Geometry Algorithms PDF

Geometry
Tómas Ken Magnússon

Bjarki Ágúst Guðmundsson
School of Computer Science

Reykjavík University
Árangursrík forritun og lausn verkefna

Today we’re going to cover
▶ Geometry
▶ Computational geometry
2
Points and vectors
3
Points and vectors
▶ Points are represented

by a pair of numbers,
(x, y).
(3, 6)
(1, 3)
(6, 3)
3
Points and vectors
▶ Points are represented

by a pair of numbers,
(x, y).
(3, 6)
▶ Vectors are represented
(1, 3) in the same way.
(6, 3) ▶ Thinking of points as
vectors us to do many
things.
3
Points and vectors
⃗u
⃗v
4
Points and vectors
▶ Simplest operation,
addition is defined as
( ) ( ) ( )
x0 x1 x0 + x1
+ =
y0 y1 y0 + y1
⃗u
⃗v
4
Points and vectors
( ) ( ) ( )
⃗u + ⃗v x0 x1 x0 + x1
+ =
y0 y1 y0 + y1
⃗u
⃗v
4
Points and vectors
( ) ( ) ( )
x0 x1 x0 + x1
+ =
y0 y1 y0 + y1
⃗u
⃗v
▶ Subtraction is defined in
the same manner
( ) ( ) ( )
x0 x1 x0 − x1
− =
y0 y1 y0 − y1
4
Points and vectors
( ) ( ) ( )
x0 x1 x0 + x1
+ =
y0 y1 y0 + y1
⃗u
⃗v
▶ Subtraction is defined in
⃗u − ⃗v the same manner
( ) ( ) ( )
x0 x1 x0 − x1
− =
y0 y1 y0 − y1
4
Points and vectors
struct point {
double x, y;
point(double _x, double _y) {
x = _x, y = _y;
}
point operator+(const point &oth){

return point(x + oth.x, y + oth.y);
}
point operator-(const point &oth){

return point(x - oth.x, y - oth.y);
}
};
5
Points and vectors
…or we could use the complex<double> class.

typedef complex<double> point;
6
Points and vectors
…or we could use the complex<double> class.

typedef complex<double> point;
The complex class in C++ and Java has methods defined

for
▶ Addition
▶ Subtraction
▶ Multiplication by a scalar
▶ Length
▶ Trigonometric functions
6
Points and vectors
Complex numbers have the real part and the imaginary

part. Can be thought of as vectors or points on the
complex plane.
7
Points and vectors

complex plane.
▶ double real(p) returns the real part, or in our case,
the x value of p
7
Points and vectors

complex plane.
the x value of p
▶ double imag(p) returns the imaginary part, y value of
p.
7
Points and vectors

complex plane.
the x value of p
p.
▶ double abs(p) returns the absolute value of the
complex number, the length of the vector.
7
Points and vectors

complex plane.
the x value of p
p.
▶ double abs(p) returns the absolute value of the
complex number, the length of the vector.
▶ double sin(p), double cos(p), double tan(p),
trigonometric functions.
7
Lines and line segments
▶ Line segments are

represented by a pair of
points, ((x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 )).
8

p1 − p0 p1
points, ((x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 )).
▶ Distance between two
points is the length of the
line segment or vector
between the points.
p0
8

p1 − p0
points, ((x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 )).
▶ Distance between two
points is the length of the
line segment or vector
between the points.
d((x0 ,y0 ), (x1 , y1 ))

= |(x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 )|
√
= (x1 − x0 )2 + (y1 − y0 )2
8
struct point {
...
double distance(point oth = point(0,0)) const {
return sqrt(pow(x - oth.x, 2.0)
+ pow(y - oth.y, 2.0));
}
...
}
9
struct point {
...
double distance(point oth = point(0,0)) const {
return sqrt(pow(x - oth.x, 2.0)
+ pow(y - oth.y, 2.0));
}
...
}
Or use the abs function with complex<double>.
9
▶ Line representation same as

line segments.
10

p1
line segments.
▶ Treat them as lines passing
q0 through the two points.
q1
p0
10

line segments.
r⃗0 through the two points.
p1
r⃗1
▶ Or as a point and a direction
vector.
p + t · ⃗r
p0
10

line segments.
r⃗0 through the two points.
p1
r⃗1
▶ Or as a point and a direction
vector.
p + t · ⃗r
p0
▶ Either way
pair<point,point>
10
Circles
▶ Circles are very easy to

represent.
11
Circles

represent.
▶ Center point p = (x, y).
p1
p0
11
Circles

represent.
r1 ▶ Center point p = (x, y).
r0
▶ And the radius r.
p1
p0
11
Circles

represent.
r1 ▶ Center point p = (x, y).
r0
▶ And the radius r.
p1
p0
pair<point,double>
11
Dot product
Given two vectors

