a chance that the phrase could be drawn from Isa 40:8, which has ‫ לעולם‬or even Isa 54:8,
where the everlasting compassion is contrasted with the punishment of the flood. Nevertheless, the allusion
would still be a result of the associative mind of the author.
541.
As I have already noted in the introduction, it is difficult to maintain a clear differentiation between the
roles of the author and scribe in 4Q185. There is a chance that the scribe is also the composer; see ch 1. 5.
542.
There seems to be no theological deviations, with the possible exception of the phrase ‫הוא ירחם‬, which has a
positive tone, in large contrast with the repeated “no hope” in 4Q185.

- 105 -
Summary: Motif Complex on Human Finitude

The author selects imagery and phraseology from a larger motif complex on human finitude.
Similes that are often used as comparisons to humanity in general are here combined with
imagery connected with the destiny of the wicked, thus creating tension. This tension is
further strengthened by the pessimistic phraseology drawn from Chronicles. The combination
of scriptural imitations in 4Q185 serves its own purpose, but it borrows its pessimism from
the motif complex. In this way the pastiche, or web of allusions and echoes, can express more
than the sum of each phrase.

Part II, 2: Yahweh’s Might and Human Attitudes (Cols. i 13b–ii 5a)

After the section on human finitude and weakness, there is a shift towards human attitude and
behaviour in response to God. On one level, the admonition deals with the same theme, but it
moves from a general perspective to one that is more specific, and the poetic imagery is
exchanged for direct speech and exhortations. This shift is signalled with the introductory
address: “And now, please listen, my people.” While the former address had a more universal
tone, “children of Adam,” the addressees are now more specifically identified as a certain
group, “my people” and “simple ones.” The leap from degrading imagery to exhortation
corresponds with the prophetic discourse on judgment, such as in Zeph 2:1–3a:

Gather together, gather, O shameless nation, before you are driven away like the
drifting chaff, before there comes upon you the fierce anger of Yahweh (‫)חרון אף־יהוה‬,
before there comes upon you the day of the Lord’s wrath (‫)יום אף־יהוה‬. Seek (‫)בקשו‬
Yahweh, all you humble (‫ )כל־ענוי‬of the land, who do his commands.

The appeals in 4Q185 still have a concern for human character, but God, who is represented
by his acts and his words, is the ultimate object of the exhortation. I have divided this
sequence in two: first the series of positive appeals (i 13–ii 3a), and second the negative
appeals (ii 3b–5a). Each sequence is introduced with an addressee formula and a concluding
rhetorical question. Moreover, the speech is built up with parallelisms. Subsequent phrases
are not synonyms, but they overlap each other in meaning, elaborating further on an image or
an idea. In this way, the speaker builds up his case. I will first analyse the appeals one by one,
then summarise towards the end.

- 106 -
Columns i 13b–ii 2: Proper Behaviour

‫ועתה שמעו נא עמי והשכילו‬ 13

‫והכנעו מן ] ג[בורת אלהינו וׄזכרו נפלאים עשה‬ׄ ‫לי פתאים‬ 14
‫ומופתיו ֯ב]יום סוף [ויערץ לבבכם מפני פחדו‬
֯ ‫במצרים‬ 15
Col. ii
‫נ[פשכם כחסדיו הטבים חקרו לכם דרך‬
֯ ‫ותשמח‬ ‫רצ]ונו‬
֯ ‫ועשו‬ 1
‫[ו֯ שארית לבניכם אחריכם ולמה תתנו‬ ]‫ומסלה‬
֯ ‫לחיים‬ 2
ׄ
‫מ[שפט‬ ‫[כם לשאו֯ ]ל‬֯ ] 3

13 And now, please listen, my people and pay attention

14 to me, simple ones. Humble yourselves before the [m]ight of our God.
Remember the wonders he did
15 in Egypt and his signs at [the Red Sea.] Let your heart tremble before his dread

Col. ii

1 and do his wi[ll ... rejoice ]your [s]oul according to his good loving-kindness.
Search for yourself a way
2 of life and a path [...] and a remnant for your children after you. Why would you give
3 your[...] to Sheo[l... j]udgment.

Column i 13: Introductory Address

The speaker of 4Q185 enters the scene with the words, “And now, please listen, my people.”
This introductory formula underlines the actuality and importance of the following speech.
The temporal emphasis, ‫“ ועתה‬and now,” makes a leap from the poetic and metaphoric
language to the current situation, and attention is drawn towards this moment. The phrase
‫“ ועתה שמע נא‬and now, please listen” is an emphatic appeal.543 There is something at stake. The
recipients are called upon as ‫“ עמי‬my people,” which signals the authority of the speaker, but
it also brings up the covenant’s history (cf. Ps 78:1).

Column i 13–14a: And Pay Attention to me, Simple ones

The speaker in the text assembles the listeners around himself, and acts as a mediator of
knowledge and also as a moral guide: “And pay attention (‫ )והשכילו‬to me, simple ones.” The

543.
The adverb ‫“ ועתה‬and now” is frequent, but the entire phrase ‫ ועתה שמע נא‬only appears three times in HB: 1
Sam 26:19, 28:22, and Jer 37:20.

- 107 -
verb ‫ שכל‬is associated with knowledge, “to be prudent,” or in hiphil “to consider.” In this
context, the speaker calls for attention. The address, ‫“ פתאים‬simple ones,” again underlines
the authority of the speaker and the asymmetric relation between speaker and listeners. The
designation “simple one” is recurrent in Proverbs (e.g. Prov 14:18, 27:12). According to Ps
119:130, God’s testimonies give understanding to the simple ones; thus, it is not necessarily a
negative term such as ‫“ אויל‬fool” but rather a designation for those in need of knowledge, and
sometimes those who are easily led astray (Prov 22:3; CD XIV 2).544 This could also be a
connotation in 4Q185, which warns against the fowler’s snare (ii 5).545
The first two imperatives of the speech work as a parallelism, where the speaker calls
for attention: ‫( שמעו נא‬qal impv. 2.pl.) “please listen” and ‫( השכילו לי‬hiphil impv. 2.pl.) “pay
attention to me.” Both phrases draw attention to the speaker: the addressees are designated
“my people” who should “pay attention to me.” To pay attention, implies here to engage with
the message of the speaker, and to consider in order to learn something. The acquisition of
knowledge is naturally connected with listening: “things that we have heard and known” (Ps
78:3).546 Even if the first imperative belongs to the addressee formula, the two verbs, “listen”
and “pay attention,” constitute a lexical string that is further connected with the following
exhortations: Listen, pay attention, humble yourselves, and remember. ֹThe next two
ׄ and ‫וׄזכרו‬, are attached to the preceding by a ‫ו‬, but move beyond the
imperatives, ‫והכנעו‬
instructor and point to God and history. This intimate connection between listening,
pondering, and remembering is found in the historical psalms, Psalms 78 and 106, which will
be made clear in the following.

Column i 14: Humble yourselves before the [M]ight of our God

Although this textual unit is connected with the preceding address, there is a fundamental
ׄ
shift in the focus of the appeal: the direction is now towards “our God:” ‫והכנעו מן ]ג[בורת‬
‫“ אלהינו‬humble yourselves before the [m]ight of our God.”547 The verb ‫( ׄהכנעו‬niphal impv.

544.
Cf. Prov 8:5, Isa 42:18–25; and also 4Q381 frg. 1, 2
545.
The term ‫“ פתי‬simple” bears close resemblance with the verb ‫פתה‬, which is often used in piel, “to be
deceived” or “to be foolish;” see 1QHa XII 17 and XIV 22. In Ps 78:36, the people are referred to in similar
terms. The people are deceived. (See also Deut 11:16; Ezek 14:9). Lichtenberger suggests “suddenly.” Note the
orthographic variation of this term in 1QIsaa; ‫ פתאם‬in 29:5 and 30:13, and ‫ פתאום‬in the last section (47:11 and
48:3).
546.
For this point in Psalm 78; see Markus Witte, “History and Historiography in Psalm 78,” in Yearbook 2006:
History and Identity: How Israel’s Later Authors Viewed Its Earlier History (ed. Núria Calduch-Benages and
Jan Liesen Berlin; Walter de Gruyter, 2006), 28.
547.
A similar shift from an “I” speaker to a “we” group is found in Ps 78:1–3. This is a specific feature of the
Asaph psalms; see Frank-Lothar Hossfeld et al., Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100 (Hermeneia;
Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 286.

- 108 -
2.pl.) “humble yourselves” is normally followed by the preposition ‫“ מפנה‬from before,” and
not only ‫ מן‬as it is here. The implied act is encouraged ‫“ מן‬by” ‫“ ]ג[בורת אלהינו‬the strength of
God.” The preposition ‫ מן‬would normally be translated “from” or “because of.” It makes
good sense to assume that God’s might, recalled or exemplified by history, produces the
humility of the listeners.548 Nevertheless, in this context it makes better sense to render
“before.”
God’s ‫ גבורה‬refers to his might and power. The plural noun ‫ גברות‬refers to God’s acts
which demonstrate this might, such as the Exodus (cf. Ps 106:2). In the context of 4Q185, the
term ‫( ]ג[בורת‬f.sg. const.) is collocated with a reference to the acts that Yahweh performed in
Egypt, hence both “might” and “mighty deed” are possible translations.549 The recollection of
Exodus transmits the experience of the past and encourages and reminds the listener of the
need to be humble in order to overcome their lack of faithfulness. The intended response is
evoked by engaging with the history that is recalled, hence humility is achieved by listening
and remembering.550
The verb ‫ כנע‬is recurrent in association with a penitent attitude.551 To be humble means
both to acknowledge God’s might and to be aware of one’s sin. This awareness is
demonstrated by either by weeping, fasting, or praying with a penitent heart.552 There is no
explicit accusation in 4Q185, but the exhortations are character-oriented: one is not able to
stand, there is no hope, and the addressees are “simple ones.” The need to humble oneself
appears to be grounded in human nature and character, and also in God’s character. The might
or strength of God is represented through acts of power, both acts of salvation (e.g. Ps 21:14,
71:16) and acts of judgment (e.g. Jer 16:21). In the context of the Hebrew Bible and in
4Q185, acts of salvation and acts of judgment are two sides of the same coin. To be humbled
by God’s might thus means to be humbled by the commemorated history of Egypt where
Yahweh demonstrated his power and his dread. This is in line with the overall theme of the
imagery: humble yourselves because you cannot stand, and because God is terrifying.

548.
The first letter is lost, but in light of the textual parallel in 4Q370, ‫ גבורת‬appears to be a rather safe reading.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
549.
Wernberg Möller has suggested that the term has connotations with wisdom and should be translated
“wondrous wisdom” or “mighty wisdom.” He translates the phrase in 1QS I 21 ‫“ במעשי גבורתום‬wondrous acts,”
arguing that ‫ גבורה‬should be translated in light of Job 12:13, where it is collated with wisdom. See discussion in
Preben Wernberg-Møller, The Manual of Discipline (STDJ 1; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957), 74. A similar
connotation with wisdom has also been assumed in 4Q185.
550.
The larger phrase is without a parallel in HB, but the idea that one may humble oneself before God is found
in 1 Pet 5:6: Ταπεινώθητε οὖν ὑπὸ τὴν κραταιὰν χεῖρα τοῦ θεοῦ “Humble yourselves therefore under his mighty
hand.” The phrase in 1 Pet 5 is preceded by a quotation of Prov 3:34. See the similar phrase ταπεινώθητε
ἐνώπιον κυρίου καὶ ὑψώσει ὑµᾶς “Humble yourselves before the Lord” (James 4:10) and ὑποτάγητε οὖν τῷ θεῷ
“Submit yourselves therefore to God” (James 4:7) which is also preceded by a quotation of Prov 3:34.
551.
See 2 Chr 7:14, 2 Kgs 22:19. See also further discussion in ch. 7.2.
552.
This term is sometimes used in the sense “to subdue” and could imply humbling by fear (e.g. 4Q511 frg. 35,
7) or repentance (e.g. 4Q504 frg. 2 vi 5).

- 109 -
 With the first person plural “our God,” the instructor merges with his people and
speaks as a liturgical leader. I do not mean that the speech turns into liturgy, but that the
speaker enters into a mutual relationship with the addressees. This perspective shares features
with prayer and naturally is found repeatedly in Psalms, as well as in texts associated with
liturgy (cf. 1 Chr 28:2.8, 29:13; Psalm 147). 4Q185 is not a prayer, but the speaker advocates
praying and directs the addresses towards a correct and restored relationship with Yahweh.
The speaker does not differentiate between listening and paying attention to him and
to letting oneself be humbled before the might of God. Thus, he equals his teaching with its
contents: the history of God and his acts. The knowledge of the admonition is thus associated
with history and remembrance. The aim of the lesson is to evoke recollections of a certain
history which thereby corrects one’s attitude towards God and oneself. The next imperative,
‫“ זכרו‬remember,” follows and completes the preceding exhortation.

Column i 14b–15a: “Remember the Wonders he did in Egypt and his Signs at [the Red Sea.]”

The verb ‫“ זכר‬to remember” may have a wide range of meanings, such as “to ponder,” “to
engage with,” and “to act according to.” When God remembers his people, he acts in order to
save or to punish. When humans remember God, this means to think of, call to mind, or to
observe (cf. Isa 64:4).553 Yahweh is often recalled through the deeds he performed with his
people in the past (e.g. Deut 11:2, Psalms 78; 105; 106). The Exodus is mainly recalled as a
history of salvation, but it is also a history of judgment (Ezek 20, Sir 16:7–11, CD III 5–7).554
This reception of the Exodus as a story of judgment blends the scenes in the wilderness with
events in Egypt so that the rebellion is transposed back to Egypt.555 There are thus two sides
of the story.
In the context of 4Q185, the object to remember is “what he did.” The acts referred to
in the phrase “Remember the wonders he did in Egypt and his signs at [the Red Sea]” recalls
biblical phraseology and a well-known tradition found in the historical psalms, Psalms 78,
105, and 106.556 In fact, 4Q185 appears to borrow phraseology from the historical summaries
found in Psalms 105 (1 Chr 16:22) and 106:

553.
On the semantic field of ‫ זכר‬in the context of Psalms, see Megan I. J. Daffern, Prayers for Remembering in
the Psalms (University of Oxford, 2014), 103–156.
554.
Sir 16:7–11 reports that “six hundred thousand foot soldiers” were taken away because of the arrogance of
their hearts. This is an allusion to the wilderness generation (cf. Exod 12:37).
555.
On the conjunction of the motifs of wrath and Exodus; see Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in
Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 365–66.
556.
The members of the group “historical psalms” include Psalms 78, 105, 106, 114, 135, 135, 137; see Anja
Klein, Geschichte und Gebet: Die Rezeption der biblischen Geschichte in den Psalmen des Alten Testaments
(FAT 94; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 1.

- 110 -
 ‫ זכרו נפלאותיו אשר עשה מפתיו ומשפטי פיו‬Psalm 105:5 (MT)557

‫ אבותינו במצרים לא השכילו נפלאותיך לא זכרו את רב חסדיך וימרו על ים בים סוף‬Psalm 106:7 (MT)

[‫ומופתיו ֯ב]ים סוף‬

֯ ‫ וׄזכרו נפלאים עשה במצרים‬4Q185 1–2 i 14–15

When 4Q185 exhorts listeners to commemorate the deeds of Egypt, the wording is a
conflation of previous summaries. In the specific appeal to remember God’s deeds in Ps
105:5, the wonders and signs are not located geographically. Later on, however, in v. 27, the
plagues are located in “the land of Ham,” which is also in the suggested restoration of 4Q185
in previous editions.558 Psalm 106:7, however, states that they did not ‫“ השכילו‬pay attention”
and did not ‫“ זכרו‬remember,” and connects the wonders and the rebellion to the two locations:
“Egypt” and “Red Sea.” It is notable that these two verbs do appear as imperatives in 4Q185,
suggesting that the addressee should behave the opposite of the rebellious generation.
I suggest that 4Q185 draws specifically from both psalms, using the two verbs ‫שכל‬
and ‫ זכר‬and the two locations from Ps 106:7, and the historical summary from Ps 105:5.
4Q185 thus creates a new summary blending elements from different psalms.559 The wording
is very close to the two scriptural passages, thus, a compositional technique of juxtaposing
scriptural passages seems to have been used.560 Based upon the observation that 4Q185 is not
drawing from one psalm exclusively, and the fact that the collocation of Egypt and Red Sea is
frequent, I have suggested the restoration “the Red Sea” (i 15a).561
The verb ‫ פלא‬and the noun ‫ מופת‬often parallel each other, as they do in 4Q185, but
wonders and signs are not necessarily synonyms. In Ps 78:43, ‫“ מופתיו‬his signs” refers to the
plagues and is explicated with the rivers turned into blood and the swarms of flies, whereas
‫( נפלאותיו‬niphal ptc.) “his wonders” is used both in a general way (Ps 78:11.32) and as a
reference to the wonder of parting the sea (Ps 78:12–13). In Exod 3:20, however, ‫ פלא‬is used
in reference to the plagues: “And I will put forth my hand, and smite Egypt with all my

557.
There is no Qumran manuscript that preserves this verse, but the psalm is partially preserved in 11QPsa frg.
E iii 8–17 (cf. DJD 23: 34–36).
558.
Alternative reconstructions include “the land of Zoan” or “the Red Sea.” See discussion in ch. 2.5.
559.
Only a minor portion of Psalm 106 is found at Qumran (4QPsd), but its influence is assumed, see George J.
Brooke, “Psalms 105 and 106 at Qumran,” RevQ 14, no. 2 (1989). Körting argues that there is a direct literary
connection between Ps 106:2–5 and 4Q380 1 I 7–11; see Corinna Körting, “Jerusalem, City of God (4Q380 1 I
1–11),” in Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen
Schuller of Her 65th Birthday (ed. Jeremy Penner, Ken M. Penner, and Cecilia Wassen; STDJ 98; Leiden: Brill,
2012), 224.
560.
The juxtaposition of scriptural allusions is an exegetical technique of this period. According to Berlin,
4Q417 provides an example of this technique. This composition alludes to biblical texts, but has no exact
quotations. The juxtaposition of verses from different part of the Bible creates a new interpretative effect. On
scriptural reference in Qumran laments; see Berlin, “Qumran Laments and the Study of Lament Literature,” 3–
4.
561.
Cf. Ps 106:7; Neh 9:9, and Psalm 136. See also 1QM XI 10.

- 111 -
‫נפלאים‬.”562 In Psalms 105 and 106, wonders and signs have overlapping connotations. The
semantics of ‫ פלא‬and ‫“ מופת‬wonders” and “signs” do not suffice to grasp the exact reference
of this phrase, but the “wonders and signs” refer to the extraordinary powers of God.563
This history remembered is best understood as a paradigmatic history; it is selective,
and an expression of the current situation and didactic need. The different interpretations and
depiction of Exodus in the Hebrew Bible and in the Qumran literature confirm this (e.g.
Psalms 105–106 and CD III).564 We do not know the extent of the historical commemoration
that occurred in the whole text, but in the preserved parts, the historical motifs serve to
commemorate God’s might (i 14–15) and human rebellion (ii 3).
Remembrance is often practiced in connection with penitential prayer. One example is
the historical recital in Neh 9:7–35. The prayer alludes the traditions of the Pentateuch and
retells the history as a history of sin. The survey of history prepares for a recommitment to
God’s law (Neh 10:28–29).565 According to Boda, the tradition plays a crucial role in the life
of the people “not to merely inform them didactically but bring hope, elicit repentance, and
voice their needs to their God in a time of disaster.”566 Similarly, in 1QS, where sins are
confessed, one starts with a recollection of God’s mighty deeds (1QS I 21).567 The recital of
tradition is only brief: ‫והכוהנים מספרים את צדקות אל במעשי גבורתום ומשמיעים כול חסדי רחמים על‬
‫“ ישראל‬and the priests shall recount God’s righteousness in his mighty deeds, and proclaim
(make heard) all the compassionate mercy on Israel.” What follows is a recital of the wicked
acts which prepares for the confession of sin: ‫( הרשענו‬hiphil pf. 1.pl.) “We have been
wicked.” This liturgical practice idealises active remembrance as part of the covenant
relationship. A people that does not remember is thus a rebellious people.568 The pessimistic
backdrop in 4Q185 that portrays human finitude and the preceding exhortations to humble

562.
See also Deut 11, 28:59, and Dan 8:24.
563.
Scholars differ in opinion regarding whether ‫ אתת ומפתים‬denotes the plagues or the entire Exodus miracle,
see Mark J. Boda, Praying the Tradition: The Origin and Use of Tradition in Nehemiah 9 (BZAW 277; Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 1999), 117.
564.
Gärtner lists 4 aspects that effect the construction of history (=Geschichte) in the historical psalms; see
Judith Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen: Eine Studie zu den Psalmen 78, 105, 106, 135 und 136 als
hermeneutische Schlüsseltexte im Psalter (FAT 84; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), 14–15.
565.
See Rodney Alan Werline, Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism: The Development of a Religious
Institution (SBLEJL 13; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998), 56–58.
566.
Boda, Praying the Tradition, 196.
567.
See also the recollection of wonders and signs in IQHa XVIII 16 and XIX 31– 32. According to Chazon, the
Hodayot employs elements from Jewish penitential prayers; Esther G. Chazon, “Lowly to Lofty: The Hodayot’s
Use of Liturgical Traditions to Shape Sectarian Identity and Religious Experience,” RevQ 26 (2013): 8.
568.
The association of recital of history with confession of sin is witnessed also in 4QWorks of God (4Q392).
God’s wonders and signs are recalled in a rhetorical question: “Should we not ponder (‫ )נשכיל‬how great (my
reading: ‫ )כמה‬among us [he does won]ders and signs without number?” (frg. 1 line 8). In 4Q393 frg. 3, there is a
prayer of confession. Daniel Falk suggests a single framework, drawn from Neh 9, for both 4Q392 and 4Q393;
Daniel K. Falk, “Biblical Adaption in 4Q392 Works of God and 4Q393 Communal Confession,” in The Provo
International Conference on the Dead Sea Scrolls: Technological Innovations, New Texts, and Reformulated
Issues (ed. Donald W. Parry and Eugene Ulrich; STDJ 30; Leiden: Brill, 1999), 131–32, 136.

- 112 -
oneself suggest that the commemoration has a similar function in 4Q185, and that
remembrance evokes feelings of humility and awe.

Column i 15: Let your Heart Tremble before his Dread

The reference to Egypt activates a remembrance and evokes certain attitudes: “Let your heart
tremble before his dread” (i 15). To remember is to let the experience of the past become
one’s own. His ‫“ פחד‬dread” or the “dread of him” can be understood as a further qualification
of his might, signs, and wonders. The dread of Yahweh is related to his judgments (cf. Ps
119:120; Isa 2:10) and the events in Egypt are acts of judgment that evoke fear.
To let oneself be humbled by his might and to tremble one’s heart before his dread are
almost parallel in meaning, but the emphasis on the emotional aspect, to make one’s heart
tremble, is also a further prescription of the correct attitude. The trembling heart (‫ )לבב‬is a
physical description of fear (cf. Ezek 21:20).569 Fear is located in heart (Isa 35:4). In the
anthropology of the Hebrew Bible, the heart is the centre of human thought and life.
Spieckermann puts this effectively: “How humans understand and lead their lives is closely
connected with acts that take place in the heart.”570 In Deut 30, the emphasis upon heart is
repeated (Deut 30:6, 10, 14, 17). The attitude of the people is all located in the heart, and thus
their hearts need to be circumcised. Only a human with a heart that fears Yahweh is able to do
what he commands and to walk in his ways (Deut 5:29, 10:12).
A trembling heart is often associated with the pious. The instruction in 4Q185
corresponds well with post-exilic piety: to fear God is the pious ideal, and the lack of fear is
described as walking on the wrong path (cf. Isa 63:17). To fear Yahweh means that you are
able to listen, learn, and remember, and thus are motivated to do and act properly (Isa 66:2;
Ezra 10:13). The appeal to tremble does not directly point to an immediate act in itself, but
one could connect it with the following phrase that starts with an imperative: ‫רצ]ונו‬
֯ ‫“ ועשו‬And
do his wi[ll ...].”571

569.
I do not understand the “trembling heart” to be a metaphor, rather a description of fear as it is experienced
in the human body. See body images and their function in the procedure of prayer. See Bester, Körperbilder in
den Psalmen, 191.
570.
See Hermann Spieckermann, “Heart, Spirit, and Steadfast Love: Substantial Contributions of Torah and
Psalter to Old Testament Theology,” SJOT: An International Journal of Nordic Theology 28, no. 2 (2014): 255.
571.
In Ezra 10:9–11 the trembling people (root: ‫ )רעד‬are encouraged to repent and do the will of God. The
terminology in Ezra is different from 4Q185, but this textual example attests to the motif’s association with an
awareness of sin.

- 113 -
Column ii 1: And do his Wi[ll ...]

The top of the second column in 4Q185 is damaged, and there is no extant continuation to
this imperative, ‫רצ]ונו‬
֯ ‫“ ועשו‬and do his wi[ll ...].” The length of the lacuna indicates that the
exhortation was longer, most likely another two words in line with syntax of the former
appeals. The term ‫‘ רצון‬will’ is not prominent in the MT, but it is recurrent in the DSS.572 In
CD, the human will is opposed to the will of God. While the human will leads to destruction,
doing God’s will brings life (CD III 15–16).573 In the narrative section of 4Q370 that precedes
the textual overlap with 4Q185, food in abundance is granted for the people who do the will
of God: “All who do my will may eat and be satisfied,” says Ya[h]weh (4Q370 1–2 i 1).574 In
1QSb I 1, to do “his will” is paralleled with the imperative ‫“ שומרי מצוותיו‬keep his
commandments.”575 In the context of 4Q185, a reference to either “commandments” or
“statutes” is possible in light of the prohibition a few lines further: “do not rebel against his
words” (ii 3).576
The appeal to do God’s will follows a natural progression from humbling, to
remembering, and to trembling. Human acts should correspond to the acts performed by
Yahweh. This movement from the reflection on human weakness towards the doing of God’s
will reflects the theme of repentance, such as found in Ezra 10:9–11.577

Column ii 1: [ ... Rejoice ]your [S]oul According to his Good Loving-Kindness.

֯ ‫[“ ‏ותשמח‬... rejoice ] your [s]oul

An extension of the phrase ending with ‫נ[פשכם כחסדיו הטבים‬
according to his good loving-kindness” can be estimated in light of the parallelistic ‫ויערץ‬
‫לבבכם מפני פחדו‬. The initial verb is lost, but the text can be partly restored based on the textual
overlap in 4Q370, which reads ‫נפ]שכם‬
֯ ‫“ ותשמח‬rejoice [your s]oul” (4Q370 1 ii 8). In 4Q185,
the second plural suffix is clear, and the restoration ‫נ[פשכם‬
֯ “your soul” is sound, as it is also
in analogy to ‫“ לבבכם‬your heart” in the previous line. These lines belong together in a
parallelism. Heart and soul represent human attitudes and respond respectively with fear and

572.
To do according to God’s will, see Ezra 10:11, Pss 40:9; 103:21; 143:10, and 1QS V 1, IX 13. See also the
phrase ‫“ דברי רצונך‬words of your will” in 1QHa IV 35 and in pesher on Psalms (4Q171 1 ii 5) ‫“ עושי רצונו‬the ones
who do his will.”
573.
In CD III, “his will” is analogous with his Sabbaths, festivals, his laws, and reliable ways (CD III 15–16).
574.
See Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood.” The two admonitions correspond in many aspects, and
in my view, this strengthens the restoration of “his will” in 4Q185. See ch. 2.5.
575.
See also 4Q461 frg.1, 8, where it is concretised with ‫“ חקיו‬his statues.”
576.
According to the psalmist in Ps 40:9, the delight of doing God’s will comes from having Torah in one’s
belly.
577.
By this, I do not suggest that 4Q185 is a penitential prayer. My point is to suggest that the exhortations of
the admonition follow the progression of penitential prayer. This topic will be further developed in ch. 7.

- 114 -
rejoicing. Thus, the addressees are exhorted to let their hearts and souls respond in a suitable
manner to the different aspects of God. God, in his being, “embodies” opposite aspects, his
dread and his good (acts of) ‫חסד‬.578
The term ‫ חסד‬appears twice in the preserved parts of 4Q185. Here it is part of the
phrase ‫חסדים הטבים‬, and in ii 13 it is in collocation with ‫ישעו֯ ת‬
֯ “salvation.” The plural form is
rare, but it is used relatively often in the Psalms, e.g. Pss 89:50 and 106:7, where it denotes
God’s acts of salvation in the past.579 According to Spieckermann, the term ‫ חסד‬functions as an
“expression for God’s reliable readiness to save and rescue.” Furthermore, he notes that it
often appears as a synonym to ‫“ רחם‬compassion,” expressing “salvational affection.”580
In 4Q185, the phrase marks a change of tone in the admonition and hints at the one
with ‫“ שמחת לבב‬a joyful heart,” which is part of the promise in col. ii 12. It is only the humble
ones, those who tremble and do his will, who are able to rejoice in God’s mercies. The appeal
to rejoice thus follows and depends upon the preceding exhortation to do his will. The one
who remembers Egypt shall let his heart tremble and rejoice in his soul. There is no
immediate connection between “his dread” and “his good loving-kindness” unless one reads
these phrases as a reference to “what he did in Egypt.” God’s signs in Egypt are both dreadful
acts and acts of ‫חסד‬. The commemoration of God’s act in the past has two sides: salvation and
punishment. Isaiah 63:7ff. provides a good example of the complexity of history. The praise
of Yahweh’s merciful acts of salvation in Isa 63:7–9 are interrupted by the commemoration of
the rebellion of the people, which in turn made Yahweh their enemy (Isa 63:10). According to
my reading, the reference to Egypt in 4Q185 is both a warning of the past and a reminder of
God’s faithfulness and salvation.

Column ii 1b–2: Way Motifs

As part of the sequence of positive appeals, there is an exhortation to ‫“ חקר‬examine” or

“search out” a way to life and a path. This imperative is not connected to the preceding by a
conjunction, and it appears to function as a conclusion to the positive appeals, before the
instructions turn into the negative appeals. Only the first part of the statement is extant, and
the further description of ‫“ מסלה‬path” is lost. This parallelistic phrase may correspond to a
text like Isa 40:3, where ‫“ דרך‬way” and ‫“ מסלה‬path” constitute a synonymous parallelism, but

578.
On the meaning and translation of ‫ ;חסד‬see Gordon R. Clark, The Word Hesed in the Hebrew Bible
(JSOTSup 157; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993).
579.
See also Pss 17:7; 25:6; 107:43; 119:41.
580.
Hermann Spieckermann, “Wrath and Mercy as Crucial Terms of Theological Hermeneutics,” in Divine
Wrath and Divine Mercy in the World of Antiquity (ed. Reinhard G. Kratz and Hermann Spieckermann; FAT 2.
Reihe 33; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 10. Note that both ‫ חסד‬and ‫ רחם‬are found in 4Q370 (Ps 103:4).

- 115 -
it could also be an antithetic parallelism on the two ways.581 Both options are equally possible.
The term ‫ חקר‬can denote a sense of “searching,” and more precisely a self-examination, as in
Lam 3:40, where the people say: “Let us test and examine (‫ )חקר‬our ways, and return to
Yahweh.” When God is the subject, the verb can denote the examination of human hearts. “I
the Lord test the mind and search the heart, to give to all according to their ways, according
to the fruit of their doings” (Jer 17:10). If the “search” is about self-examination, rather than
the search for an object, it makes better sense to interpret the statement as a reference to two
antithetic ways. So far, all the appeals of the admonition refer to a certain mind or attitude.
The use of this specific verb, ‫חקר‬, may thus imply a similar aspect. One needs to examine
one’s way and ensure that it is the way of life.
The meaning of this passage could be in line with the instruction that appears in one
of the Damascus Documents (4QDe), which uses an antithetic parallelism on the two ways.582
There is in fact a minor textual parallel with frg. 2 ii 19: ‫][לכם דרכי חיים ונתיבות שחת‬. The
restoration of the lacuna in 4QD, made by Baumgarten, interprets the text in a way that
differs from most readings of 4Q185:583

So listen now, all you experts in righteousness [ and put ]the la[w of God in your
hearts, that I may reveal ] (20) to you the ways that lead to life (‫ )דרכי חיים‬and the
paths that lead to destruction. (4Q270 frg. 2 ii 19–20)584

There is unfortunately no parallel text in other D manuscripts, and the context of this phrase
in 4QDe is fragmentary. The addressee formula is preceded by purity regulations, and it
appears to be some kind of transitional phrase. After the lost end of line 19, the next line
begins with the phrase, ‫“ אל תתפשו‬Do not get caught” (line 21). The terms ‫ שחת‬and ‫ תפש‬are
often collocated,585 and the warning appears to refer back to the way that leads to destruction.
Thus, in this passage the text of 4QDe could be close to 4Q185, and one may read 4Q185 in
line with it:

Examine (Search out) for yourself the way that leads to life and the highway [ that
leads to destruction ... ?]

581.
In Isa 59:7, the guilt of the people is metaphorically described as having desolation and destruction in ones
highway (‫)מסלה‬, which may be read as a contrast to God’s ways (Isa 58:2) and the way of peace (Isa 59:8).
582.
See discussion in Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 259.
583.
J. M. Baumgarten, Qumran Cave 4.XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266–273). DJD 18 (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1996) and Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov with the assistance of Nehemia Gordon and Ferek Fry,
ed. Texts Concerned with Religious Law, DSSR 1 (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 143–160.
584.
See PAM 42.399 (B-299258).
585.
See “caught in a pit” (Ezek 19:4–8; Jer 50:24). See also Ezra 9:13: God lets someone escape; he “gives” a
remnant.

- 116 -
Thus, the rhetorical question ii 2b–3a, “Why would you give yourself to Sheo[l],” is a further
development of this motif. The snare motif appears a few lines later (ii 5), where one is
warned against the snare of the fowler. The addressees thus need knowledge, not only
concerning the way of life but also the alternative: the way that leads to destruction.
The text after the lacuna sheds some light upon the direction of the argument. After
the lacuna, one can read: ‫“ ו֯ שארית לבניכם אחריכם‬and a remnant for your children after you.” A
verb, and we may assume that this is part of an appeal, is lost, and it is difficult to decide on
the connection between ‫“ שארית‬remnant” and the former appeal to examine the way of life
and the path. In light of line 14, one would expect something similar to “get” or “save for
yourself.”586 The term ‫ שארית‬is normally understood as “survivors” or a remnant of the people.
In Jeremiah, the remnant is those whom Yahweh saves through the experience of exile (Jer
23:3).587 In the Hodayot and in CD, the chosen people are called the remnant (1QHa XIV 11;
CD I 4). The phrase ‫ אין שארית‬is also repeated in threats in relation to the destruction of the
wicked, with “no remnant or no one spared” (CD II 6).588 The extant context thus implies that
there is a correlation between seeking the way of life and leaving a remnant for future
generations. ֹTowards the end of the column there is another reference to offspring (ii 15).
One could possibly read ‫ שארית‬in the same manner.589 In any case, the “way of life” will have
consequences for oneself and for the coming generations.590 The ‫“ שארית‬remnant” for ‫לבניכם‬
‫“ אחריכם‬your children after you” thus seems to depend on one’s path. What seems to be at
stake in 4Q185 as well are survivors among the people or in the family of the addressee.
There is life, survivors, and a future, or there is death and judgment.
In 4QDe, the “way of life” appears to refer to Torah, and it may also be associated
with Torah in 4Q185. Earlier exegesis has interpreted this as a reference to Torah or wisdom
and in light of similar phraseology in Proverbs: “For the commandment is a lamp and the
teaching a light, and the reproofs of discipline are the way of life” (Prov 6:23).591 The
judgment speech in Jer 21:8 also refers to the way of life (‫ )את דרך החיים‬and the way of death
(‫)את דרך המות‬. Jeremiah describes a new Exodus, where God himself will fight against the
people in anger, fury, and wrath. Yet the people are offered a choice between the way of life,
and the way of death.592 Salvation depends upon the readiness of the people to surrender to

586.
See similar syntax in Gen 45:7 ‫“ לשום לכם שארית‬Preserve for you a remnant.”
587.
Boda, Praying the Tradition, 69.
588.
See also 1QS IV 14, V 13, and 1QHa XIV 35.
589.
According to Isa 58:13–14, there is an inheritance for those who refrain from their wicked ways.
590.
4Q374, a fragmentary text on the Exodus tradition, reads ‫“ ואין ׄל]כם[ שרית ופליטה‬And no remnant nor
rescue,” and then turns to the offspring, ‫( לצאצאוהם‬frg. 2 ii 4).
591.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 141.
592.
Jeremiah 21 appears to be a re-contextualisation of the covenant formula of Deut 30:15–16 “See, I have set
before you today life (‫ )את החים‬and prosperity, death (‫ )את המות‬and evil. If you obey the commandments of

- 117 -
God’s discipline (see also Jer 6:17). There is no tension between the proverbial and prophetic
rendering of the phrase “way of life.”593 The language of Jeremiah, possibly drawn from
Deuteronomy, is influenced by sapiential traditions, and 4Q185 might very well allude to
both covenantal and sapiential traditions when exhorting the addressees to search out a way
of life.
The way of life appears to be a premise for a future remnant. It may also offer an
alternative to the fatal destiny, Sheol. This is confirmed by the rhetorical question that
follows.

Column ii 2b–3a: Rhetorical Question

The rhetorical question, ‫[כם לשאו֯ ]ל‬

֯ ]‫“ ולמה תתנו‬Why would you give your[ ...] to Sheo[l ],”
reveals a non-deterministic perspective on life. The addressees are responsible for their own
outcome, as it depends on how they lead their lives. 4Q185 thus reflects an understanding of
life and death that is close to the teaching of retribution found in the wisdom literature.594 It is
also found in Deuteronomy (e.g. Deut 30:15). Wolff describes it in this way: “By
transgressing against the offer of life, one is delivering oneself up to mortality.”595 One can
choose the way of life, or one can give oneself up to destruction (Deut 30:17–20).
I read ‫“ שאול‬Sheol” but the restoration suggested by Lichtenberger ‫“( לשחת‬pit”) gives
more or less the same meaning.596 The two terms are often used in synonymous parallelism.
‘Sheol’ is the netherworld and the place for the dead (Ps 89:48; Job 14:13), and is sometimes
referred to as a place for the wicked and as a punishment (Isa 14:15; Job 24:19). In the
exhortations, judgment is presented as an inescapable reality, and life and death are mutually
exclusive options. The speaker appeals to his addressee with a threat.597

Yahweh your God that I am commanding you today, by loving Yahweh your God, walking in his ways.” See
William Lee Holladay and Paul D. Hanson, Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah,
Chapters 1–25 (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 574.
593.
See also Prov 12:20 and 2 Chr 6:31.
594.
See also Prov 1:32–33 and Psalm 1. A similar logic is also found in Sirach, see excursus in ch. 5.
595.
Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament, 114.
596.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
597.
A Psalm in 4Q381 reflects a similar thematic context: “And I will fear (‫ )ואפחד‬and I will purify (‫)ואטהר‬, and
I will allow my soul to be humbled (‫ )להכנע‬before” (4Q381 frg. 45, 1–2). The rhetorical question in 4Q185 ii
2b–3 is likely to be read along the similar lines as the plea in 4Q381 frg. 45, 4: “Do not set me (‫ )תתנני‬in
judgment with you. Eileen Schuller notes that the term ‫ כנע‬is used in the spiritual sense of humility and
repentance before God. See Schuller, Non-canonical Psalms from Qumran, 173.

- 118 -
Summary: Proper behaviour

The positive appeals of the exhortation are concerned with all-embracing piety. The
instruction prescribes a kind of piety that deals with far more than mere behaviour: it
concerns the deeper inner emotions. Its appeals have both cognitive and emotional aspects.
These are intimately interwoven, as the human attitude is witnessed by both. The emotions
are all a direct response to the character of God and his being, which is manifest through his
strength, and dread, and his good acts of mercy. It is notable that all but the first are oriented
towards God and his doings, while the emphasis rests upon human attitude. The instruction
thus moves the listener towards the ultimate source of the admonition, God, and it is only
God who affects the attitude of the human heart and mind. A pattern can be found in positive
appeals:

“Didactic” Appeals: Appeals with a concern for a human response (body):

(Underlines authority) (Based upon God’s doing)

Pay attention to me Humble yourselves (before his might)

Remember his wonders Let your heart tremble (before his dread)
and signs

Do his will ( ? ) Let your soul rejoice (according to his ‫)חסד‬

The first and introductory appeal differs from the others, while pointing at the instructor
himself: ‫“ והשכילו לי‬And pay attention to me.” The instructor starts with an invitation to learn
from him, but then he directs the attention of the addressees towards their commemorated
history. The exhortation to remember is more extensive than the surrounding exhortations. It
is therein that knowledge is to be found. According to Daffern, remembering not only affects
the moment; it also affects the future, by influencing deeds as well as identity.598 Thus, the
exhortation to remember is actually closely associated with doing Yahweh’s will.
Three of the positive appeals are concerned with the “attitude” and human response
towards the mighty God and his reproofs: to humble oneself, tremble one’s heart, and to
rejoice in one’s soul. These attitudes are reflected through a bodily response, which seems to
be a direct result of the preceding appeal to pay attention to the message of the instructor.

598.
Daffern, “Prayers for Remembering in the Psalms,” 154.

- 119 -
Knowledge of God’s might and his wonders in Egypt will make one humble. One could read
the appeals in the following manner: Remember, so that you tremble. Do his will, so that you
can feel joy and experience his mercies. Each appeal thus adds to the larger exhortation, and
they all rest upon each other. The appeals of the exhortation lead the recipients through a
process that begins in total prostration and ends with rejoicing. The last appeal, to search out
the way of life, departs from the preceding appeals and may function as a concluding climax.
The way of life is characterised by humility, remembrance, the fear of God, and the doing of
his will.

Column ii 3b–5a: Improper Behaviour

‫ואל תמרו דברי יהוה‬֯ ‫שמעוני בני‬ 3

‫ו‬
‫י[עקב ונתיבה חקק לישחק הלוא ט ב יום‬֯ ׄ
]◦[]‫תצעדו‬ ‫][אל‬ 4
‫[בי֯ ֯ראתו‬
֯ ‫אחד] [◦ם בעשו֯ ]ת‬ 5

3 Listen to me, my children, and do not rebel against the words of Yahweh.
4 [And] do not deviate[ ... J]acob, or the path he instructed for Isaac. Is not one day
better
5 [... ].. when doing [...][...]in fear of him.

A new sequence is introduced with the addressee formula, “Listen to me, my children.” The
turn from positive to negative appeals does not represent a shift in theme. The emphasis on
judgment was already prepared in the rhetorical question of col. ii 2b–3a, which warned
against giving oneself up to Sheol.

Column ii 3b: Introductory Address

The instructor enters the scene once more with an appeal to listen: “Listen to me, my
children.” Previously the listeners are addressed as “children of Adam” (i 9) and “my people”
(i 13). This is thus the third variation and the most intimate identification of the listeners. The
address ‫“ בני‬my children” or “my sons” strengthens the paternalistic tone of the instruction,
but in a warmer sense than the preceding “simple ones.” The address “my children” is a
common feature within the instructions of Proverbs (e.g. Prov 1:8), where the teacher
mediates instruction as a father to his son. Pajunen has pointed at the labels of the addressees

- 120 -
as a key to the structure, as they move from “all humanity to the people of Israel and finally
“to the sage’s own listeners.” According to Pajunen, these designations serve to “direct the
listener to the correct level of the discussion.”599 A similar variation can be seen between the
three different addressee formulas in the introductory admonition of CD: “And now, listen all
who know righteousness” (I 1), “So now listen to me, all members of the covenant” (II 2),
and “So now, my children, listen to me” (II 14).600 There is a chance that both CD and 4Q185
imitate Isa 51, which similarly makes use of such addressee formulas: “Listen to me, you that
pursue righteousness” (51:1), “Listen to me, my people” (51:4), and finally “Listen to me,
you who know righteousness” (51:7).601 In the context of 4Q185, the addressee formulas add
tension to the speech. Thus, the address “my sons” ‫ בני‬reflects an intensified relevance of the
message as it demands the full attention of the recipient. The various designations do not only
point to different levels of the discussion, they also identify the addressees and thus have a
formative aspect.

Column ii 3b: Do not Rebel against the Words of Yahweh

The new sequence contains two prohibitions that follow each other: “and do not rebel (‫ואל‬
‫ )תמרו‬against the words of Yahweh and do not deviate[...].”602 These prohibitions can arguably
be called vetitives, which are often used in legal matters, but are also frequent in wisdom
texts such as Sirach and 4QInstruction (e.g. 4Q416 2 ii 14–21).603 These sayings are presented
with an authority of their own as if they are unquestionable.
The first prohibition, ‫“ אל תמרו‬do not rebel,” presents the words of Yahweh as
authority. While the preceding column, line 14, referred to ‫אלהינו‬, this prohibition uses ‫יהוה‬.
The interchangeable names of God is a common feature within Psalms, and the two often
appear in parallelism.604 The use of the Tetragrammaton in this context strengthens the sense

599.
Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 17.
600.
According to Davies, these formulas introduce three different discourses. Without being conclusive, Davies
suggests that the variation in addressees refers to insiders, novitiates and outsiders. He also notes that it could be
a rhetorical device; see Philip R. Davies, The Damascus Covenant: An Interpretation of the “Damascus
Document” (Sheffield: JSOTSup, 1982), 56–57.
601.
These addressee formulas need to be read as parts of the prophetic oracles that they introduce. In Isa 51,
Yahweh is the speaker. The larger section consists of three passages that are similarly structured. There is a
progression from the first, who qualifies the addresses as “searching for justice.” The next, “my people” is
followed by a statement that claims Torah and justice for this people. The last passage, denotes the people as
those who know justice, having “my torah”/“my teaching” in their hearts.
602.
A verbal sentence (indicative) that is negated with ‫ אל‬is construing the jussive, expressing a “wish.” In this
case the construction is used to express a prohibition (‫ אל‬+ hiphil impf. 2 m. pl.).
603.
Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, “The Addressees of 4QInstruction,” in Sapiential, Liturgical and Poetical Texts from
Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo 1998,
Published in Memory of Maurice Baillet (ed. Daniel K. Falk, Florentino García Martínez, and Eileen M.
Schuller; STDJ 35; Leiden: Brill, 2000).
604.
See Pss 55:17; 70:2. On interchangeable names in Psalms; see Karl William Weyde, “‘Has God Forgotten

- 121 -
of authority. The Tetragrammaton is rare in the DSS and was apparently avoided in texts that
are regarded to be of sectarian origin.605 However, it can be found in various compositions
that are assumed to have been used or stored by the same sectarian community, such as
4Q381 and 4Q370.606 The habit of avoiding the Tetragrammaton may change from hand to
hand. One example is the large Isaiah scroll, which has the consonants written in the regular
text (1QIsaa XXXIII 3), while avoiding it in the supralinear addition in Isa 40 (1QIsaa XXXIII
7).607
The construct chain ‫“ דברי יהוה‬words of Yahweh” has no clear reference to the
preceding text, but the appeal not to rebel leans on the former positive appeals to remember,
and also to do his will. The immediate association of “words of Yahweh” is the
commandments, which are the expression of God’s will.608 One may also associate the
“words” with what “he did in Egypt.”609 The phrase evokes the wilderness episode, with the
giving of the law and the consecutive rebellion of the fathers.610 The evocation of history
again resembles the historical psalms. While Ps 105:28 claims that the people did not rebel
(‫ )ולא מרו‬against the words (‫)את דברי‬,611 Ps 107:11 reports rebellion against the words of God
(‫)כי המרו אמרי־אל‬. In Psalms 78 and 106, the rebellion is primarily that the people did not
remember God’s deeds. Thus, the prohibition (ii 3) mirrors the positive appeal in the former
section: “Remember!” (i 14). Whether you remember or not is seen in how you respond to
the words of Yahweh.612

Mercy, in Anger Withheld his Compassion?’ Names and Concepts of God in the Elohistic Psalter,” in Divine
Wrath and Divine Mercy in the World of Antiquity (ed. Reinhard G. Kratz and Hermann Spieckermann, FAT 2.
Reihe 33; Göttingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008).
605.
Newsom, “‘Sectually Explicit’ Literature from Qumran,” 177; M. Delcor, Qumran sa piete, sa theologie et
son milieu (ed. M. Delcor; BEThL 46; Paris: Leuven University Press, 1978).
606.
Schuller, Non-canonical Psalms from Qumran, 41.
607.
The four dots (Tetrapuncta) were inserted by the corrector who made the larger supralinear addition. The
dots are made precisely above the four last letters of ‫אלוהינו‬, hence they could also function as cancellation dots.
The fact that the phrase ‫ ודבר אלוהינו‬is doubled, appearing again towards the end of the addition in the margin,
also suggests this. Moreover ‫ ודבר‬in the main text is marked with cancellation dots below the text, and so is also
‫א‬. Perhaps the corrector was inclined to leave the rest unmarked as it would cause confusion due to the
Tetrapuncta? Or, the scribe that inserted the addition left an open space for the divine name, and a second
corrector filled the space with dots intended to be cancellation dots. For scribal practices concerning
cancellation dots and the use of Tetragrammaton; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 191, 241.
608.
Similarly, the referent of the phrase “words of God” in 1QS could be either “words of God” mediated
through the prophets or it could also be Torah (1QS I 14, III 11).
609.
The noun ‫ דבר‬can imply an act and thus be related to “what he did.”
610.
The same point, that the verb ‫ מרה‬evokes the wilderness motif, is made in Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 144.
611.
Note that LXX and the Syriach omit the denial participle, ‫לא‬, thus asserting that they did rebel (Ps 105:28).
612.
The evocation of the sins of the fathers is also found in a similar manner in the prayer 4Q504, quoting Num
14:19 and Deut 1:26. “O Lord, act now according to yourself, according to the greatness of your power by
which you endured our fathers in their rebellion against you word” (4Q504 1 ii 7–8a).

- 122 -
Column ii 4: Do not Deviate

The next vetitive ‫“ אל תצעדו‬Do not deviate” repeats the way motif. The verb ‫ צעד‬can be
translated as “step” or “deviate.” A lacuna interrupts the negative appeal and makes the
reading difficult, but the vetitive is best read as a parallel to the former ‫“ אל תמרו‬do not rebel.”
There is a way that one should not deviate or step away from, and to deviate from it means to
be rebellious. The collocation of ‫ צעד‬with ‫ דברי אל‬is found in the first column of the
Community Rule: ‫“ ולוא לצעוד בכול אחד מכול דברי אל בקציהם‬and not to deviate from any single
one of all God’s words in their times” (1QS I 13–14).613 Way motifs are generally used
metaphorically to depict behaviour, and to “step” or “walk” in a certain way symbolises
moral behaviour (e.g. Psalm 1). The first part of the line is lost, but the last part ‫ונתיבה חקק‬
‫“ לישחק‬or the path he instructed for Isaac” indicates that there was a parallel reference to
Jacob. Some reconstructions fill the gap so that the meaning is an appeal to walk in the way
God led Jacob. Matthew Goff reads: “Do not walk[ ... but in the way he laid down for
J]acob.”614 I would rather read it as a warning not to deviate from a certain way, most likely
the way prescribed for Jacob.615 Of course the meaning remains the same, but the latter
corresponds better with the previous prohibition: one should not rebel against the words or
deviate from the way. Rebellion thus means to walk away from the “path” (‫ )נתיבה‬instructed
and given by God.
The interrupting lacuna makes it impossible to ascertain the specific role of Jacob and
Isaac in this passage, but the last phrase ‫ ונתיבה חקק לישחק‬is best read with God as the subject
of the verb ‫( חקק‬qal pf.), implying that he (Yahweh) ordained a path for Isaac.616 Jacob is
occasionally presented as a receiver of instruction (Pss 78:5, 105:9–10).617 The role of Jacob
and Isaac in this context may thus be in line with Ps 105:9–10, which connects the patriarchs
to the covenant and ‫ חק‬an “instruction.”618 The association of “path” and “words of Yahweh”
with the patriarchs in 4Q185 may serve to authorise the path, as it is placed far back in time.

