ME 2304: 3D Geometry & Vector

Calculus
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2-D) COORDINATE SYSTEMS

• To locate a point in a plane, two numbers

are essential.
– Any point in the plane can be represented as an
ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers
– where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate.
– For this reason, a plane is called two-dimensional.
 THREE-DIMENSIONAL (3-D) COORDINATE SYSTEMS

• To locate a point in space, three numbers

are required.

– Any point in space by an ordered triple (a, b, c) of real

numbers.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• In order to represent points in space:

– A fixed point O (the origin)

– Three directed lines through O that are

perpendicular to each other
 COORDINATE AXES
• The three lines are called the coordinate axes.
• They are labeled:

– x-axis
– y-axis
– z-axis

• Usually, we think of:

– The x- and y-axes as being horizontal

– The z-axis as being vertical

 COORDINATE AXES
• We draw the orientation of the axes
as shown.
 COORDINATE AXES
• The direction of the z-axis is
determined by the right-hand rule,
illustrated in following slide.
 COORDINATE AXES
• Curl the fingers of your right hand
around the z-axis in the direction of a 90°
counterclockwise rotation from the positive
x-axis to the positive y-axis.

– Then, your thumb

points in the positive
direction of the z-axis.
 COORDINATE PLANES
• The three coordinate axes determine
the three coordinate planes.

– The xy-plane contains

the x- and y-axes.
– The yz-plane contains
the y- and z-axes.
– The xz-plane contains
the x- and z-axes.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Many people have some difficulty
visualizing diagrams of 3-D figures.

• Thus, you may find it helpful to do

the following.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Look at any bottom corner of a room
and call the corner the origin.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• The wall on your left is in the xz-plane.
• The wall on your right is in the yz-plane.
• The floor is in the xy-plane.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• The x-axis runs along the intersection
of the floor and the left wall.
• The y-axis runs along that of the floor
and the right wall.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• The z-axis runs up from the floor toward
the ceiling along the intersection of the two
walls.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Now, if P is any point in space,
let:

– a be the (directed) distance from the yz-plane to P.

– b be the distance from the xz-plane to P.

– c be the distance from the xy-plane to P.

 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• We represent the point P by the ordered
triple of real numbers (a, b, c).

• We call a, b, and c the coordinates of P.

– a is the x-coordinate.
– b is the y-coordinate.
– c is the z-coordinate.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Thus, to locate the point (a, b, c), we can start at
the origin O and proceed as follows:

– First, move a units along the x-axis.

– Then, move b units

parallel to the y-axis.

– Finally, move c units

parallel to the z-axis.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• The point P(a, b, c) determines a
rectangular box.
 PROJECTIONS
• If we drop a perpendicular from P to
the xy-plane, we get a point Q with coordinates
(a, b, 0).

– This is called
the projection of P
on the xy-plane.
 PROJECTIONS
• Similarly, R(0, b, c) and S(a, 0, c) are
the projections of P on the yz-plane and
xz-plane, respectively.
 3-D COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• As numerical illustrations, the points
(–4, 3, –5) and (3, –2, –6) are plotted here.
 Lines in Space
To determine the equation of the line passing through the point P  x 0 , y 0 , z 0 
and parallel to the direction vector, v  a ,,b , c
we will use knowledge that
parallel vectors are scalar multiples. Thus, the vector
through P and any other point Q  x , y , z  on the line is a scalar multiple
of the direction vector,v  a , b , c.
z P x0, y0,z0 

x , y ,z  v  a , b,c
Q

In other words, x

PQ  t a , b , c , where t is any real number  scalar 

or
x  x 0 , y  y 0 , z  z 0  at , bt , ct
 Equations of Lines in Space
Equate the respective components and solving for x, y and z gives
three equations.
x  x 0  at , y  y 0  bt and z  z 0  ct
or
x  x 0  at , y  y 0  bt and z  z 0  ct

These equations are called the parametric equations of the line.

If the components of the direction vector are all nonzero, each equation
can be solved for the parameter t and then the three can be set equal.

x  x0 y  y0 z  z 0
 
a b c
These equations are called the symmetric equations of the line.
Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line passing
through the point (2, 3, -4) and parallel to the vector, (-1, 2, 5) .

Simply use the parametric and symmetric equations for any line
given a point on the line and the direction vector.

Parametric Equations:

x  2  t , y  3  2t and z  4  5t

Notice that when t=0, we are at the point (2, 3, -4).

