3.

Source Rocks
 Source Rock Geochemistry

• Organic matter, source, kerogen, and

preservation in sediments
• Source rock depositional environments
• Source rock characterization
• Evaluating source rocks from wireline logs
Lithology of Potential Source Rocks
• Coal
• Carbonaceous Shale
• Mudstone Mahmud et. al. (2006)
• Organic‐riched Limestone
 Organic Matter in Sediments
ƒ Organic matter is usually a minor constituent in most sedimentary
rocks. The amount of organic matter varies from almost 100 % in
some peat and coal deposits, to little more than a few ppm in some
limestone and sandstone.

ƒ Generally, the organic contents of sediments is between 0.1 and 5

%; deep-sea sediments average about 0.2 % organic carbon;
sediments in sedimentary basins about 2 %; and shelf sediments
between 1 and 5 %.

ƒ The main contributors of organic matter to sediments are bacteria,

phytoplankton, zooplankton and higher plants.
Hunt (1996)
 Carbon Cycle
ƒ Carbon is present in sedimentary rocks in two forms : as reduced
carbon in biologically produced organic matter over geological time
(18 %), and as oxidized carbon mainly in the form of carbonate (82
%).

ƒ The major process for production of organic matter is

photosynthesis and this is primarily responsible for the occurrence of
reduced carbon in sediments.

ƒ Carbon is recycled through the biosphere by photosynthesis and

oxidation.
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 Roles of Source Rocks

ƒ Petroleum is generated from organic-rich sediments (source rocks)

containing organic matter originating from biological materials.
During burial of sediments, the increase in temperature results in a
series of geochemical reactions which change biopolymers to
geopolymers, often collectively called kerogen, which are precursors
of petroleum.

ƒ The amount, type and composition of petroleum generated is

dependent upon the nature of the organic matter in the source rock
and its maturity governed by its time/temperature history.
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 Kinds of Source Rocks

ƒ Active source rocks

ƒ Spent source rocks
ƒ Potential source rocks
 Kinds of Source Rocks
‰ Active source rocks : a volume of rock that has generated or is
generating and expelling hydrocarbons in sufficient quantities to
form commercial oil and gas accumulations. The contained
sedimentary organic matter must meet minimum requirement of
organic richness, kerogen-type and organic maturity.

‰ Spent source rocks : a volume of rock that had generated, possibly

a long time ago, its hydrocarbons and now contains thermally
altered organic matter.

‰ Potential source rocks : a volume of rock that has the capacity to

generate hydrocarbons in sufficient quantities to form commercial oil
and gas accumulations, but has not yet reached the state of
minimum hydrocarbon generation because of insufficient organic
maturation.
 Kerogen
‰ Kerogen (from kerosene generator) is defined as the organic
component of source rocks that is insoluble in common organic
solvents and aqueous alkali (NaOH solution). The soluble portion of
the organic matter is termed bitumen or total soluble extract (TSE)

‰ Kerogen is of complex biological origin; it is derived from dead

organisms whose organic remains survive the early stages of
diagenesis and lithification. This biological origin is frequently
apparent when kerogen is analysed by microscopic or chemical
techniques. It is derived from the lipid, lignin, protein, and
carbohydrate portions of organisms.
 Classification of Kerogen

• The composition of kerogen is widely variable.

Classification schemes may be based on :
– microscopic analysis of organic remains (palynological or coal
petrography): alginite, exinite, vitrinite, inertinite
– chemical (elemental) analysis of the kerogen : types I, II, III, IV
kerogen
– the products of kerogen breakdown : oil-prone, gas-prone, inert
kerogen
 Types of Kerogen (1)

• Alginite group (oil prone) : alginite (fresh-water algae)

• Exinite group (oil & gas prone) : exinite (polen, spores),
cutinite (land-plant cuticle), resinite (land-plant resins),
liptinite (all land-plant lipids, marine algae)
• Vitrinite group (gas prone) : vitrinite (woodyland
cellulosic material from land plants)
• Inertinite group (none) : charcoal, highly oxidised or
reworked material of any origin
 Types of Kerogen (2)

• Type I : relatively rare, they frequently correspond to lacustrine oil shales

where much of the organic matter has been derived from green algae (e.g.
Botryococcus and related genera).
• Type II : may be derived from algae, this time generally deposited in
marine environments. Other sources of this type of kerogen include the
more hydrogen rich components of higher plants (cuticle, resin, spores and
pollen).
• Type III : they are derived largely from the lignin components of higher
plants with only minor amounts of cuticle, resin or spores; low hydrogen
contents.
• Type IV : it comprises plant tissue that has been oxidised. It has little
potential to generate petroleum.
 Kerogen Type
Kerogen: Insoluble; preserved in sedimentary rocks
Type-I Type I (very oil prone): amorphous
hydrogen-rich; algal in anaerobic; especially lacustrine.