613.
See also 1QS III 11 “Let him turn aside neither to the right nor the left, nor yet deviate in the smallest detail
from all of His commands (‫)דבריו‬,” Elisha Qimron and James H. Charlesworth, “Rule of Community (1QS),” in
The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts with English Translations. Rule of Community and
Related Documents (ed. James H. Charlesworth; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994).
614.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 144.
615.
In line with Lichtenberger and Qimron; see ch. 2.
616.
Note 1QpHab VII 13, where God is the subject, ordaining the seasons.
617.
4Q225 depicts Isaac as active and willing; see Leroy Andrew Huizenga, The New Isaac: Tradition and
Intertextuality in the Gospel of Matthew (NovTSup 131; Leiden Brill, 2009). See also Devorah Dimant and
Reinhard Gregor Kratz, Rewriting and Interpreting the Hebrew Bible: The Biblical Patriarchs in the Light of the
Dead Sea Scrolls (BZAW 439; Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013).
618.
Brooke has suggested that the priority given to Jacob could be connected to the traditions that connect him
with Bethel and the establishment of priesthood. Brooke refers to the book of Jubilees, see Brooke, “Biblical
Interpretation in the Wisdom Texts from Qumran,” 212. Goff highlights the association with Torah (Sir 24 and
Bar 4:1–2); see Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 144–145.

- 123 -
It is notable that only Jacob and Isaac are mentioned in 4Q185. Hypothetically, the
constellation of Jacob and Isaac, and the order of the two names, might reflect the Jacob-
Israel typology in a similar manner to Ps 78:5.619 This may explain why Abraham is left out.
The order of the patriarchs in 4Q185, Jacob first and then Isaac, is found exclusively in Lev
26:42, where the patriarchs are mentioned in relation to history of rebellion and covenant:620
“then will I remember my covenant with Jacob; I will remember also my covenant with Isaac
and also my covenant with Abraham, and I will remember the land.” Jacob and Isaac do not
play a significant role in 4Q185, but their names serve a purpose. The names Jacob and Isaac
recall their covenants, and also a specific history that is associated with rebellion. According
to CD, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are reckoned as God’s friends, but the sons of Jacob sinned
grievously (CD III 2–4). Correspondingly, the line in 4Q185 may function as a warning
against rebellious “walking.”621 The larger context in 4Q185 allows for a connection with the
history of rebellion and the covenant. In column three, there is a reference to the words of the
covenant. Thus, the phrase “words of Yahweh” may refer to the same object as the “words of
the covena[nt]” (3 iii 3).
Jacob has various roles in the Hebrew Bible, and often serves as a typology of the
people, both the chosen people and the rebellious people.622 The admonition keeps putting
forth the two alternative ways, and the listeners are supposed to take a stand: they should not
rebel and should not deviate from the proper way.

Column ii 4–5a: Rhetorical Question

Just as the positive appeals were followed by a rhetorical question, the prohibitions are
followed by a “better is x than y” sentence in col. ii 4–5 (cf. Ps 37:16; Prov 8:11, 15:16). The
statement is preceded by the interrogative ‫הלוא‬, which could be rendered in two ways: either
as a rhetorical question, “Is not?” or “Indeed, better is..” Either way, the rhetorical statement
serves to argue by referring to the common sense of the listener. The only readable text is the
opening, ‫“ טוב יום אחר‬better is one day,” and thus the comparison is lost.623 Strugnell suggests

619.
In Amos 7:9, Isaac and Israel form a parallelism. See also Ps 81:5.
620.
The order of the names in Lev 26:42 is discussed in Mek. See Sifra on Lev 26:42.
621.
If one reads the former prohibition not to rebel as an evocation of the history of rebellion, this line may also
evoke Ezek 20, which warns against walking in the way of the fathers, those who rebelled in the desert.
622.
The name Jacob might also have negative connotations in 4Q185. The description of how one should not
pursue “it” (f.sg.) reminds one of Jacob. “deceit (‫)מרמה‬, nor hold on to it by flattery (‫( ”)חלקות‬ii 14). Both these
characteristics are, at least in the context of Genesis, associated with Jacob, who deceived his own father, Isaac,
his brother Esau, and his brother-in-law.
623.
The same phrase ‫ טוב יום אחר‬is preserved in 4Q411 1 ii 3; see Menachem Kister, Torleif Elgvin, Timothy
Lim, Bilhah Nitzan, Stephen Pfann, Elisha Qimron, Lawrence H. Schiffman, Annette Steudel, Qumran Cave 4
XV: Sapiential texts, Part 1, DJD 22 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 160.

- 124 -
a reconstruction according to Ps 84:10: “Is not one day in His house better [...].”624 In my
view, the length of the lacuna allows for a number of possible suggestions, and I will not
attempt to restore it. However, a structural pattern is traceable when comparing this unit with
col. ii 2–3: the admonition is followed by an implicit motivation embedded in a rhetorical
question or statement.
After half a line with no extant text, the last word of a phrase appears: ‫[בי֯ ֯ראתו‬
֯ ].
Allegro and Strugnell simply read this word as a noun with suffix, ‫“ יראתו‬fear of him.”625
However, there is a preceding letter that is likely a preposition.626 This “fear” is likely part of a
positive appeal to fear God, corresponding to the positive appeal in col. i 15. Hence, it would
contrast the following text which warns against the fear that leads one off the right track.

Summary: Improper Behaviour

These two vetitives circle around historical motifs, and thus elaborate on the history
associated with Egypt already introduced in col. i 14. Just as the positive appeals were
oriented towards God’s might and his deeds, these negative appeals continue in a similar
manner. They are not exactly mirroring the positive, but they complete the picture.
The prohibitions are not accusations, but the whole passage may function as a warning that
evokes prototypical examples of the past.627 The vetitive ‫ואל תמרו דברי יהוה‬
֯ “do not rebel
against the words of God” evokes the type scene of rebellion: the wilderness episode (Num
14; Exod 32:8). To rebel is to deviate from the way that was given Jacob and Isaac. The
rhetorical statement at the end is not readable, but in line with the preceding rhetorical
statement and questions, it likely serves to underline the message of the vetitives.

624.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 271. A similar reconstruction has been suggested by Qimron in his recent
edition; Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
625.
Strugnell and Qimron read this as part of the preceding rhetorical question; see Qimron, The Hebrew
Writings, 2: 111.
626.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
627.
For a similar transformation of Pentateuchal traditions in Ezek 20; see Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in
Ancient Israel, 365.

- 125 -
Part II, 3: Threats and Reminders of Judgment (Col. ii 5b–8a)

‫ולא לעתת מפחד ומפח יקוש‬ 5

‫מלאכיו כי אין חשך‬
֯ ‫[◦◦ ול◦◦◦] [מן‬ ]°° 6
‫ואתםה‬
֯ ‫וענ֯ י ידעתי‬
֯ ◦◦ ‫[◦ ◦ ֯ל ֯ה הוא‬ ]◦ ◦◦◦ ֯‫ו‬ 7
‫עה לכל עם‬
֯ ‫[לפניו תצא ֯ר‬ ]◦◦ ‫מה תת‬ 8

5 And not be perverted (?) by dread or the snare of the fowler

6 [...] and ..[... ] from his angels, for there is no darkness
7 and ...[] .[...]... he [...] and affliction. I know, and you,
8 what .. [...] before his presence, evil goes forth to all people.

The reading of the text in this part of the manuscript is constantly interrupted by lacunas and
damaged letters. However, this fragmentary text offers phrases that relate to themes already
introduced in the admonition, and so they can be interpreted within the larger rhetorical
structure. The extant text in col. ii 5–7a could be described as a series of threats, which
further motivates the listener to heed the message.
The preserved parts of the text in this section of the manuscript do not allow for an
analysis of intertextual relations, but the motifs found in this passage appears to be drawn
from threat locutions associated with wickedness, such as found in Psalm 91 and Job 34.628
Due to the condition of the manuscript, it will suffice to present a mapping of the extant
motifs. Tentatively, I organise the bracketed text into three: threats, rhetorical question(?), and
a statement about judgment.

Column ii 5: Dread and Fowler’s Snare

The instruction warns against two possible distractions that may lead the simple
astray: ‫“ פחד‬dread” and ‫“ פח יקוש‬a fowler’s snare.” The word ‫ לעתת‬is ambiguous. I have
translated this as an infinitive of the root ‫“ עות‬to bend,” “to be perverted.”629 Thus another
aspect of the way motif is presented: to go astray. This may be caused by two different
powers: one’s fear and the snare of the fowler. The statement is introduced with a negating

628.
I use the term ‘locution’ to denote a word or a phrase that represent a certain style of speech or a theme.
629.
There is nothing that disturbs the reading and all letters are readable. See discussion in ch. 2.5.

- 126 -
‫לא‬, hence there is a change from the more probative ‫ אל‬of the preceding vetitives.
The negative description refers to a hypothetical event, or a type scene. Earlier in the
admonition, one is exhorted to let one’s heart tremble before ‫“ פחדו‬his dread.” The dread of
God puts humans in their right place, whereas the fear of humans might become a snare. The
warning not to err, either because of dread or by being captured, functions well alongside the
way motif that is used in the preceding lines, but without belonging to the same scene. A new
character is introduced: the fowler. Elsewhere in the admonition, there is exclusive emphasis
on the relationship between humans and God and their doings towards one another. This
warning reveals another aspect, which is that human acts take place within a world that is
influenced by other powers as well. The snare of the fowler could possibly cause one to err,
and thus represents the wicked and their destructive power (e.g. Ps 119:110). As such, this
motif resembles the complaint of enemies in the lament psalms (cf. Pss 140:5–6, 141:9).
The use of imagery is drawn from threat locutions in the Hebrew Bible. The snare of
the fowler is recurrent motif (e.g. Hos 9:8). Psalm 91 states that Yahweh provides security
from dangers, such as from the snare of the fowler (‫( )מפח יקוש‬Ps 91:3). Further along in the
same manner, Psalm 91 states that “you shall not fear (‫ )לא תירא‬the dangers (‫ )פחד‬of the night”
(Ps 91:5); hence the two threat motifs are collocated in Psalm 91.630
In Jeremiah, the wicked leaders of the people are compared with fowlers (‫( )יקושים‬Jer
5:26). In 4Q185, this warning could be interpreted as a further elaboration of the warning not
to deviate.631 In 1QS and in 1QHa, the fear of the wicked is pictured as a threat (1QHa X 38).
This fear may cause one to backslide (1QS I 17).632 Hence, the warning against snares and
fear is prompted by the character of the addressee; they are simple ones (i 14).

Column ii 6–7a: The Tenth Plague as Threat?

This shorter passage is ambiguous. The preserved letters constitute words that are readable,
but the context is unclear. One can see remnants of letters that are followed by the extant text,
‫מלאכיו כי אין חשך‬
֯ ‫] [מן‬. I tentatively suggest to read the phrase “[...] from his angels, for there is
no darkness” as a threat. The reference to angels evokes the judgment scene of col. i, where
angels are associated with God’s wrath. The close context preserves a series of threats, thus
this phrase might be read along the preceding lines. Angels do play a similar role in biblical

630.
4Q525 contains several allusions to Psalm 91. See Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 119–24.
631.
Jacob and Isaac may represent the fathers and their wicked paths (e.g. Hos 9:8). According to the pesher on
Micah, the transgression of Jacob was the causing of simple-hearted to err (1Q14 8 lines 2–5). See also frg. 17,
19, which quotes Micah 6:19: “you have walked in the statues of Omri.”
632.
The passage in 1QS I 17 is in line with CD IV 14 which explicitly quotes Isa 24:17.

- 127 -
threat locutions, as they execute justice on God’s behalf. The idea of destruction angels is
rooted in the Exodus narrative, although Exod 12 makes no mention of angels in connection
with the plague (cf. Exod 23:20–23). Psalm 78, however, notes that angels of evil ‫מלאכי רעים‬
were sent to execute the plagues (Ps 78:50).633 Angels take part in God’s execution of justice.
In Psalm 35, the psalmist complains about the wicked, who dig pits and lay out nets and
snares; thus, he pleads that they should be like chaff before the wind, when the angel of God
chases and pursues them (vv. 5–6). The reference to angels is only a threat to the wicked, or
those who lead others astray.
The ‫כי‬-clause is best read as a nominal phrase and an assertion that there is no
darkness (‫)אין חשך‬.634 The phrase may be interpreted as a reference to the destructions of
judgment. Darkness is often part of punishment (1QS IV 13). But the darkness also
represents a possibility of escape, as the wicked hide in the dark (Job 24:16, 34:22); thus, a
sensible reading could be “And [he will not escape] from his angels, for there is no
darkness.”635 There are remnants of letters after the lacuna, but it is not possible to read the
text. I have tentatively transcribed ‫וענ֯ י‬
֯ “and affliction.” The lack of context does not allow for
further analysis.636

Column ii 7b–8a: Rhetorical Question?

The next restored text consists of simply three words: ‫ואתםה מה‬
֯ ‫“ ידעתי‬I know. And you,
what…?” The introductory ‫ואתםה‬
֯ introduces a new unit and echoes the former in col. i 9. The
preceding text seems to lead forth to a rhetorical question. Perhaps there is some self-
reflection before the pessimistic rhetorical question.637 In contrast with the other rhetorical

633.
See also Isa 37:36 and 2 Kgs 19, where the Assyrian army is struck down by a ‫מלך יהוה‬. The narrative in
Isaiah seems to be modelled on the last plague of Egypt.
634.
One may restore the word pair ‫“ חשך ואפלה‬darkness and gloom.” The start of the next line could be a
continuation of this phrase, but it could also start a new phrase. See discussion in ch. 2.5.
635.
According to the Community Rule, angels, associated with Belial, cause the righteous to stray from the right
path (e.g. 1QS IV) and they are also associated with curses (cf. 1QS II). Angels may serve different forces, but
they are dangerous (e.g. 1QM I 15). If the phrase is a threat in 4Q185, it could be in line with the threats in 1QS
IV 14 ‫“ לאין שרית ופליטה למו‬neither remnant nor rescue” and CD II 6, ‫“ לאין שאירית ופליטה למו‬without remnant or
rescue.” In both these texts the threats involve angels that are associated with destruction. See also Jer 42:17;
Ezra 9:13.
636.
There are two words in the middle of line 7 that could belong to the same line of thought: “He will finish
(‫לה הוא‬
֯ ‫)ו֯ ֯כ‬.” The first word is only readable on the latest photo. See discussion in ch. 2.5. The interpretation of
the meaning of the phrase is far from certain, but the statement may be yet another assurance that God does
punish (cf. Nah 1:9; 1QS 4:14).
637.
In ii line 7, I tentatively read ‫וענ֯ י‬
֯ “affliction” (see ch. 2.5). In 4Q381 frg. 31, 6 there is a reflection on human
lowliness in immediate context with a rhetorical question. Motifs of humiliation and rhetorical questions are
also frequent in Hodayot (e.g. 1QHa XI 25, XIX 6, XXIII 24). On the Niedrigkeitsdoxologie as a distinctive
feature of the so-called “community hymns” and the correlation between Niedrigkeitsdoxologie, rhetorical
statements and rhetorical questions in these hymns; see Tanzer, “The Sages at Qumran: Wisdom in the
Hodayot,” 24.

- 128 -
questions that function more or less as conclusions, this seems to introduce the following
sequence and prepares the listener for the following message.

Column ii 8: Judgment

After a lacuna, there is a statement that ends with a threat of evil: ‫עה לכל עם‬
֯ ‫“ לפניו תצא ֯ר‬before
his presence, evil goes forth to all people.”638 God’s presence is again associated with
judgment or punishment, but the statement now reflects a universal perspective, and it
appears to be in conflict with other passages with a more particular emphasis on Israel (ii 19)
and “my people” (i 13). The reference to evil can be illuminated by various biblical passages
that claim that God punishes with plagues and disasters, such as Deuteronomy and the
prophetic doom speeches (cf. Deut 31:17; Jer 1:14).639 This idea is also found in Words of the
Luminaries (4Q504), which, in reference to Scripture states that God will send evil (‫)רעה‬
against his own people:

Therefore you have poured out upon us your wrath [ ... ]... in all the heat of
your anger. But you clung to us[ …][…] … which Moses wrote, and your
servants the prophets, that you would [s]end evil ag[ain]st us in the last days.
(4Q504 1–2 iii 10–14)
In 4Q504, ‫“ רעה‬evil” is connected with chastening and rebuke. The universal perspective,
“upon all people,” found in 4Q185 contrasts the particular perspective found in 4Q504. The
explanation for the universal outlook in 4Q185 is likely related to the theme of judgment.
This is relevant for all people, that is, all children of Adam (i 9). Thus, the instruction has in
this phrase returned to a more universal perspective, where it started off.
According to Deut 31:17, Yahweh will punish his people, and Ezek 38:20 states that
Yahweh’s punishment is something that will be experienced by every creature upon the earth.
In Jeremiah one finds both a particular and a universal perspective: while Jer 11:11 states that
God will bring evil (‫ )רעה‬upon the people, there is a universal perspective found in Jer 25:32
(“from people to people”) and in Jer 45:5 (“disaster upon all flesh”). Thus, even if 4Q185 has
a particular perspective on Israel, perhaps in relation to the covenant, this evil is said to strike
all people. The description of evil that goes forth is in imperfect tense, and thus appears to
relate to the same time aspect as the judgment in col. i 9.

638.
In some editions this phrase is read quite differently, as a promise of ‫“ דעה‬knowledge” coming forth to all
people. The different readings depend on whether the first letter of this word is ‫ ר‬or ‫ד‬. In my view both readings
are materially possible, but ‫ ר‬is the better reading. See discussion in ch. 2.5. On the implications for the different
readings, see also the discussion in Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18.
639.
See also the covenant curses in Deut 28:15–68.

- 129 -
Summary: Motivational Threats and Reminders of Judgment

This part of the manuscript is damaged, but the preserved text appears to indicate that 4Q185
builds up a series of threatening motifs. The use of threats within instructions is relatively
common (cf. Deut 30:17; 1QS II 5–10; CD II 5–7). These threats serve to keep the addressees
on to the correct path. If we presume that motifs are drawn from Scripture, the author appears
to be familiar with the threat locutions found in Psalm 91 and Job 34. Both these passages
deal with how God will recompense wickedness (Job 34:11–12; Ps 91:8). This is comfort for
the good in Psalm 91 and a threat for the wicked in Job 34. There is not sufficient evidence to
suggest that 4Q185 alludes to these two texts, but there appear to be terminological
borrowings. 4Q185 preserves two phrases that suggest an intertextual link with these two
texts in particular: ‫( אין חשך‬Job 34) and ‫( מפח יקוש‬Ps 91). In Psalm 91, there are additional
words and motifs in common (e.g. angels, darkness, fear, ‫לא חקר‬, ‫ )עות‬but there is not enough
preserved text in 4Q185 to conclude on the intertextual relationship. What I suggest is that
4Q185 accumulates threats, and when doing so, draws from a motif complex on “punishment
of the wicked” represented by texts dealing with threat locutions, such as Psalm 71 and Job
34. Psalm 91 appears to have been known to the author of 4Q525, which supports the general
prominence of this psalm.

Summary: Judgment and Human Condition (Part II )

The overall theme in Part II is the threat of God’s judgment in the human world. The two
motif complexes on judgment and human finitude are partly overlapping in their semantic
fields, and the emphasis on human weakness and God’s strength is found in both. When there
is a similar combination of motifs in other texts, metaphors or similes of human finitude may
refer to the sinful and even wicked nature of humans.640 There is thus a logical, rhetorical
progression from the first motif complex to the next, as judgment and human character are
naturally related themes. It is the issue of human character that provokes the reality of
judgment, thus the exhortations appeal to human capacity in order to change and solve the
threats of judgment. The idea of humans being portrayed as withering plants or chaff is
recurrent in texts that are concerned with the themes of judgment, either to describe human
character (Isa 40:6–8), the effect of God’s punishment (Isa 41:23–24; Jer 13:24; Dan 2:37),

640.
See Ps 83:13; Isa 17:13.

- 130 -
mourning and lament (Joel 1–2), or simply the lack of basic human needs for living.641 The
more dominant aspect in 4Q185 seems to be basic nature of humankind and its lack of
faithfulness.
The exhortations are grounded in the recollection of Israel’s history, which the
addressees need to pay attention to and remember. The addressees are to respond to the
memory emotionally, and also practically through performance. The exhortations thus have
affinities with the historical psalms (Psalms 78, 105, and 106). A similar structure, from
pessimistic imagery to exhortation, is found in 4QAdmonition based on the Flood (4Q370),
and the textual parallel in 4Q370 has implications for how we read the sequence in relation to
the structure of the admonitions, its sources, and finally the compositional technique.642
The exhortative part is introduced with the phrase ‫” עתה שמע נא עמי‬Listen now my
people.” The introductory formula ‫ עתה שמע‬is recurrent in CD, but where the addressees in
CD are given positive labels, such as “you who know righteousness” (CD I 1), the
designations in 4Q185 are not honourable. The addressees are “simple ones”, those who do
not know but need to learn. In the exhortations, these addressees appear to be identified with
the people of the rebellious generation who did not remember and did not know (Ps 106:7).
The act of listening thus involves more than an aural perspective. To listen is to heed and to
engage with the message, and is thus connected with a learning that precedes a certain doing
of God’s will. While the designations “simple ones” and “my sons” are more frequent in the
didactic and sapiential literature,643 “my people” also evokes the theme of the covenant.644
We have seen how the author draws from a scriptural motif complex on human finitude,
perhaps using Isaiah as a model but adding additional elements from other sources. On a
larger level, there is a motif pattern that reflects the covenant history in Part II: judgment and
humiliation motifs, seeking and finding, recollection of history, way of life, and rebellion
against the words of Yahweh. Isaiah 63–65 has a similar motif pattern, and could be seen a
model for the themes of the speech. Taking the motif pattern in Isaiah 63–65 as the model for
4Q185, the list of common features is compelling: the people rebelled (63:10); they came to
remember Egypt (63:11); humiliation motifs (64:5); and the seek and find motif (65:1). The
exhortations in 4Q185 thus operate within a similar motif pattern. I suggest that the poetic
imagery and the consecutive exhortations found in 4Q185, and also in 4Q370, are modelled

641.
On the mourning motif; see Katherine M. Hayes, “The Earth Mourns”: Prophetic Metaphor and Oral
Aesthetic (Academia Biblica 8; Leiden: Brill, 2002).
642.
The textual parallel in 4Q370 may also indicate that the structure serves a rhetorical purpose; the poetic
imagery serves as a motivational preparation for the exhortations that follows. We will return to this in ch. 6.
643.
For ‫ ;פתאים‬see Prov 1:22; 8:5. For ‫ ;בני‬see Prov 1:8, 2 Chr. 29:11
644.
Yahweh calls the people “my people;” see Jer 11:4, Exod 3:7; 6:7. A leader or an instructor may also call his
addresses “my people;” see Ps 78:1; 1 Chr. 29:14.

- 131 -
on covenant discourse in the prophetic literature, such as Isa 63–65.

Part III: Restoration and Salvation

There is a fundamental change of tone in the admonition from column ii, line 8b onwards.
This section contains two beatitudes that contrast the pessimistic outlook of the former
speech. A new aspect is introduced, and a human being is described as the happy receiver of
something (f.sg.). There is continuation with the former admonition. Various motifs echo the
preceding sequence, but the lack of hope is exchanged with some relief: “They will inherit it”
(ii 12). Thus, the vain search for the flower is contrasted with the promising search for God’s
gift. The larger passage could be structured according to the two beatitudes, but these
statements are intertwined and should be understood in relation to each other: happy is the
human who receives and does according to it (f.sg.).

Part III, 1: Concerning the Gift and its Recipients (Cols. ii 8b–iii 2)

A key word for this section is the verb ‫“ נתן‬to give.” The fortunate human will receive
something, and they (the people or Israel) will “inherit” it. The object that God offers is only
referred to with a feminine suffix. This section both echoes and contrasts the first column.
The tone has changed: one may search and find. The short life without hope is turned into a
promise of days, fatness of bone, and a joyful heart. The first beatitude has two primary
concerns; first the recipients of the given object, and second, the rewards for those who
inherit it (f.sg.). The second beatitude describes the human being who puts it (f.sg.) into
practice, then widens the horizon, and connects the possession with future generations, and
repeats the emphasis on how to obtain it. There is no way to decide whether or not the
preserved text in col. iii 1–2 should be read as part of the same passage, thus I have included
it here.

- 132 -
Column ii 8b–13a: First beatitude

‫אשרי אדם נתנה לו‬ 8

‫[עים ואל תתהללו ׄ ֯רשעים ֯ל ֯אמור לא נתנה‬ ]◦‫ו֯ ֯בן א‬ 9
‫[לישראל ֯וכז ֯ב ֯ד] ט[ו֯ ב זבדה ו֯ ֯כל עמו֯ ג֯ אל‬ ]‫לו ולא‬ 10
‫ישאנה] יבק[שה‬ ֯ ‫אב] [ו֯ יאמר המתי֯ ֯ט ֯בה ֯בה‬ ֯ [ ]◦◦ ֯‫שכני‬
֯ ‫והרג‬ 11
[ ׄ
]‫[מים ודשן עצם ושמחת לבב עש‬ ׄ ‫י‬
֯ ‫[כי֯ בה ינחל ה ועמה] ארך י‬ ֯ ‫וה]ל‬֯ ‫ימצאה‬ 12
◦◦[ ]‫וישעו֯ ת ◦ ֯ל‬
֯ ‫וחסדיו ֯עלמיה‬ 13

8 Happy is the human to whom it (f.sg.) is given

9 and the one [ ... ]... And do not act mad, wicked ones, by saying it is not given
10 to him. And not [ ... ] to Israel. And as a good gift, he offers it (f.sg.). And he
redeemed all his people
11 but destroyed those who dwell ..[... ] And he says “the one who shows his
goodness (?) by it (f.sg.) will carry it (f.sg.).” [ The one who see]ks it (f.sg.),
12 will find it (f.sg.), and those who w[al]k in it (f.sg.) will inherit it. And with it (f.sg.)
is [length of d]ays, and fatness of bone, and a joyful heart ..[ ... ]
13 and his everlasting (?) mercies and acts of salvation [ ... ]

Column ii 8b: Happy is the Human to whom it (f.sg.) is Given.

The ‫אשרי‬-sentence, or beatitude saying, appears to mark the beginning of a new unit. The
sudden change of perspective from line 8a to the beatitude sentence reflects the idea of Jer
32:42: “Just as I have brought all this great disaster upon this people, so I will bring upon
them all the good fortune that I now promise them.” In one way, the former passage on evil
provides the basis for the beatitude. The need of the God-given object, and the happiness of
receiving it, is urged by the sudden shift.
Beatitude sayings are found in Psalms, Proverbs, and prophetic texts (e.g. Psalm 1;
Prov 3:13; Isa 56:2). It is not connected to one specific genre, and some would even classify
it as a genre of its own.645 This formulaic saying is derived from the verb ‫( אשר‬piel pf.) “call
happy.”646 Beatitude sayings may appear in series, as in Matt 5:3–10 and in 4Q525 (frg. 2. ii),

645.
Nel presents the beatitude as a wisdom genre, but makes a strong connection with the prophetic literature,
Philip Johannes Nel, The Structure and Ethos of the Wisdom Admonitions in Proverbs (BZAW 158; Berlin W. de
Gruyter, 1982), 14, 17.
646.
See “glucklich preisen” Magne Sæbø, “‫אשר‬,” in Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament:
Band I, ed. Claus Westermann Ernst Jenni (München: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1971), 258–259. I prefer the
translation “to call happy,” rather than “to call blessed” which is suggested in the English translation; see Ernst
Jenni and Claus Westermann, Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, 3 vols. (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997),
195. The verb occurs in piel cf. Mal 3:12,15 or in pual cf. Ps 41:2. There is a nominal form in Gen 30:13, where
it is collocated with the verb ‫אשר‬. Leah calls herself happy, states that women will call her happy, and finally
calls her son Asher.

- 133 -
but more often they are isolated sayings that function as an introductory or concluding
statement (e.g. Ps 144:15; Isa 30:18).647 In 4Q185, the beatitude appears to be an introductory
statement similar to Ps 1:1 and Ps 119:1.
The specific form ‫ אשרי אדם‬is found only in Psalms and Proverbs (Pss 32:2, 84:6, 13;
Prov 3:13, 8:34, 28:14). This general address demands further qualification or identification,
either by a particular doing or characteristic. The identity of the one who is called happy in
4Q185 is only implied, although the mention of Israel indicates that it is the people of Israel,
and more specifically those who do or fulfil “it” (ii 13). The beatitudes are conditional
statements and are thus followed by warnings. The immediate continuation of the beatitude is
unfortunately damaged.648
The subject of the verb ‫( נתנה‬niphal pf. 3.f.sg.) “it is given” is unclear. The antecedent
of the feminine suffix used elsewhere in this column is often assumed to be wisdom, or
wisdom associated with Torah.649 According to my reading, the best candidate appears to be
Torah, which is a feminine noun, and something that is given to Israel (Ezra 7:6; Neh
10:30).650 The recipient ‫“ לו‬to him” is a typological example of the one the addressees should
strive to be. In Jer 31:33, restoration is symbolised by the gift of Torah as something that God
will give to the house of Israel, put in their midst, and write on their hearts. The wording in
4Q185 ‫ נתנה לו‬might imply a similar idea, but ‫ ל‬does not necessarily signify an internal
location.651 The following suffixed verbs imply that the object is something to carry and hold,
which hints at an intimate relation to the given entity.

Column ii 9: Do not Act Mad

After the beatitude follows a contradictory negative statement ׄ ‫“ ואל תתהללו‬And do not act
mad!” The hitpael ‫ תתהללו‬is in most editions read as 3.m. “let not the wicked boast,” in line
with Jer 9:23, Ps 75:5, or Prov 27:1. Strugnell reads: “nor let the evil boast, saying: ‘She has
not been given to me, nor [has she been measured out to me.’ For God gives her] to Israel.”652

647.
See “Blessing and Cursing” in Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 196–201.
648.
A possible restoration is ‫בן אדם‬. A similar parallelism is found in Isa 56:2. See discussion in ch. 2.5.
649.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge.” See also Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 18 and
Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah.” This topic will be discussed more thoroughly in ch. 5.
650.
According to Boda, the verb ‫“ נתן‬to give” is associated with Torah. See the list of words for law in Boda,
Praying the Tradition, 129, 203–204.
651.
The preposition ‫ ל‬can have locative meaning. See Newsom on the construction of the person as a container,
Carol A. Newsom, “Flesh, Spirit, and the Indigenous Psychology of the Hodayot,” in Prayer and Poetry in the
Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen Schuller of Her 65th Birthday (ed.
Florentino Garciá Martínez, STDJ 98; Leiden: Brill), 350–351. This idea of Torah implanted in the heart is
found in 4Q504 1–2 ii 13. See ch. 7.2.
652.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.

- 134 -
A closer look at the manuscript reveals that this is not 3.pl.653 This is a direct address in line
with the other exhortations in the text. The appeal regards the attitude of the addressee. The
verb ‫ הלל‬could have different meanings, such as “mock,” “glory,” “boast,” or even “act as if
mad.” Qimron has suggested a reading in light of Eccl 2:12: “madness.”654 This corresponds
well with the context. The following infinitive, to say that it is not given, is a mockery or
even an act of madness rather than a boast.
The label ‫“ רשעים‬wicked” could be read as a vocative similar to ‫“ פתאים‬simple
ones.”655 Yet “wicked” is a rather harsh address if intended for the recipient.656 The prohibition
implies that someone is questioning whether or not it (f.sg.) is given, and that these are the
wicked. The beatitude is thus followed by a negative example: one should not say that it is
not given. The prohibition has an emphasis upon speech (‫)אמר‬. There are further warnings
that concern slander (ii 13) and flattery (ii 14). This negative example of someone “saying”
something appears to be a recurrent didactic or rhetorical phenomenon.657 One example is
found in Isa 56:3–4, where the foreigner and the eunuch question their obligation to keep the
Sabbath. However, these two are not accused of being wicked. Another negative example is
the one who responds to the words of the covenant, saying in his heart, “Peace be with me
though I walk in the stubbornness of my heart” (1QS II 14, quoting Deut 29:18). This is used
as an example of wicked speech or thought (1QS II 16). Yet another negative example is
found in 1QHa. According to 1QHa XII 13, the wicked make the simple-hearted behave as
mad by making them question the truth. This appears to be the issue in 4Q185 as well. The
direct address of the wicked is likely intended as a rhetorical device. The prohibition
functions as a further warning and reminder to the listeners, who might be led astray by the
wicked or by wicked behaviour. To deny what is given represents a threat to the simple-
hearted who may be convinced or led astray by these lies.658 As such, the statement is in line
with the warning against the snare of the fowler (ii 5).
After a longer lacuna, one can read ‫לישראל‬, which is most likely the end of a phrase.659
In the Hebrew Bible ‘Israel’ may denote God’s people (‫( )עם‬cf. Jer 30:3; Ezek 36:12; Deut
21:8). The entity given to Israel is either the land or Torah (cf. Deut 33:3, 29). The reference
to Israel in 4Q185 may again evoke the name of Jacob, and it certainly connects this passage

653.
See discussion in ch. 2.5. In his recent edition, Qimron has also suggested that it should be read 2. pl.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
654.
Qimron, The Hebrew Writings, 2: 111.
655.
There appears to be no space for a preposition before “wicked” (see B-295933).
656.
See similar idea in 1QHa X 38.
657.
Statements introduced with µή εἶπον “do not say...” are frequent in Sirach (e.g. 5:3–6, 15:11–12).
658.
See Jer 5:12, 14:14. See also Jer 2:8.
659.
A similar syntax is found in col. ii 8 where the phrase ‫ לכל עם‬marks the end of a statement: “evil goes forth
to all people” (4Q185 1–2 ii 8).

- 135 -
in 4Q185 with the covenant.660

Column ii 10: A Good Gift

This phrase is very difficult to read. The last word ‫ זבדה‬is certain, but the terminology is rare
ׄ ׄ‫וכז‬
(Gen 30:20).661 The preceding word may be restored on the basis of ‫זבדה‬, thus ‫בד ]ט[ו֯ ב זבדה‬ ׄ
“And as a good gift, he offers it (f.sg.).”662 It is notable, however, that ‫ זבד‬is the only extant
noun that is mentioned in connection with something given.
The Septuagint’s reading of Prov 4:2 is very close to this phrase: δῶρον γὰρ ἀγαθὸν
δωροῦµαι ὑµῖν. The instructor in Proverbs points to his teaching and the commandments
(Prov 4:4). A connection to teaching and, more specifically, the commandments or Torah, is
probable. In the context of 4Q185, the phrase appears to be an elaboration of the previous
statements, and offers yet another confirmation that something is given to Israel. Thus, the
statement falsifies the wicked and foolish saying of col. ii 9, that it is not given.

Column ii 10b–11a: Redemption and Destruction

It is difficult to say where one line of thought ends and where the next begins, as the
sequence is rather associative. The phrase towards the end of line 11, ֯‫“ ו֯ ֯כל עמו‬and all his
people,” is likely the beginning of a new statement which presents the two outcomes, life
contrasting death. The conjunction ‫ ו‬connects the two perfect verbs ‫“ גאל‬redeem” and ‫הרג‬
“destroy,” and God is the obvious subject of these verbs. The reference to “his people” is best
read as a parallel to the already mentioned ‫“ לישראל‬to Israel” (ii 10). Although the syntax of
the phrase is somewhat unusual, it makes sense to connect the verb ‫“ גאל‬redeem” to “all his
people,” followed by a statement concerning the others: those whom he destroyed.
The two verbs “to redeem” and “to destroy” characterise Yahweh, and they also evoke
the history of Israel, already referred to in the admonition as “what he did in Egypt.” Egypt
represents a history in which God acts as both redeemer and persecutor. Redemption and
destruction are normally contradictory acts, and one could read this as acts towards different
kinds of people. They could also be sequentially or even cyclically related events (cf. Ps
78:34–35). Now, the idea of judgment seems to be mapped onto Exodus, and there is good
reason to read the statement in line with the previous threats of judgment. According to the

660.
There is a small fragment with “Israel” that could belong to 4Q370. If it does, there is a connection between
covenant and the label Israel also in 4Q370 I 10. See discussion in ch. 6.2.
661.
The term is only found in Gen 30:20, where the good gift seems to be part of a tripartite word play
(alliteration ‫זבל‬, ‫ )זבד‬on the name of the son ‫זבלון‬.
662.
See the discussion on readings in ch. 2.5.

- 136 -
stories of the Exodus, however, God did redeem all his people at the sea. This did not prevent
him from executing judgment upon those he had already rescued in the following episodes in
the wilderness (Pss 78:31, 106:15–18).
Strugnell reads this as a reference to the future intervention of God: “and all His
people will He redeem but will slay those who hate His wisdom.”663 The suggested reading,
“hate his wisdom” is problematic as the letters required for this reading do not correspond
with the preserved letters on the manuscript.664 I have suggested that we read ‫“ שכני‬those who
dwell.”665 This reading is possible on a material basis and it suits the larger context, but it does
not identify those whom Yahweh destroys.666 Nevertheless, the evocation of history in this
section is best explained in light of the Deuteronomistic idea that is also found in Psalm 106:
there are good things for those who are obedient, and destruction for those who are not. God
as redeemer is further confirmed by the reference to ‫ישעו֯ ת‬
֯ “salvation” (ii 13). Within the
larger sequence of beatitudes and instructions, this reference to the God of history functions
as a reminder of the conditionality of life and God’s gift, and the possible outcome of whether
or not one receives and does “it.”

Column ii 11 “And he Says: the one who Shows his Goodness by it will Carry it”

It is very difficult to read line 11. The verb ‫( יאמר‬qal impf. 3.sg.) “he says,” is followed by
what appears to be a participle, ‫( המתיטב‬hitpael). The root ‫( יטב‬qal) “to be good, pleasing” is
not found in hitpael, but the stem can have a declarative reflexive value. In order to express
the value of the stem and the following suffixed preposition ‫בה‬, I translate it as: the one who
shows his goodness by it.667 The material data does not allow for certain readings, and the
larger phrase should be read with great caution. A connection with the former statement about
saying (‫ )אמר‬is probable. If the illegible word is a description of a person, it could also
contrast the former reference to the wicked saying that “it” is not given. In Deut 5:27–29, the
people say that they will “listen and do,” and God responds that the words of the people are
pleasant (‫ היטיבו‬hiphil pf.), and thus he will do well (‫ ייטב‬qal impf.) with them. In
Deuteronomy, this mind is connected with keeping the law, and a premise for obtaining the

663.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273. This reading is found in Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 131.
664.
See the discussion in ch. 2.5.
665.
The suggested reading is tentative. Another possibility is ‫ שכחי‬he kills “those who forget.” The motif ‘to
forget’ is found in Deut 4:9; Pss 106:21 and 78:11. When the people forgot, he destroyed (‫ )הרג‬them. See Ps
78:31, 34. Psalm 9:17 even states “The wicked shall depart to Sheol, all the nations that forget God.”
666.
The enemies of Yahweh are sometimes described in terms of their habitation (e.g. Jer 49:16). Perhaps an
association with dark places, or secret places (e.g. Isa 65:4).
667.
See the discussion in ch. 2.5.

- 137 -
gifts of the land.668 4Q185 could reflect a similar idea, that good attitude is connected with the
experienced good. The one who proves himself to be good by it is the one who carries it.
The verb ‫“ נשא‬to carry” is also used in relation to the wind, which carries or lifts up
the flower (i 11). Just as the wind carries the flower away from the earth, the one who is
pleasing or constantly works to better himself now carries an object associated with life. To
“carry” is the first in a series of related imperfects: carry, seek, and find. The “carrying” must
be understood in relation to the promise of an inheritance, and underlines the ownership of it
and having it as a possession. In Deuteronomy, it is implied that one carries the
commandments, as the levites carried the ark of the covenant (e.g. Deut 10:8).669 There are
also instructions for the individual Israelite to take Torah with them Deut 11:18.670 The same
could be implied in 4Q185.

Column ii 11b-12a: “[ See]ks it and he will Find it”

The first word of line 12, ‫ימצאה‬, is likely an imperfect with a suffix, “he will find it.” This is
preceded by another verb with a suffix, either ‫ בקש‬or ‫דרש‬.671 The verb is lost, but this is most
likely a variant of the “seek and find” motif which was already introduced in col. i 12. The
motif may be connected with the pursuit of wisdom (Prov 3:13, 8:17), but it is also associated
with repentance, as a wholehearted turn towards God or his Torah.672 In Deuteronomy, Moses
urges the people to seek and find in order to be restored. Moses predicts future apostasy in the
land (Deut 4:25), and the solution is to ‫“ בקש‬seek” and ‫“ מצא‬find” (Deut 4:29–30). A similar
idea is reflected in Jeremiah:

When you search for me, you will find me; if you seek me with all your heart,
I will let you find me, says the Lord, and I will restore your fortunes (Jer 29:13–14)

668.
See stock phraseology in Deuteronomy, Jack R. Lundbom, Deuteronomy: A Commentary (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2013), 302.
669.
The Levites carried the ark of the covenant (Deut 31:9). According to Deut 31:24–26, the written law was
to be placed next to, or even inside, the Ark of the covenant. See discussion in Lundbom, Deuteronomy: A
Commentary, 846.
670.
Note that the verb used in this instruction is ‫שים‬.
671.
One can read two letters at the end of the word, ‫שה‬. If this is ‫ בקש‬with the feminine suffix, it is odd that the
other occurrence has a different spelling, ‫( בקשנה‬ii 14). This calls for caution regarding a reconstruction. The
context favours ‫בקש‬, as these verbs ‫ בקש‬and ‫ מצא‬are collocated in col. i 12. A variation with ‫ דרש‬is possible, but
it does not solve the problem of the suffix.
672.
According to Weinfeld, the “seek and find” motif in Deut 4:29–30 must be interpreted in light of a theology
of repentance. Weinfeld connects repentance theology in Deut 4 and 30, to the penitential prayer (Solomon’s
Prayer in 1 Kgs 8), and argues that Deut 4 reflects the “principal ideas of the synagogal liturgy as crystallised in
the Second Temple period.” Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy 1–11: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary (1st ed.; The Anchor Bible; New York: Doubleday, 1991), 217–21.

- 138 -
“Seeking” thus often implies prayer and a turn towards Yahweh; either “his words” or his
Torah, as reflected in Jer 29:19 and 32:33–34.673 The “seek and find” motif is found also in
relation to the prophetic words. In Jer 15:16, the finding of the “words” (‫ )דברי‬results in joy
and delight of the heart.674 In the context of 4Q185, Yahweh is not the object of the search as
such. The object implied is “a way of life” and also “his words,” given as an inheritance.
Thus, within the context of 4Q185, the object that one should carry, seek, and find is thus best
understood in line with the ways and words of Yahweh (ii 4), which may possibly be Torah.
Torah may at this point be identified with the specific books of the Pentateuch.
Moreover, there is a chance that Torah and prophecy are blended when it comes to authority,
since the words of God are communicated through the testimonies of the prophets. Thus, the
“words” (‫ )דברי‬may refer to Scripture in a broad sense, and not only the Pentateuch.675

Column ii 12: “Those who W[al]k in it will Inherit it”

This phrase has been read and reconstructed differently by most editors. I suggest that we
read “Those who w[al]k in it will inherit it.”676 The phrase is in line with the syntax of the
former statement, “The one who shows his goodness by it will carry it,” and the meaning
parallels and further develops the same idea. This statement again evokes way motifs from
the beginning of the column, such as the way of life. The beatitude section now describes
those who walk in it. Again, Deuteronomy may serve as a paradigmatic model. “Walking” is
one of the main stock metaphors for Torah-obedience (Deut 8:6, 11:19; Neh 10:30; Psalm 1).
The idea of those who “inherit” (‫ )נחל‬corresponds to the subject of the beatitude, the
one to whom it is given (‫)נתנ‬. There is a shift, however, from 3.m.sg. to 3.pl. A similar shift is
found in the first column, line 12, where the pessimistic statement “it is not found (‫”)לא ימצא‬
is followed by “They can seek him, but will not find him.” These shifts function as stylistic
devices, and the break makes a contrast, moving the addressees closer to (or further from) the
typological example of the instruction.677 Again, the feminine suffix is attached to a verb.
According to 1 Kgs 8:50, the land is the inheritance of the people. In the context of 4Q185,
the inheritance appears to be the way of life. Again, 4Q185 resembles the language of Torah

673.
The finding of a book of law in 2 Kgs 22:8 (cf. 2 Chr 34:15) is one example.
674.
The “words” refer to the prophetic words and may be connected with Yahweh’s calling of Jeremiah (Jer
1:9).
675.
In 1QS I–IV, there is no reference to Torah, but instead “the words” and “the will” of God. We will return to
this topic in ch. 4.3.
676.
See ch. 2.5.
677.
There is a constant change of address in Deut 4 from sg. to pl. (See vv. 9, 11, 25, 30). According to
Weinfeld, this is best understood as a stylistic and didactic device. A similar feature is found in ANE covenantal
documents, Weinfeld, Deuteronomy 1–11: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, 15–16, 222.

- 139 -
piety. In Ps 119:111, the ‫“ עדות‬decrees” are described as an inheritance that brings joy of heart
to those who do not stray. Thus, the law is something to “walk in” and to inherit, which
brings blessing. Similarly, 1QS IV 6 states that there are blessings for all who walk in it (‫כול‬
‫)הולכי בה‬. The antecedent of the feminine suffix it the spirit (‫ )רוח‬of the sons of truth (‫לבני‬
‫)אמת‬. Just as in 4Q185, a list of blessings follows. Thus, this phraseology leads to the list of
blessings and needs to be interpreted in light of it.

Column ii 12b–13a: Lists of Rewards

The list of rewards is associated with the object inherited: “And with it is [length of d]ays,
and fatness of bone, and a joyful heart ..[...]” (ii 13). The one who receives “it,” and those
who inherit “it” will experience the rewards.
Lists of rewards are found in different contexts. A list of blessings that corresponds
well with 4Q185 is found in Bar 3:14: “where there is length of days, and life, where there is
light for eye and peace.” The context in Baruch makes a connection with walking in the ways
of the commandments, and the blessings that flow from repentance and penitential prayer.678
Similar to 4Q185, the composition draws from various scriptural sources, with perhaps
Deuteronomy as the most influential.679 The promised rewards – days, joy, and also fatness
(‫ – )דשן‬occur elsewhere as a restoration motif in the Hebrew Bible (Jer 31:14, 25; Isa 55:2).
In Ps 19:8–10 there is a series of statements that list the blessings associated with God’s law:
renewed life, joy of heart, and light for the eyes. As already mentioned, there is a list of
rewards in the Community Rule within a similar context. This list pictures the rewards for all
who walk in the truth: “Bountiful peace (‫)רוב שלום‬, length of days (‫ )אורך ימים‬and multiple
progeny (‫)פרות זרע‬, followed by eternal blessing and everlasting joy (‫( ”)שמחת עולמים‬1QS IV
7). The end of the list in 4Q185 is lost. In light of similar lists in Proverbs, Goff suggest
“riches and honour.”680 The restoration ‫“ עשר‬riches” is possible, but there is a break from the
preceding list, as there is no conjunction, ‫ו‬. This could indicate that the list consists of only
three rewards, and that the letters [ ]‫ עש‬preserves the start of a new phrase.681 A transition
would prepare for the contents of the next line: mercy and salvation.682 If the inherited object
is to be understood as law or Torah, salvation and mercy would be anticipated rewards (e.g.

678.
Allegro reads ‫“ ורשף עינים‬and sparkling eyes” which is closer to Bar 3 and Psalm 19; Allegro, Cave 4: I
(4Q158–4Q186), 86. See also Pajunen, “Unsolved Challenges.”
679.
See Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 13–16.
680.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 133.
681.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
682.
A transitional phrase could state that the reward is for those who do something. For this line of thought; see
Ps 106:3; Prov 21:3 (‫)עשה צדקה‬. It could also state that Yahweh does something; see Jer 32:18 (‫)עשה חסד‬.

- 140 -
Ps 119:166).

Mercy and Salvation

The pairing of ‫( חסדיו‬m.pl.) “his acts of mercy” and ‫( ישעות‬f.pl.) “acts of salvation” could be
additions to the list of rewards (cf. Ps 119:41). The additional word in the middle ‫ עלמיה‬is a
puzzle, and the exact reading of the three words is difficult.683 In light of the larger context
and the collocation of “salvation” and “his mercy”, “eternal” is the reading that makes best
sense.684 In the list of blessings in 1QS IV 7, there is a clear emphasis upon the durability of
these blessings, as they are “everlasting” (‫עולמים‬, ‫נצח‬, ‫)עד‬. This would make good sense also
in the context of 4Q185. If the word is ‫“ עלם‬forever” with a suffix it is exceptional, as the
only occurrence of ‫ עלום‬with a suffix is found in Eccl 12:5. The syntax however, corresponds
with the construct ‫חסדיו הטבים‬, in col. ii 1.685 This spelling could possibly be an Aramaism, and
reflect the Aramaic determinate form.686 The line’s remaining text does not aid the reading and
the phrase remains ambiguous. After a lacuna, a new passage is introduced with a second
beatitude.

Summary: First Beatitude

The first beatitude introduces the happy receiver of a gift. The whole passage revolves around
a gift that is given and its receiver. The series of suffixed verbs makes the style subtle and
implicit. If the statement “those who walk in it will inherit it” is a further description of the
recipients of the gift, then the first beatitude depicts the happy receiver of God’s Torah. The
object given for the people or Israel to “carry” and to “walk in,” and from which to receive
blessings, is best understood as Torah. The first beatitude thus moves from the singular and
typological example to a description of a group of people, identified by their walking. The
language thus brings to mind the exhortation to seek out the way of life, and the subsequent
prohibition not to step away from a certain path.
In the preceding passages, it has been possible to detect themes or motif complexes
that are drawn from Scripture. The theme of this passage is the good gift, and the motifs used
to develop the theme are related to the wicked, seeking and finding, walking, and rewards.
Are there any scriptural models for the structure and contents of this passage? The structure

683.
Strugnell reads “her youth;” see Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273.
684.
See Isa 51:6–8.
685.
The rare spelling, ‫עלמיה‬, is found on another fragmentary manuscript, 4Q378 frg. 6, 6 and frg. 26, 6.
686.
See the discussion in ch. 2.5.

- 141 -
of 4Q185 does not appear to be modelled on one particular scriptural passage, but 4Q185
does seemingly allude to the covenant topos in Deut 28 and Jer 32. The shared motifs with
Deut 28 are the repetition of the verb ‫נתנ‬, the way motif, and the list of blessings and threats.
In Deut 28, Moses presents the people with the law (Deut 28:1), and exhorts them to walk in
its ways (Deut 28:9). The correspondence should probably not be qualified as an allusion, but
4Q185 does echo this topos. Similarly, the motif pattern evokes Jer 32, where the gift of
Torah is connected with an act of salvation. This becomes even clearer in the next beatitude.

