What Is Polio?

Two types of vaccine protect against polio: oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) and inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) (given
as an injection in the leg or arm, depending on the patient's age).
Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a crippling and potentially deadly infectious disease. It is caused by the poliovirus. The virus
spreads from person to person and can invade an infected person’s brain and spinal cord, causing paralysis (can’t move
parts of the body).

Symptoms
Most people who get infected with poliovirus (about 72 out of 100) will not have any visible symptoms.
About 1 out of 4 people with poliovirus infection will have flu-like symptoms that may include—

● Sore throat
● Fever
● Tiredness
● Nausea
● Headache
● Stomach pain

These symptoms usually last 2 to 5 days then go away on their own.

A smaller proportion of people with poliovirus infection will develop other more serious symptoms that affect the brain
and spinal cord:

● Paresthesia (feeling of pins and needles in the legs)

 ● Meningitis (infection of the covering of the spinal cord and/or brain) occurs in about 1 out of 25 people with
poliovirus infection
● Paralysis (can’t move parts of the body) or weakness in the arms, legs, or both, occurs in about 1 out of 200
people with poliovirus infection

Paralysis is the most severe symptom associated with polio because it can lead to permanent disability and death. Between
2 and 10 out of 100 people who have paralysis from poliovirus infection die because the virus affects the muscles that
help them breathe.
Even children who seem to fully recover can develop new muscle pain, weakness, or paralysis as adults, 15 to 40 years
later. This is called ​post-polio syndrome​.
Note that “poliomyelitis” (or “polio” for short) is defined as the paralytic disease. So only people with the paralytic
infection are considered to have the disease.

Transmission
Poliovirus only infects humans. It is very contagious and spreads through person-to-person contact. The virus lives in an
infected person’s throat and intestines. It enters the body through the mouth and spreads through contact with the feces
(poop) of an infected person and, though less common, through droplets from a sneeze or cough. You can get infected
with poliovirus if you have feces on your hands and you touch your mouth. Also, you can get infected if you put in your
mouth objects like toys that are contaminated with feces (poop).
An infected person may spread the virus to others immediately before and about 1 to 2 weeks after symptoms appear. The
virus can live in an infected person’s feces for many weeks. It can contaminate food and water in unsanitary conditions.
People who don’t have symptoms can still pass the virus to others and make them sick.

Prevention
Polio vaccine protects children by preparing their bodies to fight the polio virus. Almost all children (99 children out of
100) who get all the recommended doses of vaccine will be protected from polio.
There are two types of vaccine that can prevent polio: inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) and oral poliovirus vaccine
(OPV). Only IPV has been used in the United States since 2000; OPV is still used throughout much of the world.
Diarrhoea - causes, treatment, prevention

Diarrhoea is when you have frequent loose watery bowel motions. In most cases, the symptoms resolve on their own
within a couple of days without the need for medical treatment.

Diarrhoea that lasts one or two days and goes away on its own is known as acute diarrhoea, which is a common condition
that affects people of all ages. Diarrhoea lasting four weeks or more (whether continuous or intermittent) is known as
chronic diarrhoea and can be a symptom of an underlying chronic disease or condition.

Causes

Acute (or brief) diarrhoea is usually caused by a bacterial (eg, salmonella), viral (eg, ​norovirus​ or ​rotavirus​), or parasitic
(eg, giardia) infection of the bowels. Diarrhoea caused by any of these infections is referred to as ​gastroenteritis​.

Travel to places where the climate or sanitary practices differ form one's home country may cause short-term
gastroenteritis (eg from contaminated food or water) and is known as traveller's diarrhoea. Diarrhoea associated with ​jet
lag ​will usually subside in a matter of days without treatment.

The most common causes of chronic diarrhoea are underlying diseases or conditions, including:

● Gluten intolerance (coeliac disease)

● Lactose intolerance​ (inability to properly digest lactose in dairy products)
● Irritable bowel syndrome
● Chronic bowel infection
● Inflammatory bowel diseases, such as ​Crohn’s disease​ and ​ulcerative colitis
 ● Bowel cancer​.

You should see your doctor if you are concerned that you might have any of these conditions.

Chronic diarrhoea can also occur when taking certain medications, e.g. some antibiotics and cancer drugs.