 As t increases or decreases from 0, we move away
from this point parallel to the direction indicated by
(-1, 2, 5).
Symmetric Equations:

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
 
a b c
Thus , we will have:

x 2 y 3 z  4
 
1 2 5
Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line
passing through the points (1, 2, -2) and (3, -2, 5).
First you must find the direction vector which is just finding the
vector from one point on the line to the other. Then simply use the
parametric and symmetric equations and either point.

direction vector v  3  1,  2  2, 5  2  2,  4, 7

parametric equations : x  1  2t , y  2  4t and z  2  7t

x 1 y 2 z 2
symmetric equations :  
2 4 7
Notes:
1. For a quick check, when t = 0 the parametric equations give the point (1, 2, -2) and
when t = 1 the parametric equations give the point (3, -2, 5).
2. The equations describing the line are not unique. You may have used the other
point or the vector going from the second point to the first point.
Find the parametric equation of the line passing through the
point P(5, -2, 4) and parallel to the vector, a(1/2, 2, -2/3) .
Parametric Equations:
To avoid fraction, using vector b=6a=(3,12,-4)

x  5  3t, y  - 2  12t, z  4- 4t
Where does the line intersect the xy-plane.
The line will intersect xy-plane at a point, say R(x,y,z) if z=4-4t=0,
Which implies t=1. Putting t=1 in parametric equations yields x and
y co-ordinates of R

x  5  3( 1 )  8 and y  -2  12( 1 )  10 ,
Hence, R is the point with co-ordinates (8,10,0)
Sketch the position vector a and the line,
(say l) for previous example
z

P 5,  2, 4

a  1 / 2,2,2 / 3 y

R 8,10,0 
x
 Relationships Between Lines
In a 2-dimensional coordinate system, there
were three possibilities when considering two
lines: intersecting lines, parallel lines and
identical lines i.e. the two were actually the same
line, as passing through the same points.
 In3-dimensional space, there is one more
possibility, i.e. two lines may be skew, which
means the lines do not intersect, but are not
parallel as well. For an example,
If the red line is down in the xy-plane i.e.
z=0, and the blue line is above the xy-plane,
but parallel to the xy-plane the two lines
never intersect and are not parallel.
Determine if the lines are parallel or identical.
Line 1 : x  3  t Line 2 : x  5  2t
y  2  2t y  2  4t
z  4 t z  1  2t

First look at the direction vectors:

v1  1,2,1 and v 2   2,4,2
Since v 2  2v, 1 the lines are parallel.

Now we must determine if they are identical.

So we need to determine if they pass through the
same points.
This can be verified if the two sets of parametric
equations produce the same points for different values
of t.
Let t=0 for Line 1, the point produced is (3, 2, 4).
Set the x from Line 2 equal to the x-coordinate
produced by Line 1 i.e. x=3 and solve for t.

3  5  2t   2  2t  t  1
Now let t=1 for Line 2 and the point (3, 2, -1) is
produced.

By inspecting point (3, 2, 4) on line 1 and point (3, 2,

-1) for line 2, it can be seen that the z-coordinates
are not equal, implying the lines are not identical.
Determine if the lines intersect. If so, find the point of
intersection.

Line 1: x  -2  3t y  5-4t z  1  2t
Line 2: x  1  v y  3  2v z  4  3v

Direction vectors:
v1  3,4,2 v2   1,2,3

Since v2 ,kthe
 v1 lines are not parallel. Thus they either intersect
or they are skew lines.

The line will intersect if there are values of t (for

Line 1) and v (for line 2) that give us the same point.
Hence, we will consider the following system of three
equations as follows:
x:  2  3t  1  v or 3t  v  3
y: 5  4t  3  2v or  4t  2v  2
z: 1  2t  4  3v or 2t  3v  5
 Solving the first two equations simultaneously yields t=2
and v= -3
 Substituting into the third equation, 2t+3v= -5, we will have:
2(2)+3(-3)= -5. => - 5 = - 5.
 Since, t =2 and v= -3 satisfy all three equations, which
implies that lines intersect.
IMPORTANT: If the solution of first two equations i.e. t=2 & v=-3, had not
satisfied the third equation, then lines would have no point of intersection.
Determine if the lines intersect. If so, find the point of intersection and the cosine of the
angle of intersection.