Column ii 13b–iii 2: Second Beatitude

֯‫אשרי אדם יעשנה ולא ֯רג֯ ל על]יה בפ[י‬ 13

[‫לא י֯ ֯חזׄיקנה כן תתן לאבתיו ׄ כן ירשנה] ויתמ[כנ֯ ]ה‬
֯ ‫מרמה לא יבקשנה ובחלקות‬ 14
ׄ ׄ
‫ [וב‬... ‫חק ֯ר ויורישנה לצאצאיו ודעתי לע]מו‬ ֯ ‫[דו לאין‬
֯ ‫בכל עזז֯ כחו ובכל ]מא‬ 15
Column iii
[... ‫אלי֯ ה כי טו]ב‬ 1
[... ]◦‫ו֯ ממגרות יתל‬ 2

13 Happy is the human who does it (f.sg.), and does not slander against [it. With a
mouth] of
14 deceit one cannot seek it (f.sg.) nor hold on to it (f.sg.) by flattery. As it
(f.sg.) was given to his fathers, so he will possess it (f.sg.). [And he can hol]d i[t]
15 with all the power of his strength and with all his [migh]t without limit. And he can
cause his offspring to possess it (f.sg.), and my knowledge for [his] p[eople ..]

Column iii

1 to it (f.sg.), for goo[d... ]

2 And from the horrors (?) ... [... ]

Column ii 13: “Happy is the Human who Does It (f.sg.)”

The second beatitude does not actually introduce a new topic, but follows an associative line
of thought. However, there is a slight thematic development. While the first part assures that
something good is given, the second beatitude has a concern for human conduct and response
to the given object. “Happy is the human who does it (‫)יעשנה‬, and does not slander.”
In contrast to the former, this beatitude is followed by an antithetical statement: ‫ולא‬
[‫“ ֯רג֯ ל על]יה‬and does not slander against [it].” The verb ‫( רגל‬qal pf.) “slander” breaks from the

- 142 -
imperfect pattern of the surrounding text. Here, doing it (f.sg.) is the opposite of slandering.687
The contradicting description is further elaborated with implicit instructions on pursuit and
how to hold onto the gift. The reading and translation offered by Strugnell suggest that the
beatitude involves Lady Wisdom: “Happy is man who does it (wisdom) and does not play
tricks ag[ainst her, nor] with [a spirit] of deceit seeks Her, nor holds fast to Her with
flatteries.”688 According to my reading, this beatitude is better read as a reflection of Torah
piety.689 The antithetic statement of the beatitude has close affinities with a phrase found in
4Q525, which quotes Ps 15:3 within a series of beatitudes: “[...]with a pure heart and does
not slander with his tongue. vacat Happy are those who hold fast to her statutes and do not
hold fast to the ways of injustice” (4Q525 2 II 1).690 This passage in 4Q525 depicts Torah
piety. Those with a pure heart are contrasted with those who slander, and are identified as
those who hold fast to the statutes of Torah. Descriptions of character and attitude are often
associated with the act of speaking. According to CD, ‫“ אנשי הלצון‬the men of mockery” have
‫“ דברו תועה על חקי‬uttered lies against the commandments” (CD XX 11). 4Q185 is thus in line
with “Torah piety” locutions when it instructs against slandering “against it (f.sg.).” This is
further manifested in the continued descriptions of the incorrect pursuit of it (f.sg.), to seek
with deceit and hold onto by flattery (ii 14).

Column ii 14: Instructions on Seeking and Holding

The two verbs, ‫“ בקש‬to search” and ‫“ חזק‬to hold fast,” are significant in the admonition. Line
14 states that one cannot seek it with ‫“ מרמה‬deceit,” possibly “with a mouth of deceit,” nor
hold on to it ‫“ בחלקות‬by flattery.”691 Ideas synonymous with “seeking” and “holding on to” are
already urged within the previous lines (ii 11–12), and now the addressees are further
instructed on how to behave according to the feminine object with a negative portrayal. The
two negative instructions in line 14 are complementary and partly antithetic to the beatitude.
Hence, they elaborate on the warning against slander. Deceit and flattery are sins you do with
your mouth, lips, or tongue (cf. Ps 12:2–3).692 In Psalm 78, the lack of fidelity to the covenant

687.
The reading ‫ רגל‬is only one out of various suggested readings, and the uncertainty of the phrase does not
allow a substantial analysis. The reading is suggested in Tigchelaar and García Martínez, Study Edition, 1: 378.
See the discussion in ch. 2.5.
688.
The verb ‫( דגל‬look, behold or lifted up like a banner), which Strugnell translates “play tricks,” is not found
with this meaning, and his translation is very difficult. See Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 273. Goff follows
Strugnell, but he notes that the reading is debatable, see Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 138–39. See further
discussion on “Lady Wisdom” in ch. 5.2.
689.
This will be discussed further in ch. 5.
690.
Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 42–43.
691.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
692.
See also Isa 30:10; Ezek 12:24; Dan 11:32.

- 143 -
in expressed as flattering and lying (Ps 78:36–37).693 Through the larger section of the two
beatitudes, it is clear that those who behave or talk with deceit and flattery, and possibly also
slander, are opposed to those who inherit and practice “it.” Thus, this warning seems to
correspond to the earlier warning: “Do not act mad, wicked ones, saying it is not given” (ii
9). One may read the two warnings as an indirect condemnation of a particular practice.
According to CD I 18 and 1QHa XII, ‫“ דורשי החלקות‬flattery seekers” break the covenant and
change the law.694 It should be noted that the same terms are found in the account of Jacob in
Genesis, where he steals the blessing from his brother by fooling his father, Isaac. In Gen
27:35, Isaac calls Jacob’s action a ‫“ מרמה‬deceit,” and in v. 11, Jacob calls himself a ‫חלק‬
“smooth” man. Jacob sometimes figures as the prototypical example of the sinful fathers
(Mica 1:9), but these echoes are not necessarily connected with the Jacob traditions, only the
conventional description of “wicked” behaviour.
The verb ‫ בקש‬is often translated in the sense “to look for.” The feminine suffix that is
repeated in this section has a wide associative range.695 If we read the instruction together
with the beatitudes, the gift given is the object of the search, and to “do it” means to “hold on
to it.” This way of heaping up verbal phrases meant to be included in one greater whole is
found similarly in the beatitude and the instruction in Isa 56:2:

Happy is the mortal who does (‫ )יעשה‬this, the one who holds (‫ )יחזיק‬it fast (f.sg.), who
keeps the Sabbath, not profaning it, and refrains from doing any evil.696

In Isa 56 the suffix appears to have more than one reference. The preceding instructions to
“do what is right” and “keep justice” summarise the law (Isa 56:1), while the second verse
seems to refer to the Sabbath and keeping the covenant (cf. Isa 56:6).697 This elusive language
to describe submission and obedience to Torah or covenant obligations corresponds well with
4Q185. According to my reading, the object of “seeking” and “holding” is best interpreted as
Torah. In Psalm 119, seeking God and seeking his Torah are more or less overlapping

693.
Hossfeld et al., Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100, 297.
694.
See also the repeated reference to ‫ דורשי החלקות‬in the commentary on Nah 2–3 in 4Q169 3–4 I–III in
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 38–40.
695.
4Q525 has a similar passage and it is restored in light of 4Q185. See Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards
Torah,” 45. I am not yet convinced about this restoration. Frg. 5, 11–12 seem to be closer to motifs found in
Psalm 12. Puech (DJD 25) and Uusimäki transcribe the last letter on line 11, ‫ר]ע‬. There are only two PAM
photos of this frg. On PAM 41.678, the letter looks like a ‫ר‬, but on the later photo, PAM 43.600, you can see that
the letter is ‫ו‬. While Uusimäki notes that one can only see the entire letter on PAM 41.678, a comparison in
Photoshop confirms that it is the other way around and that something is covering the top of the ‫ ו‬in the earlier
photo. Also, the ‫ ח‬on the line below is more clear on PAM 43.600. The split in the fragment has been partly
folded out. A possible restoration could rather be ‫ ו]לב‬in line with Psalm 12:3 ‫“ בלב ו]לב‬with a double heart.”
696.
See 1QIsab XXIV 16–17.
697.
See also the beatitude in Psalm 106, which seems to have a literary connection with Isa 56:6.

- 144 -
movements (Ps 119:2, 10, 45). Thus, to seek Torah means to seek God.698 This idea is found
also in Ps 110: 2, where seeking “him” is equated with the search for Torah. According to
Werline, “to seek” becomes a metaphor for investigation and interpretation of the law, and
practicing it within a penitential context.699 In the context of 4Q185, the specific referent
remains implicit, but the doing, seeking, and holding onto it (f.sg.) are acts practised by the
pious. Here the object in question is best interpreted as Torah.

Column ii 14: As It was Given to his Fathers

The transmission of “it” is modelled according to the past: “As it was given (niphal impf.) to
his fathers, so he will possess (qal pf.) it (f.sg.).” The two verbs ‫“ נתן‬give” and ‫“ ירש‬take
possession of” or “inherit” often appear together in Deuteronomy, referring to the land God
was giving for them to occupy (Deut 5:31, 9:6, 12:1). The verb ‫ נתן‬is also used in the
beatitude sentence (ii 8) is still in the passive niphal, but now imperfect. Nothing is said
about how it is given, but the passage evokes the history of tradition. The emphasis is on the
continuity of the possession through generations.
The idea of history and Torah as something transmitted over generations is well
attested (e.g. Deut 4:9). The history should be told in order to be remembered, so that they
will keep the law (Ps 78:3–7).700 The reference to ׄ ‫“ אבתיו‬his fathers” evokes Jacob and Isaac
(ii 4), but it also evokes the theme in col. ii ‫“ ו֯ שארית לבניכם אחריכם‬and a remnant for your
children after you.” Once again the instruction places itself within a continuous tradition,
with emphasis on past and future perspectives. However, it is the current moment, ‫“ ועתה‬and
now” (i 13), which is decisive for the instruction.
A copy of the Damascus Document, 4Q266, puts emphasis on the perspective of
ׄ
transmission in relation to the giving of the laws, by quoting Lev 28: ‫בחרתה לזרעם‬ ‫ובאבותינו‬
‫קודשכה אשר י ׄ ֯עשה ׄהאדם וחיה‬
ׄ ‫“ נתתה חוקי אמתכה ומשפטי‬and you chose our fathers and gave to their
descendants true laws and holy judgments by which man may live if he does them” (4Q266
frg. 11, 11–12).701 Again 4Q185 resonates well with the D-traditions, although 4Q185 remains

698.
Psalm 105:4 encourages the search (‫ )בקש‬of God and his strength. To seek God means to remember (Ps
105:4). In Psalm 119, Torah is the aim of the search. On the substitution of Torah in place of God in Psalm 119;
see Kent Aaron Reynolds, Torah as Teacher: The Exemplary Torah Student in Psalm 119 (VTSup 137; Leiden:
Brill, 2010), 40.
699.
According to the Ethiopic version of Jubilees: “And in those days, the children will begin to search the
laws, And to search the commandments, and they shall change to the path of righteousness” (23:26). The
translation is VanderKam’s; see Werline, The Development of a Religious Institution, 114.
700.
Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 55. See also Witte, “History and Historiography in Psalm 78,” 27–29.
701.
Baumgarten, Qumran Cave 4.XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266–273). Goldman argues that 4Q266
also preservers an additional quotation of Lev 18:5 at the end of the manuscript; Liora Goldman, “The Exegesis
and Structure of Pesharim in the Damascus Document,” in The Dynamics of Language and Exegesis at Qumran,
(ed. Devorah Dimant and Reinhard G. Kratz; FAT 2. Reihe 35; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009), 198.

- 145 -
vague about the contents that were given.

Column ii 15a: Unlimited Strength and Might

Line 15 provides a further description of how one will possess and hold on to “it.” I have
tentatively restored the verb ‫“ תמכ‬to hold” in the preceding line, and suggest that we read this
line as a promise of strength to hold the gift: ‫]מא[דו‬
֯ ‫[“ ויתמ[כנ֯ ]ה[ כל עזז֯ כחו ובכל‬And he can
hol]d [it] with all his powerful strength and with all his [migh]t.”702 The repeated ‫“ בכל‬with
all” evokes phraseology found in Deuteronomy: ‫( בכל לבב ובכל נפש‬Deut 4:29) ‫בכל לבבך ובכל‬
‫( נפשך ובכל מאדך‬Deut 6:5), only heart and soul are exchanged with strength and might. The
first ‫ בכל‬relates to a construct of ‫“ כח‬strength” and ‫“ עוז‬might.” These two terms often appear
as synonyms.703 The reference to strength and might in this context does not imply a move
away from spiritual towards physical aspects, however, the “power of his strength” reflects
the human heart and soul. While Deuteronomy commands the people to love God with all
their heart and with all their soul, in Jer 32:42 it is God who promises to do good to his
people with all his heart and all his soul. In the context of 4Q185, the phrase is closer to the
promise in Jer 32, and it makes good sense to read it as part of the promise that one will
possess “it” with strength. In Deut 8:17, one is encouraged to remember that it is God who
gives the ‫“ כח‬strength” and ‫“ עצם‬might” that secure one’s ‫“ חיל‬wealth,” and that it is not
accomplished by one’s own merit. Here, well-being is connected to the covenant (v. 18). If
you forget and thus break the covenant, you will perish (v. 19). Here again, 4Q185 seems to
be in line with Deuteronomy. God gives Torah, but he also provides the strength needed in
order to keep it.
This promise of strength contrasts the former instruction “not to hold on to it [‫]י֯ ֯חזׄיקנה‬
with flattery.” The ability to hold fast demands strength. There is a connection between Torah
observance and strength (cf. Josh 1:7).704 A similar emphasis on strength in relation to Torah
obedience is found in various compositions at Qumran. In CD, the keeping of the law is not
taken for granted. Rather, it is an obligation that demands effort. The ‫( המחזיקים‬hiphil ptc. pl.),
“those who hold fast” the commandments or Torah (CD XX 27), will ‫ישישו וישמחו ויעז לבם‬
“rejoice, and be happy, and have a strong heart” (CD XX 33). According to 1QS, ‫“ חזק‬to have
strength” is needed in order to repent (1QS III 1).705 A similar idea is implied in 4Q504, a
prayer with penitential overtones, where there is a plea for strength: ‫חזק לבנו לעשות‬

702.
It is not clear what the second ‫ בכל‬relates to, but there is a suffix preceded with a letter, probably ‫ד‬. A
possible restoration is ‫מאדו‬, as in Deut 6:5.
703.
The noun “might” is usually spelled ‫ עזוז‬or ‫ עוז‬or in a few occasions ‫עז‬. Here the reading is unclear. See the
discussion in ch. 2.5.
704.
See Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 5.
705.
The “belongings” of a person that enters the community is summaries as knowledge, strength (‫)כח‬, and
wealth (1QS III 2).

- 146 -
“Strengthen our heart to do” (frg. 4, 12).706 While the larger passage on transmission (ii 13–
15) seems to draw from discourse on the land and obedience, such as can be found in Deut 4,
there is a radical change in 4Q185: there is no mention of the land. Thus, 4Q185 features
ideas that correspond with the new covenant, as presented in Jer 32 and Ezek 36, where
emphasis is put upon spiritual gifts as the covenant gifts.

Column ii 15b– iii 2: He can cause his Offspring to Possess it, and Knowledge to People

The verb ‫“ ירש‬to possess” is repeated in line 15 and further develops the topic of
transmission. This time the verb is in hiphil, “He can cause his offspring to possess it.” The
future perspective is similar to col. ii 2, which refers to survivors or the remnant of “your
children after you.”707 Again, the exact reference to the possession remains unclear, but it is
transmitted through the family. The wording resembles the promises in Ezra 9, which ensure
that the people will be strong (‫ )תחזקו‬and that they will cause their children to possess
(‫ )והורשתם‬the land (Ezra 9:12). In 4Q185, however, the object is not the land. The possession
appears to be paralleled by either ׄ ‫“ וׄדעתו‬and his knowledge” or ׄ ‫“ וׄדעתי‬and my knowledge.”708
The letters in the manuscript allow for more than one reading, and the context must guide the
interpretation of this word. The preceding text is presented in bicolas and parallel statements,
and it makes sense to follow this pattern. Hence, this could be a parallel statement: “and my
knowledge for [his] p[eople …].” This phrase could also start a new passage.709 In light of the
larger context, this may again be the “I” of the speaker who, in the introductory part of the
exhortation, called for attention: ‫“ והשכילו לי‬And pay attention to me” (i 13b–14a). Thus, it
makes good sense to read “my knowledge.” “Knowledge” or “knowing” is also mentioned in
col. ii 7, but without an extant context. “Knowledge” (‫ )דעת‬is a feminine noun, and the
previous exhortation to seek and find “it” (f.sg.) could grammatically refer to knowledge.
However, the reference to knowledge does not appear to dissolve the tension of the feminine
suffix in the overall passage. You may be granted knowledge, but you do not “do” it. The
noun “knowledge” is better interpreted in connection with the words of the speaker or the
instructor. The instructor provides knowledge for the simple ones concerning God’s gift for
generations, following the example of Psalm 78. Just as the speaker of 4Q185 addresses “my
people” (i 13), knowledge is again for “my people” or “his people.” There is no final ‫ ם‬before

706.
See also “strength of heart” in order to recount God’s might for generations (4Q504 1–2 vi 9–10).
707.
On this basis Strugnell notes that 4Q185 is reminiscent of “testament literature;” Strugnell, “Notes en
marge,” 269.
708.
The size of the last letter corresponds best with ‫י‬, but compared to the preceding word there is not much
difference between ‫ ו‬and ‫י‬.
709.
It is notable that there is no addressee formula, which is common in the transitional phrases elsewhere.

- 147 -
the lacuna, which means that there is a suffix that is lost.
After a lacuna one can read ‫] [וב‬. The continued text in the first line on column iii,
‫אליה‬, could be read “to it (f.sg.).” One could tentatively read ‫“ יש[וב אליה‬turn towards it,” as in
a turn toward God’s Torah (Mal 3:6; Jer 24:7) but there is too little extant text to provide a
full analysis. On the next line one can read ‫“ ו֯ ממגרות‬and from horrors.” Fear or dread is a
recurrent theme throughout the admonition. This could be yet another reference to God’s acts
of judgments (cf. Isa 66:4).

Summary: Second Beatitude

The theme of the second beatitude continues to evolve around the gift, the practicing of it,
and the attitudes towards it. These attitudes are associated with speech, and the instruction
warns against slandering, deceit, and flattering. This topic is significant in the wisdom
literature and in the description of Torah piety (Psalm 119; 4Q525 2 II 1).
The theme of the second beatitude intersects with the first beatitude; the logic of the
two beatitudes is that the gift is given to those who do it. The second beatitude continues to
draw on motif patterns of Deuteronomy and Jer 32 when repeating the transmission within
generations (Jer 32:39).

PART III, 2: Lost

Summary: Restoration and Salvation (Part III)

Column ii 8b–15 elaborates on promises that are reminiscent of the covenant formulas in
Deuteronomy (Deut 30:2, 6, 10): “As it was given it to his fathers, so he will possess it. [And
he can hol]d [it] with all the power of his strength and with all his [migh]t without limit” (ii
14–15). According to Neh 10:29, the law was given (‫ )נתן‬in order for the people to observe
(‫ )עשה‬it. This segment is commonly read as an instruction on the pursuit of wisdom given that
the feminine suffix is assumed to be wisdom, but one should be careful not to superimpose
that meaning here. Rightly, wisdom appears as something given from God in various wisdom
texts (cf. Prov 2:6; Eccl 2:26; 1 Kgs 4:29). The context in 4Q185 and the framework on
transmission through generations, however, point in another direction: Torah. The gift given
to Israel is referred to by a series of suffixed verbs and rewards; it connects doing with
blessing. This section in 4Q185 does not operate within a specific scriptural paradigm, but
the tone corresponds well with the didactic speeches in Deuteronomy. The sapiential style of
Deuteronomy has long been recognised, and 4Q185 is at home with this didactic and

- 148 -
sapiential style. There is one fundamental transformation, however. Where the discourse in
Deuteronomy puts emphasis on the God-given inheritance and possession of the land,
4Q185, while mentioning “Israel,” does not connect the rewards with the land. Within the
Hebrew Bible, there is a development of the covenant traditions into a more spiritualized
emphasis. The “new” covenant, such as described in Jer 31:33 and 32:36–42 and in Ezek 36,
is characterised by the gift of a new heart and spirit, and by having Torah in one’s heart.
There is no such clear spiritualised emphasis in 4Q185, but the promises are connected with
the human body, rather than the land. The promise of strength also points in this direction.
Hence, 4Q185 connects restoration and salvation to the human body, rather than territory.
This does not mean that the concern is merely individual; the gift has consequences for future
generations, but the outlook is no longer defined by Deuteronomy.

Part IV: Concerning Judgment and Testing (Col. iii 7–15)

According to my reading, lines 7–15 can be treated as part of one thematic sequence. The
third column comprises only fragmentary text, and there are no fully extant lines.710 The
reading of the preserved text is further limited by the scant surrounding context.
Nevertheless, there is one common theme that appears to run through the entire section:
God’s testing (iii 7–15).

Column iii 7–15: God’s knowledge of the Human Body

]◦‫[◦◦◦◦ם כ‬ ]‫הוי‬ 7
]‫ועל‬
֯ ‫אל[חים יבחן כל‬ ]‫◦ ֯ט‬ 8
‫[ו֯ עשה דברי ברי]ת‬ ]‫והוא‬ 9
‫[◦◦י֯ ם י֯ ]ש[פט במסורר]ים‬ ‫ולא ע]שה‬ 10
]‫ויד‬
֯ ‫הל ֯א ֯א]להי[ם עשה לבות‬ ֯ 11
]ׄ ‫חד ׄרי בטן ויחפש כליתו‬
ׄ ‫אל ֯כל‬ ֯ 12
ׄ
]‫ידים‬ ‫לשון ו֯ ידע דברה אלהים עשה‬ 13
ׄ ‫[טוב ואם‬
]‫רע‬ ׄ ] 14
‫[כמחש]בת‬ ֯ ] 15

710.
Strugnell suggests that frg. 3 should be joined with the largest fragment in col. iii. I follow his placement;
see ch. 2.3.

- 149 -
7 Woe[ …]….[ …
8 ..[... G]od tests all, and upon [ …
9 And he[…]And he does the words of the covena[nt
10 And d[oes] not[ …].... [he j]udges the rebellious[ …
11 Did no[t Go]d make the hearts and .[ …
12 to all the innermost parts of the belly, and searches out its kidneys[ …
13 the tongue and knows its speech; God made the hands[ …
14 [ …] good, or evil[ …
15 [ …] according to though[ts…

Column iii 7: Woe!

There are three letters at the beginning of this line, ‫הוי‬. I suggest that these letters constitute
one word: “woe.”711 The concept of woe is frequent in prophetic speech (e.g. Jer 22:13, 18
and Isa 30:1). It may introduce a complaint or a statement concerning the coming
punishment. At the top of frg. 3 one can see remnants of letters, but it is impossible to
ascertain the reading of them.

Column iii 8: God Tests All

There are only two readable words on this line: “testing all.” The subject of the verb ‫“ יבחן‬he
tests” is most likely ‫אלהים‬, which may be restored as the preceding word. One can put God to
the test (Ps 95:9; Mal 3:10,15), but much more frequently it is God who tests humans (e.g. Ps
7:10). In this context, the reference to testing may be read in light of Jer 11:20, where
Yahweh is described as a righteous judge, testing (‫ )בחן‬the human kidneys and heart. The
same theme continues in lines 11–12, which means that this theme is dominant in the text of
the second half of this column. The statement that God “tests all” connects with the theme of
judgment, and thus evokes the judgment scene in the first column which concludes with a
reminder that humans are judged according to their spirits (cf. Jer 17:10).

Column iii 9: And he Does the Words of the Covena[nt]

The word ‫ ברי]ת‬is not extant, but context allows for the restoration ‫דברי ברי]ת‬, “words of the
covena[nt].”712 In the Hebrew Bible, the compound ‫ את־דברי הברית‬denotes the commandments

711.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
712.
The verb ‫( ][ו֯ עשה‬qal 3.m.sg.) could be either imperfect or perfect. One could also read ‫ עשה‬as an
imperative, but the imperatives have elsewhere a plural address, hence the singular is best read either in line
with the 3.sg. of the beatitudes. Hence, the verbal phrase concerns or describes the one who does the words of
the covenant. See discussion in ch. 2.5.

- 150 -
(e.g. Exod 34:28; Deut 29:1). They are something one should keep (‫ )שמר‬and do (‫( )עשה‬cf.
Deut 29:9; Jer 11:6). In 4Q185 there is no object maker, and the word ‫ ברי]ת‬is not definite,
but the preserved context suggests that the “words” are something one should do (‫ )עשה‬or
possibly also something Yahweh has done or made. The words are thus best understood as
covenant stipulations (Deut 4:13; 2 Chr 34:31). The concept of ‫“ ברית‬covenant” is central in
Deuteronomy and is used as a metaphor for the relationship between God and his people.713 A
covenant is a binding agreement and a contract that involves rights and obligations.714 The
patriarchs are depicted as recipients of a ‫( ברית‬Gen 15; Ps 105:9–10), as are the people, led by
Moses (Ex 24:7). The prophetic literature reports a number of times that the people have
broken the covenant (Jer 11:8). In Malachi the priests are accused of having broken the
covenant with Levi; thus, God enters into judgment (Mal 2:8).
The idea of covenant is significant in the Qumran literature, and particularly in the
sectarian texts, such as the Community Rule, and the Damascus Document. According to the
Community Rule the ‫“ דברי הברית‬words of the covenant” are read before those who initiated
the community (1QS II 13). The “words of the covenant” refers to both its stipulations and
also its blessings and curses (1QS II 16). In the context of 4Q185, the words are something
one should act upon. The preserved text on the preceding line makes a connection with God’s
testing. These two motifs are collocated in Jer 11. As we have already seen, Jer 11:20 refers
to God’s testing. Jer 11:8 states that Yahweh punished the people according to the words of
the covenant: 715

Yet they did not obey or incline their ear, but everyone walked in the stubbornness
(‫ )בשרירות‬of an evil will. So I brought upon them all the words of this covenant
(‫)דברי הברית‬, which I commanded them to do (‫)לעשות‬, but they did not (‫)ולא עשו‬.

The scant amount of preserved text does not allow for more than tentative suggestions, but
the word patterns of 4Q185 do correspond with Jer 11 (see the underlined the text). The same
theme appears to continue in the text lines.

713.
On the connection with ‫חסד‬, see Deut 7:9.
714.
See Kutsch in Jenni and Westermann, Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, 256–266. On the
understanding of covenant in CD, see Thomas R. Blanton, Constructing a New Covenant: Discursive Strategies
in the Damascus Document and Second Corinthians (WUNT 2. Reihe 233; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007).
The covenant offers security; thus, the psalmist in 1QHa XII 36, complains: “I am abandoned by your
covenant.”
715.
There is no extant Qumran manuscript with Jer 11:8, but 4QJera vi, attests to parts of Jer 11:3–6 and 19–20.

- 151 -
Column iii 10: Judgment

The line starts with ‫“ ולא‬and not.” One can read ‫ע‬, and a probable reading is ‫“ ולא ע]שה‬and
d[oes] not.” This phrase could be a continued antithetic description of one who does not act
according to the words of the covenant. Yahweh could also be the subject of these verbs.
Either way, there is a corresponding contrast pattern in col. ii 13:

Col. ii 13 Col. iii 9–10

Happy is the human who does it (f.sg.), And he[ ]And he does the
words of the covena[nt]
and does not slander with his [tongue… ] and d[oes] not[ ]

The verb ‫( י֯ ]ש[פט‬qal impf. m.sg.) “[he j]udges ” is followed by a participle, [‫( במסרר]ים‬qal
ptc. pl.) “the rebellious.” According to the historical traditions in the Hebrew Bible, the
ancestors were both rebellious and stubborn, and thus provoked God to judgment (e.g. Ps
78:8 and Jer 5–6).716 Again, one may associate with the previous column, which warns not to
rebel (‫ )מרה‬against the words of Yahweh (ii 3).

Column iii 11: God Made the Heart

This rhetorical question ‫הל ֯א ֯א]להי[ם עשה לבות‬

֯ “Did no[t Go]d make the hearts?”717 introduces a
longer sequence that elaborates on the same theme. The idea of God as creator is the rational
explanation for his knowledge about humans. One cannot hide one’s thoughts because God
knows them all.718

Column iii 12: Belly and Kidneys

In general, ‫ בטן‬may refer to the stomach (Ezek 3:3) as well as the womb (Ps 22:10).719 The
compound ‫ חדרי בטן‬denoted the innermost parts of the human being.720 It is further paralleled
with (‫“ כליתו ׄ )כליה‬his kidneys.” Kidneys in plural are one of the few inner organs mentioned

716.
In Jer 11:8, the term ‫ שרר‬is used to describe the people, which has almost the same semantic meaning and
almost the same sound, ‫בשרר‬.
717.
See Solomon’s prayer: “only you know what is in the human heart” (1 Kgs 8:39).
718.
God knows the word one says in one’s heart (Jer 13:22).
719.
Bester, Körperbilder in den Psalmen, 131–133.
720.
In Prov 20:27, the human breath metaphorically denotes God’s lamp, searching (‫ )חפש‬the inner most parts
(‫)כל חדרי בטן‬.

- 152 -
in the Hebrew Bible. According to Wolff, the kidneys are the seat of conscience.721 They
represent the inner centre of the human body (Jer 12:2). Thus, when God seeks out
humanity’s innermost parts and searches (‫ )חפש‬the kidneys, it is the invisible moral quality of
humans that is referred to. The testing of the “heart and kidney” is repeated in Jeremiah as a
characterization of God acting as judge. Hence, the righteous may trust in God’s justice (cf.
Jer 11:20, 17:10 and 20:12). Whereas body language is prominent in Jeremiah, this searching
of the human body is not directly connected with Yahweh as its creator. This association
between God as creator and as judge is part of the logic in Psalm 139 in a manner that
resembles 4Q185. In Ps 139:19 kidneys and belly are collocated in a parallelism, stating that
God made the kidneys and wove the human in the mother’s womb. Moreover, the psalm
repeats that God searches the human. The idea of God as judge is a relief, but it may also be a
threat. No one can hide anything, and justice will come.

Column iii 13: Tongue and Hand

Line 13 continues the emphasis on the human body and human behaviour. The two verbs
with ‫ אלהים‬as the explicit subject ‫“ ידע‬he knows” and ‫“ עשה‬he does” or “he makes” repeat the
theme of the previous lines. The word of the tongue and the hands refers to “audible” words
and visible acts. The logic of God’s knowing is based upon the idea that God himself made
the human body. Again there is great correspondence with Ps 139:14, which claims that God
searches (‫ )חקר‬and knows (‫ )ידע‬the human body. According to Ps 139:4, God knows the
words of the tongue even before they are spoken. The statement in col. iii 13 evokes the
instructions in ii 13–14 that warn against slander. To seek with flattery or deceit are flaws
performed by the tongue. In this context, these flaws are put together with the work of one’s
hand (cf. Jer 25:6–7).

Column iii 14: Whether Good or Evil

The only readable text on line 14 is a biblical idiom found in Jer 42:6 and Eccl 12:14:
“whether good or evil.” The conclusion in Eccl 12 is very close to the understanding of
4Q185: “For God will bring every deed into judgment, including every secret thing, whether
good or evil” (Eccl 12:14). The overall theme in the preceding lines 11–13, suggests that this
phrase is another statement related to God’s testing of the human being.

721.
Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament, 65.

- 153 -
Column iii 15: According to Thoughts

One can only read ‫“ ֯כמחש]בת‬according to though[ts].” In light of the larger context of the
extant text, this is likely another reassurance that God knows the thoughts of people (cf. Isa
66:18). The term ‫“ מחשבה‬thought” or “device” is a recurrent term to describe a certain attitude
and behaviour.722 Human thought is often contrary to Yahweh’s thought. In Isa 65:2, the
people are described as a rebellious (‫ )סרר‬people who follow their own thought (‫)מחשבה‬.
There could be a similar connection in 4Q185. The theme of God as a judge is already
introduced in the preceding line, and this phrase may be a continuation of the previous
statements that God knows all. A similar idiom and idea is reflected in David’s words to
Solomon: “For the Lord searches every mind, and understands every plan and thought. If you
seek him, he will be found by you; but if you forsake him, he will abandon you forever” (1
Chr 28:9). According to Klein, it is Yahweh’s searching with longing that leads to Solomon’s
seeking of Yahweh. Both components and directions are found within 4Q185. Yahweh
searches out the human body, and the addressees are exhorted to seek and find God, which
means to receive and do Torah.723

Summary: God’s Testing

The preserved text deals with two main topics, the human ability to do “the words” and God’s
testing of the human body. The idea presented is that God’s knowledge of humans is
unlimited, as he is the creator of the human body. God knows the acts of the hand but he also
searches the innermost parts of human bodies that are not visible to the human eye. This
means that all goodness and wickedness will be disclosed. There is thus a thematic link with
col. ii, and the passage appears to further develop the theme of God’s judgment. Judgment is
a prominent theme in 4Q185, but the emphasis in the third column is different. While the first
motif complex on judgment evolved around the human before God’s power and wrath, the
motifs found in the third column focus on God as judge, testing the human body. These
motifs of testing are more often associated with trust, rather than a threat.
Based on the word pattern in the fragmentary text, I tentatively suggest that the text is
paraphrased and perhaps even “modelled” according to Jer 11, where Yahweh announces that
he will send disaster upon the people because they have broken the covenant. However,
4Q185 also builds up phraseology and motifs like those found in Psalm 139 and Eccl 12:14.

722.
See 4Q370 1 I 3 which recalls Gen 6:5. See also 1QS III 15.
723.
Klein and Krü ger, 1 Chronicles: A Commentary, 523–524.

- 154 -
As such, the style of the first column continues throughout the compositions, as the author
freely gathers phraseology and motifs that are associated with a certain theme. The rhetorical
function in 4Q185 remains unclear, but the preserved text states that humans are exposed to
and tested by God. These are words of trust for those who do the will of Yahweh, and words
of threat for those who rebel.

3.4 Conclusion

I started off with the following questions: What does the extant text of 4Q185 say? What are
the themes of the speech? The main topics of 4Q185 are related to divine judgment and
human conduct. 4Q185 offers a way of life as a remedy for hopelessness in the face of
Yahweh’s judgments. This way of life is associated with knowledge that can be possessed.
Those who walk in it will inherit it, and blessings flow from it. I have suggested that this
knowledge is the knowledge of Torah. Wisdom as a concept does not turn out to be central in
4Q185. The term ‫‘ חכמה‬wisdom’ is not mentioned in the preserved text. What is mentioned is
a “way of life,” “words of Yahweh,” “knowledge,” and possibly also the “words of the
covenant.”
My suggested reading of col. i 14 has implications for the series of exhortations. The
extant text can be read as an instruction on repentance in order to get oneself onto the way of
life and to escape judgment. I have suggested that the second column provides a series of
threats that are connected with biblical ideas of Yahweh’s judgment. This theme is expanded
in the third column, which echoes the words of judgment found particularly in Jeremiah. The
outlook of the admonitions is not only individual; it is for former and future generations of
Israel, even “all people.” In this way, the instructor draws on the Deuteronomistic promise of
rewards for the people, if they fulfil the law that God has given them.
The use of a suffix instead of a noun appears to be a stylistic choice, and the
associative style in 4Q185 thus counts for an intended vagueness. This requires further
exploration. There is an emphasis upon the God-given perspective, but also upon obedience,
and a doing that implies seeking and holding on to it. The further descriptions of how it may
be possessed ‫]מא[דו‬
֯ ‫“ בכל עזז֯ כחו ובכל‬with all the power of his strength and with all his
[migh]t” are modelled on a Deuteromistic phrase, and disclose a change of emphasis. There is
no mention of the land. The promise is Torah-centred: they will inherit it and hold on to it
with strength, from one generation to the next.
This structure and the shift from hopelessness towards restoration may signal one aim

- 155 -
of the admonition. Through the correct attitude towards God, which essentially means to be
humble, to fear God, and to walk in God’s ways, God will give his gift to humanity. This
inheritance is something to pass on to future generations, and it is associated with long life,
happiness, strength, salvation, and God’s mercy. However, it is conditional: one has to put it
into practice. It is those who walk in it who will inherit it.
This analysis has shown that the wording of the speech is drawn from motif patterns
in Scripture. In order to declare the threats of Yahweh’s judgment, the author makes use of
scriptural motifs associated with judgment and human finitude. Even if the admonition makes
use of sapiential forms, Proverbs and the wisdom literature are not its most important source
of inspiration. This close reading shows that 4Q185 reflects a wider range of biblical
discourses, such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, the Psalms, and Deuteronomy. These literary traditions
are also mediators of sapiential motifs, which means that it can be difficult or even
meaningless to distinguish between the different traditions. In the Second Temple period,
these traditions merged, and the discourse of 4Q185 is thus a typical example of the
interwoven trajectories of tradition.

- 156 -
4. Rhetorical Analysis: Instruments of the Instruction

4Q185 is generally interpreted as an instruction that promotes the acquisition of wisdom. I

argue that this instruction promotes repentance and Torah piety.
This analysis intersects with my close reading, but while in the close reading we
approached each passage separately and followed the subsequent structure of the text, we will
now move to a larger level to see whether it is possible to say something about the internal
dialogism of the admonition. This admonition contains threats and promises, but there are
also other indicators of intentional rhetorical shaping in 4Q185, such as polarised language
and the repetition and contrasting of motifs. Another persuasive technique is the use of
associative and subtle language in relation to the Godly given object. The second column is
associative and elusive, and the use of a feminine suffix instead of object is noteworthy. The
exact meaning of each reference is not always clear, but it is embedded in the rhetorical
structure of the text. This style seems to be part of the rhetorical strategy of the admonition
and warrants a closer examination.
The aim of this rhetorical analysis is to take a closer look at the persuasive nature of
the admonition: what does the admonition do and how is it done? The argument of this
chapter is that the persuasiveness of the admonition is achieved by the sum of various
strategies that altogether serve to direct the people onto the way of life. It may not be possible
to grasp any clear sense of the original intention of the author of 4Q185, but it might become
clearer how the literary strategies function within the text, at least in the shape of the
composition as we now have it.

4.1 Approach and Preliminary Clarifications

My main question in this chapter is: what techniques or tools are used to effect persuasion?
By ‘persuasion’ I mean the intentional use of language to effect change.724 Any admonitory
text needs legitimisation in order to be persuasive. This is accomplished in various ways in
4Q185. The instruction appeals to direct authorities, such as the words of Yahweh and the
words of the covenant, but the persuasiveness is also found on a rhetorical level. When the
speaker of 4Q185 exhorts the addressees to humble themselves and to let their hearts tremble

724.
See ch. 1.7.

- 157 -
before God’s dread, it is an appeal to emotion and cognition. The instruction mediates
knowledge that can transform those without hope or strength into happy people. The
instruction is settled within an ideological system in which God, represented by his acts
within the recollected history, gives direction for the human heart and soul.
In order to analyse 4Q185 as a persuasive text, I will apply perspectives from
rhetorical criticism.725 One of the greatest challenges of this analysis, besides the implicit and
subtle character of the discourse, is the fragmentary state of the manuscript. This analysis is
not limited to the first and second column, but due to this fragmentary state, the character of
my rhetorical analysis needs to be adjusted to the material, and caution must thus be taken.
By approaching the extant text as part of one composition, the extant sections are allowed to
shed light upon the more fragmentary parts. As we have seen in the close reading, the two
larger sections, judgment (Part II) and restoration (Part III), are thematically interrelated.
Even though each section may have an agenda of its own, motifs are repeated within the
composition and interact with each other. While some motifs can be traced back to one
specific line, others are developed into themes that are expanded over larger sections.
I will first examine the tools of persuasion, and secondly I will look closer at the
elusive style of 4Q185. By “tools of persuasion” I mean the techniques used in order to
arouse emotions and acknowledgments, and consequently to effect change. These techniques
are conventional, such as the use of promise and threats. The admonition also shows an
interest in the human body. The human state of affairs is problematised and thus action is
required. The elusive style of the admonition is also a part of the tool kit of the instruction,
and adds to the persuasiveness of it. Hence, I will take a closer look at the elusive Torah
discourse in the second column.

4.2 Tools of Persuasion

The addressees of 4Q185 are reminded of the human condition before God, the judge. This is
a symbolic reality that involves ideas about God’s judgments and the human body. In the
following section we will examine how these ideas are presented in order to create a
persuasive discourse.

725.
See ch 1. 7.

- 158 -
 4.2.1 Polarised Discourse: Judgment and Human Weakness

The extant text of the first column makes an implicit comparison of human weakness with the
power of God, with emphasis on the weakest parts (i 4–13). Neither the human nor the deity
are explicitly mentioned in the passage on judgment (i 7–9a), but at the end of the sequence
there remains no doubt regarding which one is to be associated with the different positions.
While the human is being tested, God is executing judgment. In the following section I will
first show how the deity is associated with power; secondly, how the human is associated
with weakness; and last how the contrast between human weakness and God’s might is
developed through the rhetorical discourse. A similar theme, where God tests the human, is
picked up again in the third column, but the lack of context does not allow this passage to be
treated together with col. i. Nevertheless, it does confirm the importance of this theme for the
composition as a whole.

Fear-Evoking Imagery: God’s Wrath and Power

The first lines depict a terrifying image of God through implicit discourse, and through the
portrayal of human weakness: “And no strength to stand before it (f.sg.), and no hope before
the anger[...].” (i 7–8a). The judgment scene is not situated spatially, but the context connects
the “standing” with the presence of God’s anger.726 The rhetorical question “Who can endure
to stand before his angels?” (i 8) underlines the power of the judge, whose servants are
instruments of judgment and wrath. The ‫כי‬-sentence is the most explicit statement: “For with
flaming fire he shall be judged [according to] his spirits” (i 8–9a). The flaming fire is a visual
scenario that is easily associated with wrath and destruction. The image of God’s powerful
wrath serves as a mirror to the recipients, as it reflects the human weakness and hopelessness.
The rhetorical question “Who can stand?” is provoked by the presence of God’s power. It is
the absolute contrast that makes one realise one’s lack of power.
The subsequent similes that compare the human and its faithfulness with a flower
could be read as a further manifestation of God’s power. The flower cannot stand before his
wind: “His wind blows [on it] and its stalk withers. And the wind carries its flower, until
there is no rising up to st[and and it perish]es. And it is not found, but wind” (i 10b–12a).
The larger sequence of the similes is addressed to a plural “you.” The logical identification

726.
The feminine suffix probably refers to God’s wrath, was already mentioned in i 5 and repeated at the
beginning of i 8. See the discussion in chs. 2 and 3. On the role of space in Enoch’s journey; see Venter,
“Spatiality in Enoch’s Journeys.”

- 159 -
with the similes is strengthened by the rhetorical framing of the admonition, such as the
rhetorical question, “Who can endure to stand?.” Harkins has argued that the rhetorical “I” of
the Hodayot intensifies the terrifying images by the process of anthropologizing.727 I suggest
that the rhetorical questions have a similar effect in 4Q185. The listener is invited to partake
in a frightening and pessimistic scene, and as such, the imagery may become an affective
experience for the individual recipient.

No Hope and no Standing: Human Weakness

The descriptions of humans are both explicitly and implicitly associated with denials; the
centre of the judgment scene and the flower metaphor is the inability to stand and the lack of
hope. The denial is repeated within the utilisation of the negative participle, ‫( אין‬i 7).728 At the
same time, it is thematised within the text. The rhetorical question “Who can stand?” assumes
a denial, as the answer is that no one can. The explanation or implicit answer is given in the
subsequent sentence: “for with flaming fire he shall be judged.” In the first passage, the
human is stripped of every positive description and is silenced through the whole sequence.
Although the human is in the focus of attention, he is only mentioned in the last word: “his
spirits.”729
The second motif complex continues the contrasting positions and denials. The flower
imagery is basically a description of the decaying flower. However, the flower is only active
in the first phrase. It is the ‫“ רוח‬wind” that is the active agent in the simile, and this term is
repeated three times. The wind blows on the flower, then takes it away, and finally removes it
from the surface of the earth. The wind is an instrument of God, as it is ‫“ רוחו‬his wind” (i

727.
See Harkins, “The Performative Reading of the Hodayot,” 57.
728.
See the two phrases ‫ אין מקוה‬and ‫ אין כח‬in 4Q185 1–2 i 7.
729.
See the discussions on the reading of this phrase in chs. 2.4 and 3.3.

- 160 -
10).730 The image of the withering flower portrays a process that becomes a matter of
existence or non-existence.731 Just as the former scene of judgment stated that there is no
strength to stand, so the flower is not able to stand; hence, it can no longer be found.732 The
final state of the flower is repeated with a series of denials that underlines the finitude and
hopelessness of human life. There is an end to human life, and the effect of these destructive
powers is permanent. The use of negations ‫ לא‬and ‫ אין‬in line 12 conforms to the negative tone
in the overall section; moreover, the repetition of the phrase ‫“ אין מקוה‬no hope” underlines the
pessimistic tone of the overall section.
An additional statement offers yet another image that serves as a concluding remark:
“And he, like a shadow are his days upon the ea[rth].” The phrase [‫האר]ץ‬
֯ ‫“ על‬upon the
ׄ
ea[rth]” resembles the description of the flower that grows up ‫מארצו‬ “from his soil.” In an
associative way, the emphasis is again put on the short lifespan. The emphatic ‫“ הוא‬he” is a
clear indication: this statement and the larger sequence are meant to say something essential
about humanity.

Contrast and Repetition

In the composition as a whole, contrasting motifs are created by repetition. God and humans
are contrasted in their respective characterisation as ‫“ רוח‬spirit” and their ‫“ חסד‬loving-
kindness” or “faithfulness.” While the spirits of humans are being tested and judged before
Yahweh (i 9), the spirit of Yahweh executes judgment (i 10–11). Moreover, while the human
‫ חסד‬is likened with a sprouting but soon withering flower (i 10–12), God’s good ‫ חסד‬calls for
human rejoicing (ii 1). The ‫ חסד‬of God is mentioned twice in the second column. In the first
occurrence one is encouraged to respond to his good loving-kindness. In the second instance,
‫ חסד‬is collocated with ‫ישעו֯ ת‬
֯ “salvation” in what appears to be the extension of a list of
blessings or rewards for those who walk in the correct path (ii 12–13).733 While the human ‫חסד‬
is associated with hopelessness, God’s ‫ חסד‬is good. It is difficult to translate the term ‫ חסד‬in
4Q185 as it appears both in relation to the human and to God. The term ‫ חסד‬should not
necessarily be translated with one single expression as if it reflects the same semantic
meaning. Nevertheless, the repetition adds to the polarised discourse and strengthens the

730.
The destructing power of God is a common motif in ANE and the Hebrew Bible, see ch. 3.3.
731.
Withering might be associated with mourning and lament. See Hayes, “The Earth Mourns”: Prophetic
Metaphor and Oral Aesthetic, 15.
732.
It should be noted that the reading and translation of the phrase ‫ אנ יקום‬is difficult, but together with the
following ‫לע]מוד‬, I read “to stand” in line with the overall focus on not standing. See 1QHa XX 38, “How shall I
rise up?”
733.
See ch. 3.3.

- 161 -
negative evaluation of humanity. The admonition thus implicitly invites a comparison
between the human and God and the repetitions, by contrast, add tension to the image of both
the human and the deity.734
Another contrast motif is ‫“ פחד‬dread.” God’s dread is a power that one should respond
to (i 15) but one should not be corrupted by the dread of people, which might become a snare
(ii 5). The dread of God puts you on to the way of life, whereas the dread of men is associated
with the wrong path and might lead you astray.

Summary: Words of Accusation or Self-abasement?

What does 4Q185 do? Knowledge of God implies and demands true knowledge about
oneself. The immediate meaning of the speech in the first column is subtle, but the style and
the imagery demand some kind of self-reflection on behalf of the recipient. The syntax of the
statements that lead to the judgment scene in lines 8–9 reflects the nature of the text: it is
rhetorical. The statements that describe the condition of humanity in 4Q185 bear both
physical and psychological associations: “[...]and no strength to stand before it (f.sg.), and no
hope before the anger[...].” When these statements are combined with the ideas of judgment
and the wrath of God, the rhetorical question “Who can endure to stand before his angels?”
achieves a particular value and the tension is intensified.735 These are no longer simply
descriptions of humans in general.736 They are threats that serve to arouse fear. The idea that
the wicked cannot stand before God is a convention in the wisdom literature (Eccl 8:13). The
same motif holds another value within the confessional prayers, where the pleader
acknowledges or even confesses the inability to stand.737 The pious response to the deity is to
acknowledge ones lack of power, to prostrate, and to humble oneself.738 In the context of
4Q185 the recipients are addressed as if they are wicked, while simultaneously they are
invited to respond by humbling themselves. Because you cannot stand, you need to humble
yourselves.739

734.
On “intensified polarities” in moral discourse, see Newsom, The Self as Symbolic Space, 262.
735.
Mal 3:2; Nah 1:6 (“Who can endure/stand”: Jer 10:10, 20:9 and Joel 2:11). This idiom also appears in
Hodayot, 1QHa XX 33, which states that it is not possible to stand before his anger.
736.
In Ps 49:11–13 the idea of retribution is collocated with reflections on the mortality of humans.
737.
Similarly, in the psalms of Hodayot, this motif reflects self-awareness in front of God. E.g. ‫איכה אעמוד לפני‬
‫סוער]ה‬
֯ ‫“ רוח‬How can I stand before the raging wind” (1QHa XXI 26). Sarah Tanzer differentiates between
Niedrigkeitsdoxologie (rhetorical questions) and Elendbetrachtungen (statements that are explicit about sin);
See Tanzer, “The Sages at Qumran: Wisdom in the Hodayot,” 21.
738.
When the Israelites saw the fire, they “fell on their knees” (2 Chr 7:3).
739.
The dynamic process in 4Q185 can be illuminated by similar processes in the Hodayot. Newsom describes
the prayer in 1QHa IV 17–25 as a self-examination. “It is through the introspective practice of self-examination
and critique provided by the Hodayot that the speaker commends himself to God’s mercy, for it is only through
God’s continued graciousness that the speaker can be given the ability to do what is good in God’s eyes.”

- 162 -
 The grass and flower similes may be read as a lament of the human condition, or even
a situation of distress. However, this lament does not originate from the subjects of distress;
rather, it is presented as a threatening description or interpretation of a situation that involves
the addressees. It is clear that the hopelessness of the situation is connected with human
character. As such, it could be received as an accusation. The destiny of the weak and
strength-less human, which is judgment, invites identification and thus motivates the
addressee to listen. In order to summarise and conclude, the poetic imagery and the polarised
language act in many ways as a devaluation of humanity: it is not normative in the sense that
it encourages a particular doing or being. Rather, it is presented as an authoritative
description: this is who you are. It is not entirely clear if it serves to humiliate and degrade, or
if it simply describes a situation of distress as no explicit concern is addressed. Nevertheless,
the situation or condition that is described is interpreted as a punishment. The association of
the “standing” before God as judge with “no strength” and “no hope” is naturally connected
with the awareness of one’s flaws. Thus, action is required; there must be some sense of
confession or self-abasement.