Signs and symptoms

The main symptom of diarrhoea is loose, watery bowel motions (stools, faeces) three or more times a day.

Accompanying signs and symptoms may include:

● Urgent need to go to the toilet

● Abdominal pain and cramping
● Change in colour of your stools
● Mucous, pus, blood, or fat in your stools
● Vomiting
● General body weakness and tiredness.

Treatment

Because most cases of diarrhoea resolve on their own within a day or two, self-care to relieve symptoms is usually
sufficient for treatment:

● Avoid caffeine, dairy products, and greasy, high fibre, or sugary foods
● Placing a hot water bottle or wheat pack on your stomach, or taking paracetamol (e.g. Panadol), may provide
some relief from abdominal cramps
● Apply zinc and castor oil ointment or a barrier cream to affected areas if you, or your child, develops a rash (like
nappy rash) from the diarrhoea
● Avoid taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or diclofenac, for
pain relief as these medications can cause diarrhoea
 ● Anti-diarrhoeal medications that slow diarrhoea (e.g. Imodium) should be avoided as these drugs prevent your
body from getting rid of the bacteria or virus that may have caused the diarrhea.

To avoid dehydration, drink plenty of liquid every day, taking small, frequent sips. Ideal liquids are clear thin broths or
soups, diluted non-caffeinated sports drinks (e.g. Powerade or Gatorade), and rehydration formulations (e.g. Gastrolyte)
that are available without prescription from a pharmacy.
What is malaria?
Malaria is a life-threatening disease. It’s typically transmitted through the bite of an infected​Anopheles
mosquito. Infected mosquitoes carry the ​Plasmodium​ parasite. When this mosquito bites you, the parasite is
released into your bloodstream.

Once the parasites are inside your body, they travel to the ​liver​, where they mature. After several days, the
mature parasites enter the bloodstream and begin to infect ​red blood cells​.

Within 48 to 72 hours, the parasites inside the red blood cells multiply, causing the infected cells to burst open.

The parasites continue to infect red blood cells, resulting in symptoms that occur in cycles that last two to three
days at a time.

Malaria is typically found in tropical and subtropical climates where the parasites can live. The​World Health
Organization (WHO)

Trusted Source

states that, in 2016, there were an estimated 216 million cases of malaria in 91 countries.

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report ​1,700 cases

Trusted Source

of malaria annually. Most cases of malaria develop in people who ​travel to countries​ where malaria is more
common.

Read more: Learn about the relationship between cytopenia and malaria »

What causes malaria?

Malaria can occur if a mosquito infected with the ​Plasmodium​ parasite bites you. There are four kinds of
malaria parasites that can infect humans: ​Plasmodium vivax​, ​P. ovale,​ ​P. malariae​, and​P. falciparum​.

P. falciparum​ causes a more severe form of the disease and those who contract this form of malaria have a
higher risk of death. An infected mother can also pass the disease to her baby at birth. This is known as
congenital malaria.

Malaria is transmitted by blood, so it can also be transmitted through:

● an organ transplant
● a ​transfusion
● use of shared needles or syringes

What are the symptoms of malaria?

The symptoms of malaria typically develop within 10 days to 4 weeks following the infection. In some cases,
symptoms may not develop for several months. Some malarial parasites can enter the body but will be dormant
for long periods of time.

Common symptoms of malaria include:

● shaking ​chills​ that can range from moderate to severe

● high ​fever
● profuse ​sweating
● headache
● nausea
● vomiting
● abdominal pain
● diarrhea
● anemia
● muscle pain
● convulsions
● coma
 ● bloody stools

How is malaria treated?

Malaria can be a life-threatening condition, especially if you’re infected with the parasite ​P. falciparum.​
Treatment for the disease is typically provided in a hospital. Your doctor will prescribe medications based on
the type of parasite that you have.

In some instances, the medication prescribed may not clear the infection because of parasite resistance to
drugs. If this occurs, your doctor may need to use more than one medication or change medications altogether
to treat your condition.

Additionally, certain types of malaria parasites, such as ​P. vivax​ and ​P. ovale​, have liver stages where the
parasite can live in your body for an extended period of time and reactivate at a later date causing a relapse of
the infection.