( ) ( )
x0 x1
⃗u = ⃗v =
y0 y1
the dot product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

( ) ( )
x0 x
· 1 = x0 · x1 + y0 · y1
y0 y1
12
Dot product
Given two vectors

( ) ( )
x0 x1
⃗u = ⃗v =
y0 y1
the dot product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

( ) ( )
x0 x
· 1 = x0 · x1 + y0 · y1
y0 y1
Which in geometric terms is
⃗u · ⃗v = |⃗u||⃗v| cos θ
12
Dot product
▶ Allows us to calculate the

angle between ⃗u and ⃗v.
( )
⃗u · ⃗v
⃗v θ = arccos
|⃗u||⃗v|
θ
⃗u
13
Dot product
▶ Allows us to calculate the

angle between ⃗u and ⃗v.
( )
⃗u · ⃗v
⃗v θ = arccos
|⃗u||⃗v|
▶ And the projection of ⃗v onto ⃗u.

θ
( )
⃗v⃗u ⃗u ⃗u · ⃗v
⃗v⃗u = ⃗u
|u|
13
Dot product
▶ The closest point on ⃗u to p is

p
q.
⃗v
θ q
⃗v⃗u ⃗u
13
Dot product

p
q.
⃗v ▶ The distance from p to ⃗u is the
distance from p to q.
θ q
⃗v⃗u ⃗u
13
Dot product

p
q.
⃗v ▶ The distance from p to ⃗u is the
distance from p to q.
q ▶ Unless q is outside ⃗u, then the
θ
closest point is either of the
⃗v⃗u ⃗u
endpoints.
13
Dot product
Rest of the code will use the complex class.

#define P(p) const point &p
#define L(p0, p1) P(p0), P(p1)
double dot(P(a), P(b)) {
return real(a) * real(b) + imag(a) * imag(b);
}
double angle(P(a), P(b), P(c)) {
return acos(dot(b - a, c - b) / abs(b - a) / abs(c - b));
}
point closest_point(L(a, b), P(c), bool segment = false) {
if (segment) {
if (dot(b - a, c - b) > 0) return b;
if (dot(a - b, c - a) > 0) return a;
}
double t = dot(c - a, b - a) / norm(b - a);
return a + t * (b - a);
}
14
Cross product
Given two vectors

( ) ( )
x0 x1
⃗u = ⃗v =
y0 y1
the cross product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

( ) ( )
x0 x1

y0 × y1 = x0 · y1 − y0 · x1
15
Cross product
Given two vectors

( ) ( )
x0 x1
⃗u = ⃗v =
y0 y1
the cross product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

( ) ( )
x0 x1

y0 × y1 = x0 · y1 − y0 · x1
Which in geometric terms is
|⃗u × ⃗v| = |⃗u||⃗v| sin θ
15
Cross product
▶ Allows us to calculate the area

of the triangle formed by ⃗u
and ⃗v.
|⃗u × ⃗v|
⃗v 2
θ
⃗u
16
Cross product

and ⃗v.
|⃗u × ⃗v|
⃗v 2
|u
1 ⃗
2
× ⃗v|
θ
⃗u
16
Cross product

and ⃗v.
|⃗u × ⃗v|
⃗v 2
2
|u
1 ⃗
× ⃗v| ▶ And can tell us if the angle
θ between ⃗u and ⃗v is positive or
⃗u negative.
|⃗u × ⃗v| < 0 iff θ<π

|⃗u × ⃗v| = 0 iff θ=π
|⃗u × ⃗v| > 0 iff θ>π
16
Counterclockwise
▶ Given three points A, B and C, we

C
want to know if they form a
⃗v
counter-clockwise angle in that
order.
A→B→C
B
⃗u
17
Counterclockwise
▶ Given three points A, B and C, we

C
want to know if they form a
⃗v
counter-clockwise angle in that
order.
A→B→C
+ B
▶ We can examine the cross product
of and the area of the triangle
⃗u formed by
⃗u = B − C ⃗v = B − A
A
⃗u × ⃗v > 0
17
Counterclockwise
▶ The points in the reverse order do

C
not form a counter clockwise angle.
⃗u
C→B→A
− B
▶ In the reverse order the vectors
swap places
⃗v ⃗u = B − A ⃗v = B − C
⃗u × ⃗v < 0
A
17
Counterclockwise
▶ The points in the reverse order do