4.2.2 Instructions for Body and Emotions

And now, please listen, my people and pay attention (14) to me, simple ones.
Humble yourselves before the [m]ight of our God. Remember the wonders he did
(15) in Egypt and his signs at[ the Red Sea.] Let your heart tremble before his dread
(ii 1) and do his wi[ll ... Rejoice ] your [s]oul according to his good loving-kindness.
(1–2 i 13a–1)

The instruction is centred on the commemorated history of Egypt: one should remember.
Hence, the tradition of God’s acts in the past becomes a source of knowledge and the basis
for the admonition itself. The appeal to ‫“ זכר‬remember” is not only an intellectual practice,
but a bodily effort.740 One should remember as if one were actually there and if the experience
were one’s own.741 The trembling and rejoicing are thus expressions that flow from
experience through remembrance.
This history is recalled in a textual unit with positive appeals, mainly imperatives. The
exhortations direct the recipient towards the way of life. These appeals belong to the sphere
of learning or teaching, but they move beyond that of knowledge. Altogether, this is not

Newsom, The Self as Symbolic Space, 262–263.

740.
According to Connerton, the rhetorical persuasiveness depends on prescribed bodily behaviour; see
Connerton, How Societies Remember, 72.
741.
This way of commemoration is prescribed in Exod 12:27.

- 163 -
merely a didactical section, but is an appeal to embodied morality. The aim is to encourage a
suitable attitude and emotion that corresponds to the recalled event. To remember is thus
deeply connected with attitude and behaviour.

Perspectives on Body, Emotions and Persuasion

The addressees of 4Q185 are claimed not to have conditions for life and to have “no hope,”
and are directed towards a path of life and rejoicing. This “movement” is described in body
language and as bodily acts, such as standing, walking, a trembling heart, and a rejoicing
soul. The attitude towards God and his doings is measurable in the response of the body. The
speaker thus advocates embodied morality. At the heart of the exhortations in 4Q185 is the
encouragement of a humble attitude. To humble oneself implies a total subordination, which
is expressed bodily through a trembling “heart” and rejoicing “soul.” Knowledge and
emotion are connected in 4Q185, as if one learns through the heart and through emotions.
Thus, it is implied that emotions cooperate with cognitive decision-making.
Damasio has scientifically proven the need for emotional capacity in decision-
making.742 Hence, cognition is not only rational, but is also emotional. Moral judgments are
made on the basis of feelings. According to Damasio, “Feelings point us in the proper
direction, and take us to the appropriate place in a decision-making space, where we may put
the instruments of logic to good use.”743 Thus, one may argue that any persuasive text needs to
appeal to emotions in order to create change, and to make a listener respond to a message.
Emotions tell you who you are and subsequently how to behave. The instructions in 4Q185
pursue the inner emotions of the addressees as if this self-awareness needs to come from
within the bowels of the suppliant.
According to my reading, the admonition seeks to evoke fear and shame. The two are
intertwined in 4Q185. The rhetorical questions in 4Q185 do call for a terrifying
identification, so that the judgment scene serves as a threat. Clearly, the idea of God’s wrath
and his destructive power arouses fear.744 The only rationale within this symbolic world of
fear is that there is no hope, which is repeated in the first column. Nevertheless, the
instruction offers a solution. The terrifying situation can be changed if you respond to the
speech: humble yourselves and tremble before his dread. The wrath of God is dangerous, but
this is only a problem when there is a lack of order. When humans rebel against the words of
Yahweh, the necessary hierarchy is threatened. The problem in the world of 4Q185 is thus

742.
See ch. 1.7.
743.
Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain, xv.
744.
On stock images of terror in Hodayot, see Harkins, “The Performative Reading of the Hodayot,” 57.

- 164 -
displacement. God needs to be put in the correct place, and so must the people. This is where
the commemorated history plays a crucial role. To remember “Egypt” not only constructs
“you” and God in the paradigm of the narrative, it also arouses emotions that motivate the
addressees to do God’s will.
Fear is an effective force, but shame may also motivate a certain behaviour. The effect
of shame is that it prepares the human to acknowledge one’s flaws before the deity. A
strategic arousal of shame is reflected in Ezek 43:10: “Tell them, so that they will feel shame
(‫)כלם‬.”745 Shame is effected in order to move and change the subjects that one aims to induce
shame upon. In Ezra, abasement and also fear motivate the listener to humble himself before
God: “I am too ashamed to lift my face to you” (Ezra 9:6). It is the history of sin combined
with the wrath of God that arouses feelings of fear and shame (Ezra 9:7). Shame is deeply
connected with guilt, but, simultaneously, shame is an appropriate emotion before God.746
Shame is about realising that one is “as nothing” (Isa 41:11). Hence, this self-awareness is an
act of piety, or even a non-verbal confession. The term shame is never used in 4Q185, but the
association is there. In the MT, Isa 41:11 parallels those who are ashamed (‫ )בוש‬with those
who shall be as nothing and perish (‫)אבד‬. It is notable that 1QIsab in the same parallelism
renders ‫“ יבש‬wither” and not ‫“ אבד‬perish” as in the MT (Isa 41:11).747 The ashamed are
comparable with those who wither. Similarly, in 4Q185, the withering of the flower may be
associated with shame or abasement, such as implied in Isa 33:9 and in the different
renderings of Isa 41:11 in 1QIsab and in MT.
This polarised and rhetorical discourse serves to evoke self-abasement. The imagery
of the withering flower may arouse both fear and shame, but in a subtle way. According to
Thomas Kazen, the appeal to the recipients’ emotions may in fact be even more efficient
when not spelled out, and only triggered by more subtle language.748

Exhortations for the Entire Human

To humble oneself before the might of God is an act that involves the body and the emotions,
and may be materialised through the act of kneeling or prostration. Similarly, but even more
explicit, the reference to Egypt aims to evoke a bodily response. The meta-narrative in 4Q185
blends past and present; hence, the narrative is transferred onto those who remember, and
they are able to respond emotionally to the narrative. Thus, the instruction may also exhort:

745.
See also Ezek 16:63.
746.
Fear and shame are the central motivation for the penitential prayers. See Dan 8:5 and 9:8.
747.
The phrase is not found in 1QIsaa and it appears to have been omitted; see col. XXXIV 15.
748.
Kazen, Emotions in Biblical Law, 168.

- 165 -
 Let your heart tremble before his dread and do his wi[ll ... rejoice ]your [s]ouls
according to his good loving-kindness. (i 15b–ii 1a)

Heart and soul represent human attitudes as they respond either with fear or rejoicing. Thus,
one is exhorted to let one’s heart and soul respond in a manner suitable to different aspects of
God. God in his being embodies opposite aspects: his dread and his good ‫חסד‬. The references
to ‫“ פחדו‬his dread” and ‫“ חסדיו הטבים‬his good loving-kindness” seem contradictory, but they
are to be understood as complementary since both phrases refer to “what he did in Egypt.”
God’s signs in Egypt are dreadful acts, but they are also acts of ‫חסד‬. The reference to Egypt
is, on the one hand, a warning of the past, and on the other hand, a history of faithfulness and
redemption. Both aspects urge a doing that corresponds with God’s will.

4.2.3 Threats and Rewards

We have seen how the instructions appeal to the human body, and that they prescribe fear or
trembling before Yahweh. Fear is functional in it may prevent potentially dangerous
situations.749 The arousal of fear is efficient in order to provoke a particular response or
prevent certain behaviour.750

Announcement of Evil

4Q185 evokes imagery of terror in order to remind the addressees of the threat and to sharpen
their attention. One of the most explicit threats occurs in col. ii 8: “Before his presence, evil
(‫ )רעה‬goes forth to all people.”751 The term ‫‘ רעה‬evil’ may refer to the destructive powers of
God. In the context of 4Q185 there appears to be a connection with the judgment scene,
which similarly associated the presence of God with destruction. The immediate context of
ׄ ‫לפע‬
the phrase ‫מים‬ ׄ ‫“ ועד עשר‬and up to ten times” (i 6) is lost, but it might refer to God’s evil
and his reproof. In 4Q504 ‫“ רעה‬evil” is explicitly connected to prophetic doom; this may also
be on the horizon in 4Q185, which quotes and echoes various motifs of the Lord’s day in the
first column (4Q504 1–2 iii 13). The evil is mapped upon the various plagues, which were

749.
Kazen describes fear as a protective action; see Kazen, Emotions in Biblical Law, 42.
750.
This seems to be the function of the curses in Deut 28:15f and in 1QS II 5–9.
751.
It should be noted that some scholars read ‫“ דעה‬knowledge;” see discussion in Strugnell, “Notes en marge,”
271. I have argued that ‫“ רעה‬evil” is a better reading based on the material evidence and the literary context; see
ch. 2.5.

- 166 -
poured out not only on the Egyptians but upon “us” as reproof (4Q504 1–2 iii 10). Just as the
narrative and prayer in Num 14 is recalled in 4Q504, the same idea is possibly also reflected
in 4Q185 col. i 6.752

Column ii 11 “And He Redeemed all his People but Destroyed”

The addressees of 4Q185 are exhorted to remember what God did in Egypt (i 14–15).
According to my reading there are additional echoes of “Egypt” in the admonition that
function as threats. The acts executed in Egypt are not only a past event; they also interfere
with the present and become a threat for the future.
The immediate textual context of this phrase is lost, but the phrase makes a
connection to the Exodus motif in the middle of the instructions related to the God-given gift:
“And He Redeemed all his People but Destroyed” (ii 11). It is impossible to decide whether
these acts are past or future events. The hints of Egypt thus function as subtle warning and
remind the listener of the urgency of the admonition, which is in line with the rhetorical
question in col. ii 3: ‫[כם לשאו֯ ]ל‬
֯ ] ‫“ ולמה תתנו‬Why would you give your[ ] to She[ol].”
Moreover, the threats of destruction motivate the addressees to heed the instruction and to
make sure that they will be reckoned among “his people,” those who are the happy receivers
of God’s gifts. In this way, the reference to Yahweh’s acts of judgment and salvation provides
the admonition with a warrant and legitimacy.

Rewards

While the threats are spread throughout the admonition, the rewards are found together in a
series. Line 9 states that God offers a good gift. Later on, a list of rewards are connected with
a particular way, and something they will inherit (ii 12): ‫י[מים‬
֯ ‫“ ]ארך‬long life,” ‫“ שמחת לבב‬a
ׄ ‫“ ׄדשן‬fatness of bone” (strength).753 The list of rewards could be put in
joyful heart,” and ‫עצם‬
relation with God’s mercies and acts of salvation (ii 13).754
A similar list of promises and threats is found in 1QS II 1–9 and in Deuteronomy,
serving as a motivating factor. There is knowledge and peace for those who walk in all God’s
ways, and judgment by angels of destruction in dark places for those who do not. In 4Q185,
there is a connection between the past acts of judgment and salvation and the present threats

752.
See Chazon, “Scripture and Prayer in ‘The Words of the Luminaries’,” 31.
753.
The first blessing “length of days” is not certain, but a possible restoration is ‫]ארך י[מים‬. The phrase is
recurrent in Deuteronomy, and it also occurs in Job 12:12, Ps 21:5, and Prov 3:2,16.
754.
In line with Deuteronomy, there is no distinction between God’s acts of deliverance and God’s acts of
blessing.

- 167 -
and promises of a divine gift. The positive and negative counterparts mutually enhance each
other, and so the promised rewards make the negative outcome even less attractive.

4.2.4 Transformation as Motivation

Search and Find

The connections between the two different segments on judgment and restoration are not
immediately obvious. Some terms and phrases that are used in relation to human weakness
and finitude reappear within a new context later on in the composition. This could be
coincidental, but it is plausible to assume that a reader or listener would notice these
repetitions. If so, the motifs of the first column would serve as a backdrop and negative
antithesis to the promise of restoration found in the beatitude section. The repetitions between
these two segments call for a comparison. The first repetition between the larger parts is
related to “searching” and “finding.” The concluding statement of the poetic imagery on
humans, “They can seek him, but will not find him,” is reversed in the second column, where
the one who “seeks” will “find it (f.sg.)” (i 12). The first search is associated with “no hope,”
but the second is followed with an assurance that those who w[al]k in it will inherit it (f.sg.).
The same pronoun is used: “they” could not find him, but “they” will inherit it (f.sg.), yet the
perspective of the second column is completely transformed as the pessimism of the first
section is turned into a promise.

Related to humans, i 12 Related to divine gift, ii 11–12

and it is not found (‫)ימצא‬, but wind. vacat [... The one who see]ks it (f.sg.) will find it
They can seek him (‫)יׄבקשוהו‬, but will not find (f.sg.) and those who w[al]k in it will inherit
him (‫)ימצאהו‬. it (f.sg.).

As we have seen in the close reading, there is a possibility that the author is expanding
further on Isa 40:6, which claims that the word of God will stand forever. 4Q185 could be
making use of the same contrast: the human will not be found, but one may find Torah, or the
words of God.

- 168 -
Beatitudes and the Transformed Human

Beatitudes often function as postulations of identity; hence, the point is not to emphasise the
object given, but to emphasise the human who is now the happy owner of the gift, and who
acts according to it. The beatitude statements describe a human in contrast with statements in
the first column, which connected human destiny with finitude and hopelessness. The given
entity thus transforms the conditions for human life.
The beatitudes can be summarised as follows: the gift is an identity marker of the
transformed human. This human is further associated with a certain doing. This doing, which
is according to the will of Yahweh, changes the current situation of hopelessness. It allows for
length of days, joy, and strength. These rewards are presented as transformative gifts. “Long
days” is the perfect opposite of the conclusion of the simile on the human in the first column:
“like a shadow are his days.” Further down the list is “a joyful heart.” In large contrast to
finitude and hopelessness, there is something to be found that will bring long days and joy of
heart. This positive counterpart is elaborated within the instruction of the second column.
While the exhortations prescribe a trembling heart, the rewards describe as a joyful heart.
Moreover, the statement that there is “no strength (‫ )כח‬to stand” is given a positive
counterpart in the second blessing, “fatness of bone,” and also towards the end of the second
column, which appears to promise strength (ii 15). Parts of the preceding text are lost, but the
continuance assumes that “he” has offspring; thus it is the human that is empowered: “With
all the power of his strength (‫)כח‬.” A positive denial, ‫חק ֯ר‬
֯ ‫“ לאין‬without limit” completes the
description.

4.3 The Style of 4Q185: Elusive Torah Discourse?

4Q185 is elusive, not only as a result of the fragmentary condition of the text but also due to
the associative language and the use of suffixed verbs instead of explicit objects. This
elusiveness creates a range of associations that allows for different interpretations.
Nevertheless, the elusive style operates within a specific paradigm that is created within the
admonition. In some passages, subsequent phrases constitute a parallelism and overlap each
other in meaning. There is also a clear tendency to use synonyms and parallel imagery. Where
one statement relates to another, it is hard to tell which one is primary. These features appear
to be a rhetorical strategy of the speaker and can be used as a tool to interpret the text, despite
its fragmentary condition. Moreover, the larger framework of the admonition sheds light
upon the overall discourse. Moving on from the hopelessness of the first column, the

- 169 -
instruction now presents its audience with a possible condition in large contrast to the human
weakness. This condition is realised by something given as an inheritance. The object is
mainly referred to by verbs; it is something given, something to possess, to inherit, to find,
and to pass on. Furthermore, it is associated with bodily happiness and strength. I have
already indicated in ch. 3 that this object appears to be Torah. The rereading presented in ch.
2 has shown that neither the term ‘wisdom’ nor ‘Torah’ is ever used in the extant text. This
does not exclude the possibility that the feminine suffix refers to either wisdom nor Torah,
but it does call for a reconsideration of the reference of the suffix. The given object referred
to in the second column needs to be analysed in light of the overall admonition.
Some preliminary clarifications are needed. In the following section I attempt to get a
better idea of how the suffixed verbs are used within the instruction, and how they might
relate to each other. One premise for this study is the assumption that the larger context has
an impact on the meaning of each phrase, and that there is some kind of interrelationship of
the ideas of the admonition. This means that the verbs and nouns found in the admonition
embody larger semantic fields or collocations.755 I focus primarily on the most extant lines
and phrases that constitute a comprehensible meaning.
I use the external term “divine gift” as a working tool in order to avoid confusion with
the text itself. This “gift” does not have to be one specific object, but the working hypothesis
is that there is some consistency in the use of the feminine suffix, and that it is possible to
represent these different references with one symbolic idea.756 This gift is central to the
admonition, although it is related exclusively to the restored human and is not at all in the
centre of the first column. If we use the beatitudes as a paradigmatic starting point, the
“divine gift” is something that is given, and something that demands or affects doing. The
connection with “doing” allows for a broader perspective of the gift. There is a stylistic shift
from the beatitudes onwards, but there is not a fundamental break. As a working hypothesis, I
will assume that the overall exhortations point in the same direction as the beatitudes.
In the following section, I will examine the discourse from three different starting
points: the beatitudes, the verbal strings, and nouns. What is the discourse about? In what
direction does the instruction guide its recipients?

755.
On Collocation see J. R. Firth, “Modes of Meaning,” Essays and Studies (1951): 179.
756.
Of course any representation may function as a “reduction.” See Burke on the representative anecdote, “In
its selectivity it is a reduction,” see Burke and Gusfield, On Symbols and Society, 158.

- 170 -
4.3.1 Beatitudes

The two beatitudes in the second column both refer to a feminine object, and it is plausible to
assume that they refer to the same object. On this basis, the beatitudes function as an
interpretive framework for the various statements with the feminine suffix in the second
column. In my close reading, I have argued that the feminine suffix is best understood as
Torah; thus, I have indicated this in the table. Nevertheless, it is the nature of the discourse to
be implicit, and one should not translate the suffix into an object. The feminine object, mostly
represented by a suffix, is thus referred to as “x.” There is one statement in the centre of the
beatitude passage that combines the two aspects of the beatitude: that it is something that can
be received, and that this involves a certain way of life. “Those who w[a]lk in it will inherit
it” (ii 12). In the table I have put this statement above the two beatitude sayings, as I believe
it may function as an interpretative statement to the larger passage. The extant statements
which refer to the feminine object, may be ordered in the following table:

- 171 -
4.3.2 Something to Possess: Two Verbal Strings

As we have seen, the beatitudes describe a fortunate human, but what exactly effects this
“restoration?” There are two semantic domains that are prominent in the admonition. These
could be summarised in two “verbal strings,” verbs that are in associative relation to each
other.757 The first is ‫“ בקש‬seek,” ‫“ חקר‬search,” and ‫“ מצא‬find;” and the second is ‫“ נתן‬give,” ‫נחל‬
“inherit,” and ‫“ ירש‬possess.” “Search and find” are vaguely hinted at within the metaphor on
humans, but other than this, the two strings are not referred to within the poetic imagery that
precedes the explicit instruction and exhortation. I will now take a closer look at these
specific semantic domains. The columns of the table show the phrases with verbal elements
(V) connected to the lexical string, and objects (O) that are embedded in or connected with
these verbal sentences:

Seek, Search, and Find

V O
i 12: They can seek him (‫)יבקשוהו‬, but will suffix (m.sg.)
not find him (‫)ימצאהו‬
ii 1: Search (‫)חקרו‬ Way of life and a path
ii 11–12: [The one who see]ks it (f.sg.) will With it (f.sg.) is [length of d]ays and fatness of
find it (f.sg.), and those who walk in it (‫)בה‬ bone and joyful heart
will inherit it (‫)ינחלוה‬
ii 14: One cannot seek it (‫ )יבקשנה‬with suffix (f.sg.)
deceit nor hold on to it (‫ )יהזיקנה‬by flattery

Give, Inherit, Possess

V S/O
ii 8: Happy is the human to whom it is given 3.f.sg.
(‫)נתנה‬
ii 9: Do not act mad, wicked, by saying it is
not given (‫)נתנה‬ 3.f.sg.
ii 10: he offers it (‫)זבדה‬ 3.f.sg.
ii 12: They will inherit (‫)ינחליה‬ suffix 3.f.sg.

757.
On lexical cohesiveness and examples of lexical strings; see Trine Bjørung Hasselbalch, The Redactional
Meaning of 1QHodayot. Linguistic and Rhetorical Perspectives on a Heterogenous Collection of Prayer Texts
from Qumran. (Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, 2011), Ph.d. dissertation, 43.

- 172 -
 ii 14: As it was given (‫ )תתן‬to his fathers, so 3.f.sg.
he will possess it (‫)ירשנה‬ suffix 3.f.sg.
ii 15: Then he can cause his offspring to his knowledge (‫ )דעת‬to people?
inherit it (‫)יורישנה‬

The two verbal strings “seek, search, find” and “give, inherit, possess” are both essential in
the extant text of the admonition. They partly overlap and merge with the reference of
inheritance for future offspring. The giving of something to possess for future offspring (ii
15) echoes the previous statement about remnants for the children after you (ii 2). This future
remnant was connected to the way of life. The aspect of transmission thus frames the acts of
“searching” and “giving.” Something is to be searched and found, and something is given and
possessed, but is it the same thing?

Possible References of the Feminine Suffix

In the current state of the manuscript, the antecedent of the feminine suffixes in the second
column is unclear. The first occurrence of the feminine object is within the beatitude “Happy
is the human to whom it (f.sg.) is given.” The next beatitude sheds further light upon “it”:
“Happy is the human who does it (f.sg.).” The object is given and demands a specific act. The
object is further referred to in the series of suffixed verbs: carry it (f.sg.), seek it (f.sg.), find it
(f.sg.), and inherit it (f.sg.). These acts, such as seek, find, inherit, receive, and do, can be
read as complementary. The list of associated rewards or benefits is motivational for seeking
the object, but also for receiving and walking in it: “with it (f.sg.) is [length of d]ays, and
fatness of bone, and a joyful heart.”
In most parts of the text, this object is only referred to by a feminine suffix, but there
are some nouns that fit with the associative object: ‫“ דרך לחיים‬way of life,” ‫מסלה‬
֯ “path,” ‫דברי‬
‫“ יהוה‬the words of Yahweh,” ‫“ זבד‬gift,” and possibly also ‫“ דעתי‬my knowledge.”758 None of
these objects are given more prominence than the other. I will now take a closer look at each
object or description mentioned to see whether they can shed light on the use of the feminine
suffix.

758.
It is not clear whether this is a verb or a noun. See the discussion on the reading in ch. 2.5.

- 173 -
“Way of life”

Search (‫ )חקרו‬for yourself a way of life (‫ )דרך לחיים‬and a path[...]and a

remnant (‫ )שארית‬to the children after you. Why would you give your[...] to
Sheo[l ... j]udgment. (ii 1–3a)

As we have seen in the close reading (ch. 3), the appeal to search for the way of life could be
an encouragement to study or examine the two ways and to make sure that one is on the right
path. The “way of life” as a concept is not concretised in the extant text, and so it is not clear
what it denotes; nevertheless, the exhortation does further develop the way motif. The
rhetorical question that follows – “Why would you give your[... ] to Sheo[l]” – constitutes the
opposite alternative. Hence, there is the way of life or the way that leads to death. This way
motif is further developed in the warning not to deviate from “[ ... J]acob, or the path he
instructed for Isaac” (ii 4). This can be read as a parallelism to the warning not to rebel
against the words of Yahweh. Further along in column ii, the same way-motif provides the
basis for the statement in “those who walk in it will inherit it.” (ii 12).

“His Will,” the “Words of Yahweh,” and “Words of Covenant’”

The imperative ‫רצ]ונו‬

֯ ‫“ ועשו‬and do his wi[ll]” (ii 1) is best understood as antithetic to the
vetitive “do not rebel against the words of Yahweh.” The commandments that were given in
the desert are a natural and logical reference in both appeals. According to the tradition, the
immediate response to the law was rebellion (Num 14). Column iii is very fragmentary, but
one can read “And he does the words of the covena[nt],” which is best understood as the
covenant stipulations and thus synonymous with “the will” and “word of Yahweh.”759 If the
subject of the verb ‫ עשה‬is not Yahweh, this line could be read along with the appeal to do
(‫ )עשה‬according to “God’s will,” and the second beatitude “Happy is the human who does
(‫ )יעשנה‬it (f.sg.)” (ii 13):

V O

ii 1: ‫“ ועשו‬and do” ‫רצ]ונו‬

֯ “his wi[ll”

ii 13: Happy is the human who does (‫)יעשנה‬ (f.sg.)

iii 9: And he does (‫)ו֯ עשה‬ ‫“ דברי ברי]ת‬words of the covena[nt]”

759.
See ch. 3.3.

- 174 -
“Knowledge” and “knowing”

The word ‫“ ידע‬to know” or possibly ‫“ דעת‬knowledge” is mentioned twice in the preserevd
portions of the text. First it appears without any context to make sense of it, although one
may read ‫“ ידעתי‬I know” or possibly ‫“ ודעתי‬and my knowledge” (ii 7).760 The second
occurrence seems to be part of a parallelism: “And he can cause his offspring to inherit it
(f.sg.), and my knowledge for [his] people” (ii 15). This brings to mind the introductory
appeal: “pay attention to me, simple ones” (i 13–14). This framing of the instruction makes a
connection with learning and transmission through generations. Moreover, it puts the “gift”,
the antecedent of the feminine suffix, right in the centre of the speech.

Summary: The “Way of life “and “his Will” as References to Torah

The language of 4Q185 is associative and elusive, and one cannot simply translate the suffix
into a representative object. Nevertheless, some concluding remarks can be drawn. The given
entity is fundamentally the gift of transformation. The current experience of a short life with
no hope has a counter reality that is associated with a divine gift.
It is difficult to find the hierarchy in the various exhortations and statement in the
admonition, but the two beatitudes and the aspect of transmission may function as
interpretative keys. One receives and does, and doing means to search, hold onto, and to pass
on to future generations. The admonition as a whole puts the issue as a matter of life or death.
Thus, the feminine suffix is indeed associated with the “way of life.”
There is a chance that the antecedent of the feminine suffix was part of the now lost
text, but its elusiveness may also serve a purpose. Usimäki argues that the employment of the
feminine suffix is a pedagogical technique.761 According to my analysis, it may very well
serve a didactic purpose. Even if it was clear to the reader or listener what one should look
for in order to find, the implicit style may be intentional. The references to the “words”, the
“way” and the “good gift” in 4Q185, likely reflect Torah devotion. There is no mention of
Moses in the preserved parts of 4Q185, but the reference to the words of Yahweh and the
words of a covenant brings to mind the laws of the Pentateuch.
The main focus of the instructions in the second column is to encourage the pursuit
and the keeping of the divine gift. Moreover, the instruction warns not to refuse it, not to
slander, and not to seek it with deceit. This is comparable to the pious attitude towards Torah

760.
See comments on the reading in ch. 2.5.
761.
Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah,” 347.

- 175 -
in e.g. Psalm 119.762 The concept of Torah in Psalm 119 further resembles important aspects
of 4Q185. The lack of explicit reference to Torah in 4Q185 can be explained as stylistic and
intended vagueness. The significance of Torah attested elsewhere in late Second Temple
literature might suggest that the piety is expressed through non-explicit reference, in analogy
with the name of God.763 In my opinion, the first four columns of the Community Rule (1QS)
provides a good example. The term ‫ תורה‬is frequent in 1QS V, (lines 2, 3, 8, 16 and 21), but it
is mentioned nowhere in cols. I–IV. Instead various substitutes are used, such as “his ways,”
“his words,” or phrases such as “according to all that he has commanded.”764 In my view, the
style of 4Q185 resembles that of 1QS 1–4, and both compositions could attest to Torah piety
in a literary sense.

4.4 Conclusion

4Q185 does something important with its addressees: it persuades. One cannot engage with
the symbolic universe of the admonition without identifying oneself as the one being
“tested.” All who dare to be disciplined by the instruction of 4Q185 will find themselves
challenged and destabilised, but, in the end, ultimately transformed. The transformed human
is the one who receives and acts upon the divine gift. The best understanding of the elusive
discourse is that the inheritance you pass on to your children is an object that is not explicitly
mentioned: Torah. The emphasis on seeking can be interpreted as the penitent’s turn towards
the “way of life,” which is the life of doing Torah. This is confirmed by conditional
statements: God is the granter of a good gift, but he remains the God of Exodus, a God of
wrath, who executes judgment.
The persuasion is performed both explicitly and implicitly. Let me first summarise the
explicit techniques of persuasion. The speaker in the text asks for attention in order to effect
change within the listener: there is a lesson to be learned. The series of exhortations explicitly
encourages the addressees to let their hearts tremble before his dread and to choose the way
of life instead of losing themselves to judgment. Judgment could be a consolidating idea, but
here it is also a threat for the addressees. According to 4Q185, God searches the innermost

762.
Based on the patterns of repetitions and a network of related ideas in Psalm 119, Reynolds argues that Torah
is not “hypostatis,” but it reflects a concept that is “greater than the sum of the parts” and that the author’s
conception of Torah was more inclusive than the collection of texts; Reynolds, Torah as Teacher, 136.
763.
On the symbolic importance of Torah; John J. Collins, “The Transformation of the Torah in Second Temple
Judaism,” JSJ 43 (2012).
764.
The covenant code does not make mention of “Torah” whereas the parallel passage in CD XX 25–33 makes
an explicit reference to ‫התורה‬.

- 176 -
part of the body, one’s tongue and kidneys, and he will judge according to human spirits. Fear
motivates action, and the admonition plays on imagery and rhetoric that arouse fear by means
of biblical horror: judgment with flaming fire. There is also a series of threats in the second
column, and the effect of these must be read with the fearful imagery in the first column as a
backdrop. In the middle part of the second column, the persuasive weight moves on to a more
positive side, promising life, joy, and blessing for those who walk and do according to the
will of Yahweh.
Some tools of persuasion are on a more implicit level, but they do serve to prepare
and motivate the subject in order to act upon the explicit threats and exhortations. The
strategy of the admonition is primarily to evoke emotions. The pessimistic imagery,
combined with the rhetorical questions, invites identification and thus induces a certain self-
awareness in the addressees: fear and shame. These emotions put the recipients in their
appropriate emotional place and thus cultivate a corrected self-awareness. The problem of
human weakness is actualised before the deity. The human condition is not only connected
with physical weakness but also the spiritual. This is expressed as the lack of ‫חסד‬, and is
further reflected indirectly within the vetitives as a tendency to rebel against the words of
Yahweh and to walk in wrong paths. There is no clear accusation in the admonition, but in a
subtle manner the rhetoric of the admonition plays on human abasement and lack of strength.
The suggested solution to the situation of hopelessness is primarily to humble oneself before
God, to tremble before his dread, and to rejoice in his good loving-kindness. Human attitude
is translated into utterances and acts, but they are all joined with the human body. In this way,
the instruction guides the addressees towards the correct bodily emotions.
The admonition evokes fear and shame and warns about the realities of death, terror,
and judgment. Simultaneously 4Q185 points towards life, joy, and blessing. These poles may
be described as judgment and restoration, or transformation. The admonition urges a move
from disempowerment towards empowerment.

- 177 -
- 178 -
5. What About Wisdom?

In recent research, 4Q185 is presented as one of the prime examples of the development of
wisdom during the Second Temple period.765 Categorised as a sapiential text, it is generally
published alongside Qumran wisdom compositions in wisdom commentaries. The term ‫חכמה‬
‘wisdom’ is not found in the extant text, but scholars have argued that the composition is
rooted in Proverbs, and that it reflects wisdom concepts such as the association or
identification of ‘wisdom’ and Torah, and even Wisdom personified. It is my impression that
the literary context of the admonition, alongside 4Q184 and 4Q525, affects how one reads the
composition. It is time now to engage with the question of the genre of 4Q185. Is 4Q185 a
wisdom composition, and if so, in what way does the wisdom genre contribute to the reading
of the composition? Before we can make this discussion, we have to sort out in what way
wisdom can comprise a genre.

5.1 Defining Qumran Wisdom

The title of this chapter, “What about Wisdom?” is elusive. The term ‘wisdom’ refers to an
object that is described in Proverbs, often referred to by the Hebrew term ‫חכמה‬. In the field of
scholarship, wisdom also refers to a tradition from which a group of compositions originated.
Finally, wisdom may refer to a literary genre. These denotations of the term are intertwined,
as compositions that employ the term ‘wisdom’ are often associated with wisdom as a
tradition, and also wisdom as a literary genre. In the following sections, I will first give a
general introduction to the discussion of wisdom as a genre, then move on to how this can
constructively be applied in relation to 4Q185. In order to be consistent in terms of the
terminology, wisdom refers to the tradition and genre of wisdom, unless otherwise noted,
whereas ‘wisdom’ with single quotation marks refers to the term ‘wisdom’ which corresponds
to the Hebrew ‫חכמה‬. Wisdom with capital W denotes Wisdom personified.

765.
On the association of wisdom and Torah in 4Q185 and 4Q525; Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and
Torah.” See also Tooman, “Wisdom and Torah at Qumran,” 214. Marttila and Pajunen explore the question of
how wisdom was understood in a wider selection of texts. Among them are 4Q185 and 4Q525; see Marttila and
Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations.”

- 179 -
 5.1.1 Wisdom as Category and Wisdom as a Genre

The idea of wisdom as a multifaceted textual category appears to be well supported in

biblical scholarship. Although it has generally been held that wisdom does not denote a
literary genre, wisdom is often used to refer to certain text type. Wisdom literature in general
deals with insights derived from human life. This accumulation of experience is expressed
through the words of sages in various forms, such as proverbs, riddles, and poems. These
sapiential forms reveal their purpose: to enhance knowledge and to encourage the naive to
seek wisdom for their own good. In his introduction to biblical wisdom literature, Crenshaw
describes wisdom as a tradition and not a literary genre. This does not mean that Crenshaw
ignores the literary features connected with wisdom. Rather, he claims that wisdom expresses
itself with remarkable thematic coherence.766 Crenshaw describes this theme in the following
way:
Wisdom comprises self-evident intuitions about mastering life for human betterment
groping after life’s secrets with regard to innocent suffering, grappling with finitude,
and quest for truth concealed in the created order and manifested in Dame Wisdom.767

In his description of wisdom literature, Crenshaw seeks to grasp the various expressions of
wisdom, while keeping the main “essence” of it:

When a marriage between form and content exists, there is wisdom literature.
Lacking such oneness, a given text participates in biblical wisdom to a greater or
lesser extent.768

The form and content of biblical wisdom vary a great deal. The biblical wisdom
books are normally appreciated as Proverbs, Job, Qohelet, Sirach, and Wisdom of Solomon
(MT and LXX).769 While Proverbs and Sirach contain didactic collections and are very
explicit about their pedagogical settings, Job and Qohelet’s association with wisdom relies
more on their themes and discourses. However, all these compositions contain literary
features that may be associated with a pedagogical setting, such as proverbs, instructions,
rhetorical sayings, numerical sayings, and poems. While some are associated with the wise

766.
James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom. An Introduction (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1982), 18.
767.
James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, 19.
768.
James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, 19.
769.
Most definitions of the wisdom genre is confined to biblical wisdom. Similar to Crenshaw, Murphy’s
exploration of wisdom is limited to biblical wisdom, which for him means Proverbs, Job, Qohelet, Ben Sira, and
Wisdom of Solomon. He touches upon the discussion of category in relation to Psalms, but he does not bring
Qumran wisdom into the discussion. See Roland Edmund Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical
Wisdom Literature (3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002).

- 180 -
king Solomon (Proverbs, Qohelet, Wisdom of Solomon) all books may be described as the
words and teachings of the sages, and as such they constitute a tradition of wisdom. Thus,
Crenshaw’s reluctance to talk of a wisdom genre is well founded, and it makes good sense to
describe these books as constituting a wisdom tradition. Nevertheless, while I am
sympathetic to Crenshaw’s study, one may also work with a more dynamic understanding of
the literary genre.
The caves of Qumran contained manuscripts with biblical wisdom literature, but
preserved only portions of Job (4QJoba–b, 4QpaleoJobc), Proverbs (4QProva–c), Qohelet
(4QQoha–b), and Sirach (2Q18, 11QPsa). A number of new compositions that were discovered,
however, were immediately associated with the biblical wisdom literature. Among these are
4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184), 4QBeatitudes (4Q525), and 4QSapiential Work
(4Q185). Other compositions that appear to have been influential due to the number of
manuscripts include Instruction (1Q26, 4Q415–418, 4Q18a, 4Q18c, and 4Q423) and Book of
Mysteries (1Q27, 4Q299–300, and 4Q301). One should also note 4QWords of the Maskil to
All Sons of Dawn (4Q298) and Instruction-like Composition B (4Q424). There are also a
number of fragmentary compositions that are classified as sapiential.770
The task of classifying texts is a difficult matter. Similar to the books of wisdom in
the biblical corpora, the diversity of Qumran wisdom challenges the usefulness of these
definitions and criteria for wisdom categorisation.771 In the introduction to Wisdom Literature,
a commentary on Qumran Wisdom, Kampen states in relation to the wisdom books of the
Hebrew Bible that “the most obvious criterion for the identification of wisdom texts is the
employment of the term ‘wisdom’ (‫ )חכם‬within them.”772 While Kampen himself does not
make this case, it appears to be a general idea in the scholarship on Qumran wisdom.773
Hence, the term ‘wisdom’ (‫ )חכמה‬has automatically led to an association with wisdom
literature. Tanzer’s thesis on the Hodayot reflects a way of thinking about wisdom that has
been common in the field.774 Tanzer uses the traditional form-critical approach in her study,
with a strong emphasis upon terminology as criteria for the categorisation of the individual
psalms of Hodayot.775 Now, the determination of “strong wisdom influence” on the Hodayot
no longer seems relevant in order to classify these psalms. Nevertheless, the strategy of
relying on wisdom elements and terminology when it comes to the classification of textual

770.
Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 140.
771.
I use the label ‘Qumran wisdom’ as a reference to the wisdom text found at Qumran.
772.
Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 5.
773.
Lange, “Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung,” 4.
774.
Tanzer, “The Sages at Qumran: Wisdom in the Hodayot.”
775.
The list of wisdom words in Tanzer’s introduction originates from Scott, The Way of Wisdom in the Old
Testament, 121–122.

- 181 -
material is still the most efficient tool. When dealing with the more fragmentary compositions
that only yield phrases, terminology and motifs are naturally of importance as this is the data
one is attempting to classify.
The question of wisdom as a literary category in the context of Qumran scholarship is
still a matter of dispute; not necessarily in relation to the grouping of texts as such, but
pertaining to the epistemological basis for it. According to Collins, “any discourse that lay
emphasis on knowledge and understanding can reasonably be called wisdom.”776 Collins
understands wisdom as an umbrella category that includes several different literary forms:
“the fact remains that there is a group of texts that is universally categorised as wisdom
literature, and the basis for that categorisation is a legitimate question.”777 This effort to
provide a solid definition of wisdom has produced lists of criteria for classification. I will
present two recent approaches, Goff and Wright.
According to Goff, wisdom is a vague category, but “there are widely agreed upon
criteria for identifying sapiential texts.”778 In order to categorise Qumran wisdom, Goff offers
four “guidelines” and a composition that contains the four ingredients may reasonably be
categorised as a wisdom text:

1) Pedagogical intent
2) Thematic affinity
3) Key phrases and motifs (‫ חכמה‬and ‫)דעה‬
4) Innovation in the wisdom tradition

Goff admits that categorisation is a subjective matter, and underlines that none of these
features are self-contained. A growing dissatisfaction with wisdom definitions has brought
new approaches into the discussion.779 Inspired by the turn in genre study towards cognitive
theories,780 Wright suggests another approach to wisdom on the basis of prototype theory. The
study of the wisdom texts from Qumran has brought marginal textual phenomena into the
discourse, and these are more easily included within a prototype type model based upon an
intuitive appreciation.781 According to Wright, there is an elusive generic relationship that is

776.
John J. Collins, “The Eschatologizing of Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls” in Sapiential Perspectives:
Wisdom Literature in light of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the
Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 20–22 May, 2001 (ed. Ruth
Clements, John J. Collins, and Gregory E. Sterling; STDJ 51; Leiden: Brill, 2004), 49.
777.
Collins, “Epilogue: Genre Analysis and the Dead Sea Scrolls.”
778.
On wisdom as “vague category,” see Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 4.
779.
Goff, “Qumran Wisdom Literature and the Problem of Genre.”
780.
Newsom, “Spying out the Land: A Report from Genology.”
781.
The wisdom texts from Qumran came relatively late into the field of interest in scholarship. The
interpretation and categorisation of these works represent various problems, as they are fragmentary, they often
come in only one copy, and thus lack a clear cut literary context.

- 182 -
not identifiable within a classificatory system of genre. Thus, the list of features should be
discarded in favour of establishing generic relationships from prototypical examples of the
genre. “Categories cohere around central exemplars, but some members will be more like the
prototypical exemplars and others less like them. Categories, then, radiate out from the
typical and better examples.”782 For the genre of wisdom, compositions such as Proverbs and
Wisdom of Solomon are prototypical examples. Wright suggests four central properties that
function together as the gestalt of wisdom literature:

(1) instruction or pedagogical form that articulates (2) a concern for pursuing
wisdom (or its equivalent) through study and learning, which exhibits (3) an
engagement with earlier sapiential tradition (perhaps in conjunction with other author-
itative sources), resulting in (4) an interest in or concern for practical ethic and
behaviour.783

The irony is that Wright’s central properties constitute a list that is not far removed
from earlier contributions, although it better serves to include Qumran wisdom. According to
the prototype model, 4Q525 and 4Q184 can easily be put in a family relation with Proverbs.
Wright denotes 4Q184 as a third cousin of Proverbs, but what should we make of 4Q185?784
In my opinion, the definitions of the category of wisdom literature offered by Goff and
Wright are useful and do serve their purpose; they describe common features of the wisdom
literature. The problem arises however when the general description guides the interpretation
of the marginal phenomenon, those texts that by association belong to the genre but are not
prototypical examples. The guidelines offered by Goff and the “properties” suggested by
Wright appear tailor-made for 4Q184 and 4Q525, but how do we deal with the marginal
phenomenon, 4Q185? Next, I will use Wright’s definition of wisdom in order to address the
textual relations and how these may or may not affect our interpretations.

5.1.2 Qumran Wisdom as Rewritten Proverbs

The prototype model of thinking captures something central to Second Temple text
production: rewriting processes.785 Uusimäki has shown how the prototype model functions as
a fruitful approach to the study of 4Q525, a composition that resembles and, one may even

782.
Wright III, “Joining the Club,” 293.
783.
Wright III, “Joining the Club,” 299.
784.
Wright III, “Joining the Club,” 305.
785.
Najman, “The Idea of Biblical Genre,” 313.

- 183 -
say, rewrites Proverbs. From the perspective of the prototype model, the relationship to
Proverbs is essential. Is 4Q185 within the family of Proverbs?
According to Thomas Tobin, 4Q185 is “firmly rooted in the tradition of Jewish
wisdom literature presented by such as Proverbs or Ben Sira.” Although he states in his
conclusions that “its anthological style connects it more closely with Ben Sira than with
Proverbs,” he does claim that the imagery and language are drawn from Jewish wisdom,
especially Proverbs, and presents a list of terminological parallels.786
A stronger connection with Proverbs is suggested by Goff, who describes 4Q185 in
terms of Proverbs directly: “4Q185 describes the benefits of possessing wisdom. One can
acquire riches, glory and long life.”787 In 4Q185 ii 12 one can partly read ‫י[מים‬
֯ ‫[“ ] ארך‬lenght
of d]ays” and ‫“ שמחת לבב‬a joyful heart”, whereas ‫וכבו[ד‬
֯ ‫“ עש]ר‬riches and honour” are mainly
restored text.788 The restoration of the phrase makes a strong connection with Prov 3:16,
which reads: “Long life is in her right hand; in her left hand are riches and honour.”
I do not pose that the author of 4Q185 is unfamiliar with the sapiential traditions. As
an example, the phraseology in Prov 15:30 “The light of the eyes rejoices the heart (‫)ישמח־לב‬
and good news refreshes the body (‫ ”)תדשן־עצם‬is similar to 4Q185 col. ii 12. The question is
not if, but how, and in the end, what does it indicate? In Proverbs, Wisdom is put forward as a
female figure for the student to “embrace” as a bride, but in other passages “wisdom” is an
attribute of Yahweh, obtainable through the fear of God (Prov 2:5–6; Job 28:28).789 Proverbs
is a composite work, and 4Q185 may resemble some aspects more than others. 4Q185 does
exhort its addressees to ‫“ חקרו לכם דרך לחיים‬search for yourself a way of life” and states that
‫“ אשרי אדם נתנה לו‬Happy is the human to whom it (f.sg.) is given,” which is followed by the
ׄ ‫ודשן‬
list of rewards: ‫עצם ושמחת לבב‬ ׄ ‫י[מים‬
֯ ‫“ ועמה ]ארך‬with it (f.sg.) is [length of d]ays, fatness of
bone and a joyful heart.” In isolation, the “way of life” and the rewards associated with the
feminine suffix could very well be considered to have roots in Proverbs, and one may further
suggest that the antecedent of the feminine suffix is ‘wisdom.’ However, as we have seen in
the previous chapters, the connection with Proverbs is less clear. Next, we will re-examine
the influence of Proverbs in 4Q185 by means of a comparison with Qumran compositions
where the proverbial influence is dominant: 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184) and
4QBeatitudes (4Q525). In 4Q184, the main theme has clear affinities with the strange woman
in Proverbs. Likewise, the style of 4Q525 and the explicit reference to wisdom make a strong

786.
Thomas H. Tobin, “4Q185 and Jewish Wisdom Literature,” 146–147.
787.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 123. The connection with Proverbs is only implicit in the introduction, but it is
later explicit; see Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 133.
788.
See discussion in ch. 2.5.
789.
Whybray, The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study, 64.

- 184 -
connection with Proverbs. Could it be that some of these facets have been passed on to
4Q185 by association?

5.1.3 4Q185 and Wisdom

According to Wright’s definition, 4Q185 may very well be categorised as a wisdom text. The
admonition is instructional and it shows a concern for knowledge and behaviour. One may
argue that it shows engagement with earlier sapiential tradition, but it does not appear to be
rooted in Proverbs. It seems clear that Deuteronomy or even prophetic texts such as Isaiah
and Jeremiah could act as vectors or vehicles of the sapiential motifs and forms found in
4Q185. The problem of the wisdom category is not the definitions provided, nor the
classifications based on them. The classification appears to have a bidirectional effect. The
inclusion of 4Q185 as a wisdom text affects the definition of the body of wisdom texts, but it
also guides the reading and equips the reader with general assumptions on what to expect in
the text. As an example, it appears to be clear that scholars have restored wisdom terminology
in their reading of 4Q185 based upon the categorisation of the text as a wisdom text. This
tendency might be explained by Smith’s insights on the study of religion: the scholarly desire
to chase the “essence” of a category.790
Whether we define the wisdom compositions from Qumran according to a pragmatic
scholarly perspective or from a cognitive theoretic perspective, it is always necessary to
distinguish between wisdom as a text type or a body of compositions that is constructed by a
scholarly definition, and ‘wisdom’ as an object or the “feminine figure” referred to in some
but not all wisdom compositions. 4Q185 may fruitfully be categorised as a wisdom text in a
broader sense but ‘wisdom’ is not necessarily the main topic. Although Wright’s suggested
model sought to include the marginal phenomenon of wisdom, in the case of 4Q185 the
wisdom definition does not help the reader, nor does it provide an interpretation of the text
with adequate perspectives. One does not really need ‘wisdom’ to make sense of the
admonition. In the close reading (ch. 3) and the rhetorical analysis (ch. 4) we have analysed
motifs and forms that are associated with the wisdom tradition. The admonition employs
wisdom forms such as the beatitude, rhetorical questions, and instructional statements.
Nevertheless, these are not necessarily sapiential forms, and other traditions may also inform
the reader when it comes to rewriting processes. As already noted, 4Q185 is presented as an

790.
Jonathan Z. Smith, Imagining Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1982), 18.

- 185 -
example of Qumran wisdom and the composition has been compared with 4Q184 and 4Q525
in recent scholarship. In the following section, I will look closer at the underlying idea and
the effects it has upon the reading of 4Q185. I will first examine the role of lady Wisdom in a
comparison with 4Q184, then the discourse on wisdom in comparison with 4Q525. The aim
is to gain a better idea of the textual basis for these topics in 4Q185.

5.2 A Comparative Reading of 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184)

The Wiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184) was first published by Allegro together with 4Q185
in DJDJ 5.791 There is knowledge of only one copy of this composition.792 The manuscript
consists of five or six fragments.793 The largest fragment (frg. 1) preserves a partial column
with 17 lines. One can see the upper and lower margin.794 In the DJD the composition is listed
with those sapiential texts “too fragmentary for further classification.”795 It is impossible to
establish what kind of text this is, but it has been treated by recent scholars as a poem due to
its poetic structure.796 It is possible that it was once part of a larger collection of some sort.
The title “Wiles of the Wicked Woman” may be somewhat misleading, as the poem mainly
describes the location of Sheol. It acts as a warning against the “strange lady” which is “the
beginning of all ways of iniquity,” and thus the entrance into Sheol.797 There have been
various suggestions concerning the meaning of the character “wicked woman.”798 There
appear to be two consistent points of agreement in all scholarship of the text. The first is that
the figure is based on the female characters of Proverbs, the Strange Woman and Dame Folly.

791.
Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186). See also the notes for corrections in Strugnell, “Notes en marge.”
792.
Qimron has suggested that 4Q184 belongs to the larger text of 4Q525, Elisha Qimron, “Improving the
Editions of the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Meghillot 1 (ed. Moshe Bar-Asher and Devorah Dimant; Jerusalem: Haifa
University Press, 2003). Tigchelaar supports the idea of a relation to 4Q525, finding the argument plausible; see
Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, “Lady Folly and Her House in Three Qumran Manuscripts: On the Relation Between
4Q525 15, 5Q16 and 4Q184,” RevQ 91 (2008). In conversation, however, Tigchelaar has confirmed that he no
longer supports this view. As far as I can tell, the two compositions resemble each other, but they do not overlap
and there is no reason not to treat them as two separate compositions.
793.
See discussion on the fragments in Tigchelaar, “Constructing, Deconstructing and Reconstructing
Fragmentary Manuscripts: Illustrated by a Study of 4Q184 (4QWiles of the Wicked Woman).” There are only
five fragments in the earlier photos (PAM 42.621 and PAM 43.432). A very small fragment was added on plate
287, B-371276, taken 2013. The numbering of the fragments is a source of confusion as they differ between that
of the official editions and Strugnell, and the images on IAA website.
794.
Tov has listed 4Q184 as a scroll with a medium–sized writing block; Tov, Scribal Practices, 86.
795.
Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 140.
796.
See the survey on the poetry in 4Q184; Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, “The Poetry of the Wiles of the Wicked
Woman (4Q184),” RevQ 25 (2012).
797.
Kampen has suggested another title, “The Evil Seductress”; see Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 233.
798.
See list in Goff, Matthew J. Goff, “Hellish Females: The Strange Woman of Septuagint Proverbs and
4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184),” JSJ 39 (2008).

- 186 -
The second is that 4Q184 is some kind of a transformation of this tradition, and adds to the
ideas found in Proverbs.799
4Q184 and 4Q185 were published subsequently in DJDJ 5. The grouping and order of
texts in the DJD often indicate some kind of literary correspondence. The association
between these two texts was probably based on a mutual affiliation with sapiential literature
and Proverbs. These were the two first wisdom compositions to be published in the DJD
series, and naturally they became a pair of texts to be read in light of each other.

5.2.1 Women in Proverbs: Folly and Wisdom

In 1996, Harrington published a commentary on the Wisdom compositions from Qumran.