If you’re found to have one of these types of malaria parasites, you’ll be given a second medication to prevent
a relapse in the future.
What is hepatitis?
Hepatitis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver. It’s commonly caused by a viral infection, but there are other
possible causes of hepatitis. These include autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis that occurs as a secondary result of
medications, drugs, toxins, and alcohol.​Autoimmune hepatitis​ is a disease that occurs when your body makes antibodies
against your liver tissue.

The 5 types of viral hepatitis

Viral infections of the liver that are classified as hepatitis include hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. A different virus is
responsible for each type of virally transmitted hepatitis.

Hepatitis A is always an acute, short-term disease, while hepatitis B, C, and D are most likely to become ongoing and
chronic. Hepatitis E is usually acute but can be particularly dangerous in pregnant women.

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A​ is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type of hepatitis is most commonly
transmitted by consuming food or water contaminated by feces from a person infected with hepatitis A.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B​ is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, vaginal secretions, or semen,
containing the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex with an infected partner, or sharing razors with an
infected person increase your risk of getting hepatitis B.

It’s estimated by the ​CDC​ that 1.2 million people in the United States and 350 million people worldwide live with this
chronic disease.

Hepatitis C

Hepatitis C​ comes from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Hepatitis C is transmitted through direct contact with infected body
fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact. HCV is among the most common bloodborne viral
infections in the United States. ​Approximately 2.7 to 3.9 million Americans​ are currently living with a chronic form of this
infection.

Hepatitis D

Also called delta hepatitis, ​hepatitis D​ is a serious liver disease caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV). HDV is contracted
through direct contact with infected blood. Hepatitis D is a rare form of hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with
hepatitis B infection. The hepatitis D virus can’t multiply without the presence of hepatitis B. It’s very uncommon in the
United States.

Hepatitis E

Hepatitis E​ is a waterborne disease caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis E is mainly found in areas with poor
sanitation and typically results from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water supply. This disease is uncommon
in the United States. However, cases of hepatitis E have been reported in the Middle East, Asia, Central America, and
Africa, according to the ​CDC​.

Causes of noninfectious hepatitis

Alcohol and other toxins

Excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage and inflammation. This is sometimes referred to as ​alcoholic
hepatitis​. The alcohol directly injures the cells of your liver. Over time, it can cause permanent damage and lead to ​liver
failure​ and ​cirrhosis​, a thickening and scarring of the liver.

Other toxic causes of hepatitis include overuse or overdose of medications and exposure to poisons.

Autoimmune system response

In some cases, the immune system mistakes the liver as a harmful object and begins to attack it. It causes ongoing
inflammation that can range from mild to severe, often hindering liver function. It’s ​three times​ more common in women
than in men.
Common symptoms of hepatitis
If you have infectious forms of hepatitis that are chronic, like hepatitis B and C, you may not have symptoms in the
beginning. Symptoms may not occur until the damage affects liver function.

Signs and symptoms of acute hepatitis appear quickly. They include:

● fatigue
● flu-like symptoms
● dark urine
● pale stool
● abdominal pain
● loss of appetite
● unexplained weight loss
● yellow skin and eyes, which may be signs of ​jaundice

Chronic hepatitis develops slowly, so these signs and symptoms may be too subtle to notice.

How hepatitis is diagnosed

History and physical exam

To diagnose hepatitis, first your doctor will take your history to determine any risk factors you may have for infectious or
noninfectious hepatitis.

During a physical examination, your doctor may press down gently on your abdomen to see if there’s pain or tenderness.
Your doctor may also feel to see if your liver is enlarged. If your skin or eyes are yellow, your doctor will note this during
the exam.

Liver function tests

Liver function tests use blood samples to determine how efficiently your liver works. Abnormal results of these tests may
be the first indication that there is a problem, especially if you don’t show any signs on a physical exam of liver disease.
High liver enzyme levels may indicate that your liver is stressed, damaged, or not functioning properly.

Other blood tests

If your liver function tests are abnormal, your doctor will likely order other bloodtests to detect the source of the problem.
These tests can check for the viruses that cause hepatitis. They can also be used to check for antibodies that are common in
conditions like autoimmune hepatitis.

Ultrasound

An ​abdominal ultrasound​ uses ultrasound waves to create an image of the organs within your abdomen. This test allows
your doctor to take a close at your liver and nearby organs. It can reveal:

● fluid in your abdomen

● liver damage or enlargement
● liver tumors
● abnormalities of your gallbladder

Sometimes the pancreas shows up on ultrasound images as well. This can be a useful test in determining the cause of your
abnormal liver function.