Type II (oil prone): herbaceous

comparatively hydrogen-rich; phytoplankton in
suboxic; especially marine.

Type III (gas prone):Woody&coaly

hydrogen-poor & poly-aromatic; higher plants
II
Type IV (inertinite) ：Woody&coaly
oxidized and hydrogen-very-poor
III
Type II-S : amorphous
unusually high organic sulfur about 8-14% (atomic
S/C>0.04) and appear to begin to generate oil at lower
thermal exposure
Shimazaki (1986)
 Types of Kerogen (3)

• Oil-prone kerogen (labile kerogen) : components

which are lipid- and hydrogen-rich and yield
predominantly oil (C6+ molecules) but also some gas
(C1-5 molecules) typically between 100º and 150º C
in the subsurface.

• Gas-prone kerogen (refractory kerogen) :

components which are lignin-derived and hydrogen-
poor and yield gas typically between 150º and 230º
C in the subsurface.
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Merrill (1991)
 Depositional environment of kerogen type
Type I:
stratified freshwater lakes
Type II:
silled, deep-water basins on continental slope and rise
outer shelf O2-minimum layer under upwelling
Type III:
lagoonal, deltaic and coastal swamps
basins of restricted circulation on continental shelves

Type I
Type III Type III
Type II
Type II
500-2500m without supply of clay

Peters and Moldowan (1993)

Selley (1985)
Selley (1985)
Brooks (1987)
Katz and Schunk (1985)
Brooks et al. (1987)
 Preservation of Organic Matter

• The principal control on organic richness is the efficiency

of preservation of organic matter in sedimentary
environments.

• Three factors affect the preservation (or destruction) of

organic matter :
ƒ the concentration and nature of oxidizing agents
ƒ the type of organic matter deposited
ƒ the sediment-accumulation rate
Of these, oxidizing agents are probably the most crucial factor.
 Factors Enhancing Preservation

• Stagnant basins : density stratification with O2-poor

bottom waters

• Oxygen-minimum layer (OML) : the rate of oxygen

consumption exceeds the rate of oxygen influx

• Restricted circulation : presence of shallow and deep

silling, coal swamps (poor water circulation, high influxes
of organic matter, diminished bacterial activity).
 Preservation by Type of Organic Matter and
and Rapid Sedimentation and Burial

‰ Algal phytoplankton is consumed more readily by organism than are

other types of OM. That material which remains is dominantly of
terrestrial origin, and may include woody cellulosic, lignitic, cuticular,
or resinous material.

‰ Rapid sedimentation and burial can also enhance preservation.

TOC values increase as sediment-accumulation rates increase, as a
result of more rapid removal of organic material from the zone of
microbial diagenesis. But, at very high accumulation rates (around
50 m/MY), dilution process does spread that organic material
through a larger volume of rock. The net result is a reduction in TOC
values.
 Preservation by Anoxia

‰ Oxic = the zone with high oxygen contents (O2 > 0.5
ml/l); aerobic process
‰ Anoxic = the zone with low oxygen contents (O2 < 0.2
ml/l); anaerobic process
‰ Anoxia is of tremendous importance in the preservation
of organic matter in sediments. If anoxia can develop,
preservation of organic matter will be much enhanced.
Most of the world’s oil was generated from source beds
deposited under anoxic conditions.
Brooks et al. (1987)
Brooks et al. (1987)
Hunt (1996)
Selley (1985)
Waples (1985)

Waples (1985)
Waples (1985)
Waples (1985)
Waples (1985)
Selley (1985)
 Depositional Controls
‰ The potential of a sediment to generate and expel petroleum upon
maturation depends on the composition and concentration of the organic
matter preserved in the sediment during deposition.

‰ Aquatic organic mater (marine, brackish, freshwater phytoplankton), when

preserved, gives rise to a hydrogen- (lipid-) rich kerogen component which
generate predominantly oil.

‰ Terrigenous higher plant detritus gives rise to either, in the general case, a
hydrogen-poor (lignin-rich) kerogen which is gas-prone. Or, when leaf
cuticle and/or resins are preserved in abundances relative to other
terrigenous detritus, oil is predominantly generated.