This was the first commentary that introduced Qumran wisdom to a larger audience.
Harrington presented 4Q184 and 4Q185 together with one shared title: “Folly and
Wisdom.”800 Although not explicit, the title does hint at the antithetic ladies of Proverbs, thus
implying that Lady Wisdom is featured in 4Q185. In Prov 14:1, Folly and Wisdom are
presented in an antithetic parallelism: “The wise woman builds her house, but the foolish
tears it down with her own hands.” However, the woman in 4Q184 resembles another closely
associated female character in Proverbs: the strange woman (Prov 5:3–6, 7:5–27).801 The
reliance on the “strange” woman in Prov 5 and 7 has been noted and discussed by several
scholars.802 The chapters Prov 7–8 present an antithetic portrayal of the strange woman and
Lady Wisdom within a didactic context. A warning against the strange woman is followed by
an exhortation to listen to and follow the advice of Lady Wisdom. Thus, when 4Q185 is
presented as it is in Harrington’s commentary, it is my impression that the antithesis in Prov
7–8 also serves as an interpretative key to the relationship between 4Q184 and 4Q185.
The largest fragment (frg. 1) describes the house of the “wicked woman” in a manner
that resembles the dwelling of the seductress of Proverbs:

799.
Lesley, “Exegetical Wiles,” 108.
800.
Daniel J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (London: Routledge, 1996).
801.
According to Lesley “the various characters found in Proverbs who are opposed to Wisdom are united into
one female opposite of Wisdom”; Lesley, “Exegetical Wiles,” 109.
802.
Lesley, “Exegetical Wiles,” 115 and Goff, “Hellish Females: The Strange Woman of Septuagint Proverbs
and 4QWiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184),” 33.

- 187 -
4Q184 1 i 6b–11803

[‫אפ ֯לו֯ ]ת‬

804
֯ ‫[משלותיה ממוסדי‬֯ ‫מלונותיה משכבי חושך ובאישני ליל]ה‬ 6
[ ]‫בכול‬
֯ ‫ותשכון באהלי דומה בתוך מוקדי עולם ואין נחלתה בתוך‬ ֯ ‫תאהל שבת‬ 7
ׄ
[‫דרכי עול הוי הוה לכול נוחליה ושדדה לכ]ול‬ ׄ
֯ ‫והיאה ראשית כול‬ ֯ ‫נוגה‬806◦ 805‫֯מ ֯אורי‬ 8
‫תו֯ מכי בה כיא דרכיה דרכי מות ואורחותיה שבילי חטאת מעגלותיה משגות‬ 9
[ ‫שערי מות בפתח ביתה תצעד שאו֯ ]ל‬ ֯ ‫ונתיבו]תי[ה אשמות פשע שעריה‬
֯ ‫עול‬ 10
[ ]◦ ‫]י[א במסתרים תארוב‬ ֯ ‫וה‬ ֯ ‫[ישובון וכול נוחליה ירדו שחת‬ 807
]‫]ו[ל‬
֯ ‫֯כ‬ 11

6 ... Her inn are beds of darkness and in the middle of the night her dominion. Among
the foundations of gloom
7 she pitches her tent, and she settles among the tents of silence, in the middle of
everlasting flames. She does not belong with any of those
8 illumined by brightness. And she is the beginning of all evil ways: woe for all who
take possession of her, and destruction comes to all
9 who take hold of her, for her ways are the ways to death, her paths lead to sin, her by-
ways end in
10 evil, her paths in guilt of transgression. Her gates are the gates of death, at the door of
her house she treads Sheo[l ]
11 all [...] return. All who inherit her will go down to the Pit. And she waits in secret
places .[...].

4Q184 clearly alludes to Proverbs, regarding both the dwelling of the feminine character and
her activity. The most apparent similarity is the spatial perspective, which is an essential part
of the portrayal of the strange lady in Proverbs. Proverbs provides a description of “her
house” and warns against straying onto “her paths,” as “Her house is the way to Sheol, going
down to the chambers of death” (Prov 7:27). A similar idea is presented in line 10, which
states that “her gates are the gates of death” and “at the door of her house she treads.” It is
unclear whether the subject of the verb is the feminine character or Sheol, but in light of the
larger context, the activity is performed by the feminine character.808 In addition to the house
motif, the way motif is where the influence from Proverbs is most evident: “And she is the
beginning of all evil ways” (frg. 1, 8); “for her ways (‫ )דרכיה‬are the ways to death (‫”)דרכי מות‬
(frg. 1, 9). 4Q184 further warns against taking hold of her, as “destruction comes to all who

803.
See the photos in IAA website; B-370803, PAM 43.432, 42.621, and 41.815.
804.
There is a small ink trace at the edge of the manuscript, that probably belongs to the right foot of ‫ת‬.
805.
Allegro reads ‫ ;מאזרי‬see Allegro, Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186), 82. Strugnell suggests ‫ ;מאירי‬see Strugnell,
“Notes en marge,” 265. The third letter could be either ‫ ו‬or ‫י‬, but I follow Strugnell.
806.
‫ נוגה‬is preceded by an erased letter.
807.
Strugnell suggests ‫ באיה בל‬in the lacuna; see Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 265.
808.
The scribe has made space which might highlight the reference to ‫שאול‬. A similar vacat is found in line 7.
Allegro interprets the vacat as the begging of a new colon, but Strugnell interprets this differently and reads
“Sheol” as the verbal agent; see the translation in Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 267. See also discussion of this
sequence in Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, “The Poetry of the Wiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184),” 627.

- 188 -
take hold (‫ )תומכי‬of her” (i 8–9).809 4Q184 further adds perspectives that are not found in
Proverbs, as the woman is more than just personified “evil” or “folly.” The descriptions of
“her” resemble Lilith (Isa 34:14); and her dwelling is associated not only with darkness but
with everlasting flames (‫( )מוקדי עול‬i 7).810 The scenery with everlasting fire corresponds well
with ideas of judgment in the Enochic traditions.811 A similar idea about judgment is also
found in 1QS II 7, where judgment is described as eternal flames surrounded by utter
darkness. It is tempting to see a connection with the judgment scene of 4Q185, where
judgment is described as an act with flaming fire (‫)באש להבה‬. Fire and dark places are
apocalyptic imagery, but I am reluctant to draw a direct connection for two reasons. Firstly,
4Q185 does not have a spatial concern, and secondly, 4Q185 echoes the description of
judgment as presented in the prophetic doom: judgment with flaming fire (i 8–9).
According to Prov 7:21, the strange lady persuades with her smooth talk (‫)חלק‬. A
similar description of the seductive speech is found in 4Q184: “She seeks to make people go
wrong in the ways of Hell, seducing (root: ‫ )פתה‬by flattery (‫( ”)חלקות‬frg. 1, 17). The woman
in 4Q184 looks for a righteous man to catch, “in order to keep them from obeying the
commandments (‫( ”)מצוה‬frg. 1, 15). Thus, the context resembles Prov 7:1–5 where the
woman is depicted as a danger leading the young man astray. The inherent worldview of
4Q184, which is connected to the way motif and presents the reality of death and Sheol as
opposed to being obedient towards the commandments, resembles 4Q185, but the mythology
of 4Q184 is not found within the admonition. In 4Q185, the mythological world is provided
by the traditions of the Pentateuch and the Exodus narrative.

5.2.2 A Female Figure in 4Q185?

In Proverbs, Wisdom is a woman who speaks (Prov 8:4). She claims that “those who look for
me will find me” and that “Happy are those who walk in my paths” (Prov 8:17).812 Wisdom

809.
There is close resemblance between 4Q184 and the beatitude section in 4Q525 (2 II 1–2): “Blessed are
those who hold fast (root: ‫ )תמך‬to its statutes and do not hold fast to the ways of injustice (‫)דרך עול‬.” According
to Uusimäki, this is an allusion to Prov 3:18.
810.
Sidnie White Crawford, “Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran,” DSD 5 (1998): 212. See also Lesley,
“Exegetical Wiles,” 130.
811.
Lesley, “Exegetical Wiles,” 124–125. See George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch: A
new Translation: Based on the Hermeneia Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004). The texts known as
“the visions of Enoch” offer detailed descriptions of the places of judgment very similar to the netherworld of
Proverbs and the judgment of the eschaton. 4Q206 (4QEne) frg. 1 only preserves parts of the text (B-295771).
Line 1, in col. ii states “these are the pits for a place of imprisonment.” In the preceding column one can read ‫נור‬
(fire), but the context is lost.
812.
On the Wisdom figure in Prov 1–7; see Gerlinde Baumann, “A Figure with many Facets: The Literary and
Theological Functions of Personified Wisdom in Proverbs 1–9,” in Wisdom and Psalms: A Feminist Companion
to the Bible (ed. Athalya Brenner and Carole R. Fontaine; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1998); Murphy, The Tree of

- 189 -
states that she was the beginning of all creation, and thus was witness to the creation of the
earth (Prov 8:27–30). Within the context of Prov 1–9, the woman Wisdom functions as an
antithesis and contrast to the strange woman. Her paths lead to life, while those who hate her
love death (Prov 8:35). The poem of 4Q184 can easily be read as a further development of
some of the motifs of Prov 1–7. 4Q184 has a series of verbs in the third person feminine, and
depicts a figure who walks and dwells and leads people astray. In the warning descriptions of
this female character, there is emphasis on her seductive acts, as well as her dwellings.
According to my reading, 4Q185 does not share any of the features associated with the
female figure in 4Q184. Nevertheless, some scholars have suggested that 4Q185 reflects
Wisdom personified.813 Crawford opens up for the possibility that the figure in 4Q185 is a
personified female figure: “4Q184 discusses a female figure who can be clearly associated
with Dame Folly, while 4Q185 features a female figure who is probably to be equated with
Lady Wisdom.”814 Crawford states that both 4Q184 and 4Q185 draw heavily on Prov 1–7.815
In her discussion of the Qumran evidence for Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly, Crawford
admits that the female figure of 4Q185 is rather “passive” as she lacks agency; “She is an
object, not a subject.”816 Goff advocates a similar interpretation of 4Q185. According to his
reading, 4Q185 shares the romantic trope of Sir 51 as it describes the acquisition of Wisdom
in romantic terms. Goff even suggests that “the man of 4Q185 is analogous to a man in a
healthy marriage.”817 According to my reading, 4Q185 does not direct its message to men, but
to “my people,” and to “Israel”; thus, one should read ‫ אדם‬as a reference to humans in
general. What Goff reads as an anthropomorphic depiction of Wisdom is partly based on the
reading of the fragment. Following Strugnell, he reads: “Happy is man who does her
(Wisdom) and does not play tricks against her, nor with a spirit of deceit seek her, nor hold
fast to her with flatteries.” He admits that “play tricks with her” is debatable.818 Yet, as we
have seen in the preceding chapters, the antecedent of the feminine suffix is not necessarily
“Wisdom,” which Goff actually includes within his transcription.
If 4Q185 alludes to the personified Wisdom of Proverbs, the suggested Lady Wisdom
of 4Q185 is presented in great contrast with the emphasis on the active strange lady. The
figure in 4Q185 remains an object and not an agent. Elsewhere, the woman metaphor
includes some kind of activity, corresponding with the activity of the strange lady. The basic

Life, 133.
813.
Thomas H. Tobin, “4Q185 and Jewish Wisdom Literature,” 148.
814.
Crawford, “Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran,” 210.
815.
Crawford, “Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran,” 210–213.
816.
Crawford, “Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran,” 214.
817.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 138.
818.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 138–140.

- 190 -
point of personification is agency, and thus I do not see the point of denoting this as
personification. 4Q185 would also differ from the depiction of Lady Wisdom in Sir 24, where
Lady Wisdom has a dwelling and a locative function. The same goes for the wicked woman,
who also leads somewhere: to Sheol, or death. The figure assumed to be Wisdom in 4Q185 is
connected with ‫ עשה‬and transmission over generations: “As it (f.sg.) was given to his fathers,
so he will possess it (f.sg.).” (ii 14). This does not conform well with Wisdom. As far as I can
see, there is no reason to read her into the text. The antecedent is a feminine noun, but not
necessarily a “feminine figure.” How then should we understand the relation between 4Q184
and 4Q185? Is there any literary connection between the two, beyond the collocation in
modern wisdom commentaries? Both compositions use way motifs and refer to Sheol. These
contact points are not necessarily of proverbial heritage, but these motifs are part of a
common Jewish worldview of this period.
This comparative analysis suggests that we should not read Lady Wisdom into the
instruction of 4Q185. While 4Q184 explicitly describes the activity of a female figure, 4Q185
does not. 4Q185 does point to a way of life, and states that those who walk in it (f.sg.) will
inherit (f.sg.). The search is directed towards the God-given object which is associated with
the way. There is nothing in the text that draws an image of a personified figure. The suffixed
verbs imply that the feminine noun is something one can receive and do accordingly. As far
as I can see, the evidence for interpreting the feminine suffix as a reference to Wisdom
personified lies within the assumed biblical background, Proverbs, or in the literary and
antithetic relationship with 4Q184, not so much in the text of 4Q185 itself.

5.3 A Comparative Reading of 4QBeatitudes (4Q525)

4QBeatitudes is named after a series of five beatitudes found on one of the largest fragments
(frg. 2). The last beatitude asserts: ‫“ אשרי אדם השיׄג חוכמה‬Happy is the human who attains
wisdom” (II 3). The text continues with a poem on Torah and her ways (II 3–6). The title of
the work Beatitudes does not really grasp the composition in its entirety. Similar to 4Q185,
the beatitudes have gained more attention than other passages of the composition.819
Altogether, 4Q525 consists of 50 fragments that once comprised a lengthy scroll.820 The

819.
Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 19. See “Wisdom of Matthew’s Beatitudes” in
George J. Brooke, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 217–234.
820.
See the suggested reconstruction in Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 41–55. The order and
placement of fragments without material joins are reconstructed based on the repetition of patterns of damage
according to the method developed by Stegemann; see Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 18–20.

- 191 -
manuscript is dated palaeographically somewhere between 50 B.C.E. and 50 C.E., but the
date of the composition is suggested to be earlier, somewhere in the middle of the second
century B.C.E.,821 Similar to 4Q184 and 4Q185, the text is not reckoned to be sectarian.822 One
small fragment (frg. 1) preserves parts of what appears to be the introduction to the work:

[… which he spok]e in the wisdom (‫ )בחוכמה‬which God gave to him […] 2 [… to

kno]w wisdom (‫ )חוכמה‬and disc[ipline,] to understand […] (1 I 1–2)

This introduction reflects the prologue of Proverbs, and Uusimäki argues that 4Q525 is a
rewriting of Proverbs.823 The innovation in 4Q525 compared to Proverbs is indicated by the
title of her thesis, Turning Proverbs Towards Torah. The assumed attribution to Solomon is
important for the understanding of the text, but the text is not merely a rewriting of Proverbs.
According to Uusimäki, 4Q525 has close connections with the Psalms, and is a result of
scriptural interpretation.824 Following the traditions of Proverbs, ‫ חכמה‬is a central term in the
composition. This emphasis is already indicated in the introduction of the text (frg. 1).825 The
first beatitudes refer to an object only indicated by a feminine suffix, but the final beatitude
holds an explicit reference to ‫“ חוכמה‬wisdom” (frg. 2). The object referred to seems to be
Torah; thus, the macarisms connect Torah obedience with attaining “wisdom.” The following
investigation will deal primarily with the concepts of wisdom and Torah piety, in a
comparison with 4Q185.

5.3.1 Wisdom and Torah in 4Q525

4Q525 2 II 1–3826

‫ׄבלב טהור ולוא רגל על לשונו ]] [[ אשרי תומכי חוקיה ולוא יתמוכו‬ 1
ׄ [‫אש]רי‬
‫הגלים בה ולוא יביעו בדרכי אולת ]] [[ אשרי דורשיה‬ ׄ [[ ]] ‫בדרכי עולה‬ 2

821.
See Émile Puech, Qumran Grotte 4. XVIII. (DJD 25; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 116–17; Uusimäki,
“Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 179.
822.
De Roo argued that the text was sectarian, and that the “sage” could be the Teacher of Righteousness, De
Roo, “Is 4Q525 a Qumran Sectarian Document?.” She has not gained support for this view; see Goff,
Discerning Wisdom, 277. See also Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 183–185.
823.
See Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 72; Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 200.
824.
Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 69–71.
825.
The wording of the introduction provides the composition with authority in a manner that resembles 11QPsa
DavComp.
826.
The Hebrew text and the placements of fragments are based upon the work of Uusimäki, but I have adjusted
the translations for the sake of consistency with my translations elsewhere. In 4Q525, the antecedent of the
feminine suffix is more clear, as both wisdom and Torah are explicitly mentioned, hence I translate “her.”

- 192 -
 ‫בל ֯ב מרמה ]] [[ אשרי אדם השיׄג חוכמה‬
֯ ‫בבור כפים ולוא ישחרנה‬ 3

1 with a pure heart, and does not slander with his tongue. vacat Happy are those who
hold fast to her statutes, and do not hold fast to
2 the ways of injustice. vacat Hap[py] are those who rejoice in her, and do not
blather827on the ways of folly. Happy are those who seek her
3 with pure hands, and do not search her with a deceitful heart. Happy is the human
who attains wisdom.

The beatitudes in 4Q525 could be put in connection with Proverbs and the sapiential
tradition, but there are actually no direct quotes. It has been suggested that 4Q525 reflects
Wisdom personified, but this is not the case. This is clear in a comparison with the two
beatitudes in Prov 8, where Wisdom acts as a teacher, in antithesis to the strange woman:

And now, children, listen to me: Happy (‫ )אשרי‬are those who keep my ways (‫)דרכי‬.
Hear instruction and be wise (‫)חכמו‬, and do not neglect it. Happy is the one who
listens to me, watching daily at my doors, guarding the entrances of my gates.
(Prov 8:32–34)

While Prov 8:32 connects the beatitudes to Wisdom herself, this is not the case in 4Q525.
Nevertheless, the passage in 4Q525 does resemble Proverbs. According to Uusimäki, there is
a literary connection with the beatitude in Prov 3:13, which declares happy those who find
“wisdom,” and the beatitude 4Q525 2 (II 3) on those who attain “wisdom.”828 According to
my reading, one may also read the verb ‫“ נשג‬obtain” in II 3 as an inversion of Prov 2:19,
concerning those who will not obtain the ‫“ ארחות חיים‬paths of life.” The same phrase (Prov
2:19) is quoted later on, in the passage “House of folly,” in 4Q525 15 line 8.829
Uusimäki argues convincingly that the whole passage alludes to both Psalms and
Proverbs (e.g. Psalms 15:2, 24:4, 6; Prov 3:18).830 In my view, the connection with Psalms is
particularly interesting. The beatitude section of 4Q525 is very close to the language on Torah
piety in Psalm 119. The psalm opens with beatitudes (Ps 119:1–2), only Psalm 119 is oriented
towards God’s Torah: ‫“ ידרשוהו‬seek him” (Ps 119:3) and ‫“ חקיך‬your statutes” (Ps 119:68).831
4Q525 refers to ‫“ חוקיה‬her statutes” and exhorts to ‫“ דורשיה‬seek her,” and is thus more

827.
See Tigchelaar, “Lady Folly and Her House in Three Qumran Manuscripts: On the Relation Between
4Q525 15, 5Q16 and 4Q184.” Uusimäki translates “pour out into the ways of folly.” See Uusimäki, “Turning
Proverbs Towards Torah,” 43.
828.
Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 73.
829.
There is a quote of Prov 2:19 in frg. 15 i 8 [ ] ‫לוא י֯ שיׄגו אורחות חיים‬. See the table of scriptural references;
Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 70.
830.
See Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 69.
831.
Within Psalm 119, statutes (‫ )חק‬is repeatedly associated with Torah.

- 193 -
oriented toward Torah and/or wisdom directly. In this manner, 4Q525 is closer to Sir 14:20–
21, even though Sirach lacks the antithetic statements:

Happy is the one who mediates (‫ )יהגה‬on wisdom (‫ )בחכמה‬and fixes his gaze on
understanding (‫)תבונה‬, who ponders her ways (‫ )דרכיה‬in his heart and pays attention to
her paths (‫( )ובתבונתיה‬Sir 14:20–21 MS A)832

The wording of the fourth beatitude ‫“ דורשיה בבור כפים‬those who seek her with pure hands”
(4Q525 II 3) further resembles Sirach in 11QPsa Sir 51 (col. XXI), which portrays Torah
obedience as an intimate relationship with the law: “She came to me in her beauty when
finally I sought (‫ )דרש‬her out” (XXI 2) and “I purified (‫ )הברותי‬my hand(s) (‫( ”)כפי‬XXI 11).833
The Torah piety of 4Q525 is comparable to 4Q185, which instructs to “seek it (f.sg.)
without deceit” (ii 14). Similarly, 4Q525 portrays a piety which is reflected in the character of
the human being: what she says, what she does, and also what is in her heart. The elusive
style of the beatitudes is also comparable. The difference, however, is the explicit mention of
‫“ חוכמה‬wisdom” in 4Q525. In 4Q525, the verbs ‫ דרש‬and ‫“ שחר‬to seek” seem to apply to both
Torah and wisdom. In this manner 4Q525 is far closer to Proverbs. While ‫ דרש‬is relatively
often used in relation to Torah, only Proverbs uses ‫“ שחר‬seek” in collocation with ‫“ מצא‬find”:
“I love those who love me, and those who seek me diligently (‫ )ומשחרי‬find me” (Prov 8:17).834
The beatitudes in 4Q525 are followed by a poem with an explicit reference to Torah
and the human being that walks in its ways (II 3–4a). The poem constitutes a series of
parallelisms and gives a further elaboration and description of the “happy” of the beatitudes:

4Q525 2 II 3b–6835

‫ ויתהכך‬... 3
‫ ויתאפק ביסוריה ובנגועיה ירצה תמ]י[ד‬vacat ‫בתורת עליון ויכן לדרכיה לבו‬ 4
‫ולוא יטושנה בעוני מצר]יו[ ובעת צוקה לוא יעוזבנה ולוא ישכחנה ]ביום[ פחד‬ 5
[‫ובענות נפשו לוא יגאל]נה[ כי בה יהגה תמיד ובצרתו ישוחה ]בה‬ 6

832.
The Hebrew Pancratius C. Beentjes, The Book of Ben Sira in Hebrew: A Text Edition of all Extant Hebrew
Manuscripts and a Synopsis of all Parallel Hebrew Ben Sira Texts (VTSup 68; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 43.
833.
James A. Sanders, The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967), 115. See also the
corresponding mention of “pure hands” in 4Q525 (XXI 11). To seek with the hand, could imply a material
aspect. Of course, the study of Torah does not demand that you have it in your hands.
834.
See also Prov 1:28. For the collocation of ‫ דרש‬and ‫ ;מצא‬see e.g. Deut 4:29; Isa 56:6; Jer 29:13.
835.
Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 42–43.

- 194 -
3 ... He walks
4 in the Torah of the Most High and sets his heart to its ways. And he restrains himself
with its corrections, and takes pleasure in its chastisements constantly.
5 He does not forsake it in the distress [when he] is tes[ted], and at the time of anguish
he does not abandon it. He does not forget it [in days of] dread,
6 and, in submitting himself, he does not despise it. Rather, he meditates on it
constantly, and in his distress he contemplates [it].

The role of Torah in the poem in 4Q525 is comparable to the role of Wisdom herself in Prov
8, yet the phrase “he walks in the Torah/law of the Most High” does not appear to be drawn
from Proverbs. The language of the poem is closer to Sirach and Psalm 154 (11QPsa XVIII
14),836 and its themes have affinities with the Torah piety depicted in Psalm 119. Uusimäki
notes that the poem (2 ii 3–4) alludes to Ps 119:1b. In my opinion, the whole poem actually
resembles the piety depicted in Psalm 119, although there is not much terminological
correspondence between the two texts. The motif, not forgetting the law in times of distress is
repeated in Ps 119:61, 83, 109, and 141. The wording also resembles Psalm 119: “I will
meditate on your precepts, and fix my eyes on your ways” (Ps 119:15).
In order to summarise, one may say that the larger context of the beatitudes and the
poem in 4Q525 evokes Proverbs, but the role of Torah piety is much more developed. There
are explicit references to both ‫“ חכמה‬wisdom” and ‫“ תורה‬Torah.” Nevertheless, the passage
does not provide evidence for the identification of wisdom and Torah. Rather, Torah is the
overall source of wisdom, and a wise life is lived according to her ways.

5.3.2 Torah Piety, Wisdom, and Way Motifs in 4Q185 and 4Q525

A definition of Torah discourse and Torah piety is needed. The term ‘piety’ reflects devotion
and reverence for God.837 I argue that the series of suffixed verbs, e.g. ‫“ יעשהנה‬do it,” ‫יבקשנה‬
“seek it,” and ‫“ יחזיקנה‬hold on to it,” reflects Torah piety. One may say that this piety reflects
the piety for God, and as such this “Torah piety” functions as a substitution.
It is difficult to establish the exact reference to Torah as either the laws of the
Pentateuch or the teaching of the scribes (Prov 1:8, 13:14).838 ‘Torah discourse’ denotes an
ongoing inner conversation within Second Temple literature. Collins argues that the Torah (in
this case the Pentateuch) enjoys central importance in the sectarian scrolls, not as prescriptive

836.
Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 20.
837.
This definition is borrowed from Reynolds; see Reynolds, Torah as Teacher, 34.
838.
Tooman, “Wisdom and Torah at Qumran,” 204.

- 195 -
law but rather as a symbolic importance. One example he uses is the interpretation of Isaiah
40, which in 1QS 8:15 is understood as a reference to the study of the Torah.839 The Torah
appears to play a similar role in 4Q185. There is no direct reference to any laws of the
Pentateuch, rather Torah is represented by its stories of rebellion, judgment and rescue. Thus,
the references to the “will,” “way of life,” “the words of Yahweh” are only identifiable with
Torah on a symbolic level. The elusiveness of this discourse in both 4Q185 and 4Q525 might
reflect the symbolic nature of Torah. Although it is given and inherited, the possession of it
remains difficult to define.
The beatitudes in 4Q525 explicitly refer to both Torah and wisdom and juxtapose the
two entities. Thus, Torah piety is associated with ‫“ נשג‬obtaining” ‘wisdom.’ According to
Goff, 4Q525 resembles 4Q185 with regard to the association of wisdom with Torah and
Torah piety.840 In his conclusion on 4Q525, he claims: “These compositions personify wisdom
as a woman, but neither attest a full blown portrait of Lady Wisdom.”841 In my opinion, Goff
exaggerates the evidence of personified Wisdom in both compositions, and our reading
should be removed from the personification found in Proverbs. Moreover, the elusiveness in
4Q185 should not be accounted for as the association of ‘wisdom’ and Torah. I am not saying
that this is outside the associative range of the composition; however, in order to make the
point that Torah is wisdom, the two objects should be mentioned (cf. Sir 1:26, 10:20; 4Q525
2 II 3–4). The beatitude statements in both 4Q185 and 4Q525 make use of a feminine suffix
instead of an object. Uusimäki has suggested that this is a didactic tool.842 In my view this
suggestion is well founded. In addition, it could reflect the nature of Torah piety.843 The
question, however, is what are the implications for our understanding of the beatitudes and
the specific passage in 4Q185? I will now discuss the correspondence between 4Q184 and
4Q525 pertaining to terminology, then themes, and finally, the conceptual association of
wisdom and Torah. A comparison of the two beatitude sections in 4Q185 and 4Q525 has
already been offered by Tooman and Uusimäki, and to some degree by Pajunen.844 My
conclusions depart somewhat from the above-mentioned scholars, as I do not assume that the
feminine suffix of the beatitude section in 4Q185 is to be read as ‘wisdom.’ Furthermore, the

839.
Collins, “The Transformation of the Torah,” 455.
840.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 199.
841.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 229.
842.
Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah.”
843.
This could have some correspondence with the use of various substitutes for the divine name in Qumran
texts.
844.
Pajunen states that “the figure in these beatitudes is best seen as a combination of Wisdom and Torah.” In
his transcription, he reads Wisdom=Torah. Nevertheless, he does claim that the key words in the beatitudes
about receiving it and doing it are more compatible with the notion of the Law. Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom,
Israel and Other Nations,” 18. See also Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah”; Tooman, “Wisdom and
Torah at Qumran,” 214.

- 196 -
above-mentioned scholars rely on Pajunen’s reading of 4Q185, to which I have suggested
some adjustments.
There is shared terminology between 4Q525 and 4Q185,845 but nothing seems to imply
literary dependence.846 Neither Torah nor wisdom is mentioned in 4Q185. Thus, the shared
features are mainly the beatitude form itself, the feminine suffix, and the word ‫“ מרמה‬deceit.”
The antithetic macarism in 4Q525 states that “Happy are those who seek her with pure hands,
and do not search her (‫ )ישחרנה‬with a deceitful heart (‫”)בל ֯ב מרמה‬
֯ (4Q525 II 3), while 4Q185
warns that one cannot “seek (‫ )יבקשנה‬it [with a mouth] of deceit (‫( ”)מרמה‬4Q185 ii 14).
According to Uusimäki, Pajunen suggests a reconstruction of 4Q185 ii 13: ‫ב[ל]ב[ מרמה‬.847 This
reading strengthens the amount of correspondence between the two compositions, but it is
very difficult on a material basis.848 A possible similarity, however, is the instruction not to
slander. 4Q525 II 1 appears to quote Ps 15:3: ֯‫ולא רגל על ]לשונ[ו‬. In 4Q185 ii 13 one can read
‫ולא ֯רג֯ ל על‬, and a possible reading is ֯‫( ולא ֯רג֯ ל על]יה בפ[י‬ii 13).849
According to my reading, there is no direct intertextual connection between 4Q185
and 4Q525 but there is indeed a thematic overlap between the beatitudes in relation to “way”
and “seeking:” “Happy are those who seek her (‫ )דרש‬with pure hands” (4Q525 II 3) and “He
walks in the Torah of the Most High and sets his heart to her ways” (4Q525 II 4). Variants of
the way motifs are found in the overall admonition in 4Q185. One is encouraged to search
out a way of life (ii 1), and warned not to “deviate” from a certain path (ii 4). The
terminology is different (‫ דרש‬and ‫ שחר‬in 4Q525, ‫ חקר‬and ‫ בקש‬in 4Q185) but there is
emphasis upon seeking in both compositions. These way motifs and the theme of seeking are
best read as references to Torah. 4Q185 thus may reflect Torah piety in a similar manner to
4Q525. The association with ‘wisdom’ is not necessarily intended by the scribe. The
discourse displays devotion, ultimately towards God. This devotion circles around obedience,
which is best explained as related to the gift of Torah, accompanied with strength in order to
hold on to it.
Both compositions are somewhat elusive, but where 4Q525 explicitly refers to

845.
There are some corresponding motifs and terminological overlaps in the composition as a whole (‫חק‬, ‫טהור‬,
and ‫)נפש‬.
846.
DJD 4Q525 frg. 5, line 7 reads: ]‫אל ת]דר[שוה בלב מרמה ובח‬. See Puech, Qumran Grotte 4. XVIII, 131, 133.
Pajunen suggests that there is a direct textual connection between 4Q185 and 4Q525 and reads ‫אל ת]בק[שוה בלב‬
‫מרמה ובח‬. See Marttila and Pajunen, “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations,” 19. Admittedly, there is a thematic
correspondence, but in my opinion there is not sufficient material data to reconstruct the text in any of the
manuscripts. The reading ‫ בקש‬instead of ‫ דרש‬in 4Q525 is plausible on material grounds and the immediate
literary context, and it does not need support from 4Q185.
847.
Uusimäki, “Continuum of Wisdom and Torah,” 352.
848.
At the end of ii 13 there is one ink trace, which could be either ‫י‬, ‫ ו‬but not ‫ל‬. I have suggested ֯‫ בפ[י‬...]. See
discussion in ch. 2.5.
849.
See the discussion in ch. 2.5.

- 197 -
‘wisdom’ and Torah, 4Q185 has a repeated series of verbs with a feminine suffix only
assumed to refer to ‘wisdom.’ It is plausible to assume that the explanation lies in the
fragmentary state of the text, but it is remarkable that it does not appear in the extant text. My
conclusion is that ‘wisdom’ is at best marginal in the discourse of 4Q185. One hermeneutical
key to the different character of the two compositions could be their scriptural basis. As
already discussed in relation to 4Q184, the role of Proverbs is not evident in 4Q185. The
sapiential themes are also found in Deuteronomy, Isaiah, and Jeremiah, and could be
mediated through these traditions. Even the beatitudes in 4Q525 are drawn from a wider
scriptural repertoire. Thus, the larger context in both compositions may shed light upon the
two discourses. While 4Q525 relates to practical wisdom (frg. 14), and thus emphasises
Torah obedience in a literary context that could be described as “rewritten Proverbs,” the
beatitudes of 4Q185 play a very different role.850 The main topics in 4Q185 are judgment and
salvation, the strength of God in contrast to the weakness of humans, and obedience and
knowledge. Hence, the given entity in 4Q185 is associated with ‫“ חסדיו‬his mercies” and
‫וישעו֯ ת‬
֯ “acts of salvation.” This rhetoric resembles the blessings of wisdom in Prov 3, but it
also has affinities with the blessings of the way of life, associated with doing Yahweh’s will
of God as seen in Deuteronomy, in Psalm 119, and in the sectarian admonitions. According to
Reynolds, Psalm 119 is formulated by traditional religious language: “The speaker uses
locutions and motifs of wisdom literature, but he does not praise wisdom.”851 This is a fruitful
way of describing the discourse of 4Q185 as well.

5.4 4Q185 in the Light of “Rewritten Proverbs” (4Q184 and 4Q525)

The literary relation to Proverbs, which is assumed in practically all recent research on
4Q185, has two implications for 4Q185: Lady Wisdom and the equation of Torah and
wisdom. These are both problematic. 4Q185 shares the thought world of 4Q184 and 4Q525,
but the assumed literary relationship may be questioned.852 All three compositions can be
dated approximately to the same time period, and they all appear to have grown out of the
religious world of the traditions we know as the Hebrew Bible. While 4Q184 depicts a
seductress who resembles Prov 7–8, 4Q525 also draws from Prov 7, but without a reference
to any of the female characters. 4Q525 and 4Q184 could be called “rewritten Proverbs” as

850.
See Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah,” 72–73, 160.
851.
Reynolds, Torah as Teacher, 182.
852.
M. A. Knibb, “The Book of Enoch in the Light of the Qumran Wisdom Literature,” in Wisdom and
Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition (ed. Florentino García Martínez; Leuven:
University Press, 2003).

- 198 -
Proverbs appears to be a primary source, but this is not the case with 4Q185. What we see in
4Q185 is language that resembles Proverbs, such as “way motifs” and “Torah piety,” but the
context does not imply that Proverbs has served as a model for the composition. 4Q185 does
not have the spatial perspective of Lady Wisdom and judgment, and it does not discuss ‫חכמה‬.
The discourse in 4Q185 revolves around the words and will of Yahweh and his ways. The
main topics in 4Q185 are Egypt, God’s might, and the fathers. Furthermore, the scenes of
judgment are ideas that serve to demonstrate God’s power, and not to depict a terrifying place
or location.
4Q525 and 4Q185 are both instructions with pedagogical intent, but I suggest that the
two texts are influenced by different sources and thus reflect different ways of framing the
Torah discourse. 4Q525 offers practical wisdom but also wisdom teaching that is oriented
towards Torah. Thus, 4Q185 resembles the discourse on “Torah piety” in 4Q525, but departs
in that 4Q525 is modelled on Proverbs and in the explicit reference to ‫חכמה‬. The use of
sapiential themes and forms may conform with Proverbs but should be interpreted in the light
of the discourse on Torah, such as found in Psalm 119. Similar Torah discourse is also found
in the Hodayot and 1QS. In fact, various Qumran texts utilise elements of wisdom literature
in a manner that corresponds with Deuteronomy or prophetic texts, such as Isaiah and
Jeremiah. Sirach and Baruch provide good examples of this. Thus, elements that we perceive
as sapiential may very well be allusions to Deuteronomy, prophetic texts, or Psalms, without
depending directly upon Proverbs.

5.5 Excursus: Penitential Wisdom in Sirach

Sirach is a Hebrew wisdom composition that is rooted in Proverbs. In terms of being a

wisdom text, Sirach is frequently referred to in relation to the section on personified Wisdom
(Sir 24), but Sirach reflects more than traditional wisdom. It is a compilation of mixed
passages, and some are clearly inspired from Deuteronomy and the prophetic literature.853 The
Masada Scroll preserves portions of Sirach in Hebrew.854 It is notable that 4Q185 resembles
various passages in Sirach.855 Sirach gives a description of humans that resembles 4Q185,

853.
See Pancratius C. Beentjes, “The Book of Ben Sirach and Deuteronomistic Heritage,” in Changes in
Scripture: Rewriting and Interpreting Authoritative Traditions in the Second Temple Period (ed. Hanne von
Weissenberg, Juha Pakkala, and Marko Marttila; Göttingen: De Gruyter, 2011).
854.
The manuscript preserves three columns, with sticho-metrically text; see Yigael Yadin, “The Ben Sira Scroll
from Masada,” in Masada VI: Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963–1965, Final Reports (Jerusalem: Israel
Explorations Society, 1999). See also B-371464 on the IAA web site.
855.
The wording in Sirach 1:21 and 19:20 is compelling. The rhetoric is the same, but while Sirach connects it
with Wisdom, the extant text of 4Q185 does not.

- 199 -
involving lack of strength ‫ אין אוינים‬and no hope ‫ אבוד תקוה‬Mas iii (Sir 41, 2).856 The problem
is ‫“ עזבי תורת עליון‬they have abandoned the law of the Most High” (Sir 41, 9).857 Moreover, the
judgment speech in Sir 15:11–16:23 does shed light upon the discourse of 4Q185. This
comparison will only be brief, but it serves to point in a possible direction for further inquiry
on penitential wisdom.

Sirach 15:11–16:23

Sirach recalls the events in Egypt as an Exodus of wrath within a discourse on judgment:

He did not forgive the ancient giants who revolted in their might. He did not spare
the neighbors of Lot, whom he loathed on account of their arrogance. He showed no
pity on the doomed nation, on those dispossessed because of their sins; or on the six
hundred thousand foot soldiers who assembled in their stubbornness (‫)זדון‬. Even if
there were only one stiff-necked person (‫)קשה ערף‬, it would be a wonder if he
remained unpunished. For mercy and wrath are with the Lord; he is mighty to
forgive—but he also pours out wrath.858 (MS A VI Sir 16:7–11)

The report of the “six hundred thousand foot soldiers” who were taken away because of the
arrogance of their hearts refers to the wilderness generation. According to Exod 12:37, six
hundred thousand was the total number of men of the people. The account of this history
resembles the opening admonition in CD, as their sin is connected to their pride (‫ )זדון‬and the
arrogance of their hearts. These terms are ultimately negative.859 The expression ‫ קשה ערף‬is a
description of the people in general in the Pentateuch (Ex 32–35; Deut 9). A similar idea is
also found in Chronicles: ‫“ אל תקשו ערפכם כאבותיכם‬Do not now be stiff-necked as your
ancestors were” (2 Chr 30:8). The history serves as an example, and functions as a legitimacy
of the instruction, because ‫“ כרב רחמיו כן תוכחתו איש כמפעליו ישפט‬Great is his compassion, so
also is his chastisement; he judges a person according to his deeds” (MS A Sir 16:12).860 After
the short historical account, the instruction goes on: ‫“ שמעו אלי וקחו שכלי ועל דברי שימו לב‬Listen
to me, and take my words upon the heart” (MS A Sir 16:24). The reference to Egypt or
Exodus is very different from 4Q185, but the idea is quite similar to 4Q185. The instruction

856.
Yadin, “The Ben Sira Scroll from Masada,” 175.
857.
Yadin, “The Ben Sira Scroll from Masada,” 176.
858.
Beentjes, The Book of Ben Sira in Hebrew, 45.
859.
Cf. Jer 50:31–32; Prov 21:24; 4Q184 frg. 1, 16.
860.
See the translation and comments on this passage in Randal A. Argall, 1 Enoch and Sirach. A Comparative
Literary and Conceptual Analysis of the Themes of Revelation, Creation and Judgment (SBLEJL 8; Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1995), 226. See also “knowledge of the law” in Shane Berg, “Ben Sira, the Genesis Creation
Accounts, and the Knowledge of God’s Will,” JBL 132 (2013).

- 200 -
is concerned with the two options: before you are life and death; and God is merciful but he
is also a God of wrath (Sir 15:17). I do not suggest that there is textual dependence, but the
instruction motivated by the historical recollection is similar to what we have seen in 4Q185.
The spiritual or moral concern when the instructor appeals for self-examination is also the
same, though much more explicit:

Before judgment comes, examine yourself; and at the time of scrutiny you will find
forgiveness. Before falling ill, humble yourself; and when you have sinned, repent.
(Sir 18:20–21 NRSV)861

The Greek ταπεινόω “humble” corresponds to the Hebrew ‫כנע‬. Thus, the emphasis on a
humble attitude was well established in the sapiential tradition at the time of Sirach. It is
worth noting that the sections in Sirach that correspond the most with 4Q185 are passages in
which Sirach appears to be influenced by Deuteronomic and prophetic discourse. As an
example, the judgment motifs resemble Micah: “Poured out before you are fire and water.
Before a person are life and death, that which he chooses will be given to him” (Mic. 1).
In Sirach 39:5 and 51:13–20, there are motifs such as “seek and find” and “joy of
heart.”862 These motifs may be associated with both wisdom and themes of repentance.
According to Werline, “the sopher petitions before the most high, and opens his mouth in
prayer by combining study and penitential prayer, the sopher hopes that God will fill him
with a spirit of understanding.”863

Summary

One may describe Sirach as a blend of sapiential and penitential traditions. This is not unique,
but is also found in Qumran texts such as 1QS and CD, which are texts that share some
affiliation with the sapiential tradition. These texts also employ elements that can be traced
back to Proverbs, such as list of virtues and vices, but without employing ‘wisdom’ as an
integral part. The same seems to be the case with 4Q185.

861.
This passage is not preserved in the Hebrew manuscripts.
862.
See also Sir 51:15, 21.
863.
On confession as prerequisite for interpretation of Scripture and sayings of ancient sages; see Werline, The
Development of a Religious Institution, 84.

- 201 -
5.6 Conclusion

What about wisdom? It is time to return to the question of genre. There is no need to dispute
the classification of 4Q185 as a wisdom composition. 4Q185 is an instruction with a
pedagogical intent, and the composition does refer to knowledge. However, the elusive
discourse on a given object inherited by Israel is not necessarily ‫חכמה‬.
Measured against Proverbs, 4Q185 is not a very good example of the prototype. In
contrast with 4Q184 and 4Q525, it is not rooted in wisdom and the main concerns of the
admonition differ from the instructions of Proverbs. As such, 4Q185 is a marginal
phenomenon at the edges of wisdom. 4Q185 is a good example of what some has called
“Torah wisdom.”864 The source of knowledge is the deeds of Yahweh, described in the Torah
and offered within the context of the covenant. The rhetorical context for this discourse
highlights penitential traditions. If we return to the criteria by Goff on determining wisdom as
a genre, one of his additional criteria was “innovation” or “conjunction with other
authoritative sources.” As such, 4Q185 does resemble passages found in Sirach that are
heavily influenced by the Pentateuch and the prophetic texts, and entail passages on
repentance and restoration. 4Q185 can reasonably be called a wisdom work as it is related to
knowledge and learning, but its interpretative keys are not found in Proverbs. 4Q185 is a
wisdom work in its own right.

864.
The designation ‘Torah wisdom’ is used to describe wisdom literature where “sources of wisdom instruction
are no longer general experiences in relation to nature and in social interaction, as in ancient wisdom, but the
saving deeds of Yahweh described in Torah” (e.g. Psalm 111). See Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger,
Psalms 3: A Commentary on Psalms 101–150 (trans. Linda M. Maloney; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2011), 162.

- 202 -
6. Remembrance and Paraenesis: 4Q185 as a Didactic Speech

What knowledge is transmitted in 4Q185? 4Q185 is listed in the DJD under the rubric
“Didactic speech” and is presented as a subcategory of the larger category of sapiential
texts.865 As we have seen in ch. 4, the rhetorical framing locates the speech within a didactic
setting where a religious leader guides or teaches his students. The addressees of 4Q185 are
exhorted to learn from the speaker, ‫“ והשכילו לי פתאים‬Pay attention to me, simple ones,” and
the speech further persuades the addressees to walk the “way to life” in order to be the happy
receiver of an inheritance. This framing suggests a didactic setting, but what the
“didacticism” exactly implies requires further clarification.866 According to Matthew Goff, the
appeal to judgment in 4Q185 has the pedagogical intent of encouraging upright conduct.867
This appears to be the case, but according to my reading the problem for the addressees, even
though they are called simple ones, is not their lack of wisdom but their lack of strength,
which indicates the ability to do God’s will. It is God’s wrath and his judgments that actualise
this problem. The specific “knowledge” transmitted in the text is knowledge about God and
humanity that is embedded in historical traditions. There is no advice on practical issues,
such as finances, marital issues, or manners, or other advice concerning everyday life, which
one can find in Instruction and in 4QBeatitudes (4Q525).
The main focus of this chapter is the role of historical recollection in 4Q185. The
exhortation to remember what Yahweh did in Egypt is found in a textual overlap with 4Q370,
and it is within this textual overlap that 4Q185 is explicitly didactic. In order to examine the
role of knowledge and history in 4Q185, I will explore the didactic elements of the
compositions through a comparison with 4Q370, which more clearly ties the motif of
remembrance to a story of rebellion. Both 4Q185 and 4Q370 reflect the historical traditions
found in the Pentateuch and in the historical psalms, and the connection between
remembrance and paraenesis corresponds with the didacticism found in this literature.

865.
Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 140.
866.
I use the term ‘didacticism’ to denote the pedagogic and moral imperative of the speech. The didacticism of
4Q185 is conveyed by its similes, exhortations, and employment of historical motifs. See the use of the term in
Kåre Berge, “Didacticism in Exodus?,” Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 22 (2008): 3.
867.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 126.

- 203 -
6.1 Approach and Preliminary Clarifications

A didactic function is about transmitting knowledge; hence, a didactic text is associated with
teaching and learning.868 The didactic function may be inferred from instructional forms, such
as persuasive rhetoric and exhortations, and is normally voiced by an instructor. It is not the
scope here to place 4Q185 within an actual didactic setting, but its literary features may be
explored according to their didactic function. Of interest here is how a didactic setting or
motivation may have shaped the form and content of the text. The overarching question for
this chapter is: in what way is 4Q185 an exhortation or a lesson on history?869 Relevant for
this question is what it means to remember and what it means to know. Wold has shown how
memory is essential to 4Q185 and 4Q370 by pointing out the role of historical traditions in
these compositions.870 In this study I will look more specifically for the use of history as a
pedagogical example. While 4Q185 is listed as “didactic speech” and “sapiential text,”
4Q370 is categorised as a “parabiblical text” and described as a rewriting of Gen 6–9.871
Despite the apparent differences between 4Q185 and 4Q370, the appeals to remember appear
to play a similar role in the two compositions. Both compositions are admonitory and exhort
the addressee to remember a certain history. In 4Q370 the story of rebellion serves as a basis
for the exhortations. In addition, the poetical imagery is also connected with the paraenetic.
Both aspects are part of the motivation for the exhortation, as they prepare the addressees to
be attentive to the message. As we have seen in the rhetorical analysis, a similar dynamic is
found in 4Q185.872 Yet, 4Q185 does not entail a narrative in the preserved text. The similarity
with 4Q370, however, suggests that there could be a connection with a history of rebellion.
Previous research has made a connection with the historical psalms. In this chapter I will
examine the didactic framework in 4Q185 and its potential relationship to the stories of
rebellion in the Hebrew Bible.

868.
The terms ‘didactic’ and ‘sapiential’ are often used without a clear differentiation. In this chapter, I will
distinguish between didactic and sapiential. I use the term ‘didactic’ to refer to the possible function of the text,
while I use ‘sapiential’ to describe its contents. Clearly a sapiential text can have a didactic function. On the
other hand, a didactic text is not necessarily sapiential. While both 4Q370 and 4Q185 can be categorised as
didactic texts, it is more difficult to characterise 4Q370 as sapiential.
869.
I use the term ‘history’ for pragmatic reasons to refer to history in the widest possible sense. History refers
to the multitude of “stories” that shape the idea of past, such as “salvation history” and “history of sin.”
870.
Wold, “Memory in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Exodus, Creation and Cosmos,” 51–53.
871.
4Q370 is not further categorised and listed as an “Unclassified” text. See Tov and Abegg, Indices and an
Introduction, 122–23.
872.
See ch. 4.2.

- 204 -
6.2 4Q185 and 4Q370: A Comparative Analysis

In the following sections I will first present 4Q370 and the textual overlap. I will continue
this investigation by taking a brief look at the material considerations and stylistic features
such as addressee formulas, but more important is the rhetorical logic of the admonitions and
the role of historical traditions within this logic.

6.2.1 4Q370 and Textual Overlap873

The textual overlap provides us with a parallel text that aids the reading of both manuscripts.
It also gives one the opportunity to see individual variations that indicate distinctive features
of each composition. In order to perform a comparison, a thorough description of the
manuscript is needed.

Description of Manuscript

The preserved parts of the manuscript 4Q370 is referred to as one fragment, although it
consists of two larger pieces with complementary borders.874 The manuscript has two extant
columns. The second column is less damaged than the first, but the left half of it has broken
away. The lower part of both columns is severely damaged. One smaller piece with a lower
margin has been attached to the main manuscript and is now presented as part of the
manuscript in the latest photos published on the IAA website.875 There is, however,
uncertainty regarding its placement and whether it even belongs to 4Q370.876 The fragment
was not in the earliest PAM photos it is not part of the edition of the DJD by Newsom.877 It
has been placed beside the main fragment on a mixed plate in PAM 43.369 from 1960.878 The
placement of this fragment is important, as it indicates the size of the scroll by providing it

873.
I refer to the corresponding text in 4Q185 and 4Q370 as a textual overlap, although the overlap is only
partial. The socalled overlap comprises a series of subsequent textual parallels.
874.
Newsom denotes the joined fragments “frg. 1”; Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood.” Frg. 1
consists of two larger pieces. There is also one part in the right margin of the first column that is no longer
connected to the main fragment, but the placement is clear.
875.
See B-295763, taken April 2012.
876.
Feldman argues that the placement is doubtful on “codicological and paleographic grounds.” He claims that
there is a vertical line (ruled by a pointed instrument) on the small fragment which is not visible in the PAM
photos, but in the original. See Ariel Feldman, “The Reworking of the Biblical Flood Story in 4Q370,” Henoch
29 (2007): 29–30. The argument posed by Feldman is feasible, as there appears to be a line in the recent
coloured photos on the IAA website (B-370834).
877.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood.”
878.
The fragment is not in the photo taken in 1953, PAM 40.601.

- 205 -
with a lower margin. There are letters on the fragment that resemble the hand of 4Q370. The
hand of 4Q370 is rather distinct, and on the basis of this handwriting, the fragment could
belong to 4Q370.879 One can read ‫ ישראל‬on the fragment, although the upper parts of the
letters are damaged. The question is whether the remnants of letters at the lower part of line
10 belong to the small fragment. There is no complementary border, but a join is possible.
However, if the join is correct, the arms of ‫ ש‬are rather long compared with the standard of
the hand in 4Q370. Furthermore, there is one ink trace to the right of ‫א‬, and if it belongs to ‫ר‬,
it is irregular according to the handwriting. The fragment may or may not belong to the
manuscript. Thus, we may not know the original size of the manuscript after all. Tov has
listed 4Q370 as a scroll with a small writing block.880 If the placement of the fragment is
correct, we are dealing with a small sized scroll, with 10 lines on each column. Furthermore,
the height of the written column would be approximately 7.8 cm with a width of 14 cm, and
the total height of the sheet would be 12 cm. For a comparison, 4Q185, with its 15 lines, is
regarded as having a medium-sized writing block. Without the extra fragment the scroll could
be the same size as 4Q185, or even larger.
It is difficult to infer function from the size and shape of the manuscript, but the size
of the scrolls may nevertheless indicate their function.881 Compared with 4Q525 and
4QInstruction, which are larger scrolls, these two admonitions are rather average. The
relatively small size of 4Q370 and 4Q185 may imply a didactic setting.882 It may also indicate
a less prominent role for these compositions. Up until now, there has only been one known
copy of 4QAdmonitions based upon the Flood (4Q370). Recently, Eibert Tigchelaar
discovered that some of the fragments known as the Genesis Apocryphon from Masada
(MasapocrGen) are likely a second copy of this same composition.883 These are only small
fragments, but they are enough to indicate that this is another copy.