Liver biopsy

A ​liver biopsy​ is an invasive procedure that involves your doctor taking a sample of tissue from your liver. It can be done
through your skin with a needle and doesn’t require surgery. Typically, an ultrasound is used to guide your doctor when
taking the biopsy sample.

This test allows your doctor to determine how infection or inflammation has affected your liver. It can also be used to
sample any areas in your liver that appear abnormal.

How hepatitis is treated

Treatment options are determined by which type of hepatitis you have and whether the infection is acute or chronic.

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A usually doesn’t require treatment because it’s a short-term illness. Bed rest may be recommended if symptoms
cause a great deal of discomfort. If you experience ​vomiting​ or​diarrhea​, follow your doctor’s orders for hydration and
nutrition.

The hepatitis A vaccine is available to prevent this infection. Most children begin vaccination between ages 12 and 18
months. It’s a series of two vaccines. Vaccination for hepatitis A is also available for adults and can be combined with the
hepatitis B vaccine.

Hepatitis B

Acute hepatitis B doesn’t require specific treatment.

Chronic hepatitis B is treated with antiviral medications. This form of treatment can be costly because it must be continued
for several months or years. Treatment for chronic hepatitis B also requires regular medical evaluations and monitoring to
determine if the virus is responding to treatment.

Hepatitis B can be prevented with vaccination. The ​CDC​ recommends hepatitis B vaccinations for all newborns. The
series of three vaccines is typically completed over the first six months of childhood. The vaccine is also recommended for
all healthcare and medical personnel.

Hepatitis C

Antiviral medications are used to treat both acute and chronic forms of hepatitis C. People who develop chronic hepatitis C
are typically treated with a combination of antiviral drug therapies. They may also need further testing to determine the
best form of treatment.

People who develop cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) or liver disease as a result of chronic hepatitis C may be candidates for
a ​liver transplant​.

Currently, there is no vaccination for hepatitis C.

Hepatitis D

No antiviral medications exist for the treatment of hepatitis D at this time. According to a ​2013 study​, a drug called alpha
interferon can be used to treat hepatitis D, but it only shows improvement in about 25 to 30 percent of people.

Hepatitis D can be prevented by getting the vaccination for hepatitis B, as infection with hepatitis B is necessary for
hepatitis D to develop.

Hepatitis E

Currently, no specific medical therapies are available to treat hepatitis E. Because the infection is often acute, it typically
resolves on its own. People with this type of infection are often advised to get adequate rest, drink plenty of fluids, get
enough nutrients, and avoid alcohol. However, pregnant women who develop this infection require close monitoring and
care.
DENGUE FROM BOOK
Food sciences
The Composition of Food and Their Uses
Nutrients: A nutrient can be defined as components that are needed by our body to grow, survive and carry on
different daily activities.

Our food contains mainly five major kinds of nutrients namely vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, proteins and
fats. Additionally, food also contains water and dietary fibres/roughage and water which are also required by
our bodies.
 Fig. 1: Major nutrients of food

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates main function is providing energy to the body. These are found in our food in
the form of sugar and starch i.e. simple and complex carbohydrates. Example It is found in bread, potatoes etc.

Simple Carbohydrates: These are also referred to as simple sugars, containing single monosaccharide units and
found in natural sources of food i.e. milk, fruits and vegetables. These carbohydrates add certain sweetness to
the food. They raise the level of blood glucose quickly but are easier to break down.

Complex Carbohydrates: These are also referred to as polysaccharides, meaning they contain hundreds or
thousands of such monosaccharide units. These are typically found in wheat grain, white bread, kernel and
cakes. They are relatively less sweet than simple carbohydrates and also raise blood glucose level rather
slowly. However, these are tougher to break down. Cellulose is present in plant cell wall. It is a complex
carbohydrate. Humans cannot digest cellulose.
 Fig.2: The Two Types of Carbohydrates

Proteins: Proteins performs the very essential function of helping our body grow and repair itself. These are
found in food items such as milk, pulses, eggs, meat etc. Foods containing proteins are called ‘body-building’
foods.