‰ The most important petroleum source rocks are marine sediments. These
have sourced at least 85 % of the recoverable oil resources of the world.
 Source Rock Depositional Environments
• Lacustrine source rocks
– freshwater lakes
– saline lakes
• Paludal source rocks – freshwater marshes
• Paralic source rocks – marine-influenced, salt marshes
– siliciclastic paralic source rocks
– carbonate paralic source rocks
• Deltaic source rocks
– upper delta plain (freshwater delta top)
– lower delta plain (brackish-saline delta top)
– pro-delta
• Marine source rocks
– enclosed restricted basins
– continental shelves
– continental slope and rise
Hunt (1996)
 Lacustrine Source Rocks
‰ Lakes are the most important setting for source bed deposition in
continental sequences.

‰ Favourable conditions may exist in deep lakes, where bottom waters

are not disturbed by surface wind stress, and at low latitudes, where
there is little seasonal overturn of the water column and a
temperature-density stratification may develop.

‰ Source bed thickness and quality is improved in geologically long-

lasting lakes with minimal clastic input.

‰ Organic matter on lake floors may be autochthonous, derived from

fresh water algae and bacteria, which tends to be oil-prone and
waxy, or allochthonous, derived from land plants swept in from the
lake drainage area, which may be either gas-prone or oil-prone and
waxy.
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 Deltaic Source Rocks
ƒ Deltas may be important settings for source bed deposition. In SE
Asia and Australasia, deltas appear to have sourced a large
proportion of the discovered oils.

ƒ Constructive deltas (fluvial or tide dominated) are characterized by

persistent low-energy environments on the delta top which favour
source bed deposition. Destructive or static deltas (wave dominated)
generally provide less favourable environments for source bed
deposition.

ƒ Organic matter may be derived from freshwater algae and bacteria

in swamp and lakes on the delta-top, marine phytoplankton and
bacteria in the delta-front and marine pro-delta shales, and, probably
most importantly, from terrigenous land plants growing on the delta
plain.
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 Deltaic Source Rocks

‰ On post-Jurassic deltas in tropical latitudes, the land plant material

may include a high proportion of oil-prone, waxy epidermal tissues,
resins, spores; and gas-prone (lignin) material. Pre-Jurassic and
temperate land plants are predominantly gas prone.

‰ Mangrove material may be an important constituent providing a vast

quantity of lipid-rich organic matter. Mangrove material is likely to
source oils that have a high wax content.

‰ Coals in SE Asia and Australia source oils. The coals are

dominantly vitrinitic but contain up to 15 % exinite macerals. Oils
have been geochemically matched with these coals, and have
typical coal-source characteristics, including high wax content (up to
27 %)
Mahmud et. al. (2006)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 Marine Source Rocks

• In open ocean whose floors are swept by cold, dense currents

originating in the polar regions, an oxygen-deficient layer develops
at depths of 100 to 1000 m. At times in the geological past, during
periods of warmer climate and higher sea level, this layer may have
intensified and impinged on large areas of the continental shelves
and slope.

• The gas or oil-proneness of a marine source rock depends primarily

on the presence or absence of gas-prone terrigenous plant material.
Enclosed marine basins close to major clastic source may be gas-
prone. Oil-prone organic matter of truly marine origin occurs in
upwelling zones offshore from arid land areas.
 Marine Source Rocks

• Much of the world’s oil (85 %) has been sourced from marine source rocks.

• Source beds may develop in enclosed basins with restricted water

circulation (reducing oxygen supply), or open shelves and slopes with
upwelling into zone of ODD (oxygen-depleted/-deficient).

• In enclosed marine basins, source bed deposition is favoured by a positive

water balance, where the main water movement is a strong outflow of
relatively fresh surface water, leaving denser bottom-waters undisturbed.

• The upwelling of nutrient-rich oceanic waters may give rise to exceptionally

high organic productivity. Oxygen-depletion may occur in the underlying
bottom-waters as oxygen supply is overwhelmed by the demand created by
degradation of dead organic matter.
Conford (1979)
 Organic Productivity by Upwellings

• Upwelling : the vertical movement of subsurface marine or lake

waters to the surface. Upwelling occurs where surface waters are
moved aside by water and wind currents. Nutrients are brought into
the photic zone by upwelling, and photosynthetic productivity is
greatly enhanced.