Line 1 : x  3  2t Line 2 : x  4  t
y  2t y  3  5t
z  4 t z  2 t

Direction vectors: v1  2,2,1 v 2   1,5,1

Since v2  k, vthe

1
lines are not parallel. Thus they either intersect
or they are skew lines.
Keep in mind that the lines may have a point of intersection
or a common point, but not necessarily for the same value of
t. So equate each coordinate, but replace the t in Line 2 with
an s. x : 3  2t  4  s System of 3 equations with 2
y :  2t  3  5s unknowns – Solve the first 2
and check with the 3rd
z : 4 t  2  s equation.
Solving the system, we get t = 1 and s = -1.

Line 1: t = 1 produces the point (5, -2, 3) The lines intersect at

Line 2: s = -1 produces the point (5, -2, 3) this point.

Recall from previous lecture, the dot product,

 

1 a  b

  cos  

 ab 
Thus,
2,2,1   1,5,1
cos  
22    2    1    1  2  52    1  2
2 2

 2  10  1  11
cos     0.706
9  27 9 3
 Planes in Space
In previous lectures we have looked at planes in space. For
example, we looked at the xy-plane, the yz-plane and the xz-plane
when we first introduced 3-dimensional space.

Now we are going to examine the equation for a plane. In the

figure below P,  x 0 , y 0 , z 0  , is a point in the highlighted plane and
n  a , b,c
is the vector normal to the highlighted plane.
For any point Q,  x , y , z 
n in the plane, the vector
from P to Q , i.e.
PQ  x  x 0 , y  y 0 , z  z 0
Q is also in the plane.

P
 Planes in Space (contd)
Since the vector from P to Q is in the plane, PQ and n
are perpendicular and their dot product must be equal zero, i.e.
n  PQ  0
a , b ,c  x  x 0 , y  y 0 , z  z 0  0
a  x  x0   b  y  y0   c z  z 0   0

This last equation is the

n
equation of the highlighted
plane.
Q
So the equation of any plane
can be found from a point in
P
the plane and a vector
normal to the plane.
Standard & general Equation of a Plane
The standard equation of a plane containing the point  x 0 , y 0 , z 0 
and having n  a , b ,c normal vector, is

a  x  x0   b  y  y0   c z  z 0   0

Note: The equation can be simplified by collecting like terms.

This results in the general form:

ax  by  cz  d  0
 Example
Given the normal vector, <3, 1, -2> to the plane
containing the point (2, 3, -1), write the equation of the
plane in both standard form and general form.

Standard Form Equation

a x  x0   b  y  y0   c z  z0   0

3 x  2  1 y  3  2 z  1  0

To obtain General Form, simplify.

3x  6  y  3  2z  2  0
or
3x  y  2z  11  0
 Example: 2
Given the points a (1, 2, -1), b (4, 0,3) and c (2, -1,
5) in a plane, find the equation of the plane in
general form.
To write the equation of the plane we need a point (we
have three) and a vector normal to the plane.

 So we need to find a vector normal to the plane.

 First find two vectors in the plane, then recall that

their cross product will be a vector normal to both
those vectors and thus normal to the plane.
Two vectors:
From a (1, 2, -1) to b (4, 0, 3): ab = < 4-1, 0-2, 3+1 > = <3,-2,4>
From a (1, 2, -1) to c(2, -1, 5): ac= < 2-1, -1-2, 5+1 > = <1,-3,6>

Their cross product:

i j k
3  2 4  0i  14 j  7k  14 j  7k
1 3 6

Equation of the plane using a (1, 2, -1):

0 x  1  14 y  2  7  z  1  0
 14y  7z  21  0
or
2y  z  3  0
 Exercise
Prove that planes a: 2x - 3y - z- 5 = 0 and
b: -6x + 9y + 3z +2 =0 are parallel.
The planes a and b have normal vector (2, -3, -1) and
(-6, 9, 3) respectively.

This implies b= -3a. i.e. the vectors a and b

representing corresponding normal vectors to the
planes a and b are parallel, and hence planes are
parallel as well.
 Exercise
Find an equation of the plane through P (5, -2, 4)
that is parallel to 3x + y – 6z +8= 0 and
The plane (3x +y -6z +8 =0) has a normal vector (3, 1, -6)
Hence, an equation of a parallel plane can be given as:
3x + y – 6z + d =0 ; for some real number d
if P (5, -2, 4) is on this plane, then it must satisfy the equation of the
plane i.e.