Fats: Fats are also responsible for providing energy to our body. In fact, they provide more energy than
carbohydrates. The body uses fat as a fuel source. Fats are essential for the absorption of vitamins A, D, E and
K in the body. Butter, cheese, oil are all examples of fat-rich foods.

Vitamins: Vitamins help in protecting our bodies from various kinds of diseases. They also help in keeping our
eyes, gums, bones and teeth in good shape. Different types of vitamins and their uses:

Vitamin Type Sources Functions Deficiency Diseases

Leafy green vegetables, oranges, Forms and helps Color blindness, night
Vitamin A carrots, Pumpkin, Soy, Sweet maintain bones, skin, blindness- poor visibility at
potatoes tissue and teeth night.

Dried herbs, sunflower seeds, whole Enables cells to turn

Vitamin B1 Beriberi- loss of appetite,
grain cereals, sesame seeds, brown carbohydrates into
(thiamine) loss of weight.
rice energy

Almonds, Asparagus, bananas, Maintains Body growth

Vitamin B2 Skin disorders,
green beans, wheat bran, dried and RBCs i.e. Red
(riboflavin) Cheilosis-breaking of lips
spices Blood Cells
 Vitamin B12 Helps in maintenance of Pale skin, lack of RBC,
Mutton, fish, beef, lobster, clams,
(cyanocobala central nervous system Less stamina and less
eggs, oysters, crab
min) and RBCs appetite.

Fresh herbs, cauliflower, papaya, Promotes healthy gums Scurvy i.e. gum disease
Vitamin C
oranges, strawberries, guava and teeth (gingivitis).

Necessary for the Rickets and Osteomalacia

Sunshine, Mushrooms, liver, fish
Vitamin D healthy development of – weakening and softening
and eggs
bones and teeth of bones.

Soyabean oil, red chilli powder, Helps in processing Muscle weakness and
Vitamin E pine nuts, apricots, green olives and vitamin K and formation transmission problems in
cooked spinach of RBCs nerve impulses

Green leafy vegetables, Soyabean Essential for blood Excessive bleeding from
Vitamin K
oil. coagulation wound.

Minerals: Minerals are used by the body to perform various functions like building strong bones, maintaining
the heartbeat, making hormones etc. The major five minerals are Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Sodium
and Potassium. Examples of mineral-rich foods include leafy vegetables, fish, beans etc.

Mineral
Sources Functions Deficiency Disease
Type
 Tofu, Dairy products, Essential for efficient functioning Weak bones, lower than
Calcium Salmon, Cabbage, Kale of nervous system and healthy normal bone density and
and Broccoli bones stunted growth

Loss of appetite, bone fragility,

Phosphoro Essential for the maintenance of
Lean meats, grain and milk muscle weakness, poor
us acid-base balance in body
physique

Green leafy vegetables, Goitre- Enlargement of thyroid

Iodine Formation of thyroid hormone
Seafood, iodised salt gland, mental disability.

Helps keep control on blood

Sodium Table salt, celery Nausea, irritability
pressure

Whole grain, eggs, leafy Essential for haemoglobin Anaemia – weakness, fatigue,
Iron
vegetables and meats formation in rbc. shortness of breath

Fig.3: The five major minerals and their source foods

Dietary Fibres/Roughage: While dietary fibres do not provide any such nutrition to our bodies but nevertheless
are an important component of food. They help in easy absorption of food, helps in movement of bowel and
prevents constipation. It helps our body get rid of undigested food. Cereals, fruits and vegetables are some of
the roughage rich foods.

Water: Water performs the essential function of absorbing nutrients from our food. It also helps in releasing
waste from our body in form of sweat and urine.

Balanced Diet
A balanced diet is one that contains a variety of food items providing different types of nutrients in adequate
amounts necessary for maintaining good health. The diet should contain a good amount of dietary fibre and
water as well.

A balanced diet includes a combination of protein-rich pulses, sprouted seeds etc. with combinations of
various flours and cereals for carbohydrates and fats along with fruits and vegetables which provide the
necessary vitamins and minerals.

● In addition to making sure that the right amount of food is eaten, it should also be ensured that
food is properly cooked so that it does not end up losing its nutrients.
● Repeated washing of fruits, pulses, rice and vegetables can result in the loss of essential vitamins
and minerals.
● Throwing away excess water which is used for cooking vegetables can result in the loss of
considerable amounts of important proteins and minerals present in them.
● It’s a well-known fact that vitamin C gets destroyed in the heat while cooking.