• Productivity of source rocks can be predicted by locating ancient

sites of marine upwellings. However, we don’t know exactly about
past continental positions and configurations, past sea-water
chemistry and nutrient availability, and past oceanic- and
atmospheric-circulation patterns (paleo-climate).
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 General Model for
Source Rock Development

• A large proportion of the major source rocks around the world were
deposited during major transgressions, particularly in shallow,
restricted, shelf environments. Good source rocks are thus often
favourably juxtaposed with reservoir rocks, which proliferate during
regressive events.

• Models that integrate the concepts of organic richness with

depositional cycles and facies analysis will be valuable in the future
for understanding hydrocarbon systems in basin. To derive
maximum value from geochemical analyses, we should always
strive to place the organic-rich rocks in the larger context of basin
evolution through space and time.
Sources and Reservoirs in Geological Time
Waples (1985)
 Source Rock Characterisation
• For a source rock, the characterisation is designed to test :
– its richness
– the type of petroleum it is likely to generate
– its maturity
• Techniques / analyses for characterisation include :
– TOC (total organic carbon)
– Rock-eval pyrolysis
• Source potential of S1 (P1), S2 (P2), S3 (P3)
• Tmax ºC
• Hydrogen Index (HI)
• Oxygen Index (OI)
• Production Index (PI)
• Potential Yield (PY)
– Visual examination of kerogen concentrates
– Extract analysis
– Maturity evaluation (SCI, VR)
– Gas chromatography analysis
– GC-MS analysis
– Carbon isotope analysis
 Rock-Eval Pyrolysis

• S1 (P1) (ppm) : free HCs released when furnace temperature is 250ºC

• S2 (P2) (ppm) : HCs cracked from kerogen when furnace temperature is
550ºC
• S3 (P3) (ppm) : carbon dioxide released during early stages of pyrolysis
• T max ºC : maximum temperature of S2
• HI (hydrogen index) : S2/TOC (mg/g) or ratio of released HCs to organic
carbon content
• OI (oxygen index) : S3/TOC (mg/g) or ratio of released carbon dioxide to
organic carbon content
• PI (production index) : S1/S1+S2
• PY (pyrolysis yield) : S2 (ppm) or total of HCs released during cracking of
kerogen compared to original weight of rock
• Source potential : S1+S2
• Tmax, HI, and OI are each functions of both maturity and kerogen type.
Peters and Cassa (1994)
Peters and Cassa (1994)
Hunt (1996)
Katz and Schunk (1985)
Katz and Schunk (1985)
Peters and Cassa (1994)
Peters and Cassa (1994)
Selley (1985)
 Evaluating Source Rocks from Wireline Logs

• Geochemical analysis of cuttings and sidewall cores suffer from poor spatial
resolution. Wireline logs, in contrast, make continuous measurements of certain
bulk physical and chemical properties.
• Log data is used to extrapolate between geochemical sampling points. Wireline
logging does not replace the need for sampling and geochemical analysis.
• Log data used for geochemical applications :
– gamma ray, NGS (measures elemental K, U, Th)
– density
– neutron porosity
– sonic travel time
– resistivity
• Three main geochemical applications from log :
– source rock identification
– quantification of organic richness
– quantification of maturity
 Petrophysical Properties of Kerogen

• Relative to clay or carbonate matrix, minerals kerogen has a

low density, high sonic travel time, high neutron porosity.
• Relative to non-source rock intervals of similar lithology, rich
hydrocarbon source rocks are characterized by :
– an increase in apparent porosity measured by density, sonic,
and compensated neutron tools.
– density values of 1.1 - 1.3 g/cc are applicable to Kimmeridge
clay type source rock.
– a range of 105-190 microsecond/ft is applicable for kerogen
– kerogen is non-conducive and resistive.
 Evaluating Source Rocks from Wireline Logs

• Source intervals are identified by :

– an increase in sonic travel time
– an increase in neutron porosity
– a decrease in bulk density
– either no change or increasing resistivity
• The source interval often, but not always, has enhanced levels of
uranium concentration and total radioactivity.
• Carbonate source rocks are characterized by the low K and Th, high U.
• Shale source rocks are characterized by the moderate K and Th, high
U.
• Mature organic-rich shales are characterized by higher resistivities than
immature ones and the increase in resistivity is proportional to the
amount of generated petroleum.
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
 Wireline logs and oil source rock potential

Creaney and Allan (1990) Meyer and Nederlof (1984)

Meyer and Nederlof (1984)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Herron (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Clayton and Fleet (1991)
Schmoker (1994)