3x + y – 6z + d =0 => 3(5)+1(-2)-6(4)+d=0 => d= 11

Thus equation of parallel plane is 3x + y – 6z + 11 =0

 Sketching Planes in Space
 it is really easy to find three points on plane i.e. the points of
intersection of the plane with the coordinate axes.
 For example, let’s sketch the plane, x + 3y + 4z – 12 = 0

The x-intercept (where the plane intersects the x-axis) occurs

when both y and z equal to 0, so the x-intercept is (12, 0, 0).
Similarly the y-intercept is (0, 4, 0) and the z-intercept is (0, 0, 3).
Plot the three points on the coordinate system and then
connect each pair with a straight line in each coordinate plane.
Each of these lines is called a trace.
Sketch of the plane x + 3y + 4z – 12 = 0 with intercepts, (12, 0, 0),
(0, 4, 0) and (0, 0, 3). z

Trace in xy-plane

x
Another way to graph the plane x + 3y + 4z – 12 = 0 is by using the
traces. The traces are the lines of intersection the plane has with
each of the coordinate planes.

The xy-trace is found by letting z = 0, x + 3y = 12 is a line the the xy-

plane. Graph this line.
z

x
Similarly, the yz-trace is 3y + 4z = 12, and the xz-trace is
x + 4z = 12. Graph each of these in their respective
coordinate planes.

x
Sketch a graph of the plane 2x – 4y + 4z – 12 = 0.
The intercepts are (6, 0, 0), (0, -3, 0) and (0, 0, 3).
Plot each of these and connect each pair with a
straight line.
The intercepts are (6, 0, 0), (0, -3, 0) and (0, 0, 3). Plot each of these and connect each pair
with a straight line.

x
 More on Sketching Planes
Not all planes have x, y and z intercepts. Any plane whose equation is missing one
variable is parallel to the axis of the missing variable. For example,
2x + 3y – 6 = 0 is parallel to the z-axis. The xy trace is 2x + 3y = 6, the yz trace is y = 2 and
the xz trace is x = 3.

Part of the plane is outlined in red.

Any plane whose equation is missing two variables is parallel to the coordinate plane of
the missing variables. For example, 2x – 6 = 0 or x = 3 is parallel to the yz-plane.

The plane is outlined in blue

and is at the x value of 3.
 Intersection of Planes
Any two planes that are not parallel or identical will
intersect in a line and to find the line, we need to solve
their equations simultaneously.

For example in the above figure , the white plane

and the yellow plane intersect along the blue line.
Find the parametric equation of line of
intersection for the planes x + 3y + 4z = 0 and
x – 3y +2z = 0.
To find the common intersection, solve the equations simultaneously.
Multiply the first equation by –1 and add the two to eliminate x.
 1   x  3y  4z  0    x  3y  4z  0
x  3y  2z  0  x  3y  2z  0
1
 6y  2z  0 or y  z
3
Back substitute y into one of the first equations and solve for x.
1 
x  3   z   4z  0
 3 
x  z  4z  0
x  3z
By letting z take on every real value t, i.e. z = t, the parametric
equations for the line are
1
x  3t , y  t and z  t
3
 Exercise
Find the parametric equation of line of
intersection for the planes 2x - y + 4z = 4
and x + 3y - 2z = 1.
By letting z take on every real value t, i.e. z = t, the
parametric equations for the line are:

13 10 2 8
x   t, y    t and z  t;
7 7 7 7
 ANGLE OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN TWO PLANES

Find the angle of intersection between the

planes 2x - 4y + 4z = 7 and 6x + 2y - 3z = 2.
 The angle between corresponding normals to two planes
i.e. n1(2, -4, 4) and n2 (6, 2, -3) will yield the angle between
two planes.
 Recall, from previous lectures, dot product formula:
 

1 a  b
 
1 n1  n 2

  cos    cos 
  n1 n 2 

 a b   
Answer: 79 Degrees
 Distance Between a Point and a Plane
Let P be a point in the plane and let Q be a point not in the
plane. We are interested in finding the distance from the point Q
to the plane that contains the point P.
We can find the distance between the point, Q, and the plane by projecting the vector
from P to Q onto the normal to the plane and then finding its magnitude or length.

n, normal
Q

Projection of PQ
onto the normal to
the plane

Thus the distance from Q to the plane is the length or the magnitude of the
projection of the vector PQ onto the normal.
 Distance Between a Point and a Plane (contd)
If the distance from Q to the plane is the length or the magnitude of the projection of
the vector PQ onto the normal, we can write that mathematically:

Distance from Q to the plane  projn PQ

Now, recall from previous lecture,

 
 PQ  n 
projn PQ   2  n
 n 
 

So taking the magnitude of this vector, we get:

  PQ  n PQ  n
 PQ  n 
projn PQ   2  n  2
 n 
 n  n n
 
Distance Between a Point and a Plane: Summary
The distance from a plane containing the point P to a
point Q not in the plane is

PQ  n
D  projn PQ 
n

where n is a normal to the plane.