Obesity: Obesity is a medical condition that results from excess intake of fat-rich foods. The excess fat gets
accumulated to such an extent that it starts negatively affecting one’s health, well-being and the ability to carry
out certain activities
Food Spoilage

We often see that the​ food​ that has been kept out for too long, smells foul and looks rotten. But what causes
this? What will happen if we eat this food? Is it edible? Let’s find out more about Food Spoilage.

Introduction

Spoiled food (Source: mademags)

If food items are kept for a long period of time and not stored properly, they get spoil such food items are bad
for ​health​. When food items kept for a long time gets spoil as germs start growing on it. Once the food is
spoiled, it cannot be eaten and has to be thrown away. Spoilage is a process in which food items deteriorate to
the point in which it is not edible to ​human​.

Causes of Spoilage

The food and ​water​ may be infected by germs. Flies carry germs. When they sit on our food, they pass on these
germs to our food. There are various factors which are responsible for food spoilage such as bacteria, mould,
yeast, moisture, ​light​,​temperature​, and ​chemical reaction​.

1. Bacteria

They are the most abundant​ microorganisms​ found on the ​earth​. They are tiny in size and vary in ​shape​. Some
bacteria are useful also. They help to convert milk into curd.
 Bacteria growth (Source: femininetouchblog)

2. Protozoa

They are single-celled ​microorganisms​ that cause ​disease​ like food poisoning etc.

3. Fungi

They are found in damp and warm places and grow on the dead and rotting matter.

Fungi (Source: sciencedaily)

4. Temperature

Temperature is one of the major factors which is responsible for food spoilage.

Signs of food spoilage

Signs of food spoilage include an appearance different from the fresh food, such as a change in color, a change
in texture, an unpleasant odor or taste.

Activity I
● Aim: To study the growth of fungus.
 ● Materials​: Piece of bread
● Method​: Take a piece of bread. Make it moist and keep it in a warm corner of the room for 3-4 days.
Observe it after 3-4 days.
● Observation: Presence of greenish patch growing on the bread.

(Source: i2-prod.mirror)

Food Preservation

Food is valuable. Preserving food can help to avoid wasting of food. Food preservation involves preventing the
food from being spoilt. Preservation of food is the process by which food is stored by special methods. Cooked
or uncooked food can be preserved in different ways to be used later. Some methods of preservation are:

1. Freezing

Food kept in a refrigerator remains fresh for some days. Germs do not grow easily in cool places. We preserve
food items, like milk fruit, vegetables and cooked food by keeping them in a refrigerator.
 Method of freezing (Source: skinnycentral)

Activity II
● Aim: To understand the principle of food preservation.
● Materials: Two apples, fridge
● Method: Take two apples. Keep one apple in the fridge and one outside for 2-3 days. Record your
observation.
● Observation: The apple inside the fridge is fresh while the one outside will start decaying.

(Source: food.onehowto)

2. Boiling

By this method, we can preserve food for a short period of time. Germs in milk are killed by pasteurization. It
is done by boiling milk for sometimes and then cooling it quickly.

3. Salting

We can add salt to preserve pickles and fish.

4. Sweetening
Excess sugar in food also acts as a preservative. We store food for a long time in the form of jams, jellies, and
murabbas by adding sugar.

5. Dehydration

In this method, the food items are dried in sun to stop the growth of bacteria in them. Certain foods, like​ raw
mangoes​, fishes, potato chips and papads are preserved by this method.

(Source: amazonaws)

6. Canning

In this method, air is removed from food and put in airtight cans so that germs do not grow on them. Food
items like vegetables, seafood, dairy ​products​ etc. Are preserved through this method.

FOOD ADULtERATION

Any substance added to a food item to reduce its quality in order to increase its quantity is called an adulterant. This
act of addition of the adulterant in food item is known as food adulteration. The addition of adulterant may be
intentional or accidental. But generally the adulterant addition is intentional. The major reason for the intentional
addition of these adulterants is for increasing the profit margin on the expense of the health of the public or
consumer.

Examples -
1. In the name of original ghee, it is adulterated with vanaspati.