C
not form a counter clockwise angle.
⃗u C→B→A
B
▶ In the reverse order the vectors
swap places
⃗v
⃗u = B − A ⃗v = B − C
⃗u × ⃗v < 0
A
▶ If the points A, B and C are on the
same line, then the area will be 0.
17
Counterclockwise
double cross(P(a), P(b)) {

return real(a)*imag(b) - imag(a)*real(x);
}
double ccw(P(a), P(b), P(c)) {
return cross(b - a, c - b);
}
bool collinear(P(a), P(b), P(c)) {
return abs(ccw(a, b, c)) < EPS;
}
18
Intersections
Very common task is to find the intersection of two lines or
line segments.
19
Intersections
line segments.
▶ Given a pair of points (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ), representing a
line we want to start by obtaining the form
Ax + By = C.
19
Intersections
line segments.
Ax + By = C.
▶ We can do so by setting
A = y1 − y0
B = x0 − x1
C = A · x0 + B · y1
19
Intersections
line segments.
Ax + By = C.
▶ We can do so by setting
A = y1 − y0
B = x0 − x1
C = A · x0 + B · y1
▶ If we have two lines given by such equations, we

simply need to solve for the two unknowns, x and y.
19
Intersections
For two lines
A0 x + B0 y = C0
A1 x + B1 y = C1
The intersection point is
(B1 · C0 − B0 · C1 )
x=
D
(A0 · C1 − A1 · C0 )
y=
D
Where
D = A0 · B1 − A1 · B0
20
Intersections
Quite similar problem is to find the intersections of two
circles.
rA rB
A B
d
21
Intersections
circles.
▶ If d > r0 + r1 the circles do

not intersect.
rA rB
A B
d
21
Intersections
circles.

not intersect.
▶ If d < |r0 − r1 |, one circles is
contained within the other.
rA rB
A B
d
21
Intersections
circles.

not intersect.
rA rB
▶ If d = 0 and r0 = r1 , the
A
d
B circles are the same.
21
Intersections
circles.

not intersect.
rA rB
▶ If d = 0 and r0 = r1 , the
A
d
B circles are the same.
▶ Let’s look at the last case.
21
Intersections
circles.
▶ We can solve for the vectors

a and h from the equations
a2 + h2 = r20 b2 + h2 = r21
rA rB
h
A B
a b
21
Intersections
circles.
▶ We can solve for the vectors

a and h from the equations
a2 + h2 = r20 b2 + h2 = r21
rA rB
h
A B ▶ We get
a b
r2A − r2B + d2 )
a=
2·d
h2 = r2A − a2
21
Intersections
#define C(p, r) const point &p, double r
int intersect(C(A, rA), C(B, rB), point & res1, point & res2) {
double d = abs(B - A);
if ( rA + rB < d - EPS || d < abs(rA - rB) - EPS){
return 0;
}
double a = (rA*rA - rB*rB + d*d) / 2*d;
double h = sqrt(rA*rA - a*a);
point v = normalize(B - A, a);
u = normalize(rotate(B-A), h);
res1 = A + v + u;
res2 = A + v - u;
if (abs(u) < EPS){
return 1;
}
return 2;
}
22
Polygons
▶ Polygons are represented by

a list of points in the order
representing the edges.
23
Polygons

▶ To calculate the area
23
Polygons

– We pick one starting point.
23
Polygons

– Go through all the other
adjacent pair of points and sum
the area of the triangulation.
23
Polygons

23
Polygons

23
Polygons

23
Polygons

– Even if we sum up area outside
the polygon, due to the cross
product, it is subtracted later.
23
Polygons

– Even if we sum up area outside
the polygon, due to the cross
product, it is subtracted later.
23
Polygons
double polygon_area_signed(const vector<point> &p) {

double area = 0;
int cnt = size(p);
for (int i = 1; i + 1 < cnt; i++){
area += cross(p[i] - p[0], p[i + 1] - p[0])/2;
}
return area;
}
double polygon_area(vector<point> &p) {
return abs(polygon_area_signed(p));
}
24
Convex hull
▶ Given a set of points, we want to find the convex hull
of the points.
25
Convex hull
of the points.
▶ The convex hull of points can be visualized as the
shape formed by a rubber band around the set of
points.
25
Convex hull
of the points.
points.
25
Convex hull
of the points.
points.
25
Convex hull
Graham scan:
26
Convex hull
Graham scan:
▶ Pick the point p0 with the lowest y coordinate.
26
Convex hull
Graham scan:
▶ Sort all the points by polar angle with p0 .
26
Convex hull
Graham scan:
▶ Iterate through all the points
26
Convex hull
Graham scan:
▶ If the current point forms a clockwise angle with the

last two points, remove last point from the convex set.
26
Convex hull
Graham scan:

▶ Otherwise, add the current point to the convex set.
26
Convex hull
Graham scan:

▶ Otherwise, add the current point to the convex set.
Time complexity O(N log N).
26
Convex hull
27
Convex hull
27
Convex hull
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
9 7 4
11 6
8
12 3
10
5
2
1
p0
27
Convex hull
point hull[MAXN];
int convex_hull(vector<point> p) {
int n = size(p), l = 0;
sort(p.begin(), p.end(), cmp);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (i > 0 && p[i] == p[i - 1])
continue;
while (l >= 2 && ccw(hull[l - 2], hull[l - 1], p[i]) >= 0)
l--;
hull[l++] = p[i];
}
int r = l;
for (int i = n - 2; i >= 0; i--) {
if (p[i] == p[i + 1])
continue;
while (r - l >= 1 && ccw(hull[r - 2], hull[r - 1], p[i]) >= 0)
r--;
hull[r++] = p[i];
}
return l == 1 ? 1 : r - 1;
}
28
Convex hull
Many other algorithms exist
29
Convex hull

▶ Gift wrapping aka Jarvis march.
29
Convex hull

▶ Quick hull, similar idea to quicksort.
29
Convex hull

▶ Divide and conquer.
29
Convex hull

▶ Divide and conquer.
Some can be extended to three dimensions, or higher.
29
Point in convex polygon
Simple algorithm to check if a point is in a convex polygon.
30
▶ We start by calculating the

area of the polygon.
30

▶ To check if our point is
contained in the polygon we
sum up the area of the
triangles formed the point
and every two adjacent
points.
30

points.
30

points.
30

points.
30

points.
30

points.
30

points.
30

points.
▶ The total area of the triangles
is equal to the area of the
polygon iff the point is inside
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30

points.
the polygon.
30
Point in concave polygon
How about non convex polygon?
31

▶ The even-odd rule algorithm.
31

▶ We examine a ray passing through the polygon to the

point.
31

▶ We examine a ray passing through the polygon to the

point.
▶ If the ray crosses the boundary of the polygon, then it
alternately goes from outside to inside, and outside to
inside.
31
32
▶ Ray from the outside of

the polygon to the point.
32

▶ Count the number of
intersection points.
32

▶ If odd, then the point is
inside the polygon.
▶ If even, then the point is
outside the polygon.
32

inside the polygon.
▶ Does not matter which
ray we pick.
32

inside the polygon.
ray we pick.
32

inside the polygon.
ray we pick.
32

inside the polygon.
ray we pick.
32
Closest pair of points
Given a set of points, we want to find the pair of points

with the smallest distance between them.
Divide and conquer algorithm;
33

▶ Sort points by the x-coordinate.
33

▶ Split the set into two equal sized sets by the vertical
line of the medial x value.
33

▶ Solve the problem recursively in the left and right
subset.
33

subset.
▶ Sort the two subsets by the y-coordinate.
33

subset.
▶ Sort the two subsets by the y-coordinate.
▶ Find the smallest distance among the pair of points

which lie on different sides of the line.
33
Takk fyrir önnina!
Gangi ykkur vel og góða skemmtun í prófinu á morgun!
34

Geometry Algorithms PDF

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Geometry Algorithms PDF

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Geometry

Tómas Ken Magnússon

School of Computer Science

Árangursrík forritun og lausn verkefna

▶ Points are represented

▶ Points are represented

point operator+(const point &oth){

point operator-(const point &oth){

…or we could use the complex<double> class.

…or we could use the complex<double> class.

The complex class in C++ and Java has methods defined

Complex numbers have the real part and the imaginary

Complex numbers have the real part and the imaginary

Complex numbers have the real part and the imaginary

Complex numbers have the real part and the imaginary

Complex numbers have the real part and the imaginary

▶ Line segments are

▶ Line segments are

▶ Line segments are

d((x0 ,y0 ), (x1 , y1 ))

Or use the abs function with complex<double>.

▶ Line representation same as

▶ Line representation same as

▶ Line representation same as

▶ Line representation same as

▶ Circles are very easy to

▶ Circles are very easy to

▶ Circles are very easy to

▶ Circles are very easy to

Given two vectors

the dot product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

Given two vectors

the dot product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

Which in geometric terms is

▶ Allows us to calculate the

▶ Allows us to calculate the

▶ And the projection of ⃗v onto ⃗u.

▶ The closest point on ⃗u to p is

▶ The closest point on ⃗u to p is

▶ The closest point on ⃗u to p is

Rest of the code will use the complex class.

Given two vectors

the cross product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

Given two vectors

the cross product of ⃗u and ⃗v is defined as

Which in geometric terms is

|⃗u × ⃗v| = |⃗u||⃗v| sin θ

▶ Allows us to calculate the area

▶ Allows us to calculate the area

▶ Allows us to calculate the area

|⃗u × ⃗v| < 0 iff θ<π

▶ Given three points A, B and C, we

▶ Given three points A, B and C, we

▶ The points in the reverse order do

▶ The points in the reverse order do

double cross(P(a), P(b)) {

▶ If we have two lines given by such equations, we

The intersection point is

▶ If d > r0 + r1 the circles do

▶ If d > r0 + r1 the circles do

▶ If d > r0 + r1 the circles do

▶ If d > r0 + r1 the circles do

▶ We can solve for the vectors