A Description of the Textual Overlap

The textual overlap with 4Q185 is found in the second column at line 5, and ends at line 9
where the extant text of the manuscript ends. It is thus difficult to estimate the extent of the

879.
According to Feldman its belonging to 4Q370 cannot be ruled out, Feldman, “The Reworking of the
Biblical Flood Story in 4Q370,” 30.
880.
Tov, Scribal Practices, 85.
881.
The larger scrolls are socalled “luxury scrolls” and virtually all contain Scripture; see Tov, Scribal
Practices, 90.
882.
See Uusimäki, “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah.”
883.
See Tigchelaar, Eibert “Identification of the So-Called Genesis Apocryphon from Masada,” published on
Academia (2014). The term “holy day” appears on one fragment, which indicates that this discourse may
revolve around restoration and Sabbath.

- 206 -
overlap, as it might have gone further. The two manuscripts do not appear to be copies of the
same text, but one should not dismiss the possibility entirely. The lost first sheet of 4Q185
could have a section that parallels 4Q370.884 The top of the first column of 4Q185 is damaged,
and the remaining text of the judgment scene that precedes the textual overlap has some
terminological correspondence. This indicates further similarities. Nevertheless, it is easier to
understand the relationship between these texts as two different compositions rather than two
copies of the same composition. The question then becomes why are these similar sections
part of two different compositions? In order to consider this, we will first consider the
preserved text in the second column of 4Q370, where the overlap is found. The textual
parallels with 4Q185 are underlined.

4Q370 1 ii

]‫מעון ידרשו ֯מ‬ 1

]‫יצדיק יהוה ש‬ 2
] ‫ויטהרם מעונם‬ 3
‫רעתם בדעתם בי]ן‬ 4
ׄ ‫יצ‬
‫מחו וכצל ימיהם ֯ע]ל הארץ‬ ׄ 5
]˚ ‫ועד עולם הוא ירחם‬ 6
‫גבורת יהוה זכרו נפל]אים‬ 7
‫נפ]שכם‬
֯ ‫מפני פחדו ותשמח‬ 8
֯ ‫משניכם ֯אל ֯ת ׄמרו‬
‫דבר]י יהוה‬ 9

1 Because of their iniquity, they will seek [

2 Yahweh will justify[
3 And he will purify them from their iniquity[
4 Their evil in their knowing betw[een
5 they sprout and like a shadow are their days up [on the earth
6 and forever. He will have compassion885[
7 might of Yahweh. Remember the won[ders
8 before his dread and rejoice [your s]oul[
9 your second.886 Do not rebel against the word[s of Yahweh

884.
The holes for stitches indicate that there could have been another sheet, see ch. 2.
885.
‫ ירחם‬could also be read as pual impf. “he will obtain compassion,” but the singular subject is best
understood as referring to God.
886.
The meaning of this word in unclear. Newsom renders “those who follow you”; suggesting that the suffixed
form (if from ‫ )משנה‬could be understood as “your followers”; Newsom, “4Q370: An Admonition Based on the

- 207 -
 There appears to be no dispute regarding the palaeographic reading of the second
column. The ink on the first line is very pale, but the line is readable with an infrared
microscope, and good photos of the fragment have been taken recently and published on the
IAA website. The Hebrew text that I present here does not depart from the reading of
Newsom, although I am more hesitant to restore lines of text. Where she suggests
reconstructions of larger parts of the missing text based upon 4Q185,887 I have only restored
words and constructs when there is a clear parallel with 4Q185. Translation and interpretation
of the text are difficult, as we do not have entire phrases, only parts of them. Line 6 is often
read “and forevermore he will have compassion,” but as far as we know, the phrase ‫ ועד עולם‬is
the end of a clause and ‫ הוא ירחם‬the beginning of a new clause. What is easier is the part of
text that can be read in light of a complete phrase in 4Q185.
The textual overlap is comparable to variations between different copies of the same
texts found in Qumran,888 and also overlaps between different compositions.889 It is not unique
to have one textual passage appearing in two different texts. In my view, the literary contexts
of this textual overlap make it difficult to identify the overlap as either one textual unit or as a
circulating passage. This is most clear in 4Q185, where the flower and shadow similes are
part of a larger discourse on “no hope.” The phrase “no hope,” which is found in the
judgment scene and is repeated towards the end of the motif cluster on humanity, constitutes
a logical sequence. Moreover, the paraenetic section of 4Q185 is introduced with an
introductory formula, which has no counterpart in the preserved parts of 4Q370. The
corresponding passage in 4Q370 is damaged, and thus it is difficult to say anything specific
about the integration of the textual parallel within the admonition, but there appears to be a
connection with the flood narrative in the first column.
The apparent differences thus strengthen the impression of dependence between
4Q185 and 4Q370. If 4Q370 and 4Q185 are two different compositions and not two copies of

Flood,” 29, 41.

887.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood.”
888.
See the study on different copies of Serekh texts in Sarianna Metso, The Textual Development of the
Qumran Community Rule (STDJ 21; Leiden: Brill, 1997), 147. See also Sarianna Metso, The Serekh Texts
(London: T & T Clark, 2007). See also the contribution of Hempel; Charlotte Hempel, “The Literary
Development of the S Tradition,” RevQ 87 (2006).
889.
See the annotated list of overlaps and parallels in Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 319. One
example is the confessional ritual of the rule texts. 1QS I 24f and CD XX 27f. This passage is not identical in
the two compositions, but it is indeed a parallel. These examples show that textual passages are fluid, not only in
the matter of wording, but also the literary context; see Charlotte Hempel, “Shared Traditions: Points of Contact
Between S and D,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Transmission of Traditions and Production of Texts, ed. Sarianna
Metso (Leiden: Brill, 2010). There is a chance that the Damascus Document represents a “rewriteing” of the
Community Rule; see Steudel, “The Damascus Document (D) as a Rewriting of the Community Rule(s).”

- 208 -
the same work, they confirm the scribal and redactional practices of the time.890 There is no
decisive criteria to decide which one is dependent on the other. Both manuscripts are dated to
the late Hasmonaean times, but the script suggests that 4Q370 was penned somewhat later
than 4Q185.891 Of course, the palaeography of the manuscripts only suggests a terminus ad
quem. Carol Newsom suggests that there is literary dependence between 4Q370 and 4Q185,
but without concluding which way the dependence goes.892 She seems to prefer 4Q185 as a
source text for 4Q370, even though 4Q185 is longer, since 4Q370 shows dependence on
other texts. Now, this is true for 4Q185 as well; nevertheless, as a hypothesis following the
suggestion of Newsom, I will take as a starting point that 4Q185 is the source text for 4Q370.
The extant textual overlap is underlined, and the text that could possibly have been paralleled
but is now lost has no line at all. If the scribe of 4Q370 is using 4Q185 as a source text, he
must have left out the remaining text, which is indicated with a line that runs through the text.

4Q185 1–2 i

‫[כי הנׄה‬ ]‫ואתם בני אדם א‬

‫נשב]ה בו [רוחו‬ ׄ
֯ ‫יפרח כציץ חסדו‬ ׄ
‫מארצו‬ ‫כחציר יצמח‬ 10

‫ויבש ֯ע ֯גזו וציצו תשא רוׄח עד אנ יקום לע]מוד ויא[בד‬ 11

‫ולא ימצא כי רוח ]] [[ יׄבקשוהו ולא ימצאהו ואין מקוה‬ 1

‫ימים על הא]רץ [ ועתה שמעו נא עמי והשכילו‬

֯ ‫והוא כצל‬ 13

‫והכנעו מן ] ג[בורת אלהינו וׄזכרו נפלאים עשה‬

ׄ ‫לי פתאים‬ 14

‫ומופתיו ֯ב]ים סוף [ויערץ לבבכם מפני פחדו‬

֯ ‫במצרים‬ 15

4Q185 1–2 ii

֯ ‫‏ותשמח‬
‫נ[פשכם כחסדיו הטבים חקרו לכם דרך‬ ‫רצ]ונו‬
֯ ‫ועשו‬ 1

‫[ו֯ שארית לבניכם אחריכם ולמה תתנו‬ ]‫ומסלה‬

֯ ‫לחיים‬ 2

‫ואל תמרו דברי יהוה‬ ׄ

֯ ‫מ[שפט שמעוני בני‬ ]◦‫לשא‬
֯ ‫[כם‬
֯ ] 3

890.
See the passage on motif complex and compositional techniques in ch. 3.3.
891.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” 86.
892.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” 89–90. See also Kampen, Wisdom Literature, 254.

- 209 -
A Comparison

The textual overlap is a running parallel given that the common motifs follow each other in
order, but the text in the two manuscripts are not identical. The textual parallel starts in the
second column of 4Q370 with the verb ‫“ מצא‬sprout.” While the simile of the human in 4Q185
ׄ ‫יצ‬
is singular, ‫“ יצמח‬he sprouts,” 4Q370 is plural, ‫מחו‬ ׄ “they sprout.” Both compositions move
from the flower motif to the shadow simile. It is reasonable to assume that the verb in 4Q370
is part of a flower or grass simile of some kind, but there is not enough space for the longer
exposition found in 4Q185. The beginning of the preceding line provides us with the text
‫“ רעתם בדעתם‬their evil, in their knowing.” It is difficult to determine whether the similes are a
continuation of this or not, but the antecedent of the suffix (3.m.pl.) in the simile appears to
be the same as in line 4. The notion of God’s compassion in line 6 is exclusive to 4Q370, and
the exhortations in line 8 move from the appeal to ‫[“ מפני פחדו‬let your heart tremble] before
his dread” to ‫נפ]שכם‬
֯ ‫“ ותשמח‬rejoice [your s]oul” without an exhortation to do his will, which
is found in 4Q185 1–2 ii 1.
There is a reference to God’s might and his wonders in both 4Q370 and 4Q185, and
the amount of space indicates that the text in the two manuscripts follow each other closely at
this point. The amount of text that is lost from the last part of line 5 to the beginning of line 6
corresponds well with the next gap compared to 4Q185. There is one variation, however.
While 4Q370 uses the Tetragrammaton, 4Q185 has ‫ אלהים‬in the corresponding phrase. There
is no obvious reason for this discrepancy as both scribes employ different labels regarding the
deity. Within 4Q370, there is an interchange between ‫ אל‬and ‫יהוה‬, while 4Q185 interchanges
between ‫ יהוה‬and ‫אלהים‬. There is no clear pattern regarding the use of names. The last textual
֯ ‫“ ֯אל ֯ת ׄמרו‬Do not rebel against the word[s of Yahweh.”
parallel is the phrase in line 9, ‫דבר]י יהוה‬
In 4Q185 there is an additional element that precedes this prohibition regarding the way of
life and the path [...]. In 4Q370, there is thus a stronger connection between the exhortation to
remember Exodus, dread, and the appeal not to rebel.
None of the three addressee formulas in 4Q185 have a parallel in the extant text of
4Q370. The last formula that introduces the prohibition ‫ואל תמרו‬
֯ is definitely not present, as
one can read the preceding word ‫משניכם‬. Due to space limits, it seems highly unlikely that
there is one in line 4. It is impossible to tell if there once was a formula at the end of line 6,
but the transition from poetry to prose is different. There is a good chance that 4Q370 does
not have the same type of address, and perhaps uses no speaker at all. Either these formal
elements are literary additions in 4Q185, or the scribe of 4Q370, if he did copy from 4Q185,
made selections according to his own style, borrowing the literary motifs and not the
addressee formulas. The formal differences do strengthen the educational features of 4Q185.

- 210 -
 There are thus deviations between the texts within the overlap, and one cannot simply
reconstruct 4Q370 in light of 4Q185. Thus, apart from line 6, the tendency is that 4Q185 is
longer than 4Q370. The poetic imagery in 4Q185 is much more elaborate, and the same
appears to be the issue with regard to the formal features. This could imply that 4Q185 is
dependent on 4Q370, and not the other way around. Nevertheless, one should keep in mind
that the lengthier text does not necessarily represent the copy.893 This needs to be seen in
relation to the larger context as well.894

The Nature of the Textual Overlap: Poetic and Paraenetic

The textual overlap between 4Q185 and 4Q370 comprises more than the motifs on human
finitude, and more than one motif complex. It ranges from poetic to paraenetic, and attests to
the associative bridge between the two themes, human finitude and rebellion. In my close
reading I have suggested that 4Q370 and 4Q185 are both examples of rewriting techniques,
as their rhetoric and language are grounded in the narrative traditions of the Pentateuch.
According to my analysis, the overlapping motif clusters are drawn from a wider motif
complex as a cognitive placeholder, such as can be found in Psalm 103, Job 14:1–2, and Isa
40–41.895 Hence, the overlapping poetic imagery is more than one scribe copying the other; it
also represents stock phraseology and imagery. The text in 4Q370 and 4Q185 appear to be
the result of free rendering, perhaps based upon memory and the associative mind of a scribe
who blends the work he is copying with similar motifs from similar motif complexes.
The appeal to be attentive and to remember in 4Q185 appears to rely more directly on
the historical psalms, such as Psalm 105, in combination with Psalm 106. But what about
4Q370? In the context of 4Q370, the exhortation to remember and not to rebel also evokes
the account of the history of sin, and the portrayal of human finitude is part of the same motif
pattern. There is an associative link between the depiction of humans as weak and the
accusations of rebellion. In Psalm 78, this link is made between a simile on human finitude
and the recalled Exodus:
He remembered that they were but flesh, a wind that passes and does not come
again. How often they rebelled against him in the wilderness and grieved him in the
desert! (Ps 78:39–40)

893.
There is a corresponding methodological issue in the discussion of the longer LXX Jeremiah in relation to
the shorter Jeremiah in MT; see Emanuel Tov, The Greek and Hebrew Bible: Collected Essays on the Septuagint
(Leiden: Brill, 1999), 315.
894.
The formal differences could be related to a particular “social setting.” On the function of designations in
instructions, see Tigchelaar, “The Addressees of 4QInstruction.”
895.
Both admonitions allude to a great variety of texts, and it seems unlikely that they would have close access
to all their source texts. According to Newsom the scribe of 4Q370 is citing from memory; Carol A. Newsom,
“Admonition on the Flood,” 87.

- 211 -
The association between the motif cluster on human finitude and human rebellion is also
found in prayers with penitential overtones, such as 1 Chr 29, as well as in the prayers of the
Hodayot, 1QHa 12. The acknowledgement of one’s weakness is an integral part of the
confessional language, and sayings such as “What am I?” are contrasted with doxologies and
statements about the might of God (Gerichtsdoxologie).896
The combination of poetry and prose must be further analysed in light of the larger
composition to see in what way the exhortation is connected with, and related to, the
preceding narrative.

6.2.2 History and Paraenesis

The Story of 4Q370

We will now turn to the larger context of the overlap in 4Q370. The first column is not
admonitory; rather it is narrative text that portrays human character in an absolutely negative
manner. The wording is close to the account of the flood in Gen 6–7 with its description of
the evil inclination of humanity, but 4Q370 also draws from traditions outside Genesis.897 The
“story of judgment” is partly narrated and partly put into the speech of Yahweh (‫)אמר יהוה‬.
The whole account starts off with a description of Yahweh’s gifts of abundance.898 The flood
generation was provided for and given food but immediately afterwards they were unable to
do according to the will of Yahweh.899 Therefore, he judged them and they died (i 6). Yahweh
is the one and only active agent within the narrative. The verbal phrases display the deity as
sovereign and powerful. He first offers his gifts: ‫יעט ׄר הרים‬
ׄ “He decked out the mountains,”
‫“ ֯שפך אכל‬he poured out food,” and ‫“ השביע כל נפש‬he satisfied all.” But soon after, he appears
as judge and destroys everything and everyone.900 The conclusion to the narrative is not
ultimate destruction, however, but covenant: ‫[“ ]ל[מען יזכור ברית‬so ]that he would remember
the covenant” (i 7).
In the following table, I have singled out verbs and nouns that serve to describe

896.
See the humilitation motif ‫“ מי בשר כזאת‬What is mortal compared to this?” which follows a reference to
‫“ גבורותיכה‬your mighty deeds” (1QHa XII 30).
897.
See the comparison in Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” 87. See also Feldman, “The
Reworking of the Biblical Flood Story in 4Q370.”
898.
The wording resembles Hymn to Creator, “crowning the hills with fruit, good food for every living being,”
(11QPs XXVI 6).
899.
See similar motifs in Deut 32:15 and Neh 9:25–26.
900.
Newsom notes that “the selection of details suggests that the author is interested in the flood as a story of
disobedience and punishment rather than, e.g. a story of the deliverance of the righteous,” Carol A. Newsom,
“Admonition on the Flood,” 88.

- 212 -
Yahweh and humans, and the instructions related to the past and the present generation. The
purpose of the table is to offer a statistical overview of the selections of history in the
preserved portions of the text, and to see how the instruction in column ii relates to the
preceding narrative.

The Narrative: A Story of Rebellion and Judgment

Col. i: Account of the past Col. ii: Admonition

relating to the “past” or
“present” generation
Verbs to describe ‫“ עשו הרע‬they did evil” (i 2) ׄ ‫יצ‬
‫מחו‬ ׄ “they sprout” (ii 5)
humans ‫“ יאמרו אל‬they rebelled against God” (i 2)
֯‫“ ֯ע ֯ברו‬they transgressed” (i 5)901

‫]מ[ת‬
֯ ֯‫“ ו֯ י‬they [di]ed” (i 6)902

Nouns and ‫“ דרכיהם‬their ways” (i 3) ‫“ עונם‬their guilt” (ii 1)

constructs that ֯ ‫“ ו ׄ ׄכמחשבות‬the inclination of their
‫יצ ֯ר לבם‬ ‫“ כצל ימיהם‬Like a shadow
describe humans heart” (i 3) are their days” (ii 5)

Verbs where ‫יעט ׄר הרים‬

ׄ “he decked the mountain” ‫“ יטהרם‬he will purify
Yahweh is agent ‫“ ֯שפך אכל‬he poured out food” them” (ii 2)
‫“ השביע כל נפש‬he satisfied all” (i 1)
‫“ ירחם‬he is
‫“ וישפטם‬he judged them” (i 3) compassionate” (ii 6)
‫“ ירעם עליהם בכח]ו‬he thundered against them
in [his] strength” (i 3)”

‫“ ֯אבדם‬he destroyed them” (i 5)

‫“ כלם‬he finished them” (i 5)

‫“ יזכור ברית‬he would remember the
covenant” (i 7)

901.
See Appendix II.
902.
This reading is very difficult on a material basis; see Appendix II.

- 213 -
 Instructions with ‫יוכלו וישבעו כל אשר עשה רצוני‬ ‫ [ מפני פחדו‬... ‫זכרו נפל]אות‬
nouns and
“eat and be satisfied, all who do “Remember the won[ders
constructs that
...] before his dread” (ii 7–
describe Yahweh
my will!” (i 1) 8)
[...‫נפ]שכם‬
֯ ‫“ תשמח‬Rejoice
֯‫“ ויברכו֯ את שמ ]קדש[י‬and they shall bless my your s[oul..]” (ii 8)
[holy] name” (i 2)
֯ ‫“ ֯אל ֯ת ׄמרו‬Do
[... ‫דבר]י יהוה‬
not rebel against the
words [of Yahweh]” (ii 9)

The account of the past generation appears to have an exemplary and didactic purpose. The
exhortations present ideal acts which mirror the acts of the narrative. On a literary level, there
are two kinds of addressees: the former generation (i 1–8), and the present addressees, who
are exhorted to remember (ii 7), to rejoice in their soul (ii 8), and not to rebel (ii 9). The
instruction that is embedded in the historical account would likely be received as an
instruction for the addressees of the admonition.903 This reflects a similar perspective towards
the past that is found in the confession of Ps 106:6, where the two generations merge: “the
fathers and we.”904 The history of rebellion is relevant for the present generation. The logic of
the narrative is that if you do evil, God will judge you: “All died; not even the gi[an]ts
escaped” (4Q370 i 6).
Both the narrative and the admonition are concerned with character. Although
statements about Yahweh and what he said and did occupy most of the narrative, human
character is at the centre of attention and as such plays a major role. Both the narrative and
the admonition have an interest in character. The narrative is thus important as motivation for
the admonition. The addressees of the exhortation should identify themselves with the wicked
generations of the past but act differently.
Repetitions and contrasting motifs form part of the rhetorical strategy in a manner that
resembles 4Q185. One example is found in the first column, where three verbal phrases
underline the provision offered by Yahweh. These are followed by a triple statement about the
sinful character of humans (4Q370 i 1–3). Thus, the narrative of 4Q370 is built up in a

903.
This blending of past and present is the basis for the keeping of the passover. The children are supposed to
ask for the meaning of the ritual, and the answer provided reflect a timeless perspective: “By the strength of
hand, Yahweh brought us out of Egypt” see Exod 13:11–16.
904.
Gärtner denotes this “eine generationsübergreifende Schuld,” see Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 197.

- 214 -
polarised way, and the description of Yahweh serves to describe human character by contrast.
Another example of the use of repetition as a contrast motif is found in the exhortation to
remember. In the second column, the addressees are exhorted to [.. ‫“ זכרו נפל]אות‬remember the
wond[ers],” which are acts of the covenant relationship, either blessings or curses. As a
backdrop, the narrative recounts that Yahweh put the rainbow [in the sky] “so that he would
remember (‫ )זכר‬the covenant” (4Q370 i 7). While God’s remembrance is connected with his
compassion and righteousness, the short memory of humans is connected with weakness and
a rebellious nature. The contrast between God and humans and their different characters is
fundamental for the narrative of the first column. Hence, in both admonitions, human
character is mainly presented alongside the contrast to God and his strength. Yet another
repetition is that of rebellion. The warning not to rebel against the words functions as a
positive antitype to the past generation:

“They did what I regard as evil,” says the Lord. They rebelled against God in their
d[esig]ns. So the Lord judged them according to a[l]l their practices, according to
the designs arising from their [evil] hearts. (i 2–3)

Again the motif of contrast is important: while the former generations ate and were satisfied
but did not bless his name, the present generation should “rejoice [your s]oul!” The former
generation rebelled, but the addressees should not “rebel.” Two of the exhortations in the
second column are damaged, but if one restores them on the basis of the parallel in 4Q185,
one could also add: “[Humble yourselves before] the might of our God” and “[let your heart
tremble] before his dread” (4Q370 i 7–8). These exhortations, if they correspond to 4Q185,
ask for the right attitude and the correct response. “They” were destroyed, but the present
generations may be restored.
The connection between the Exodus motif in col. ii 7 and the larger flood narrative
within the composition is not readily apparent. It is possible, however, that there is a narrative
logic in 4Q370. The flood story, at least in the version presented to us here, is a story of
judgment that connects rebellion with ingratitude. The rebellion of the wilderness is also
connected to ingratitude and judgment. God saved his people and provided for them in the
desert, but they soon forgot his acts of salvation (Pss 78:30–40, 106:14).905 The two
“narratives” appear to be blended in 4Q370.906

905.
See also Isa 54:9.
906.
According to Feldman, “the mighty waters” (i 4–5) is drawn from the song of the sea (Exod 15:10); see
Feldman, “The Reworking of the Biblical Flood Story in 4Q370,” 42. On “bewusste Auswahl” and paradigmatic
history, see Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 14.

- 215 -
Judgment and Restoration in the Admonitions

The first column of 4Q370 recounts a history of rebellion and judgment, but the progression
from this account to the preserved text that leads to the textual overlap with 4Q185 is unclear.
The second column is fragmentary, but the first lines refer to justification and purification (ii
2–3). According to Newsom, 4Q370 seems to draw from Ezek 36. Ezekiel recalls the history
of Israel as one “in which the people defiled the land through their sinful deeds, profaning the
holy name and provoking Yahweh’s wrath and judgment.”907 The function of purification in
4Q370 does have affinities with Ezekiel. According to Ezekiel, the solution to the defilement
of the people is that God interferes: “I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and you shall be
clean from all your uncleannesses, and from all your idols I will cleanse you” (Ezek 36:25).
The preserved text in column ii is rather explicit on “their” iniquity (‫)עון‬: 908

4Q370 1 ii

]‫מעון ידרשו מ‬ 1
]‫יצדיק יהוה ש‬ 2
] ‫ויטהרם מעונם‬ 3
‫רעתם בדעתם בי]ן‬ 4

1 Because of their iniquity, they will seek[

2 Yahweh will justify[
3 And he will purify them from their iniquity[
4 Their evil in knowing betw[een

The human initiative or response in this sequence is unclear, but the backdrop presents a story
of greed and ingratitude. In 4Q370, God is described as the provider of life-giving gifts. As
they are unable to respond with gratitude and blessing, God enters into judgment. Human
character and nature therefore offer a great paradox within the narrative. The rebellion against
God is according to human character, but also fundamentally against its conditions for life.
Psalm 78 has a similar paradox: “And they ate and were well filled, for he gave them what
they craved. But before they had satisfied their craving, while the food was still in their
mouths, the anger of God rose against them” (Ps 78:29–31). Further, in Ps 78:34–38, the

907.
Carol A. Newsom, “Admonition on the Flood,” 89.
908.
See Jer 33:8, Ps 51:4 and the petitioner in Plea for Deliverance (11QPs) “purify me from my iniquities”
(XIX 14).

- 216 -
history is summarised as follows:

When he killed them, they sought (‫ )דרשוהו‬for him; they repented and sought God
earnestly. They remembered that God was their rock, the Most High God their
redeemer. But they flattered him with their mouths; they lied to him with their
tongues. Their heart was not steadfast toward him; they were not true to his covenant.
Yet he, being compassionate (‫)רחום‬, forgave their iniquity, and did not destroy them.
(Ps 78:34–38)

The extant text at the top of the second column in 4Q370 could be interpreted as a similar
repentance motif. The verb ‫“ דרש‬to seek” can indicate repentance, and the immediate context
implies that Yahweh is the object of the seeking in col. ii 1. Unfortunately, these phrases in
4Q370 are difficult to make sense of but they do reflect accusation and self-examination,
similar to CD I 8–9:

They considered their iniquity (‫ )עונם‬and they knew that they were guilty men,
and had been like the blind and like those groping for the way twenty years. But God
considered their deeds, that they had sought (‫ )דרשוהו‬him with a whole heart.
(CD I 8–9)

In CD, the awareness of one’s iniquity and the effort of seeking God pay off. In 4Q370, lines
2–3 reflect Yahweh’s response: “Yahweh will justify” and “he will purify them from their
iniquity.”909 This is further hinted at in col. ii 6, which refers to the compassion (‫ )רחם‬of God.
In 4Q370 ii 4, there appears to be an accusation related their knowledge (‫)דעת‬. “They”
(3.m.pl.) are most likely the same as referred to in the similes that follow: “They sprout and
like a shadow are their days upon the earth” (4Q370 ii 5).
While 4Q370, at least in the larger context, is fairly explicit regarding accusation and
repentance, 4Q185 is not. This section in 4Q370 is of special importance, as it is found in the
immediate context of the passage where there is a textual overlap with 4Q185. However,
there is no way to determine whether or not the corresponding passages have the same
function in 4Q185. It is notable that 4Q185 does not refer to ‫ רחם‬in the same context. 4Q185
makes no mention of human iniquity, although the word “pure” is found in the first preserved
parts (4Q185 i 4). It is not clear what the term ‫“ טהור‬pure” signifies in 4Q185, but in the light

909.
See the brief discussion in Dorothy M. Peters, Noah Traditions in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Conversations and
Controversies of Antiquity (ed. Judith Newman, EJL 26; Atlanta: SBL, 2008), 147–148. “Repentance in the
context of covenant is the only way to escape implied future judgment.” In addition to Ezekiel, Peters also
mentions a link with 4Q508, Festival Prayers.

- 217 -
of 4Q370 the connection with judgment and restoration seems probable.910 Moreover, the
judgment scene in 4Q185 involves flaming fire, which could have a purifying function (cf.
Mal 3:2–3 and Ezek 22:17–20). The addressees in 4Q185 are not necessarily accused of
defilement, but the admonition does recall the history of sin by evoking the scene in the
wilderness: ‫“ אל תמרו‬Do not rebel” (ii 3). In Ezekiel, this scene is connected with
defilement.911 Whether or not this is the case in 4Q185, the instruction exhorts the addressees
to humble themselves. Hence, both 4Q370 and 4Q185 imply that purification and humility
are needed in order to escape God’s judgments. Thus, the similes appear to have a similar
function in both admonitions: to expound the threat of judgment, although 4Q370 seems to be
more optimistic compared with the repeated “no hope” in 4Q185.

6.2.3 Conclusion

What can we learn from this comparison? 4Q370 does not have a didactic framework, but the
remembrance or rehearsal of history has a didactic function in 4Q370. In the flood account in
4Q370, the people are depicted as greedy and rebellious (i 1–2). 4Q370 clearly connects
rebellious nature with greed and lack of consideration. 4Q370 asserts that Yahweh destroys
those who rebel, and exhorts the addressee to remember and not rebel against God’s words.
4Q185 does not have a narrative in the preserved text, but the exhortations to remember and
not to rebel correspond with 4Q370. In both compositions, to remember is associated with a
specific behaviour, as if remembrance conveys knowledge about God’s will. In 4Q370, the
imagery about human finitude evokes the story of the unfaithful people. This remains subtle
in 4Q185, but the degrading imagery suggests that there is also a story in the background for
this admonition; not necessarily the story of 4Q370, but the meta story of rebellion.

910.
See discussion in ch. 3.
911.
A similar connection with defilement and judgment in the wilderness is found in CD III 6.

- 218 -
6.3 Didactic Discourses and History of Rebellion: Psalms 78, 106, and Deut 32

The overarching question for this chapter is: in what way can 4Q185 be read as a lesson on
history? In order to get a better idea of the relevance of this recollection of history for the
transmission of knowledge in 4Q185, I will now take a closer look at compositions that make
a connection with history of rebellion, remembrance, and paraenesis/learning.
The accusation of past generations for forgetting and not remembering is recurrent in
biblical traditions (e.g. Isa 17:10; Deut 9:7). Rebellion provokes Yahweh’s anger, which leads
to another integral part of the stories, where the acts of wrath and judgment turn again
towards mercy.912 According to Williamson, historical recollections are a vehicle for
confession and the ground on which to base an appeal for mercy.913 In my close reading of
4Q185, I have suggested that 4Q185 juxtaposes text from Psalms 105 and 106 in the
exhortation to remember Egypt. I have also noted that there are similarities with Psalm 78.
4Q185 does exhort its addressees to listen, learn, and remember Egypt. I have also suggested
that the exhortation not to rebel against Yahweh’s words evokes the Exodus of wrath and the
rebellion in the desert.914 In the following, I shall examine how compositions that recall
stories of rebellion may shed light upon the didacticism of 4Q185.

6.3.1 Historical Summaries: Rebellion and Lack of Knowledge

The instructions of 4Q185 can be read as mirror to the recalled history found in Psalm 106.
Where Psalm 106 claims that they did not consider and remember, but rebelled, 4Q185
exhorts: Consider, remember and do not rebel! Psalm 106 is a historical psalm, but it is not
formally didactic; rather, it is denoted as a confessional psalm or even a penitential prayer.915
The psalm contains accusations of the past generation for not remembering and not knowing.
In the Hebrew psalter, Psalm 106 is paired with another historical psalm, Psalm 105. Where
Psalm 105 presents the story as the history of salvation, Psalm 106 recalls the past as a
history of sin.916 The disobedience of the past is connected with the lack of an active
awareness: they did not consider (‫ )שכל‬and did not remember (‫)זכר‬, but they rebelled (‫)מרה‬,
forgot (‫ )שכח‬and were greedy (‫( )אוה‬Ps 106:7–14).917 After introductory praise there is a

912.
This is commonly referred to either as “history of sin” or “salvation history.”
913.
H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah (WBC 16; Waco: Word Books, 1985), 307.
914.
See ch. 3.3.
915.
Leslie C. Allen, Psalms 101–150 (WBC 21; Dallas: Word Books, 1983), 44.
916.
On the reception of historical traditions in Psalms 105 and 106; see Klein, Geschichte und Gebet, 216–217.
917.
Mark Boda argues that Psalm 106 is influenced by Priestly or Ezekilian circles, and also Deuteronomistic
traditions, as found in the wilderness tradition in Ezek 20; Boda, Praying the Tradition, 66–67, 196.

- 219 -
rhetorical question: ‫“ מי ימלל גבורות יהוה‬Who can utter the mighty deeds of Yahweh?” (Ps
106:2). The answer is implied within a beatitude, saying: ‫אשרי שמרי משפט עשה צדקה בכל־עת‬
“Happy are those who hold on to justice and do righteousness at all times” (Ps 106:3).918 In
Psalm 106, the beatitude is almost programmatic or strategic in a sense, preparing the
confession and implying a realisation of the plea in the subsequent verse. It seeks to enact
what the psalmist prays for. In the psalm, Yahweh is thus strategically reminded of his mercy
before the confession of sin: ‫“ חטאנו עם־אבותינו‬Both we and our ancestors have sinned” (Ps
106:6).
In his book Praying the Tradition, Boda studies the historical recital of Neh 9. He
presents the following “historiographic model” that reflects the typical sequence of history in
the biblical summaries:919

1. Yahweh’s blessing
2. Israel’s disobedience
3. Judgment
4. Cry for mercy
5. Deliverance

This historiographic model captures the pattern found in the historical summaries that
precede confessional prayer. Psalm 106 is also a good example of this model. As a
confessional psalm, it is both an expression of the fourth part, the “cry for mercy,” as well as
reflecting an interpretation of the historical succession of events that correspond to the
historiographic model presented above. This perception of history is not confined to the
confessions and penitential prayers, and is clearly in the background in 4Q370 as well.
4Q370 reflects the three initial sequences: blessing, ingratitude (disobedience), and judgment.
There is no cry for mercy, but the expected turn from judgment to restoration that is put in
motion by the cry for mercy may be found, at least to some extent, within the reference to
“seeking” (4Q370 1 ii 1) and also in the notion of compassion. Hence, the compositions do
reflect some aspects of the final point, deliverance. In 4Q185 there is no narrative, and thus
no account of an initial blessing or disobedience. The description of judgment and the
exhortations, however, imply disobedience as a theme of relevance to the admonition. The
appeal to remember the wonders and signs (ii 14) certainly resembles both the recollection of

918.
The beatitude in Psalm 106 has affinities with Isa 56:1–2, where a beatitude saying is part of an instruction
to do justice and to keep the sabbath. The happy ones are presented as the perfect opposites of the blind and
unfaithful people (Isa 56:10, 58:13).
919.
The structure of the penitential prayer in Neh 9:26–31 corresponds to this model; see Boda, Praying the
Tradition, 81. See also Joseph Blenkinsopp, Ezra–Nehemiah: A Commentary, Old Testament Library (London:
SCM, 1989), 306.

- 220 -
Exodus in the historical psalms, and also the homiletic formulations of Deuteronomy, but it
does not signify a human response. According to my reading, the most evident connection
with the historiographic model is the shift within 4Q185 from pessimism and implied pleas (i
12–14) to the explicit mention of salvation (ii 1). To humble oneself before God’s might
could be interpreted as a petition for deliverance. There is an expected logic within the
motifs of humiliation, which is that Yahweh is a God who ultimately turns to his people in
order to rescue and restore them. In 4Q185, there is an additional didactic framework which
shapes the idea of history. A parallel to this is found in Deut 32 and Psalm 78, in which the
accusations are presented as a result of not remembering, forgetting and not knowing. The
main difference between the instructions and the prayers is that of the addressees. While the
confessions seek to turn Yahweh, the instructions seek to turn people.

6.3.2 Didactic Framework and History in Deut 32, Psalm 78, 4Q370, and
4Q185

In instructions on repentance, the recollection of history serves as an example and motivates

the petitioner to confess or to be humble, rather than as in the confessional prayer itself,
where God is reminded of his deeds in the past in order for him to act as redeemer. At some
level, both the communal confessions and instructions are “didactic,” as they shape the
participants of the prayer by enforcing knowledge about themselves and knowledge about
their God. This knowledge is vehicled by the historical traditions. The confessions and the
instructions both convey a message to be rehearsed in order to know and learn. In order to
compare “instructional texts” that rely on the typology of history, I have reshaped the model
above:

1. Didactic features
a) Didactic framework: listen to me/learn from me
b) Transmission
2. Accusations
a) You forgot/did not consider/did not remember
b) blessing and greed
3. Judgment (present threat/recalled history)
4. Instructions on repentance/remembrance/praise
5. Promise: Salvation/blessing

- 221 -
Table: “History in didactic compositions” in Deut 32, Psalm 78, and 4Q370/4Q185

Deut 32 Psalm 78 4Q370 4Q185

Didactic “Give ear, O “Give ear, O my – “pay attention
opening heavens, and I will people, to my (‫ )שכל‬to me,
speak” (v. 1) “May teaching” (vv. 1–2) simple ones.”
my teaching drop (i 14)
like the rain” (v. 2) “Listen to me, my
children” (ii 3)
Instructions Remember “days “we will tell to the Remember Remember the
concerning of old” (v. 7) coming generation the won[ders wonders he did
knowledge the glorious deeds of (1 ii 7) (i 14–15)
and history Yahweh” (vv. 3–4)
‫שכל‬, ‫זכר‬ your second? “And he can
(‫)משניכם‬ cause his
Transmission (1 ii 9) offspring to
of knowledge/ possess it (f.sg.)”
Torah (ii 14–15)

Accusations/ there is no ‫לא זכרו‬ “evil in degrading similes

lack of understanding in “They did not knowing” (ii on humans
knowledge them (v. 6) remember” (v. 42) 4) (i 10–13)
‫“ וישכחו‬They forgot”
You forgot (v. 18) (v. 11) “simple ones”
‫שכח‬ ‫“ סורר ומרה‬stubborn (i 14)
and rebellious” (v. 8)
(See also vv. 17, 40,
56)
Blessing and vv. 10–15 (vv.12–16, vv. 23– i 1–2 –
greed 29, vv. 30–31)
Judgment with “For a fire is “when Yahweh i 3–5 “according to his
- wrath/fire kindled by my heard, he was full of wrath” (i 5)
and anger, and burns to rage; a fire was
- plagues and the depths of kindled against Judgment with
rebuke Sheol” (v. 22) Jacob” (v. 21) flaming fire (i 8–
9)
(plagues, vv. 23–
24) ten times (i 6) ?
Repentance: implied (vv. 34–35) implied? (ii i 14
seeking God 8)
Promise and (vv. 39–43) implied (vv. 68–72) implied? (ii ii 13
deliverance 3)

What we see in this table is that the historical elements in the selected textual passages
resonate with the historiographic model presented by Boda. However, compared with some
of the historical summaries, as given in Neh 9 and Psalm 106, there is a much more explicit

- 222 -
didactic setting, and thus also an emphasis upon the transmission of the history involved.
While there is no didactic framework in the extant text of 4Q370, the didactic framework is
strong in Deut 32, Psalm 78, and 4Q185.
The framing of the instructions does evoke the setting of wisdom literature such as
Proverbs, where advice and learning are communicated through the speech of a parent to his
or her child, or an instructor to a student. The didactic openings found in Deut 32, Psalm 78,
and 4Q185 underline the modes of the speeches; there is something to be learned. The series
of exhortations in 4Q185 is introduced with an appeal: “an pay attention to me, simple ones”
(i 13b). The introductory formulas in Deut 32 and Psalm 78 are appeals to incline the ear.920 In
Deut 32:6, the people are accused of being foolish (‫ )נבל‬and unwise (‫)לא חכם‬. They forgot
(‫ )שכח‬God who made them (Deut 32:18).921 In Psalm 78, the father generation is accused of
being stubborn (‫ )סרר‬and rebellious (‫( )מרה‬Ps 78:8); for this reason, the instructor’s command
to teach is ‫“ למען ידעו‬so that they will know” (Ps 78:6). To “know” means to not forget and to
keep (‫ )שמר‬the law of the covenant (Ps 78:7, 10). The “knowledge” in both Deut 32 and
Psalm 78 relates to both history and law.
Transmission is thus of importance to both speeches. The emphasis on transmission is
central in Ps 78:5–6. A decree (‫ )עדות‬and a law (‫ )תורה‬were given to Jacob and Israel (Ps 78:5)
and need to be taught further.922 Witte argues that verse 5 alludes to the Torah and that
“Remembering God’s deed implies keeping his commandments, just as observing these
commandments ensures the remembrance of history.”923 The transmission of history is also
crucial in Deuteronomy. While the specific wording of the recalled history in Deut 32 stands
out from the rest of Deuteronomy, the general idea that is depicted in the song reflects typical
concepts from Deuteronomy.924 In Deut 11, the signs and works in Egypt are referred to as an
instruction or rebuke (‫)מוסר‬, and these are exemplified by the plagues, the sea-wonder, and
the execution of judgment in the desert (Deut 11:2–7). All are terrifying events and reminders
of the wrath of God. This is what one should commemorate:

Remember and do not forget how you provoked Yahweh your God to wrath in the
wilderness; you have been rebellious against Yahweh from the day you came out of

920.
The introductory formula is recurrent in Proverbs (Prov 4:20, 5:1). Gärtner notes that this “Höraufruf,”
found in both Psalm 78 and Deut 32, has parallels within prophetic literature (Isa 1:2, 55:3) as well as late
wisdom, Prov 3:1 and 4:1; see Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 52.
921.
According to Deut 4, it is the possession of the law that makes the people knowledgeable.
922.
“Weisung und Ordnung” hint at the law given at Sinai; see Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 55.
923.
Witte, “History and Historiography in Psalm 78,” 27.
924.
Finsterbusch suggests that the song in Deut 32:2–43 is the one that according to Deut 31:19–22 should be
written and taught and “put in their mouth” in order to be recited in situations of distress. See Karin
Finsterbusch, Weisung für Israel: Studien zu religiösem Lehren und Lernen im Deuteronomium und in seinem
Umfeld (FAT 44; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005), 298–99.

- 223 -
 the land of Egypt until you came to this place. (Deut 9:7)

In Deuteronomy, historical remembrance serves as a warning but also a promise. The

blessings are conditional and depend upon the following fulfilment: If you keep the law, you
will live long in the land (Deut 11:8). Therefore, you shall teach it to your children (Deut
11:19). In Deut 32 there is no instruction on repentance. It is not the people who turn towards
God, but the shift is made solely on the basis of God’s own initiative.925
Psalm 78 depicts a salvation history, but there is also strong emphasis on the sin of the
people and their constant rebellion.926 The consequence of rebellion is judgment, which means
destruction, fear, and a short lifetime. Apparently, this rebuke leads to reconciliation: “When
he killed them, they sought for him (‫ ;)דרשוהו‬they repented and sought God earnestly. They
remembered (‫ )ויזכרו‬that God was their rock, the Most High God their redeemer” (Ps 78:34–
35). Attempts at repentance are implied within the recalled history, but the effort of seeking
God is soon connected with lies and deceit (Ps 78:36). Thus, 4Q185 and perhaps also 4Q370
have a slightly stronger emphasis upon the perspective of human strategies. In 4Q185 the
instructor exhorts the addressees to humble themselves, tremble, and rejoice in order to
experience mercy and deliverance.

6.3.3 Summary

4Q185 and 4Q370 reflect biblical motif clusters on the history of sin, such as found in Deut
32 and Psalms 78 and 106. All these texts provide examples where history offers a typology
and constitutes a paradigm for identity.927 It is the lack of knowledge and ability to remember
the deeds of Yahweh that result in rebellion and judgment (Deut 32:6; Pss 78:11, 42, and
106:6–7). The knowledge of God’s teachings and his deeds need to be passed on so that
future generations will “not forget,” and thus not rebel. Those who remember are those who
keep his commandments (Ps 78:7). The issue of forgetting and not remembering is mainly
understood as taking place in an oral/aural culture. It is not a book that has been forgotten,
but a story that should be taught further.928 The “law” is thus embedded in the stories about

925.
Boda distinguishes between the “patience-model” and the “discipline-model,” Boda, Praying the Tradition,
83.
926.
Hossfeld describes the description of events in Psalm 78 as a history in poetic refraction. The recapitulation
of history that dominated the psalm, recalls Ezek 20, but there is also a hopeful prospect towards the end; see
Hossfeld et al., Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100, 286–87.
927.
On the paradigmatic function of history “Das geschichtliche Credo” in Psalms 78, 105 and 106, 135 and
136; see Gärtner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 244.
928.
The finding of the scroll in 2 Kgs 22:8 provides an exception.

- 224 -
God’s deeds. It is this story that is evoked in 4Q370 and 4Q185.
According to my reading, 4Q185 draws on a historiographic model found in Psalms
78 and 106. The didactic framework of history makes a stronger connection with Psalm 78
and Deut 32. In the didactic texts, history serves to instruct and remind the people of their
own sin and God’s judgments in the past. In Psalm 106, however, the appeal to history is also
part of a strategy to turn God’s wrath away.
This account of history, and the implied strategy in Psalms 78 and 106, are
overlapping, and 4Q185 resembles them both. Both psalms have a lesson to be learned:
judgment is caused by rebellion and can be turned by seeking God (Ps 78:34). The people
shall remember his acts of mercy, his gifts, and shall wait for God’s advice (Ps 106:13).

6.4 Conclusion

It is time to return to 4Q185. What story is evoked, and what is its function? Where 4Q370
preserves a connection between human rebellion and historical recollection, the extant text of
4Q185 does not retell a history of sin. Nevertheless, the exhortations in 4Q185 evoke the
stories where the father generations are depicted as a rebellious people who forgot. In 4Q185,
remembrance appears to be motivated by both fear and rejoicing. Alongside the association
of Yahweh with destructive wrath, there is a merciful and compassionate God who offers
everlasting salvation. The two realities are seen both within the flood and the Exodus
narratives. The textual overlap between 4Q185 and 4Q370 strengthens the connection in
4Q185 between learning and repentance on one hand, and the act of remembering God’s
deeds on the other. In 4Q185, knowledge is something to pass on to future generations in
order for them to have life. The recalled history plays a double role, as it something that
should be considered in order for the people to be knowledgeable, but it is also part of a
human strategy to turn God’s wrath into mercies. The recollection of past events reminds of
Yahweh’s ability to both rescue and destroy (ii 10–11). Hence, one must take care to walk in
the correct path: the one that leads to life.
4Q185 thus appears to be more than a lesson on the traditions of the past. The
teaching of the instructor is deeply connected with behaviour. Thus to “know” is not an
intellectual activity, but is practically oriented and provides a means to do God’s will. Those
who lack knowledge of history also lack knowledge of God’s law and his will. To remember
the wonders of God means to remember not only God’s saving acts but also one’s tendency
towards rebellion, and consequently God’s acts of judgment. Hence, the history recalled
serves as a warning and becomes knowledge for life. When the instructor exhorts the

- 225 -
addressees to humble themselves before God’s might, it means to realise the might of God
and to reorient themselves towards life. The alternative way of life leads to death. To forget,
or not to remember, represents displacement: those who forget lose track of themselves and
of God. A move must be made, either by the people, to seek God so that he can forgive and
restore, or by God, which means destruction. The instructor of 4Q185 points to the way of
life, but warns against the threats that can make one deviate from it. It is only within the
restored covenant relationship that life is secured. When Jacob and Isaac are mentioned in
this admonition, there could be a connection with Lev 26:45, which states that God
remembers the covenant with the patriarchs. Scholars have speculated about the role of Jacob
and Isaac in the composition and evaluated the inclusion of the patriarchs as a development
of the wisdom literature.929 I suggest that there is another explanation found in the historical
traditions connected to the penitential prayer. As we have seen, there is a close relation
between the two, and Psalm 106 might function as an example. This will be examined further
in the following chapter.

929.
Goff, Discerning Wisdom, 144.

- 226 -
7. Repentance, Restoration, and Torah in 4Q504 and 4Q185

Search for yourself a way of life and a path[…] and a remnant for your children after
you. Why would you give your[self] to Sheo[l … j]udgment. Listen to me, my
children, do not rebel against the words of Yahweh. [And] do not deviate[ … J]acob,
or the path he instructed for Isaac (4Q185 1–2 ii 1–4)

4Q185 promotes a humble attitude represented by trembling, obedience, and praise in order
to escape judgment and to experience restoration. The words of Yahweh and his ways play a
dominant role in this part: they offer life. In this regard, the admonition shares the strategies
found in the petitionary prayers and takes part in a scriptural discourse on repentance and
Torah piety. The idea that repentance may resolve situations of despair and hopelessness
before the wrath of God is widely attested to in the Second Temple literature. 4QWords of the
Luminaries (4Q504) is one example. This composition, commonly labelled a liturgical text
and a prayer, shares some of the sapiential features found in 4Q185. 4Q504 makes a
connection between human sin, knowledge, and plea for strength in its collection of prayers.
Moreover, the idea of restoration is associated with strength, knowledge, and the gift of
Torah. The manuscript of 4Q504 predates 4Q185, and like 4Q185, the composition is
considered to be non-sectarian.930 4Q185 is not a prayer nor is it a liturgy, and so the two
compositions are normally not treated under one cohesive headline. This is an unfortunate
effect of strict categorical thinking. Both compositions reveal strategies to turn God’s wrath
into acts of mercies. The argument of this chapter is that 4Q185 adopts its strategies from the
framework of the penitential prayers and addresses the current issues with corresponding
strategies.931

7.1 Mapping the Literary Motifs of Repentance and Restoration

The penitential prayer constitutes a literary genre, but the idea of repentance, one of its
primary features, is a broad phenomenon within the Hebrew Bible and in Second Temple
literature in general.932 The idea is not alien to the sapiential literature, and is found in Sirach

930.
Esther G. Chazon, “Is Divei Ha-me’orot a Sectarian Prayer?,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of
Research (ed. Devorah Dimant and Uriel Rappaport; STDJ 10; Leiden: Brill, 1992).
931.
See “Cultic prayer” in James L. Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation of Divine Justice: The Doxologies of Amos
and Related Texts in the Old Testament (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1975), 107.
932.
Just as we have seen with the sapiential literature, the Qumran material challenges the form critical way of
thinking in strict categories. On the demarcation of penitential prayer; see the discussion in Judith H. Newman,
“The Form and Setting of the Prayer in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2: The
Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney

- 227 -
(e.g. Sir 18, 39:5).933 We have also seen how remembrance and confession belong together in
Psalm 106, and that the recollection of history in 4Q185 is similar to the historical psalms
(ch. 6). According to Werline, the first example of a penitential prayer is Ezra 9.934 The people
are suffering from distress, and the prayer is a key component in the resolution of their
situation. The idea of repentance is rooted in Deuteronomy,935 but there are also priestly and
Ezekilian influences in the later penitential prayers.936 The working definition of penitential
prayer as a genre is suggested by Werline as follows:

Penitential prayer is a direct address to God in which an individual, a group, or an

individual on behalf of a group confesses sins and petitions for forgiveness as an act
of repentance.937

I use the term ‘repentance’ in a broad sense to refer to the human effort to retrieve
God’s favour and thus understand repentance to be more than just an act of confession.
Repentance may also be implied by the act of humbling oneself before God, seeking God or
his will, and returning to God’s way. The laws of the Pentateuch prescribe confession and a
penalty offering in order to make amends for one’s sin (Lev 5:5, 16:21; Num 5:5–7). In the
historical texts, repentance is represented through confession and prayer, and is performed in
order to turn God’s wrath away and to escape God’s punishments (Ezra 9; Neh 9).938 The
examples of penitential prayers found in Qumran reflect the general blend of traditions
already seen in Ezra.939 4Q185 and 4Q504 blend various features of repentance, but the stories

A. Werline; EJL 22: Brill: Leiden, 2007). Eileen Schuller, “Afterword,” in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2: The
Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney
A. Werline; EJL 22; Brill: Leiden, 2007).
933.
See the comparison of prayers in Daniel 9 and Baruch 1–3 in Rodney Alan Werline, “Reflections on
Penitential Prayer: Definition and Form,” in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2. The Development of Penitential
Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline; EJL 22; Brill:
Leiden, 2007), 65–108.
934.
On the development of penitential prayers within the historical era 586 B.C.E.–70 C.E.; see Werline, The
Development of a Religious Institution.
935.
Samuel E. Balentine, “‘I was Ready to be Sought out by Those who did not ask’,” in Seeking the Favor of
God, vol. 1: The Origin of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and
Rodney A. Werline; EJL 21; Atlanta: SBL, 2006), 13.
936.
Boda, Praying the Tradition, 72–73. See also Weyde, who has argued convincingly for the priestly
influence in Ezra 9; Karl William Weyde, “Ezra’s Penitential Prayer: Priestly Vocabulary and Concepts in Ezra
9,” in Houses Full of All Good Things: Essays in Memory of Timo Veijola (ed. Juha Pakkala and Martti
Nissinen; PFES; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008).
937.
Werline, “Reflections on Penitential Prayer: Definition and Form,” 209. The last phrase, “as an act of
repentance,” is an addition to his earlier definition in the book; Werline, The Development of a Religious
Institution.
938.
It should be noted that Ezra is only preserved in one copy (4QEzra) and the book of Nehemiah is not
among the Qumran findings.
939.
On the significance of repentance for the member of the community; see Bilhah Nitzan, “Repentance in the
Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years (ed. Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam;
Leiden: Brill, 1999).