2. Honey is adulterated with sugar.

Harmful effects of food adulteration -

1. It leads to serious health hazards like cancer, cardiac problem, insomnia and paralysis and other neurological
problems or even death as well.

2. It reduces the quality of commodity as well as create economic loss to the consumer.

Measures formulated to prevent the problem of food Adulteration in India -Prevention of Food Adulteration Act,

1954

1954​ - It was enacted to eradicate rampant evil of food adulteration and to ensure purity in food articles so as to
maintain public health.
QUALITY OF FOOD FROM BOOK
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
 THE BIOSPHERE, LITHOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE AND
ATMOSPHERE
The area near the surface surface of the earth can be divided up into four interconnected

geo-spheres that make up the carbon cycle these include the :

● Lithosphere
● Hydrosphere
● Biosphere
● Atmosphere

The understanding of '-sphere- in this situation means 'to surround or encompass'

The following help us understand the mean of the four spheres :

● Lithosphere - litho referring to rocks and minerals

● Hydrosphere - hydro referring to water
● Biosphere - bio referring to life
● Atmosphere - atmo referring to steam and vapor

THE LITHOSPHERE -

It is believed the lithosphere evolved about 4.6 billion years ago. The lithosphere refers to the

solid, rocky crust that covers the entire planet. This solid, rocky crust is composed of a number of

different rocks that have been hrouped into three categories based on how they are formed. These

three groups include:

● Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and / or pressure from
pre-existing rocks.
● Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also known
as magma. When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it had fully
cooled it create what is known to be an igneous rock.
 ● Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. When rocks
erode and mix with other dirt, clay and particles then settle together the mix together to
form a sedimentary rock.

The lithosphere includes a various number of different landforms such as mountains, valleys,

rocks, minerals and soil. The lithosphere is constantly changing due to forces and pressures such

as the sun, wind, ice, water and chemical changes.

The earth’s surface is composed into two types of lithospheres. There are known as the oceanic

and continental lithospheres.

The oceanic lithosphere includes the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thin yet

heavy oceanic crust. This is where the hydrosphere and lithosphere meet.

The continental lithosphere include the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thick

yet light continental crust. This is where the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere meet the

lithosphere.

THE HYDROSPHERE -

The hydrosphere refers to the most important resource which I water. The hydrosphere includes

all forms of water in the Earth’s environment. The forms of water include things such as the

ocean, lakes, rivers, snow and glaciers, water underneath the earth’s surface and even the water

vapour that is found in the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the

movement and flow of water in rivers, streams and the ocean (beach). Plant and animal organisms

rely on the hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential. The hydrosphere is also home to

many plants and animals and it believed that the hydrosphere covers approximately 70% of the

earth’s surface

THE BIOSPHERE -
The biosphere is composed of all living organisms, including; plants and animals. It is believed

that all life exists in the biosphere. Most of the living organisms are found from up to three meters

below ground to thirty meters above it and also in the to 200 meters of the ocean and seas. The

biosphere could not survive if it wasn't for the other spheres as all organisms need water from the

hydrosphere, minerals for the lithosphere and gases from the atmosphere. Energy flow is

essential to maintain the structure of organisms by the splitting of phosphate bonds.

THE ATMOSPHERE -

The atmosphere referrers to the air that surrounds the earth. The atmosphere is always in motion

and constantly changing. It’s believed that there are about 14 different gases that make up the

atmosphere. The atmosphere is also responsible for the weather as the weather occurs within the

lower atmosphere.

The bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The troposphere is where the

weather happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the heat rising from the earth’s

surface but it becomes colder with altitude. This layer is separated from the next by what is know

s as tropopause. The tropopause is the point in which temperatures will begin to change due to

the increase of altitude.

Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. The stratosphere is where there large concentration of

ozone gas is found. The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large percent of radiant solar

energy, protecting the earth from harmful ultra violet rays also known as UV.

The coldest of spheres is known as the mesosphere this is where the water vapor often freezes to

create clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated from the thermosphere by

the mesopause.

The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many satellites circle the earth.

Due to the thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures in the thermosphere tend to rapidly

increase and decrease.

 Air/Solid waste/Water Pollution from
chemistry-12 or 10

● Role of Remote Sensing and GIS in Environmental Science.(from notes)