- 228 -
of the Pentateuch and its covenant theology appear to be central. In the following section, I
will present motifs found in 4Q185 and 4Q504 that link these compositions to the scriptural
traditions on repentance and restoration. I do not necessarily suggest intertextual linkage
between 4Q185 and the selected textual references, but I do think that 4Q185 reflects
commonalities with this larger literary topos of repentance.

7.1.1 Instruction on Repentance

The idea that God’s wrath can be turned by acts of repentance is focal in Deuteronomy, where
Moses instructs the people to repent. Deut 4:28 predicts future apostasy in the land, and the
solution is to “seek and find” (‫ בקש‬and ‫)מצא‬:

From there you will seek Yahweh your God, and you will find him if you search
after him with all your heart and soul. In your distress, when all these things have
happened to you in time to come, you will return to Yahweh your God and heed
him. (Deut 4:29–30)

According to Weinfeld, the “seek and find” motif in Deut 4 should be interpreted in light of a
theology of repentance, and he further connects this repentance theology to the penitential
prayer.940 Werline takes this a step further, suggesting that the terms ‫בקש‬, ‫שוב‬, and ‫דרש‬
metaphorically denote repentance.941 “Seeking” may express the human initiative to turn
towards God; hence, in my opinion it makes good sense to understand the instruction to
“seek” as an instruction to repent. Repentance is a spiritual act and a passionate plea.
According to Deuteronomy, this seeking should done wholeheartedly, “with all your heart
and with all your soul” (Deut 4:29 and 30:2). The emphasis on seeking may have similar
connotations in 4Q185. The admonition makes use of the “seek and find” motif twice (i 12, ii
11–12), and furthermore encourages the addressees to seek out the way of life (ii 1–2). There
is something that can be sought out, and the rewards are associated with mercy and salvation
(ii 13).

940.
Weinfeld argues that Deut 4 reflects “principal ideas of the synagogical liturgy” that became “crystallised in
the Second Temple period.” See Weinfeld, Deuteronomy 1–11: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary, 217–221. Scholars have suggested that Deut 4:1–40 is of a later provenance than its current
context; see Karin Finsterbusch, Deuteronomium: Eine Einführung (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
2012), 66–67.
941.
“Seek and find” motifs are found with penitential overtone in prophetic instructions as well. In Isaiah, “seek
and find” is repeated as a contrast motif: “Seek Yahweh while he may be found” (Isa 55:6–7, 58:99). The people
are rejected because they did not seek (Isa 65:1). See also Jer 29:10–13. According to Werline, later penitential
prayers reproduce phraseology found in Deuteronomy; see Werline, The Development of a Religious Institution,
30. On “Deuteronomistic phraseology;” see Appendix A in Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic
School.

- 229 -
 In the books of Kings, and even more in Chronicles, the verb ‫“ כנע‬to humble”
becomes one of the primary metaphors for repentance.942 In Chronicles, the ideal kings are
those who humble themselves (‫ )כנע‬before God.943 In the account of the dedication of the
temple in 2 Chr 6–7, the knowledgeable king Solomon performs a series of petitions that
reminds and instructs the deity to hear and forgive. The prayer is an example of humility, as it
acknowledges both the sin of the people and the might of God.

When heaven is shut up and there is no rain because they have sinned against you,
and then they pray toward this place, confess your name, and turn from their sin,
because you oppressed them (‫)תענם‬, may you hear in heaven, forgive the sin of your
servants, your people Israel, when you teach them the good way in which they should
walk … May you hear from heaven, your dwelling place, forgive, and render
to all whose heart you know, according to all their ways, for only you know the
human heart. (2 Chr 6:26–27b, 30)

The prayer implies that God is expected to be moved by prayer, confession, and repentance.
God’s response to the prayer of Solomon is a confirmation of Solomon’s strategy, as it is
implicitly used as a model for proper behaviour:

If my people who are called by my name humble themselves (‫)ויכנעו‬, pray, seek my
face, and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive
their sin and heal their land. (2 Chr 7:14)

Both the prayer of Solomon and God’s response to it integrate elements of instruction; thus
both Solomon and the deity gives instruction in correct repentance. I have argued that 4Q185
does something of the same. The exhortation in 4Q185 are close to the overall ideas in 2 Chr
6–7. One common feature is the way metaphor, which serves to describe both the current
problem and the solution to it. Just as Solomon’s prayer refers to a good way that is taught,
the instructor points to a “way of life” (ii 1). The themes of the third column in 4Q185, which
elaborates on God’s knowledge of the human heart and innermost parts (iii 11–15), are also
strikingly similar to Solomon’s prayer, as the Chronicler stresses that Yahweh knows their
ways and their hearts (2 Chr 6:26–27).
Japhet summarises the way from distress to salvation in Solomon’s prayer as:

942.
See Werline, The Development of a Religious Institution, 60. In 1–2 Kings, the act of humbling oneself is
connected with tearing of clothes and weeping (1 Kgs 8:47–48). God heard their prayer because they humbled
their hearts (2 Kgs 22:19).
943.
Rehoboam and Hezekiah humbled themselves in order to avert God’s wrath (2 Chr 12:6–7, 32:26). The
Chronicler evaluated the kings according to whether or not they humbled themselves before God. See also 2 Chr
33:23.

- 230 -
“repentance, prayer, return to virtue–leading to God’s response, forgiveness, and
restoration.”944 I argue that a similar movement from distress to salvation is reflected in
4Q185. The series of exhortations ends with a call to rejoice one’s soul according to God’s
good loving-kindness (ii 1). In 4Q185 restoration is associated with walking in a certain way,
the way of the fathers, Jacob and Isaac. The reference to Jacob and Isaac in this context (ii 4)
can be influenced by Lev 26, where repentance is based on a covenant with the fathers:
Jacob, Isaac, and Abraham. Lev 26 appears to be a key text for the penitential prayers, as it
presents blessings, curses, and the prescription for restoration.945

If then their uncircumcised heart is humbled (‫ )יכנע‬and they make amends for their
iniquity, then will I remember my covenant with Jacob; I will remember also my
covenant with Isaac and also my covenant with Abraham, and I will remember the
land. (Lev 26:41b–42)

It is notable that Jacob and Isaac, in that particular order, rather than Moses, are mentioned in
4Q185. 4Q185 may be influenced by Lev 26, but it is difficult to denote the intertextual
connection as an allusion to Lev 26 in 4Q185. On the other hand, 4Q504 vi 2 does appear to
be modelled on Lev 26. “Covenant history” is a crucial component in penitential prayers.946
The current distress is interpreted in light of the past; correspondingly the hope of restoration
is also based on the history of the covenant: God’s promise to forgive “because of your love,
and because of your covenant” (4Q504 1 ii 9).
In order to summarise, the instructions in 4Q185 make use of motifs that are
associated with repentance in the Pentateuch and also Chronicles: to seek and find, to humble
oneself, and to seek out a way of life. The turn from threats of wrath and judgment to the
promise of a divine gift points out a particular direction for the addressees: the way
prescribed by the words of Yahweh.

7.1.2 Repentance and the Return to God’s law

Repentance is expressed through attitudes towards oneself, the deity, and his will. In Isaiah,
those who repent are those who tremble at “his words” (Isa 66:5). Similarly in Ezra, the

944.
Sara Japhet, I & II Chronicles: A Commentary (London: SCM, 1993), 615.
945.
According to Hartley, “the punishments are designed to awaken Israel to her waywardness so that she might
repent before experiencing the ultimate curse”; see John E. Hartley, Leviticus 1–27 (WBC 4; Dallas: Word
Books, 1992), 458. According to Noth, it is the behaviour, “Their future acknowledgement of guilt and their
self-abasement” that is the “amendment” and that will bring about a change; see Martin Noth, Leviticus: A
Commentary (2nd. ed.; London: SCM), 200.
946.
See excursus in Werline, The Development of a Religious Institution, 48.

- 231 -
people tremble (‫ )הרד‬at his words (‫( )דברי‬Ezra 9:4) and his laws (‫( )מצות‬Ezra 10:3). When
4Q185 exhorts the addressees to let their hearts tremble before his dread, it is this pious
response that is asked for. It is the trepidatious reflection upon God’s might that makes one
heed and be ready to do God’s will.
The urgency of the penitential prayer is often caused by a situation of distress, and so
repentance is associated with lament and a state of bodily disorder. The act of prayer is thus
accompanied by bodily expressions of regret and despair.947 According to my reading, the
humiliation motifs in 4Q185 (i 7, 10–13) and the instructions for the human body (i 14–ii 1),
correspond to the emphasis on bodily and emotional performance of humility in Ezra,
Nehemiah, and in Daniel.948 In Ezra, the “experienced” distress is expressed with emphasis on
the human body, and sinfulness is described as a lack of strength (Ezra 10:9). The confession
in Ezra 9 is motivated by self-acknowledgement and shame (Ezra 9:7), but also a fear that
God will destroy all (Ezra 9:14). Ezra, acting as a priest, admonishes the shivering people to
make a confession to Yahweh and to do his will (‫( )ועשו רצונו‬Ezra 10:11).
Joel provides another description of distress, and makes a connection between
judgment, withering, and the Lord’s day (Joel 1:10–2:11). The experienced evil results in
lament, and Joel 2 prescribes a spiritual or wholehearted repentance of the heart: “Yet even
now, says Yahweh, return to me with all your heart, with fasting, with weeping, and with
mourning; rend your hearts and not your clothing” (Joel 2:12–13). The summons is a
response to the day of the Lord, and repentance is followed by restoration (Joel 2:18–27).949
The connection of Torah with the penitential attitude is of great importance for our
discussion. Torah piety, marked by the keeping of the law, is not only the result of repentance;
it may also be an act of repenance.950 This is most explicitly reflected in Neh 10:28–29, which
reports that all who were willing to separate themselves from the people of the land to adhere
to the law of God would: “enter into a curse and an oath to walk in God’s law, which was
given by Moses the servant of God, and to observe and do all the commandments of Yahweh
our Lord and his ordinances and his statutes” (Neh 10:29).

947.
It is notable, however, that the account in 2 Chr 7:1–2 does not emphasise the emotional aspects. When
Solomon has finished the prayer in, fire comes down from heaven, symbolising the presence of God. Japhet
notes that the immediate response of the people in Chronicles contrasts the account of the Sinai theophany
(Exod 20), as the people are not driven by fright, rather “their religious awe prompts them to bow down their
faces to the ground and praise God;” Japhet, I & II Chronicles: A Commentary, 610.
948.
Shame is the key emotion in Dan 9:8. “The Rhetoric of shame originated from the scene of the condemned
standing before the judge.” See Werline, The Development of a Religious Institution, 75.
949.
Hayes suggests that grieving and lamenting are necessary parts of the process of realignment with God. On
the transformation from lament to penitential prayer; see Katherine M. Hayes, “When None Repents, Earth
Laments: The Chorus of Lament in Jeremiah and Joel,” in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1: The Origins of
Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline; EJL
21; Atlanta: SBL, 2006).
950.
See Deut 4:40 and Jer 29.

- 232 -
 The transformative power of repentance that turns lament into praise has its basis in
Yahweh’s promise. Isaiah promised God’s deliverance and blessing for the seekers of God
(Isa 65) and “the tremblers at my word” (Isa 66:2, 5). Their knowledge of God is reflected in
their attitude towards the law of God, which results in the restoration of their fortunes. The
reward is metaphorically described: “You shall see, and your heart shall rejoice; your bodies
shall flourish like the grass; they will grow as the green grass” (Isa 66:14), while judgment
comes upon those who don’t, with “flames of fire” (Isa 66:15).
There is no explicit reference to a return to God’s law in 4Q185, but the will of
Yahweh and his words play an important symbolic role in the admonition. As we have seen,
Torah appears to have a symbolic importance in 4Q185.951 There is no direct reference to the
laws of the Pentateuch; rather, Torah is represented by its stories of rebellion, judgment, and
rescue are evoked within the exhortations. Thus, the references to the “will,” “way of life,”
and “the words of Yahweh” are only identifiable with Torah on a symbolic level.

7.2 A Comparative Approach: 4Q185 and 4Q504

We have now seen that the literary motifs in 4Q185, such as “seek and find” and the
restoration motifs, resonate well with the instructions on repentance and the penitential
prayers in the Hebrew Bible. The experienced disorder is solved with a humble return to
Yahweh and his will, words, or Torah. Of particular interest in this study is the development
of the penitential prayer found in 4Q504, and more precisely the use of Scripture and the idea
of Torah piety found within the petitionary prayers of this composition.
I suggest that 4Q185 shares features with 4Q504 in relation to its use of scriptural
motifs on repentance and restoration, and that the two compositions reflect common
strategies in order to experience blessings associated with Torah and the walking in its ways.

7.2.1 4Q504: Words of the Luminaries

Material Perspectives: Manuscript and Fragments

Words of the Luminaries (4Q504) is a collection of petitionary prayers. The manuscript was
first published in DJD 7 by Baillet.952 The composition as a whole appears to be based on a

951.
Collins, “The Transformation of the Torah,” 455.
952.
M. Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520) (DJD 7; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 137–168.

- 233 -
weekly cycle, and is regarded to be a liturgy for daily prayer.953
The largest fragments, frgs. 1 and 2, together preserve seven columns.954 Chazon
counts these as the first columns of the composition.955 The title of the composition, ‫דברי‬
‫המארות‬, was written on the verso of the scroll and is found on a small fragment (frg. 8, PAM
43.613).956 According to Chazon, the title is likely related to “the liturgical function of the
work.”957 If she is correct, ‫ דברי‬refers to the “words” of the prayer, and “luminaries” serves as
a term for the day. Moreover “the scroll, the title, but also the structure of the prayers
indicated that there was one long prayer for each weekday plus at least two (and probably
several) shorter prayers for the Sabbath.”958
The composition was found in at least two and possibly three copies at Qumran:
4Q504, 4Q505(?), and 4Q506. 4Q505 is fragmentary and its classification is a matter of
dispute.959 4Q506 preserves significantly less text than 4Q504, but there are textual overlaps
that confirm the identity of the manuscript. 4Q504 is the older copy, and is dated based on
palaeography to the middle of the second century B.C.E.960 This means that this liturgy
predates the manuscript of 4Q185. The text is regarded as non-sectarian based on its lack of

953.
See Lawrence H. Schiffman, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the early History of Jewish Liturgy,” in The
Synagogue in Late Antiquity (ed. Lee. I. Levine; Philadelphia: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1987);
Daniel K. Falk, “Qumran and the Synagogue Liturgy,” in The Ancient Synagogue From Its Origins until 200
C.E. Papers presented at an International Conference at Lund University, October 14–17, 2001 (ed. Birger
Olsson and Magnus Zetterholm; Coniectane a Biblica; Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International, 2003).
954.
See PAM 43.611 and 43.612.
955.
In the edition of the text in Dead Sea Scrolls reader, the editors have suggested a different order of the
columns, counting these as the final columns of the extant manuscript, xiv–xx. This ordering locates the Sabbath
prayer in the last column, which would have implications for the composition as a whole; Donald W. Parry and
Emanuel Tov, Poetic and Liturgical Texts, vol. 5, DSSR (Leiden Brill, 2005), 240–59. For the sake of simplicity,
I will follow the order of DJD 7, which is also the preferred order in the work of Chazon; Esther G. Chazon,
“The Words of the Luminaries and Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Times,” in Seeking the Favor of God,
vol. 2. The Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk,
and Rodney A. Werline; EJL 22; Leiden: Brill 2007).
956.
The title was written perpendicular to the writing of the first inscribed sheet and would have been visible
when the scroll was unrolled with it beginning as the outermost layer; see Tov, Scribal Practices, 121.
957.
Chazon, “Scripture and Prayer in ‘The Words of the Luminaries’,” 25. See also the discussion of the title in
the introduction of Olson; Dennis T. Olson, “Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations.
Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and Prayers,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. James H. Charlesworth
(Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 108.
958.
Esther G. Chazon, “4QDibHam: Liturgy or Literature?,” RevQ 15 (1992): 448.
959.
Baillet edited 4Q505 as a copy of Words of the Luminaries; see Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–
4Q520), 168. Schiffman refers to three copies (4Q504–506); see Schiffman, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the
early History of Jewish Liturgy,” 40. Falk argues that 4Q505 is not a copy of Words of the Luminaries; see
Daniel K. Falk, Daily, Sabbath, and Festival Prayers in the Dead Sea Scrolls (STDJ 27; Leiden: Brill, 1998),
59–61,156. 4Q505 is currently listed together with the Festival Prayer (PrFêtes); but the title given
“papDibHamb (=papFêtes?)” leaves its identity open; see Tov and Abegg, Indices and an Introduction, 71, 136.
Chazon has recently argued that one should reconsider 4Q504 as a second copy of Words of the Luminaries. See
the discussion of its classification; Esther G. Chazon, “Daily or Festival Prayers?,” in ‘Go Out and Study the
Land’ (Judges 18:2): Archaeological, Historical and Textual Studies in Honor of Hanan Eshel (ed. Hanan Eshel,
et al.; Leiden: Brill, 2011).
960.
Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520), 137–175.

- 234 -
sectarian terminology and ideas, and also that the divine name is written in square script.961

Literary perspectives: A development of the Penitential Prayer

Werline presents 4Q504 as part of the larger development of penitential prayer in Second
Temple Judaism, and he further suggests that the penitential prayer had become a religious
institution at the time.962 The psalm collections and various penitential prayers found in the
historical texts give an idea of religious practices in the Second Temple period, but it is
impossible to get a clear idea of the historical realities behind them. Hence, the liturgical
compositions such as 4Q504 have received great scholarly attention.963
4Q504 is not necessarily a penitential prayer by definition, but there are strong
connections with this genre.964 According to Chazon, Words of the Luminaries has combined
two genres, the penitential prayer and the “prayers for knowledge, repentance, and
forgiveness,” which is a subgenre identified by Weinfeld.965 The pleas in 4Q504 are not for
forgiveness; rather, they are for “help in avoiding future sins through the strengthening of
their hearts and enlightening them in his Torah.”966 Throughout the composition, these
petitions are “motivated by historical reminiscences.” 4Q504 draws heavily on Exodus
traditions and judgment and restoration motifs, as found in Lev 26, in the historical
recollection in Neh 9, and in the historical psalms. Nitzan argues that the supplicatory prayers
contain two primary elements: petitions and remembrance. The petitions are preceded by
remembrance, which is preparation for the request. The network of remembrance stresses a
particular idea in each prayer, she claims.967
There are several modes of composition in 4Q504.968 Much more evident than in

961.
According to Tov, the non-sectarian provenance is not immediately obvious; see Tov, Scribal Practices,
204. This resembles the practice in 4Q381, the “non-canonical psalms” found at Qumran.
962.
This implies accepted practice with fixed times and ritual; see Werline, The Development of a Religious
Institution, 3, 73. See also Chazon, “The Words of the Luminaries and Penitential Prayer,” 185. Jeremy Penner,
“Mapping Fixed Prayers from the Dead Sea Scrolls onto Second Temple Period Judaism,” DSD 21 (2014);
Bilhah Nitzan, Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry (STDJ 12; Leiden: Brill, 1994); Shemaryahu Talmon, “The
Emergence of Institutionalized Prayer in Israel in the Light of the Qumran Literature,” in Qumran sa piete, sa
theologie et son milieu (ed. M. Delcor; BEThL 46; Paris: Leuven University Press, 1978).
963.
See Talmon, “The Emergence of Institutionalized Prayer in Israel in the Light of the Qumran Literature.”;
Falk, Daily, Sabbath, and Festival Prayers in the Dead Sea Scrolls. See also Jeremy Penner, “With the Coming
Light, At the Appointed Time of Night: Daily Prayer and Its Importance at Qumran,” JAJ 4, no. 1 (2013).
964.
4Q504 is not categorised as a penitential prayer by all; see Eileen M. Schuller, “Afterword,” in Seeking the
Favor of God, vol. 2: The Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda,
Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline; Leiden: Brill, 2007).
965.
She further explicates that “the author has pressed the petitions for forgiveness, repentance and knowledge
into the literary form of penititential prayer.” Chazon, “The Words of the Luminaries and Penitential Prayer,”
184.
966.
Chazon, “The Words of the Luminaries and Penitential Prayer,” 183.
967.
Nitzan, Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry, 93.
968.
While some passages are modelled on biblical paradigms, others are pastiche, patching biblical quotations
and allusions together with non-biblical material. One also finds florilegia, which means that biblical quotations

- 235 -
4Q185, Scripture is internalised in various ways.969 This engagement with the scriptural
traditions on judgment and repentance can arguably be called exegesis. It is impossible to
ascertain the role of 4Q504 in religious life, but it is natural to interpret 4Q504 as a reflection
of the liturgical practise at the time.970

7.2.2 Comparison: Strategic Acts of Repentance in 4Q185 and 4Q504

If 4Q504 and 4Q185 are formally different, then how can the two compositions be
compared? The idea of this study is that one can compare the two composition in relation
their strategic acts. According to my reading, 4Q185 advocates repentance by using not only
the language of a penitential prayer, but also its motivation. The instruction prescribes acts
that imply devotion and godly address. According to my understanding, this is prayer.971
The extant text of 4Q504 provides us with a series of petitions. These petitions evoke
themes and motifs related to judgment and history, and are mainly concerned with healing,
strength, and restoration. These themes are all part of the logic of repentance, and run through
the entire composition. The scope of this comparison is primarily to explore the literary
setting of repentance in 4Q504 and 4Q185. I will pay special attention to two passages in
4Q504, cols. ii and vi, in order to explore different aspects of the strategic acts: The desire to
turn God’s wrath into acts of mercies, and the petition for strength and knowledge.
I follow the order suggested by the DJD edition, but as the order of the columns
differs, I will not analyse each prayer with regard to its overall structure. The transcriptions
rest on earlier editions, with a few exceptions where I make minor adjustments.972 The
translations are also my own.

are linked together, and, finally, there is free composition; see Chazon, “Scripture and Prayer in ‘The Words of
the Luminaries’,” 28, 31–41.
969.
For the scripturalisation of prayer; see Daniel K. Falk, “Scriptural Inspiration for Penitential Prayer in the
Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2: The Development of Penitential Prayer in Second
Temple Judaism (ed. Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan Werline; Leiden: Brill, 2007). See also
Judith H. Newman, “The Scripturalization of Prayer in Exilic and Second Temple Judaism,” in Prayers that Cite
Scripture (ed. James L. Kugel; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006).
970.
Chazon sees the work as both liturgy and literature and argues that the composition is a result of deliberate
literary composition based on “the historical progression over the course of the week, uniformity of structure
and linguistic parallels;” see Chazon, “4QDibHam: Liturgy or Literature?,” 448.
971.
Gestures and non-verbal acts may also generate human-divine interpersonal communication, hence one
should not only study the verbal and textual aspects of prayer; see Uri Ehrlich, The Nonverbal Language of
Prayer: A new Approach to Jewish Liturgy (Tü bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004), 3.
972.
See Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520), 137–168. See also Olson, “Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek
Texts with English Translations. Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and Prayers.”

- 236 -
Turning God’s Wrath into Mercies

As we have already seen, penitential prayers arise in situations of distress. Several passages
in 4Q504 are explicit about the wrath of God and the experienced punishment. Some of these
will provide examples for this comparison.
According to the petition, starting in 4Q504 1–2 ii 7–11, God’s wrath is evoked
because of the human rebellion against his words:

4Q504 1 ii 7–12973
[‫את]ה‬ ֯ ‫נ[ש‬ ֯ ֯‫ עשה נ֯ א ׄכ ׄמו֯ ֯כה כגדול כו‬974
֯ ‫ ֯א ֯ש]ר‬975‫כחה‬ ׄ ‫֯אנא ֯א ֯דו֯ ני‬ 7
‫להשמידם ותחס‬ ֯ ‫בהמרותם ֯את פי֯ כה ותתאנף בם‬ ֯ ‫לאבותינו‬ 8
ׄ
‫עליהמה באהבתכה אותם ולמען בריתכה כיא כפר ֯מושה‬ 9
[‫חסדכ]ה‬ ֯ ‫בעד חטאתם ו֯ למען דעת את כוחכה הגׄדול ואת‬
֯ ‫רוב‬ 10
[‫על כול חט]אתם‬
‫וזכרתה‬ ‫לדורות עולם ישוב נא אפכה וחמתכה מעמכה ישראל‬ 11
‫֯את נפלאותיכה אשר עשיתה לעני גוים כיא נקר א שמכה עלינו‬ 12

7 O Lord, act now according to yourself, according to the greatness of your strength
(by) whic[h] yo[u en]dured
8 our fathers in their rebellion against your command,976 and you were angry with them
to the point of destroying them, but you had pity
9 on them in your love for them, and because of your covenant, when Moses atoned
10 for their sin, and because of their knowledge of your great strength and the
abundance of your mercy
11 for generations forever. Turn back now your anger and your wrath from your people
Israel, on account of all [their] si[n]. And remember
12 your wonders which you did in the eyes of the nations for your name has been placed
upon us.

The petitions in this passage evoke the past in order to remind God of his former acts of
compassion. The sins of the fathers are recurrent in 4Q504: “[... do not re]member against us
the iniquity of the ancestors with all their ev[il] conduct[...]” (frg. 4, 6). This passage evokes
the wilderness sin as a rebellion against God’s command (‫( )פה‬cf. Num 14:19).977
The plea to turn God’s wrath away is followed up by an acknowledgment of sin,

973.
See PAM 43.612.
974.
I follow Chazon, against ‫ אדני‬Baillet; see Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520), 139. and Olson,
“Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations. Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and
Prayers,” 126.
975.
Baillet transcribes ‫ ;כוחכה‬Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520), 139. The third letter. however, is ‫ך‬,
which means that ‫ ח‬and ‫ ך‬have swapped places. In light of the same idiom in line 10, ‫ כוחכה הגׄדול‬this is best
explained as a writing error.
976.
Literally translation= your mouth. A similar phrase, to rebel against God’s command, appears in Num
20:24.
977.
The petition is modelled after Num 14; see Chazon, “Scripture and Prayer in ‘The Words of the
Luminaries’,” 28.

- 237 -
before God is reminded of the “wonders which he did.” The petitions thus vehicle both
confession and acknowledgment of God’s strength, which are preconditions for forgiveness
(ii 10). The stories of the past provide explanations for God’s wrath, but they also serve as a
basis of hope for God to show compassion again. God’s ability to forgive is based upon the
covenant and the people’s knowledge of God and his mercy.
A central idea concerning God’s wrath is that it is experienced as punishment and
discipline. These punishments are mapped onto the plagues of Exodus. In order to shed light
upon the idea of wrath in col. ii, I will present an additional passage:

4Q504 1–2 iii 8–14978

֯ ‫] [חוליים רעים‬
‫ורעב וצמא ודבר וחרב‬ 8
‫] [מת בריתכה כיא אותנו בחרתה לכה‬ 9
‫[הארץ עלכן שפךתה אלינו את חמתכה‬ ] 10
‫[תכה בכול חרון אפכה ותדבק בנו‬ ֯ ] 11
‫] [◦] [◦◦][◦ו֯ ֯תי֯ כה אשר כתב מושה ועבדיכה‬ 12
‫אש]ר ש[לחתה ל]קר[תנו הרעה באחרית‬ ֯ ‫הנביאים‬ 13
‫הימים‬ 14

8 [...] severe diseases, famine, thirst, plague and the sword.

9 [...].. your covenant, for you have chosen us for yourself
10 [...] the earth. Therefore you have poured out upon us your wrath
11 [...] ... in all the heat of your anger. But you clung to us
12 [...][...]... which Moses wrote, and your servants
13 the prophets, that you would [s]end evil ag[ain]st us in the last
14 days.

This passage has a more explicit understanding of punishment as discipline. Similar plagues
are described in Lev 26:25 as vengeance for breaking the covenant.979 4Q185 is never explicit
about judgment as discipline, but there are elements that correspond with a discipline pattern.
There is emphasis upon God’s wrath in the judgment scene in col. i 6–9, and also in the
phrase “before his presence, evil goes forth to all people.” (ii 8). At first glance, 4Q185 has a
more universalistic outlook regarding judgment, but the discourse as such refers to Israel. In
the last column, the phrase “words of the covena[nt]” is mentioned in a context that also
recalls God’s judgment on the rebellious.980 I suggest that one should not exaggerate the

978.
Counted as col. xvi in Parry and Tov, Poetic and Liturgical Texts. See PAM 43.612.
979.
See also the account on covenant curses in Deut 28:59.
980.
In the close reading, I note the similarity with Jer 11, where the fathers are accused of being stubborn for
not doing the words of the covenant. The larger context in 4Q185 is lost and it is difficult to connect the extant

- 238 -
distinction between the particularistic and universalistic perspectives in relation to judgment,
as the particular and universal are also blended in the Hebrew Bible. In the petition in col. iii,
4Q504 has a particularistic perspective, but in col. v there is a quotation of Zeph 3:8, which
has a universalistic outlook and refers to judgment upon all nations: “For you have poured
out your wrath and the heat of your anger in the fire of your jealousy” (frg. 2 v 5).
The experienced distress (curses) is described in various ways throughout 4Q504:
“affliction, trouble and distress” (1–2 vi 11–12), enemies (1–2 v 8), and exile (1–2 v 12). The
affliction is God’s instrument to move his people into prayer. In frg. 2, col. v 17, Isa 26:16 is
quoted: “and to whisper a p]rayer during the oppression of your discipline.” It is this
experienced distress that encourages the prayer. Thus, there is human movement from distress
towards the deity. This movement is also found in 4Q185 from hopelessness towards
rejoicing. This outlook, which is reflected in both 4Q185 and 4Q504, is rooted in biblical
ideas of covenant curses and blessings, and the prophetic doom that announces judgment and
the day of Yahweh.

1–2 ii 13–17 “Torah implanted in the heart”

‫[ל] [◦ ֯בנו בכול לב ובכול נפש ולטעת תורתכה בלבנו‬ ] 13

ׄ 981
‫[מימין ושמאול כיא תרפאנו משגעון ועורון ותמהון‬ ] 14
‫ הן בע[ו֯ ו֯ נותינו נׄמכרנו ובפשעינו קרתנו‬-- ‫[]לבב‬ ] 15
‫והצלתנו מחטוא לכה‬ ׄ [ ] 16
‫[◦ ֯ת ולהביננו לתעודות‬ ] 17

13 [...]... with all heart and with all soul to implant your Torah in our heart.
14 [...] to the right or the left, for you have healed us from madness and blindness and
confusion
15 [...] we were sold [as the price] of our [in]iquity, yet despite our transgression You
have called us.
16 [...]and you have delivered us from sinning against you
17 [...]and to cause us to discern the testimonies982

text in col. iii to the overall themes of judgment in 4Q185. Nevertheless, there are clear references to judgment
in the third column; see ch. 3.3.
981.
Baillet restores ‫ לבלתי סור ממנה ללכת‬according to Deut 17:20; Josh 23:6, and 1QS I 15; Baillet, Qumran
Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520), 141.
982.
The term ‫ תודה‬may be translated as in 1QS I 9 with “appointed time” or with “testimonies” as in Isa 8:16,
20.

- 239 -
Torah is mentioned twice in the extant text of 4Q504. Fragments 1–2 ii 13 allude to Jer
32:39–41, where Yahweh states that he will plant (‫ )נטע‬the people in the land and put (‫ )נתן‬the
fear of him in their heart. The same planting metaphor is used in Ezek 36:36 in a similar
context, which promises a new spirit and new heart. In 4Q504, the implanting of the law is
part of the “healing” from sin. It is a move made by Yahweh, to restore his people and to
enable them to do his will. Torah is also referred to in connection with Moses (frg. 4, 8),
which confirms that Torah refers more specifically to the laws of the Pentateuch and not just
teaching in general.983 A few lines later (frg. 4, 11), there is a further reference to the
“circumcision of the foreskin of [...],”984 In the next line there is a petition for strength:
“Strengthen our heart to do [...]” (frg. 4, 12), followed in the next line by “to] walk in you
ways” (frg. 4, 13).
In the same context (frg. 4, 4), God is referred to as “God of knowledge” (‫)אל הדעות‬.985
This appears to be the basis for the supplicant’s own knowledge: “We know these things
because You have graciously granted us [Your] h[oly] spirit.”986 (frg. 4, 5). Thus, the God of
knowledge provides his people with Torah and the knowledge of his great strength (frg. 1 ii
10). Fragment 8 reports the creation narrative and states that Adam was formed in the image
of glory, and that God blew discernment (‫ )בין‬and knowledge (‫ )דעת‬in his nose. The style and
terminology are sapiential, and it is notable that the term ‘wisdom’ is not used. 987
The beatitude section of 4Q185 (ii 8–15) claims that humans are given something (f.
sg.) which they can act according to. I have argued that the feminine suffix refers to the way
of life, which is Torah. The idealistic portrayal of humans that is found in 4Q185 is not far
away from the ideas of the petitions in 4Q504, where the ultimate request is for spiritual
strength to walk in God’s ways and obey his law: “Strengthen our heart to do[...]” (4Q504
frg. 4, 12). This so-called Friday prayer (frg. 2 vi) implies a godly initiative, and confirms
that Yahweh bestows strength as a gift of restoration: “For you have strengthened our heart,
in order that we may recount your might for generations forever” (4Q504 2 vi 8–12).
How can this be summarised? The act of repentance ultimately leads to “the gift of
Torah,” but this gift is not solely Torah; it is knowledge and strength that enables its

983.
One can only read ‫( ֯בי֯ ד מו֯ ֯ש]ה‬frg. 4, 8). Moses is also mentioned in another passage that evokes the narrative
of Horeb (frg. 3, 16). The column is damaged, but one can read [ ‫“ ברית בחו֯ ]רב‬covenant at Ho[reb]” (13), which
in the next line is followed by a reference to ‫“ החו֯ ]ק[י֯ ֯ם והמשפטים‬statutes” and “precepts” (14). ‫ דברי‬is added
above the line, referring to God’s speaking to Moses (17); see Olson, “Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with
English Translations. Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and Prayers,” 115.
984.
This is probably an allusion to Lev 26:41 or Deut 10:15–16.
985.
“God of knowledge” is referred to in 1QS III 15 and repeatedly in the Hodayot (e.g. IX 28, XXII 34).
986.
Part of the line is restored on the basis of 4Q506 frgs. 131–132, line 11.
987.
According to Chazon, there is a strong sapiential component; see Chazon, “The Words of the Luminaries
and Penitential Prayer,” 183.

- 240 -
completion.

To Humble oneself as an Act of Repentance

While 4Q185 prescribes a series of acts for a group of people, 4Q504 describes acts that are
performed by a community. The prayer in col. vi provides a clear connection with the history
of sin, such as found in Lev 26, Psalm 106, and Neh 9, and it provides the most explicit
reference to repentance. According to Werline, “the prayers would reach a penitential climax
on Friday as preparation for Sabbath.”988

4Q504 2 vi 4–10989
‫ועתה כיום הזה‬ 4
‫אשר נכנע לבנו רציׄנו את עווננו ואת עוון‬ 5
‫אבותינו במעלנו ואשר הלכנו בקרי ולוא מאסנו‬ 6
‫בנסו֯ י֯ יכה ובנגיׄעיכה לוא געלה נפשנו להפר‬ 7
‫אשר השלחתה בנו את אויבינו‬
‫כיא אתה‬ ‫את בריתכה בכול צרת תנ֯ פישנו‬ 8
‫ת‬
‫חזקתה את לבבנו ולמען נספר גבורתכה לדורו‬ 9
‫עולם‬ 10

4 And now, in this day,

5 which our heart is humbled, we make amends for our iniquities and for the iniquity
6 of our fathers in our unfaithful acts and in the hostility in which we walked. But we
have not refused
7 your trials, and your chastisements. Our soul has not despaired to the point of
breaking
8 your covenant with all the anguish of our soul, who has sent our enemies for us,990
For you
9 have strengthened our heart, in order that we may recount Your might for
generations
10 forever.

The language of the prayer in 4Q504 is very close to the instructions in Lev 26:40–45, but as

988.
Werline, “Reflections on Penitential Prayer: Definition and Form,” 215.
989.
There is a lacuna in frg. 2 vi 5 in PAM 42.184. In PAM 43.611, however, there is an additional fragment
that completes the line. The small fragment is part of frg. 2 in the photographs in DJD 7, planche L1. Baillet,
Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520).
990.
There are contrary readings of line 8. I follow Parry here; see Parry and Tov, Poetic and Liturgical Texts, 5,
255. Olson reads the supralinear phrase in line with 1 Sam 19:17, “For you, who has sent away our enemies for
us”; see Olson, “Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations. Pseudepigraphic and Non-
Masoretic Psalms and Prayers,” 134.

- 241 -
noted by Chazon, the prayer boldly claims that they did not break God’s covenant.991 There is
no confession in this prayer. The humbling of the heart (niphal ptc. ‫ )כנע‬describes the
supplicants as they atone (‫ )רצה‬for their iniquities.
The introductive “And now, in this day” puts emphasis upon the moment of the
“act.”992 In a similar manner, the transition in 4Q185 “And now, listen to me my people” (i
13) emphasises a key moment and turning point in the speech, as the instruction turns from
the hopelessness of humans towards the might of Yahweh. Unlike the acts of judgment which
are initiated by God, this act, to humble oneself, is initiated by the suppliants.
4Q185 exhorts the addressees to “tremble” in their hearts. The situation demands a
human response that comes from within the centre of humans. The term ‫“ כנע‬to be humble”
appears to be used in both 4Q504 and 4Q185. The act of humbling oneself is generally a
response to a situation of distress (Lev 25; 2 Chr 6–7). There is a situation that needs to be
changed, and as such, it is about pleasing God by demonstrating a humble attitude.
In Lev 26:46, the giving of the law is evoked at the end of a passage that instructs
repentance. Yahweh was provoked by the sin of the people, but as they humbled their hearts
he remembered the covenant he made with the fathers, and more precisely Jacob, Isaac, and
Abraham (Lev 26:42). Themes and motifs found in Lev 26 appear to be central in both
4Q185 and 4Q504. While 4Q185 refers to Jacob and Isaac, 4Q504 frg. 5, col. ii only reads:
“with their seed after them l[ ].” Baillet restores the preceding text based upon 4Q504 frg.
124, which has a reference to the patriarchs: “[... to Abraham,] to Isaac and to J[acob.”993 One
can only read the name Isaac, but context allows for a reconstruction of the name Jacob:
֯ ‫ו֯ ׄלישחק‬.994 Thus, there might be a connection with the patriarchs and the covenant in
‫וליע]קוב‬
both 4Q504 and 4Q185, but 4Q504 does not shed further light upon the names of Jacob and
Isaac in 4Q185.

Regain Hope, Strength and Knowledge

Repentance can be described as a strategic act, it is a human effort to achieve something.

Rituals of repentance seek to move God, but they also invite re-orientation and
transformation. The recollection of past events is promoted in both 4Q504 and 4Q185. In
4Q504, history is recalled in order for God to remember. However, remembrance is also a

991.
Chazon, “The Words of the Luminaries and Penitential Prayer,” 182. See also Chazon, “Scripture and
Prayer in ‘The Words of the Luminaries’,” 34–35.
992.
‫ ועתה‬sometimes function as a formulaic expression to mark the beginning of a petitionary section; Werline,
“Reflections on Penitential Prayer: Definition and Form,” 70.
993.
Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520), 156, 169.
994.
Note that the spelling is the same as in 4Q185 and in Psalm 105.

- 242 -
reciprocal process. Remembrance promotes humility as it puts the participant in his or her
right place. Hence, the strategy is not only to turn God’s wrath, but to turn humans towards
God. Moreover, the petitioner claims that God “strengthens the heart,” and this enables him
to recount God’s might (‫ )גבורת‬forever (4Q504 2 vi 9). When 4Q185 exhorts its addressees to
recall the history of Egypt, the instruction also points to the ‫“ גבורת‬might” of God:

Humble yourselves before the [m]ight of our God. Remember the wonders he did
(15) in Egypt and his signs at the [Red Sea]. Let your heart tremble before his dread
(1) and do his wi[ll ... rejoice] your [s]oul according to his good loving-kindness.
(4Q185 1–2 i 14–ii 1)

This historical recollection in 4Q185 corresponds with the introductory instructions of Psalm
78, but the commemoration does not only transmit knowledge; it is a symbolic act performed
by those who humble themselves. To humble oneself is a bodily act that often implies a
concrete subordination, either by prostration or a kneeling body. The power of ritual
performance lies in the ability to shape values and perceptions.995 Thus, it is the act of
humbling or prostration that produces the humbled, as humility is “imposed on the bodies.”996
To humble oneself before God’s might is the proper embodied response to God. The
exhortation to commemorate Yahweh’s acts puts God in his correct place, and it also serves to
recall oneselves as a people in need of salvation. Thus, those who humble themselves and
remember are reminded about who they are, and “moved” toward the way of life.
While 4Q505 is filled with pleas, these are not explicitly part of 4Q185, yet they are
implied. The prescribed acts in the exhortation of 4Q185 are strategic, in the sense that they
aim to move the suppliant from a state of hopelessness to a way of life. The act of
commemoration, which involves humbling, trembling, and rejoicing, is constitutive and thus
transformative. The series of appeals in 4Q185 may be interpreted as a script for the intended
transformation of the participant. We have already seen in 4Q504 1 ii how the petitions seek
to turn God’s wrath away, and that this petition is followed by an explicit reference to God’s
gift of Torah (1–2 ii 13). The petitions also have a concern for human physical and spiritual
needs, which are required in order to do God’s will. Chazon notes that the prayer is
concerned with physical strength, and in 4Q185 there is similar emphasis upon strength.997
The petitions in 4Q504 for knowledge, repentance, and forgiveness are comparable with the

995.
Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice, 121.
996.
“Act of production;” in Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice, 100.
997.
The physical strength clearly reflects the spiritual. There is no need to differentiate between spiritual and
physical strength; see Falk, “Scriptural Inspiration for Penitential Prayer in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 142–143.

- 243 -
“promise” at the end of 4Q185:

As it (f.sg.) was given to his fathers, so he will possess it (f.sg.) [ And he can hol]d i[t]
(15) with all the power of his strength and with all his [migh]t without limit. And he
can cause his offspring to possess it (f.sg.), and my knowledge for [his] p[eople ...]..
(4Q185 1–2 ii 14–15)

If 4Q185 is interpreted in light of the pattern of 4Q504, the notion of strength could very well
be granted as a result of a humble prayer. Moreover, it enables the addressee to transmit the
knowledge of Torah, which is the stories of the Pentateuch. This pre-scripted series of acts
moves the recipient from disempowerment to empowerment, from a humble and fearful state
to an exulted one: rejoice your soul! Only the empowered may rejoice. Thus, in 4Q185 the
“simple ones” become the strengthened ones, and the “happy” human being refers to one who
is transformed and restored.

7.3 Conclusion

How does a literary comparison with 4Q504 contribute to the interpretation of 4Q185?
According to my analysis, 4Q185 and 4Q504 are two compositions that reflect converging
strategies in order to turn one’s distress caused by God’s acts of judgment. The implied
solution in both is to humble oneself in order to regain strength. While 4Q185 exhorts
repentance, 4Q504 reflects repentance in its literary-liturgical setting. Where 4Q185 is subtle,
4Q504 is explicit with regard to the role of Torah and the remembrance of God’s acts in
history. 4Q504 does not fill out the blanks, but this literary comparison yields results. The
two compositions are grounded in the stories of the Pentateuch and its covenantal theology,
but they express several developments, most significantly with regard to the understanding of
Torah.
To recount in order to remember history is part of doing the will of God, and is also
part of knowing or discerning the testimonies. This evokes the understanding of history in the
historical psalms, and Psalm 78 in particular. According to 4Q504, there is a need for strength
in order to recount God’s might. The petitions for strength could be interpreted as a
development of the promises of fortunes in Deuteronomy. Torah as something given or
implanted in the human body does not only demand strength, but also provides the strength
needed. This increased spiritualised perspective on the Torah piety that is found in 4Q504
sheds light upon the second column of 4Q185. This in turn may explain the repetition of “no

- 244 -
hope” and “no strength” in 4Q185, as an unfortunate state that can be turned with prayer.
The instruction in 4Q185 exhorts its addressees to seek out the way of life in order to
achieve a state of happiness, a long life, and strength. The way of life appears to be a way
associated with the words of Yahweh and a way instructed to the fathers, namely Jacob and
Isaac. In the background of this lesson of life looms threats of judgment and death. One must
acknowledge one’s own weakness in order to be reoriented towards a life of health and
strength. Thus, the admonition exhorts one to pay attention, to humble oneself, and to
remember.

- 245 -
- 246 -
8. Conclusion

There is no such thing as a neutral reading. All readers bring their pre-knowledge into the
interpretation of a text. The reading of text in damaged manuscripts presents further
hermeneutical barriers. In the case of 4Q185, the genre label has shaped the reading of the
text, and 4Q185 has more or less been presented in a duet or trio with 4Q184 and 4Q525. Its
relevance for the scholarly interest has been the role of wisdom and Torah in the composition.
This “rereading” has put 4Q185 into a larger ensemble with other Qumran texts, and opened
up a wider spectrum of biblical discourses that are found within it.
This investigation encourage us to rethink our understanding of the admonition and
how 4Q185 contributes to the scholarship on the development of wisdom in the Second
Temple period. I will now summarise my main findings, how I obtained them, and how they
contribute to new knowledge. The results of this study can be presented through three main
findings. The first is related to the reading of the manuscript, in which this thesis contributes
to some of the previously unsolved challenges. The second relates to the genre of 4Q185 and
involves critical remarks on previous research. My last finding is more of a constructive
contribution in which I offer some new interpretations of 4Q185.

The Reading of the Manuscript

Until the present time, readings of 4Q185 give the impression that wisdom is a salient motif
in the composition. Strugnell reads ‫וחכמו מן ]ג[בורת אלהים‬, and translates “draw wisdom from
the mighty Wisdom of God” (1 i 14).998 This reading has also more recently been confirmed
by Qimron. This imperative to “grow wise” is not only difficult on a material basis, but it also
shapes the reading of the instruction as the larger exhortation gets more sapiential value. This
emphasis on wisdom as the main concern in the speech is further grounded by the
interpretation of the beatitudes in the second column and the surrounding text. Strugnell put
wisdom and Torah i parentheses in the beatitudes, and he also suggested a restoration of the
text in col. ii 11, that again enhance the role of wisdom: “He redeems all his people, but he
kills all those who hate [his Wi]sdo[m]” (ii 11). This reading is not supported by the material
data, which has been noted in previous research.999
In recent studies on the role of Torah and wisdom, 4Q185 has played an important

998.
Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 270.
999.
Lichtenberger, “neue Edition,” 139.

- 247 -
role. When the text of 4Q185 provides the basis for such investigations, it requires a careful
evaluation of both certain and non-certain readings.
Through a critical examination of the manuscript and all available photos of 4Q185, I
ׄ
have provided new readings of the text. I suggest a new reading of col. i 14: ‫והכנעו מן ] ג[בורת‬
‫“ אלהינו‬humble yourselves before the [m]ight of our God” (i 14). My reading weakens the
direct link to ‫ חכמה‬and has an impact on this series of exhortations. My reading of ii 12,
‫]ל[כי֯ בה ינחליה‬
֯ ‫וה‬֯ “Those who [w]alk in it will inherit it” (ii 12), strengthens the impression of
moral discourse and Torah obedience.
As a general rule, I suggest that we endorse a minimalistic reading and that we do not
transcribe either “wisdom” or “Torah” in the translation of the text. More specifically, my
analysis warrants a reconsideration of the role of ‫ חכמה‬in 4Q185.

4Q185 and the Wisdom Genre

This study has shown that it is not the generic categorisation of 4Q185 as a wisdom text but
the implications of this that are problematic. 4Q185 is generally referred to as an instruction
that promotes the acquisition of wisdom; however, based on a reading and analysis of the
compositions as a whole, I argue that 4Q185 is an admonition that promotes humility and
repentance and exhorts to walk in the way of Torah.
Repentance is part of the wisdom repertoire, and the humble ones who repent their sin
lead a wise life. However, 4Q185 is not a wisdom discourse. There appears to be no discourse
on Lady Wisdom or wisdom personified, and the antecedent of the feminine suffix is not
necessarily ‫חכמה‬. The admonition employs formal and rhetorical elements found in Proverbs,
but one does not need ‫‘ חכמה‬wisdom’ in order to explain the contents. The “seeking” in
4Q185 is connected with the way of life. The speech also states that those who walk in it,
presumably the way of life, will inherit that which is associated with life, strength, and joy.
Those who don’t will experience destruction. 4Q185 is thus a moral lesson that holds up the
gift of Torah as the solution to human weakness. Wisdom is part of the associative range of
the discourse, yet while 4Q185 has an affiliation with the sapiential literature, the admonition
resembles the instructions in Deuteronomy and the prophetic homily and texts that flow from
these, such as Sirach.
My literary analysis revealed the importance of the Pentateuch and the prophetic
judgment discourse in addition to the sapiential tradition. The rhetorical analysis strengthened
this impression further. The instruction in 4Q185 employs rhetorical tools to arouse emotions
and to induce cooperation. Its strategic manoeuver is to arouse feelings of fear and self-

- 248 -
abasement in order to motivate the addressee. The collage of imagery, associated with
judgment and human finitude, may evoke fear and shame, and thus aid the instruction as a
motivational factor.
In the study of 4Q185, the question of genre does not contribute to our understanding
of the text, rather it appears to limit the reading by forcing an interpretative framework that
affects our understanding of the text. 4Q185 reflects a devotion to piety and urges obedience
of the law. The Torah discourse in 4Q185 is similar to the discourse in 4Q525, but it is not
rooted in Proverbs. In this manner it deviates from the Qumran wisdom texts 4Q184 and
4Q525. In recent scholarship on the wisdom literature, a recurring point put forward is the
association of wisdom with Torah. Ben Sirach does so, and 4Q525 could also be read in this
direction. However, in order to make this point, Sirach mentions both the keeping of the
commandment and wisdom together (Sir 1:26, 15:1, 10:20); moreover wisdom is explicitly
referred to as the book of the covenant (Sir 24).1000 This point is not made in 4Q185, where
there is only one authority: the words of Yahweh.
Is it possible to substantiate the role of ‘wisdom’ and Torah in 4Q185, when the
preserved text does not mention either of the two terms? No, not really. Still, it is a valid
point to make that the sapiential literature of the Second Temple literature is less occupied
with ‘wisdom’ and more oriented towards Torah. 4Q185 fits neatly within this picture. Torah
is not associated with wisdom, it appears to have superseded ‘wisdom.’ While the feminine
suffix remains implicit throughout the extant compositions, the discourse as a whole points in
the direction of Torah. Thus, restoration of humanity is gained by the gift of Torah and its
fulfilment.

New Perspectives on 4Q185

According to my analysis of 4Q185, the use of poetic imagery and historical motifs follows
“judgment and restoration patterns” in the Hebrew Bible. Scriptural motif complexes aid the
understanding of 4Q185. Themes are cognitive placeholders which supply authors with
phraseology and motifs. Hence, when 4Q185 “feels” similar to Isaiah, the description of that
particular phenomenon is not necessarily that 4Q185 alludes to Isaiah, rather that the book of
Isaiah constitutes patterns of themes and motifs that are used by an author. Similarly, when
wanting to describe that 4Q185 and 4Q370 share a textual passage so similar that one may
talk of a textual overlap, and simultaneously so different that the two text appear to allude to
different source texts, the terminology of intertextuality does not sufficiently pinpoint the

1000.
Berg, “Ben Sira, the Genesis Creation Accounts, and the Knowledge of God’s Will,” 141.

- 249 -
phenomenon.
The author of 4Q185 mediates tradition, and the themes of the speech are drawn from
a broader pool than just wisdom literature. This selection of phraseology and motifs is a
product of the creative mind of an author who plays with cultural heritage, but it is also a
matter of exegetical work. When the author imitates patterns of motifs found in texts with
penitential overtones, it is likely that this is a concern for the didacticism of the speech. The
wisdom of 4Q185 is found within the stories of the Pentateuch and the prophetic homilies.
The established ideas of the wisdom genre has narrowed down the potential
interpretations of 4Q185 and previous research has overlooked essential aspects in the
speech. My reading values its polythetic character, maps variety and shifting clusters instead
of chasing the essence of a category.

- 250 -
‫‪Appendix I‬‬
‫‪Isa 40:6–8 is witnessed by 1QIsaa and Isa 41:11–12 is witnessed by 1QIsab.‬‬

‫‪4Q185 1–2 i 9b–12a‬‬ ‫‪1QIsaa‬‬ ‫)‪1QIsab (41:11–12‬‬

‫‪(4QIsab frgs. 26 and 27 attest the‬‬

‫)‪same text for Isa 40:26 and 41:11‬‬

‫[כי הנׄה‬ ‫ואתם בני אדם א]‬ ‫‪ (40:6–8) No text has survived‬כול הבשר‬

‫ׄ‬
‫יפרח‬ ‫ׄ‬
‫מארצו‬ ‫‪ from this passage‬הציר וכול חסדיו כציצ השדה יבש חציר נבל ‪ 10‬כח]צ[יר יצמח‬
‫כי רוח ◦◦◦◦ נשבהבוא הכן חציר העם יבש חציל נבל ציצ ודבר‬
‫נשב]ה ‪[ --‬רוחו‬
‫כציץ חסדו ֯‬ ‫ציצ‬

‫‪ 11‬ויבש עגזו וציצו תשא רוׄח עד‬ ‫אלוהינו ודבר אלוהינו יקום לעולם‬
‫אנ יקום לע]מוד ‪ -‬ויא[בד‬

‫‪12‬ולא ימצא כי רוח‬

‫)‪ 1001(24‬אפ בל נטע‬

‫אפ בל זרעו אפ בל שרש בארץ גזעם וגם‬
‫נשף בהם ויבשו וסערה כקש תשאם‬

‫)‪(41:11‬הןיבושו ויכלמו כול הנחרים בכה ]] [[ יׄבקשוהו ולא ימצאהו ואין‬ ‫)‪ (41:11‬הן יבשו ויכלמו כל‬
‫מקוה‬ ‫יובדו כול אנשי ריבכה‬ ‫‪1002‬‬
‫הנחרים בך והיו כאין ויבשו‬
‫אנשי ריבך )‪ (12‬תבקשם ולא‬
‫‪vacat‬‬
‫תמצאם אנשי מצתך יהיו כאין‬
‫)‪ (12‬ואנשי מצתכה יהיו כאין וכאפס אנשי‬
‫וכאפס אנשי מלחמתך‬
‫מלחמתכה‬

‫‪1001.‬‬
‫[אף בל שרש בארץ גזעם וגם נשף בהם ויבשו ‪The preserved text in 4QIsab (Isa 24b) reads‬‬ ‫א]פ[ ]‬
‫‪1002.‬‬
‫‪.‬אבד ‪MT has‬‬

‫‪- 251 -‬‬

Appendix II

These are images taken by Elgvin at IAA in March 2013 using a Dino-Lite microscope.

4Q370 1 i 5

֯‫“ ֯ע ֯ברו‬they transgressed”

4Q370 1 i 6

‫]מ[ת‬
֯ ֯‫“ ו֯ י‬they [di]ed”

No letters are readable. The suggested reading of

the word appears to be based on the literary
context.

- 252 -
Bibliography

Aadland, Ingunn. “A Forgotten Deuteronomy Fragment.” Revue de Qumran 103 (2014):

425–429.
Allegro, J. M. Qumrân Cave 4: I (4Q158–4Q186). Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of
Jordan 5. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968.
Allen, Leslie C. Psalms 101–150. Word Biblical Commentary 21. Dallas: Word Books, 1983.
Argall, Randal A. 1 Enoch and Sirach. A Comparative Literary and Conceptual Analysis of
the Themes of Revelation, Creation and Judgment. Society of Biblical Literature
Early Judaism and Its Literature 8. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995.
Arnold, Russel C.D. “The Dead Sea Scrolls, Qumran, and Ritual Studies.” Pages 547–562 in
The Dead Sea Scrolls in Context: Integrating the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Study of
Ancient Texts, Languages, and Cultures. Edited by Armin Lange, Emanuel Tov, and
Matthias Weigold. Leiden: Brill, 2011.
Baillet, M. Qumran Grotte 4. III (4Q482–4Q520). DJD 7. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.
Bakhtin, M. M. and Michael Holquist. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. University of
Texas Press Slavic series. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981.
Balentine, Samuel E. “‘I was Ready to be Sought out by Those who did not ask’.” Pages 1–
20 in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1: The Origin of Penitential Prayer in Second
Temple Judaism 21. Edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline.
Atlanta: SBL, 2006.
Barton, John. Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study. Louisville: Westminster
John Knox Press, 1996.
Baumann, Gerlinde. “A Figure with many Facets: The Literary and Theological Functions of
Personified Wisdom in Proverbs 1–9.” Pages 44–78 in Wisdom and Psalms: A
Feminist Companion to the Bible. Edited by Athalya Brenner and Carole R. Fontaine.
Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1998.
Baumgarten, J. M. Qumran Cave 4. XIII: The Damascus Document (4Q266–273). DJD 18.
Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
Bearman, Gregory, Stephen J. Pfann, and Sheila I. Spiro. “Imaging the Scrolls: Photographic
and Direct Digital Acquisition.” Pages 472–495 in The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty
Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, vol. 1. Edited by Peter W. Flint and James C.
Vanderkam with the Assistance of Andrea E. Leiden: Brill, 1998.
Beentjes, Pancratius C. The Book of Ben Sira in Hebrew: A Text Edition of all Extant Hebrew
Manuscripts and a Synopsis of all Parallel Hebrew Ben Sira Texts. Supplements to
Vetus Testamentum 68. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
———. “The Book of Ben Sirach and Deuteronomistic Heritage.” Pages 275–296 in
Changes in Scripture: Rewriting and Interpreting Authoritative Traditions in the
Second Temple Period. Edited by Hanne von Weissenberg, Juha Pakkala, and Marko
Marttila. Göttingen: De Gruyter, 2011.
Bell, Catherine. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Berg, Shane. “Ben Sira, the Genesis Creation Accounts, and the Knowledge of God’s Will.”
Journal of Biblical Literature 132 (2013): 139–157.
Berge, Kåre. “Didacticism in Exodus?”. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 22
(2008): 3–28.
Berlin, Adele. “Qumran Laments and the Study of Lament Literature.” Pages 1–17 in
Liturgical Perspectives: Prayer and Poetry in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls:
Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of
the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 19–23, January, 2000. Edited by

- 253 -
 Ester G. Chazon, Ruth A. Clements, and Avital Pinnick. Studies on the Texts of the
Desert of Judah 48. Leiden: Brill, 2003.
Bester, Dörte. Körperbilder in den Psalmen: Studien zu den Psalm 22 und verwandten
Texten. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe 24. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
2007.
Blanton, Thomas R. Constructing a New Covenant: Discursive Strategies in the Damascus
Document and Second Corinthians. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen
Testament 2. Reihe 233. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary. Old Testament Library. London:
SCM, 1989.
Boda, Mark J. Praying the Tradition: The Origin and Use of Tradition in Nehemiah 9.
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 277. Berlin: Walter de
Gruyter, 1999.
Brooke, George J. “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran.” Pages 287–319 in The Bible and the
Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by James H. Charlesworth. Waco: Baylor University Press,
2006.
———. “Biblical Interpretation in the Wisdom Texts from Qumran.” Pages 201–220 in The
Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought. Edited by
Charlotte Hempel, Armin Lange, and Hermann Lichtenberger. Bibliotheca
Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 159. Leuven: Leuven University Press,
2002.
———. “The Books of Chronicles and the Scrolls from Qumran.” Pages 35–48 in Reflection
and Refraction. Studies in Biblical Historiography in Honour of A. Graame Auld.
Edited by Robert Rezetko, Timothy H. Lim, and W. Brian Aucker. Supplements to
Vetus Testamentum 113. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
———. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005.
———. “Genre Theory, Rewritten Bible and Pesher.” Dead Sea Discoveries 17 (2010): 361–
386.
———. “Psalms 105 and 106 at Qumran.” Revue de Qumran 14, no. 2 (1989): 267–292.
———. “Scripture and Scriptural Tradition in Transmission: Light from the Dead Sea
Scrolls.” Pages 1–17 in The Scrolls and Biblical Traditions: Proceedings of the
Seventh Meeting of the 1OQS in Helsinki. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah
103. Edited by George J. Brooke, Daniel K. Falk, Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, and Molly
M. Zahn. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Brown, Gavin. “Theorizing Ritual as Performance: Explorations of Ritual Indeterminacy.”
JRS 17, no. 1 (2003): 3–18.
Burke, Kenneth and Joseph R. Gusfield. On Symbols and Society. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1989.
Campbell, Jonathan. “Hebrew and its Study at Qumran.” Pages 38–52 in Hebrew Study from
Ezra to Ben-Yehuda. Edited by William Horbury. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999.
Campbell, Jonathan G. “Rewritten Bible: A Terminological Reassessment.” Pages 49–81 in
Rewritten Bible after Fifty Years: Texts, Terms, or Techniques? A Last Dialogue with
Vermes. Edited by József Zsegellér. Supplements to Journal for the Study of Judaism
166. Leiden: Brill, 2014.
Carr, David McLain. The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A new Reconstruction. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2011.
———. Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature. Oxford
Oxford University Press, 2005.
Chazon, Esther G. “4QDibHam: Liturgy or Literature?”. Revue de Qumran 15 (1992): 447–
455.
———. “Daily or Festival Prayers?”. Pages 23–34 in ‘Go Out and Study the Land’ (Judges

- 254 -
 18:2): Archaeological, Historical and Textual Studies in Honor of Hanan Eshel.
Edited by Hanan Eshel, Aren M. Maeir, Jodi Magness, and Lawrence Schiffman.
Supplements to Journal for the Study of Judaism 148. Leiden: Brill, 2011.
———. “Is Divei Ha-me’orot a Sectarian Prayer?”. Pages 3–17 in The Dead Sea Scrolls:
Forty Years of Research. Edited by Devorah Dimant and Uriel Rappaport. Studies on
the Texts of the Desert of Judah 10. Leiden: Brill, 1992.
———. “Lowly to Lofty: The Hodayot’s Use of Liturgical Traditions to Shape Sectarian
Identity and Religious Experience.” Revue de Qumran 26 (2013): 3–19.
———. “Scripture and Prayer in ‘The Words of the Luminaries’.” Pages 25–41 in Prayers
that Cite Scripture. Edited by James L. Kugel. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
2006.
———. “The Words of the Luminaries and Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Times.”
Pages 177–186 in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2. The Development of Penitential
Prayer in Second Temple Judaism. Edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and
Rodney A. Werline. Early Judaism and Its Literature 22. Leiden: Brill 2007.
Clark, Gordon R. The Word Hesed in the Hebrew Bible. Journal for the Study of the Old
Testament Supplement 157. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993.
Collins, John J. Beyond the Qumran Community: The Sectarian Movement of the Dead Sea
Scrolls. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.
———. “Epilogue: Genre Analysis and the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Dead Sea Discoveries 17
(2010): 418–430.
———. “Introduction: Towards the Morphology of a Genre.” Semeia 14 (1979): 1–20.
———. “Prayer and Meaning of Ritual in the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 69–86 in Prayer and
Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen
Schuller of Her 65th Birthday. Edited by Jeremy Penner, Ken M. Penner, and Cecilia
Wassen. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 98. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
———. “The Transformation of the Torah in Second Temple Judaism.” Journal for the study
of Judaism 43 (2012): 455–474.
Connerton, Paul. How Societies Remember. Themes in the Social Sciences. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Crawford, Sidnie White. “Lady Wisdom and Dame Folly at Qumran.” Dead Sea Discoveries
5 (1998): 355–366.
———. Rewriting Scripture in Second Temple Times. Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and
Related Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008.
Crenshaw, James L. Hymnic Affirmation of Divine Justice: The Doxologies of Amos and
Related Texts in the Old Testament. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1975.
———. Old Testament Wisdom. An Introduction. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1982.
Cross, Frank Moore. “Some Notes on a Generation of Qumran Studies.” Pages 1–14 in The
Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead
Sea Scrolls, Madrid 18–21 March, 1991. Edited by Julio Trebolle Barrera and Luis
Vegas Montaner. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 11. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill,
1992.
Daffern, Megan I. J. “Prayers for Remembering in the Psalms.” Ph.D diss., University of
Oxford, 2014.
Damasio, Antonio R. Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. London:
Picador, 1994.
———. “A Second Chance for Emotions.” In Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion. Edited by
Richard D. Lane and Lynn Nadel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Davidsen, Maxwell J. Angels at Qumran. A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1–26, 72–108 and
Sectarian Writings from Qumran. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha

- 255 -
 Supplement Series 11. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992.
Davies, Philip R. The Damascus Covenant: An Interpretation of the “Damascus Document.”
Sheffield: JSOTSup, 1982.
———. Scribes and Schools: the Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures. Library of Ancient
Israel. 1st ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.
Davis, Kipp. The Cave 4 Apocryphon of Jeremiah and the Qumran Jeremianic Traditions:
Prophetic Persona and the Construction of Community Identity. Studies on the Texts
of the Desert of Judah 111. Leiden: Brill, 2014.
De Roo, Jacqueline C.R. “Is 4Q525 a Qumran Sectarian Document?”. Pages 338–367 in The
Scrolls and the Scriptures: Qumran Fifty Years After. Edited by Stanley E. Porter and
Craig A. Evans. The Library of Second Temple Studies 26. Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1997.
Delcor, M. Qumran sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu. Bibliotheca ephemeridum
theologicarum Lovaniensium 46. Paris: Ducolot, 1978.
Dimant, Devorah. “Qumran Sectarian Literature.” Pages 483–550 in Jewish Writings of the
Second Temple Period: Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, Qumran Sectarian Writings,
Philo, Josephus. Edited by E. Michael Stone. Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad
Novum Testamentum 2/2. Van Gorcum: Fortress Press, 1984.
———. “The Vocabulary of the Qumran Sectarian Texts.” Pages 347–395 in Qumran und die
Archäologie. Edited by Carten Claussen Jörg Frey, Nadine Kessler. Wissenschaftliche
Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 278. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011.
Dimant, Devorah and Reinhard Gregor Kratz. Rewriting and Interpreting the Hebrew Bible:
The Biblical Patriarchs in the Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift
für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 439. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013.
Ehrlich, Uri. The Nonverbal Language of Prayer: A new Approach to Jewish Liturgy. Texts
and Studies in Ancient Judaism 105. Tü bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004.
Elgvin, Torleif. “The Use of Scripture in 1Q/4QMysteries.” Pages 117–131 in New
Perspectives on Old Texts. Edited by E. G. Chazon and Betsy Halpern-Amaru. Studies
on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 88. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
———. “The Yahad is More then Qumran.” Pages 273–279 in Enoch and Qumran Origins:
New light on a Forgotten Connection. Edited by Gabriele Boccaccini. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2005.
Falk, Daniel K. “Biblical Adaption in 4Q392 Works of God and 4Q393 Communal
Confession.” Pages 126–146 in The Provo International Conference on the Dead Sea
Scrolls: Technological Innovations, New Texts, and Reformulated Issues. Edited by
Donald W. Parry and Eugene Ulrich. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 30.
Leiden: Brill, 1999.
———. Daily, Sabbath, and Festival Prayers in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Studies on the Texts of
the Desert of Judah 27. Leiden: Brill, 1998.
———. “Qumran and the Synagogue Liturgy.” In The Ancient Synagogue From Its Origins
until 200 C.E. Papers presented at an International Conference at Lund University,
October 14–17, 2001. Edited by Birger Olsson and Magnus Zetterholm. Coniectanea
Biblica New Testament 39. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International, 2003.
———. “Scriptural Inspiration for Penitential Prayer in the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 127–
157 in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2. The Development of Penitential Prayer in
Second Temple Judaism. Edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney Alan
Werline. Early Judaism and Its Literature 22. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Feldman, Ariel. “The Reworking of the Biblical Flood Story in 4Q370.” Henoch 29 (2007):
31–49.
Fields, Weston W. Sodom and Gomorrah: History and Motif in Biblical Narrative. Journal
for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement 231. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic

- 256 -
 Press, 1997.
Finsterbusch, Karin. Deuteronomium: Eine Einführung. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 2012.
———. Weisung für Israel: Studien zu religiösem Lehren und Lernen im Deuteronomium
und in seinem Umfeld. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 44. Tübingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 2005.
Firth, J. R. “Modes of Meaning.” Essays and Studies (1951): 190–215.
Fishbane, Michael. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.
Fishbane, Michael “Use, Authority and Interpretation of Mikra at Qumran.” Pages 339–377
in Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading, and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in
Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity. Edited by Martin Jan Mulder. Compendia
Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum 2/1. Van Gorcum: Fortress Press, 1988.
Flint, Peter. “Interpreting the Poetry of Isaiah at Qumran.” Pages 161–96 in Prayer and
Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen
Schuller of Her 65th Birthday. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 98. Edited
by Jeremy Penner, Ken Penner, and Cecilia Wassen. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Flint, Peter W. and James C. Vanderkam with the Assistance of Andrea E. Alvarez. The Dead
Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, vol. 1. Leiden: Brill,
1998.
Fraade, Steven D. “Concepts of Scripture in Rabbinic Judaism: Oral Torah and Written
Torah.” Pages 31–46 in Jewish Concepts of Scripture: A Comparative Introduction.
Edited by Benjamin D. Sommer. New York: NYU Press, 2012.
Freedman, David Noel. “The Evolution of Hebrew Orthography.” Pages 3–15 in Studies in
Hebrew and Aramaic Orthography. Edited by David Noel Freedman, Dean A. Forbes,
and Francis I. Andersen. Biblical and Judaic Studies 2. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns,
1992.
Fröhlich, Ida. “Defining Sectarian by ‘Non-Sectarian’ Narratives in Qumran.” Pages 63–86 in
Sects and Sectarianism in Jewish History. Edited by Sacha Stern. Studies in Judaica
12. Leiden: Brill, 2011.
Fry, Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov with the assistance of Nehemia Gordon and Ferek,
ed. Texts Concerned with Religious Law. Vol. 1. The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader.
Leiden: Brill, 2004.
Gärtner, Judith. Die Geschichtspsalmen: Eine Studie zu den Psalmen 78, 105, 106, 135 und
136 als hermeneutische Schlüsseltexte im Psalter. Forschungen zum Alten Testament
84. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012.
Gillmayr-Bucher, Susanne. “Body Images in the Psalms.” Journal for the Study of the Old
Testament 28, no. 3 (2004): 301–326.
Goff, Matthew J. 4QInstruction. Wisdom Literature from the Ancient World 2. Atlanta: SBL,
2013.
———. Discerning Wisdom: The Sapiential Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Supplements
to Vetus Testamentum 116. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
———. “Hellish Females: The Strange Woman of Septuagint Proverbs and 4QWiles of the
Wicked Woman (4Q184).” Journal for the study of Judaism 39 (2008): 20–45.
———. “Qumran Wisdom Literature and the Problem of Genre.” Dead Sea Discoveries 17
(2010): 315–335.
Goldingay, John. Daniel. Word Biblical Commentary 30. Dallas: Word Books, 1989.
Goldman, Liora. “The Exegesis and Structure of Pesharim in the Damascus Document.”
Pages 193–202 in The Dynamics of Language and Exegesis at Qumran. Edited by
Devorah Dimant and Reinhard G. Kratz. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe
35. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.
Granerød, Gard. Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in

- 257 -
 Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft 406. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010.
Harkins, Angela Kim. “The Performative Reading of the Hodayot: The Arousal of Emotions
and the Exegetical Generation of Texts.” Journal for the Study of Pseudepigrapha 21
(2011): 55–71.
Harrington, Daniel J. Wisdom Texts from Qumran. The Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
London: Routledge, 1996.
Hartley, John E. Leviticus 1–27. Word Biblical Commentary 4. Dallas: Word Books, 1992.
Hasselbalch, Trine Bjørung. The Redactional Meaning of 1QHodayot. Linguistic and
Rhetorical Perspectives on a Heterogenous Collection of Prayer Texts from Qumran.
Ph.D. diss., University of Copenhagen, 2011.
Hayes, Katherine M. “The Earth Mourns”: Prophetic Metaphor and Oral Aesthetic.
Academia Biblica 8. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
———. “When None Repents, Earth Laments: The Chorus of Lament in Jeremiah and Joel.”
Pages 119–143 in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 1: The Origins of Penitential Prayer
in Second Temple Judaism. Edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A.
Werline. Early Judaism and Its Literature 21. Atlanta: SBL, 2006.
Hempel, Charlotte. “Community Structures in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Admission,
Organization, Disciplinary Produces.” Pages 67–92 in vol. 2 of The Dead Sea Scrolls
After Fifty Years. A Comprehensive Assessment. 2 vols. Edited by Peter W. Flint and
James C. Vanderkam with the assistance of Andrea E. Alvarez. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
———. “The Literary Development of the S Tradition.” Revue de Qumran 87 (2006): 389–
401.
———. “Shared Traditions: Points of Contact Between S and D.” Pages 115–132 in The
Dead Sea Scrolls: Transmission of Traditions and Production of Texts. Edited by
Sarianna Metso. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 92. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
Hempel, Charlotte, Armin Lange, and Hermann Lichtenberger. The Wisdom Texts from
Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum
theologicarum Lovaniensium 159. Leuven: Peeters, 2002.
Hezser, Catherine. Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism
81, Tü bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001.
Holladay, William Lee and Paul D. Hanson. Jeremiah 1: A Commentary on the Book of the
Prophet Jeremiah, Chapters 1–25. Hermeneia–A Critical and Historical Commentary
on the Bible. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, Erich Zenger, Linda M. Maloney, and Klaus Baltzer. Psalms 2: A
Commentary on Psalms 51–100. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005.
Hughes, Julie. Scriptural Allusions and Exegesis in the Hodayot. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
Huizenga, Leroy Andrew. The New Isaac: Tradition and Intertextuality in the Gospel of
Matthew. Novum Testamentum Supplements 131. Leiden Brill, 2009.
Japhet, Sara. I & II Chronicles: A Commentary. London: SCM, 1993.
Jenni, Ernst and Claus Westermann. Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. 3 vols.
Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997.
Justnes, Årstein. “The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa) and Material Philology: Preliminary
Observations and a Proposal.” Pages 91–113 in New Studies in the Book of Isaiah:
Essays in Honor of Hallvard Hagelia. Edited by Markus Zehnder. Perspectives on
Hebrew Scriptures and its Contexts 21. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2014.
Kampen, John. “The Diverse Aspects of Wisdom in the Qumran Texts.” Pages 211–243 in
vol. 1 of The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years. A Comprehensive Assessment. 2 vols.
Edited by Peter W. Flint and James C. Vanderkam with the assistance of Andrea E.
Alvarez. Leiden: Brill, 1998.
———. Wisdom Literature. Eerdmans Commentaries on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand

- 258 -
 Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011.
Kazen, Thomas. Emotions in Biblical Law: A Cognitive Science Approach. Sheffield:
Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2011.
Kister, Menahem. “Wisdom Literature and its Relation to Other Genres: From Ben Sira to
Mysteries.” Pages 13–47 in Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the
Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion
Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 20–22 May,
2001. Edited by Ruth Clements, John J. Collins, and Gregory E. Sterling. Studies on
the Texts of the Desert of Judah 51. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
Klawans, Jonathan. Impurity and Sin in Ancient Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000.
Klein, Anja. Geschichte und Gebet: Die Rezeption der biblischen Geschichte in den Psalmen
des Alten Testaments. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 94. Tübingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 2014.
Klein, Ralph W. and Thomas Krü ger. 1 Chronicles: A Commentary. Hermeneia. Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 2006.
Knibb, M.A. “The Book of Enoch in the Light of the Qumran Wisdom Literature.” Pages
193–210 in Wisdom and Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical
Tradition. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 163. Edited by
Florentino García Martínez. Leuven: University Press, 2003.
Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm “‫ט‬-‫ע‬.” In The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of
the Old Testament. Translated and edited under the supervision of M. E. J.
Richardson. Leiden: Brill, 1995.
Körting, Corinna. “Jerusalem, City of God (4Q380 1 I 1–11).” Pages 217–28 in Prayer and
Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen
Schuller of Her 65th Birthday. Edited by Jeremy Penner, Ken M. Penner, and Cecilia
Wassen. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 98. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Kratz, Reinhard G. “Laws of Wisdom: Sapiential Traits in the Rule of the Community (1QS
5–7).” Pages 133–145 in Hebrew in the Second Temple Period. Edited by Steven E.
Fassberg, Moshe Bar-Asher, and Ruth A. Clements. Studies on the Texts of the Desert
of Judah 108. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
———. “Rewriting Torah in the Hebrew Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 273–292 in
Wisdom and Torah: The Reception of ‘Torah’ in the Wisdom Literature of the Second
Temple Period. Edited by Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter. Supplements to
the Journal for the Study of Judaism 163. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. European
Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.
Lange, Armin. “Die Weisheitstexte aus Qumran: Eine Einleitung.” Pages 3–30 in The
Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought. Edited by
Charlotte Hempel, Armin Lange, and Hermann Lichtenberger. Bibliotheca
Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 159. Leuven: Leuven University Press,
2002.
Lange, Armin and Matthias Weigold. Biblical Quotations and Allusion in Second Temple
Jewish Literature. Edited by Armin Lange, Bernhard Levinson, and Vered Noam.
Journal of Ancient Judaism Supplements 5. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht,
2011.
Lesley, Michael J. “Exegetical Wiles: 4Q184 as Scriptural Interpretation.” Pages 107–142 in
The Scrolls and Biblical Traditions: Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the IOQS
in Helsinki. Edited by G. Brooke, D. Falk, E. Tigchelaar, and M. Zahn. Studies on the
Texts of the Desert of Judah 103. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Lichtenberger, Hermann. “Der Weisheitstext 4Q185—Eine neue Edition.” Pages 127–150 in

- 259 -
 The Wisdom Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought. Edited
by Charlotte Hempel, A. Lange and H. Lichtenberger. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum
theologicarum Lovaniensium 159. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2002.
———. “Eine Weisheitliche Mahnrede in den Qumranfunden (4Q185).” Pages 151–162 in
Qumran. Sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu. Edited by Mathias Delcor. Bibliotheca
Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 46. Paris: Ducolot, University Press,
1978.
Lied, Liv Ingeborg. “Text–Work–Manuscript: What is an ‘Old Testament
Pseudepigraphon’?”. Journal for the Study of Pseudepigrapha 25 (2015): 150–165.
Løland, Hanne. Silent or Salient Gender?: The Interpretation of Gendered God-Language in
the Hebrew Bible, Exemplified in Isaiah 42, 46 and 49. Forschungen zum Alten
Testament 2. Reihe 32. Tü bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008.
Longacre, Drew. “Developmental Stage, Scribal Lapse, or Physical Defect? 1QIsaa’s
Damaged Exemplar for Isaiah Chapters 34–66.” Dead Sea Discoveries 20 (2013): 17–
50.
Lundbom, Jack R. Deuteronomy: A Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2013.
Magness, Jodi. The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans 2002.
———. “Methods and Theories in the Archeology of Qumran: An Assessment of Old and
New Approaches and Methods.” Pages 89–107 in Rediscovering the Dead Sea
Scrolls. Edited by Maxine L. Grossman. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.
Martin G. Abegg, Jr. “Linguistic Profile of the Isaiah Scrolls.” In Qumran Cave 1, II: The
Isaiah Scrolls. Part 2. Edited by Eugene Ulrich and Peter W. Flint. DJD 32. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 2010.
Marttila, Marko and Mika S. Pajunen. “Wisdom, Israel and Other Nations: Perspectives from
the Hebrew Bible, Deuterocanonical Literature, and the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Journal of
Ancient Judaism 4, no. 1 (2013): 2–26.
Metso, Sarianna. The Serekh Texts. London: T & T Clark, 2007.
———. The Textual Development of the Qumran Community Rule. Studies on the Texts of
the Desert of Judah 21. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
Murphy, Roland Edmund. The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature.
3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002.
Najman, Hindy. “The Idea of Biblical Genre.” Pages 307–321 in Prayer and Poetry in the
Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of Eileen Schuller of Her
65th Birthday. Edited by Jeremy Penner, Ken Penner, and Cecilia Wassen. Studies on
the Texts of the Desert of Judah 98. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Nel, Philip Johannes. The Structure and Ethos of the Wisdom Admonitions in Proverbs.
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 158. Berlin: W. de
Gruyter, 1982.
Newman, Judith H. “The Form and Setting of the Prayer in the Dead Sea Scrolls.” In Seeking
the Favor of God, vol. 2: The Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple
Judaism. Edited by Daniel K. Falk and Rodney A. Werline Mark J. Boda. Early
Judaism and Its Literature 22. Brill: Leiden, 2007.
———. “The Scripturalization of Prayer in Exilic and Second Temple Judaism.” Pages 7–24
in Prayers that Cite Scripture. Edited by James L. Kugel. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2006.
Newsom, Carol A. “4Q370: An Admonition Based on the Flood.” Revue de Qumran 13
(1988): 23–43.
———.“Admonition on the Flood.” Pages 85–97 in Qumran Cave 4 XIV: Parabiblical texts,
part 2. Edited by Magen Broshi, Esther Eshel, Joseph Fitzmeyer, Erik Larson, Carol
A. Newsom, Lawrence Schiffman, Mark Smith, et al. DJD 19. Oxford: Clarendon

- 260 -
 Press, 1995.
———. “The Development of 1 Enoch 6–19: Cosmology and Judgment.” Catholic Biblical
Quarterly 42, no. 3 (1980): 310–329.
———. “Flesh, Spirit, and the Indigenous Psychology of the Hodayot.” Pages 339–354 in
Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Essays in Honor of
Eileen Schuller of Her 65th Birthday. Edited by Jeremy Penner, Ken Penner, and
Cecilia Wassen. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 98. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
———. “Pairing Research Questions and Theories on Genre: A Case study of the Hodayot.”
Dead Sea Discoveries 17 (2010): 241–259.
———. “Rhetorical Criticism and the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 198–214 in Methods and
Theories in the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by Maxine L. Grossman. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.
———. “‘Sectually Explicit’ Literature from Qumran.” Pages 167–188 in Hebrew Bible and
its Interpreters. Edited by William Henry Propp, Baruch Halpern, and David Noel
Freedman. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990.
———. The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran.
Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 52. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
———. “Spying out the Land: A Report from Genology.” Pages 19–30 in Bakhtin and Genre
Theory in Biblical Studies. Edited by Roland Boer. Atlanta: SBL, 2007.
Nickelsburg, George W. E. “Wisdom and Apocalypticism in Early Judaism: Some Points for
Discussion.” Pages 17–37 in Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism.
Edited by Benjamin G. Wright III and Lawrence M. Wills. Society of Biblical
Literature 35. Atlanta: SBL, 2005.
Nickelsburg, George W. E., Klaus Baltzer, and James C. VanderKam. 1 Enoch: A
Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch. Hermeneia. 2 vols. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001.
Nickelsburg, George W. E. and James C. VanderKam. 1 Enoch: A new Translation: Based on
the Hermeneia Commentary. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Nitzan, Bilhah. “Education and Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls in Light of their Background
in Antiquity.” Pages 97–116 in New Perspectives on Old Texts. Edited by Betsy
Halpern-Amaru Esther G. Chazon, in collaboration with Ruth A. Clemens. Studies on
the Texts of the Desert of Judah 88. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
———. Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah
12. Leiden: Brill, 1994.
———. “Repentance in the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 145–170 in The Dead Sea Scrolls after
Fifty Years. Edited by Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
Norton, Jonathan. Contours in the text. Textual Variation in the Writings of Paul, Josephus
and the Yahad. Library of New Testament Studies 430. London: T&T Clark, 2011.
———. “The Question of ‘Scribal Exegesis’ at Qumran.” Pages 135–154 in Northern Lights
on the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings of the Nordic Qumran Network 2003–2006.
Edited by Anders Klostergaard Petersen, Torleif Elgvin, Cecilia Wassen, Hanne von
Weissenberg, Mikael Winninge, and assistant editor Martin Ehrensvä rd. Leiden: Brill,
2009.
Noth, Martin. Leviticus: A Commentary [in Rev. translation of: Das dritte Buch Mose,
Leviticus.]. 2nd. ed. London: SCM 1977 (1981 printing).
Olson, Dennis T. “Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts with English Translations.
Pseudepigraphic and Non-Masoretic Psalms and Prayers.” Chaps. 235–285 In The
Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by James H. Charlesworth. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997.
Pajunen, Mika S. “4QSapiential Admonitions B (4Q185): Unsolved Challenges of the
Hebrew Text.” Pages 191–220 in The Mermaid and the Partridge. Essays from the
Copenhagen Conference on Revising Texts from Cave Four. Edited by George J.
Brooke and Jesper Høgenhaven. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 96.

- 261 -
 Leiden: Brill, 2011.
———. The Land to the Elect and Justice for All: Reading Psalms in the Dead Sea Scrolls in
Light of 4Q381. Journal of Ancient Judaism Supplements 14. Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 2013.
Parry, Donald W. and Emanuel Tov. Poetic and Liturgical Texts. The Dead Sea Scrolls
Reader 5. Leiden Brill, 2005.
Penner, Jeremy. “Mapping Fixed Prayers from the Dead Sea Scrolls onto Second Temple
Period Judaism.” Dead Sea Discoveries 21 (2014): 39–63.
———. “With the Coming Light, At the Appointed Time of Night: Daily Prayer and Its
Importance at Qumran.” Journal of Ancient Judaism 4, no. 1 (2013): 27–47.
Peters, Dorothy M. Noah Traditions in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Conversations and
Controversies of Antiquity. Edited by Judith Newman. Early Judaism and Its
Literature 26. Atlanta: SBL, 2008.
Petersen, Anders Klostergaard. “Textual Fidelity, Elaboration, Supersession or
Encroachment? Typological Reflections on the Phenomenon Rewritten Scripture.”
Pages 13–48 in Rewritten Bible after Fifty Years: Texts, Terms, or Techniques? A Last
Dialogue with Vermes. Edited by József Zsegellér. Supplements to Journal for the
Study of Judaism 166. Leiden: Brill, 2014.
Puech, Émile. Qumran Grotte 4. XVIII. DJD 25. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.
Qimron, Elisha. The Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew Writings. Vol. 2 of The Dead Sea Scrolls:
The Hebrew Writings. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2013.
———. “Improving the Editions of the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 135–145 in Meghillot 1.
Edited by Moshe Bar-Asher and Devorah Dimant. Jerusalem: Haifa University Press,
2003.
Qimron, Elisha and James H. Charlesworth. “Rule of Community (1QS).” Pages 1–52 in The
Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts with English Translations. Rule
of Community and Related Documents. Edited by James H. Charlesworth. Tübingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1994.
Regt, Lénart de. “Rhetorical Questions in the Book of Job.” In Biblical Hebrew and
Discourse Linguistics. Edited by Robert D. Bergen. Wiona Lake: Summer Institutes
of Linguistics, Inc, 1994.
Reymond, Eric D. Qumran Hebrew: An Overview of Orthography, Phonology, and
Morphology. Resources for Biblical Study 76. Edited by Marwin A. Sweeney.
Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2014.
Reynolds, Kent Aaron. Torah as Teacher: The Exemplary Torah Student in Psalm 119.
Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 137. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
Runesson, Anders. The Origins of the Synagogue: A Socio-Historical Study. Stockholm:
Almqvist & Wiksell, 2001.
Runesson, Anders, Donald D. Binder, and Birger Olsson. The Ancient Synagogue from its
Origins to 200 C.E.: A Source Book. Ancient Judaism and early Christianity 72,
Leiden Brill, 2008.
Sæbø, Magne. “‫אשר‬.” Pages 258–259 in Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten
Testament: Band I. Edited by Claus Westermann Ernst Jenni. München: Chr. Kaiser
Verlag, 1971.
Sanders, James A. The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967.
Schams, Christine. Jewish Scribes in the Second-Temple Period. Journal for the Study of the
Old Testament Supplement 291. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998.
Schaper, Joachim. “The Living Word Engraved in Stone: The Interrelationship of the Oral
and the Written and the Culture of Memory in the Books of Deuteronomy and
Joshua.” Pages 9–23 in Memory in the Bible and Antiquity: The Fifth Durham-
Tübingen Research Symposium (Durham, September 2004). Edited by Loren T.

- 262 -
 Stuckenbruck, Stephen C. Barton, and Benjamin G. Wold. Wissenschaftliche
Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 212. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007.
Schiffman, Lawrence H. “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the early History of Jewish Liturgy.”
Pages 33–48 in The Synagogue in Late Antiquity. Edited by Lee. I. Levine.
Philadelphia: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1987.
Schofield, Alison. From Qumran to the Yahad: A New Paradigm of Textual Development for
The Community Rule. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 77. Leiden: Brill,
2009.
Schoors, A. “The Language of the Qumran Sapiential Works.” Pages 61–95 in The Wisdom
Texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought. Edited by Armin
Lange, Charlotte Hempel, and Hermann Lichtenberger. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum
theologicarum Lovaniensium 159. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2002.
Schuller, Eileen M. “Afterword.” Pages 227–237 in Seeking the Favor of God, vol. 2: The
Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism. Edited by Mark J.
Boda, Daniel K. Falk, and Rodney A. Werline. Early Judaism and Its Literature 22.
Leiden: Brill, 2007.
———. Non-canonical Psalms from Qumran: A Pseudepigraphic Collection. Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1986.
Scott, R. B. Y. The Way of Wisdom in the Old Testament. New York: Macmillan, 1971.
Skehan, Patrick W. and Eugene Ulrich. “Isaiah.” Pages 7–143 in Qumran Cave 4, X: The
Prophets. DJD 15. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Smith, Jonathan Z. “Fences and Neighbors: Some Contours of Early Judaism ”. In Imagining
Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown. Chicago Studies in the History of Judaism, 1–
18. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
———. Imagining Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown. Chicago Studies in the History of
Judaism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
Spieckermann, Hermann. “Heart, Spirit, and Steadfast Love: Substantial Contributions of
Torah and Psalter to Old Testament Theology.” Scandinavian Journal of the Old
Testament.An International Journal of Nordic Theology 28, no. 2 (2014): 253–265.
———. “Wrath and Mercy as Crucial Terms of Theological Hermeneutics.” Pages 3–16 in
Divine Wrath and Divine Mercy in the World of Antiquity. Edited by Reinhard G.
Kratz and Hermann Spieckermann. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe 33.
Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008.
Stegemann, Hartmut. “Die Gottesbezeichnungen in den Qumrantexten.” Pages 195–217 in
Qumran sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu. Edited by M. Delcor. Bibliotheca
ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 46. Paris: Ducolot, 1978.
———. “How to Connect Dead Sea Scroll Fragments.” Pages 245–255 in Understanding the
Dead Sea Scrolls. A Reader from the Biblical Archeology Review. Edited by Hershel
Shanks. New York: Random House, 1992.
Steudel, Annette. “Assembling and Reconstructing Manuscripts.” Pages 516–534 in vol. 1 of
The Dead Sea Scrolls After Fifty Years. A Comprehensive Assessment. Edited by Peter
W. Flint and James C. VanderKam with the assistance of Andrea E. Alvarez. Leiden:
Brill, 1998.
———. “The Damascus Document (D) as a Rewriting of the Community Rule(s).” Revue de
Qumran 25 (2012): 605–620.
———. “Dating Exegetical Texts from Qumran.” Pages 39–53 in The Dynamics of Language
and Exegesis at Qumran. Edited by Devorah Dimant and Reinhard G. Kratz.
Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe 35. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.
Stewart, Pamela J. and Andrew Strathern. Ritual: Key Concepts in Religion. London:
Bloomsbury, 2012.
Strugnell, John. “Notes en marge du volume V des Discoveries in the Judaean desert of

- 263 -
 Jordan.” Revue de Qumran 7 (Ap 1970): 163–276.
Talmon, Shemaryahu. “The Emergence of Institutionalized Prayer in Israel in the Light of the
Qumran Literature.” Pages 265–284 in Qumran sa piete, sa theologie et son milieu,
265–284. Edited by M. Delcor. Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum
Lovaniensium 46. Paris: Ducolot, 1978.
Tanzer, Sarah Jean. “The Sages at Qumran: Wisdom in the Hodayot.” Harvard University,
1987.
Thomas H. Tobin, S.J. “4Q185 and Jewish Wisdom Literature.” Pages 145–152 in Of Scribes
and Scrolls. Studies on the Hebrew Bible, Intertestamental Judaism, and Christian
Origins. Edited by Harold W. Attridge, John J. Collins, and Thomas H. Tobin.
Lanham: University Press of America, 1990.
Tigchelaar, Eibert J.C. “The Addressees of 4QInstruction.” Pages 62–75 in Sapiential,
Liturgical and Poetical Texts from Qumran: Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the
International Organization for Qumran Studies, Oslo 1998, Published in Memory of
Maurice Baillet. Edited by Daniel K. Falk, Florentino García Martínez, and Eileen M.
Schuller. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 35. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
———. “Assessing Emanuel Tov’s ‘Qumran Scribal Practice’.” Pages 173–207 in The Dead
Sea Scrolls: Transmission of Traditions and Production of Texts. Studies on the Texts
of the Desert of Judah 92. Edited by Sarianna Metso. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
———. “Constructing, Deconstructing and Reconstructing Fragmentary Manuscripts:
Illustrated by a Study of 4Q184 (4QWiles of the Wicked Woman).” Pages 26–47 in
Rediscovering the Dead Sea Scrolls: An Assessment of Old and New Approaches and
Methods. Edited by Maxine L. Grossman. Grand Rapids: Eerdmands 2010.
———. “Lady Folly and Her House in Three Qumran Manuscripts: On the Relation Between
4Q525 15, 5Q16 and 4Q184.” Revue de Qumran 91 (2008): 371–382.
———. “The Poetry of the Wiles of the Wicked Woman (4Q184).” Revue de Qumran 25
(2012): 621–633.
Tigchelaar, Eibert J.C. and Florentino García Martínez. The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition.
Vol. 1 of The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
Tolbert, Mary Ann. Sowing the Gospel: Mark’s World in Literary-Historical Perspective.
Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1989.
Tooman, William A. “Wisdom and Torah at Qumran: Evidence from the Sapiential Texts.”
Pages 203–32 in Wisdom and Torah: The Reception of ‘Torah’ in the Wisdom
Literature of the Second Temple Period. Edited by Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew
Teeter. Supplements to Journal for the Study of Judaism 163. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
Toorn, K. van der. Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2007.
Torleif Elgvin, Menachem Kister, Timothy Lim, Bilhah Nitzan, Stephen Pfann, Elisha
Qimron, Lawrence H. Schiffman, Annette Steudel. Qumran Cave 4 XV: Sapiential
texts, Part 1. DJD 22. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Tov, Emanuel. The Greek and Hebrew Bible: Collected Essays on the Septuagint. Leiden:
Brill, 1999.
———. “The Orthography and Language of the Hebrew Scrolls Found at Qumran and the
Origin of These Scrolls.” Textus 13 (1986): 31–57.
———. Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert.
Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 54. Leiden: Brill, 2004.
Tov, Emanuel and Martin G. Abegg. The Texts from the Judaean Desert: Indices and an
Introduction to the Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Series. DJD 39. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 2002.
Tov, Emanuel with the collaboration of Stephen J. Pfann, eds. The Dead Sea Scrolls on
Microfiche. A Comprehensive Facsimile Edition of the Texts from the Judean Desert.

- 264 -
 Leiden: Brill, 1993.
Ulrich, Eugene. “The Developmental Composition of the Book of Isaiah: Light from 1QIsaa
on Additions in the MT.” Dead Sea Discoveries 8, no. 3 (2001): 288–305.
Ulrich, Eugene and Peter W. Flint. Qumran Cave 1 II: The Isaiah Scrolls, Part 1: Plates and
Transcriptions. DJD 32. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2010.
Uusimäki, Elisa. “‘Happy Is the Person to Whom She Has Been Given’: The Continuum of
Wisdom and Torah in 4QSapiential Admonitions B (4Q185) and 4QBeatitudes
(4Q525).” Revue de Qumran 103 (2014): 345–360.
———. “Turning Proverbs Towards Torah.” Ph.D diss., University of Helsinki, 2013.
———. “Use of Scripture in 4QBeatitudes: A Torah- Adjustment to Proverbs 1–9.” Dead Sea
Discoveries 20 (2013): 71–97.
Venter, P. M. “Spatiality in Enoch’s Journeys.” Pages 211–230 in Wisdom and Apocalypticism
in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Biblical Tradition. Edited by Florentino García
Martínez. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium 163. Leuven:
University Press, 2003.
Vermes, Geza. Scripture and Tradition in Judaism: Haggadic Studies. Studia Post-Biblica.
2nd, revised ed. Leiden: Brill, 1973.
Verseput, Donald J. “Wisdom, 4Q185, and the Epistle of James.” Journal of Biblical
Literature 117 (1998): 691–707.
Waltke, Bruce K. and Michael Patrick O’Connor. An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax.
Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990.
Weinfeld, Moshe. Deuteronomy 1–11: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary. The Anchor Bible. 1st ed. New York: Doubleday, 1991.
———. Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
Werline, Rodney Alan. Penitential Prayer in Second Temple Judaism: The Development of a
Religious Institution. Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature
13. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.
———. “Reflections on Penitential Prayer: Definition and Form.” Pages 209–225 in Seeking
the Favor of God, vol. 2. The Development of Penitential Prayer in Second Temple
Judaism. Edited by Mark J. Boda, Daniel K. Falk and Rodney A. Werline. Early
Judaism and Its Literature 22. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Wernberg-Møller, Preben. The Manual of Discipline. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of
Judah 1. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957.
Weyde, Karl William. “Ezra’s Penitential Prayer: Priestly Vocabulary and Concepts in Ezra
9.” Pages 238–250 in Houses Full of All Good Things: Essays in Memory of Timo
Veijola. Edited by Juha Pakkala and Martti Nissinen. Publications of the Finnish
Exegetical Society. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008.
———. “‘Has God Forgotten Mercy, in Anger Withheld his Compassion?’ Names and
Concepts of God in the Elohistic Psalter.” Pages 122–139 in Divine Wrath and Divine
Mercy in the World of Antiquity. Edited by Reinhard G. Kratz and Hermann
Spieckermann. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe 33. Göttingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 2008.
White, Crawford Sidnie. “‘Biblical Text – Yes or no?’,” Pages 113–19 in Contributions to
Biblical Exegesis and Theology. Edited by Karin Finsterbusch and Armin Lange.
Leuven: Peeters, 2012.
Whybray, R. N. The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study. History of Biblical
Interpretation Series. Leiden Brill, 1995.
Williamson, H. G. M. Ezra, Nehemiah. Word Biblical Commentary 16. Waco: Word Books,
1985.
Williamson, Robert Jr. “Pesher: A Cognitive Model of Genre.” Dead Sea Discoveries 17
(2010): 307–331.

- 265 -
Witte, Markus. “History and Historiography in Psalm 78.” In Yearbook 2006: History and
Identity: How Israel’s Later Authors Viewed Its Earlier History. Edited by Núria
Calduch-Benages and Jan Liesen. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006.
Wold, Benjamin G. “Memory in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Exodus, Creation and Cosmos.”
Pages 47–74 in Memory in the Bible and Antiquity: The Fifth Durham-Tübingen
Research Symposium (Durham, September 2004). Edited by Loren T. Stuckenbruck,
Stephen C. Barton, and Benjamin G. Wold. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum
Neuen Testament 212. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007.
Wolff, Hans Walter. Anthropology of the Old Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974.
Wright III, Benjamin G. “Joining the Club: A Suggestion about Genre in Early Jewish Texts.”
Dead Sea Discoveries 17 (2010): 289–314.
Yadin, Yigael. “The Ben Sira Scroll from Masada.” Pages 151–252 in Masada VI, Yigael
Yadin Excavations 1963–1965, Final Reports. Edited by S. Talmon and Y. Yadin.
Jerusalem: Israel Explorations Society, 1999.
Zahn, Molly M. Rethinking Rewritten Scripture: Composition and Exegesis in the
4QReworked Pentateuch Manuscripts. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 95.
Leiden: Brill, 2011.
———. “Talking about Rewritten Texts: Some Reflections on Terminology.” Pages 93–119
in Changes in Scripture. Rewriting and Interpreting Authoritative Traditions in the
Second Temple Period. Edited by Hanne von Weissenberg, Juha Pakkala and Marko
Marttila. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 419. Berlin:
De Gruyter, 2011.
Zenger, Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich. Psalms 3: A Commentary on Psalms 101–150.
Translated by Linda M. Maloney. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011.

- 266 -