Find the distance between the point Q (3, 1,
-5) to the plane 4x + 2y – z = 8.
We know the normal to the plane is <4, 2, -1> from the general form of a plane. We
can find a point in the plane simply by letting x and y equal 0 and solving for z: P (0, 0,
-8) is a point in the plane.

Thus the vector, PQ = <3-0, 1-0, -5-(-8)> = <3, 1, 3>

Now that we have the vector PQ and the normal, we simply use the formula for the
distance between a point and a plane.

PQ  n 3,1,3  4,2,1
D  projn PQ  
n 42  22    1
2

12  2  3 11
D    2.4
16  4  1 21
 Let’s look at another way to write the distance from a point to a
plane. If the equation of the plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0, then
we know the normal to the plane is the vector, <a, b, c> .
Let P be a point in the plane, P =  x1 , y1 , z 1  and Q be the point not in the

plane, Q = x 0 , y 0 , z 0  . Then the vector, PQ  x 0  x1 , y 0  y1 , z 0  z 1

So now the dot product of PQ and n becomes:

PQ  n  a , b , c  x 0  x1 , y 0  y1 , z 0  z 1
 a  x 0  x1   b  y 0  y1   c  z 0  z 1 
 ax 0  by 0  cz 0  ax 1  by 1  cz 1
Note that since P is a point on the plane it will satisfy the equation of the plane, so
ax 1  by 1  cz 1  d  0 or d  ax 1  by 1  cz 1
and the dot product can be rewritten:
PQ  n  ax 0  by 0  cz 0  d
 Thus the formula for the distance can be written another way:

The Distance Between a Point and a Plane

The distance between a plane, ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a point

Q  x 0 , y 0 , z 0  can be written as:

ax 0  by 0  cz 0  d
D  projn PQ 
a 2  b2  c2

Now that you have two formulas for the distance between a
point and a plane, let’s consider the second case, the distance
between a point and a line.
 Distance Between a Point and a Line
In the picture below, Q is a point not on the line , P is a point on the line, u

is a direction vector for the line and  is the angle between u and PQ.

D = Distance from Q to the line


P u

D
So, sin   or D  PQ sin 
PQ
We know from notes on cross products that
u  v  u v sin  , where  is the angle between u and v .

Thus, PQ  u  PQ u sin 

or dividing both sides by u

PQ  u
 PQ sin 
u

PQ  u
D 
So if,PQ sin  then from above, D .
u
Summary: Distance Between a Point and a Line

The distance, D, between a line and a point Q

not on the line is given by

PQ  u
D
u

where u is the direction vector of the line

and P is a point on the line.
Find the distance between the point Q (1, 3, -2) and
the line given by the parametric equations:
x  2  t , y  1  t and z  3  2t
From the parametric equations we know the direction vector, u is < 1, -1, 2 >
and if we let t = 0, a point P on the line is P (2, -1, 3).

Thus PQ = < 2-1, -1-3, 3-(-2) > = < 1, -4, 5 >

Find the cross product: i j k

PQ  u  1  4 5  3i  3 j  3k
1 1 2

Using the distance formula:

PQ  u   3 2  32  32 27 9
D     2.12
u 12    1  22
2
6 2
 Cylindrical Coordinates
As with two dimensional space the standard coordinate
system is called the Cartesian coordinate system.
 In the last two sections of this sections we’ll be
looking at some alternate coordinates systems for
three dimensional space.
 This one is fairly simple as it is nothing more than
an extension of polar coordinates into three
dimensions.
 All that we do is add a z on as the third
coordinate. The r and θ are the same as with polar
coordinates.
 Cylindrical Coordinates (contd.)
Here is a sketch of a point in R3
The conversions for x and y are the
same conversions that we used
back in when we were looking at
polar coordinates. 
So, if we have a point in cylindrical
coordinates the Cartesian
coordinates can be found by using
the following conversions.

The third equation is just an x  r cos θ

acknowledgement that the z-
coordinate of a point in Cartesian y  r sin θ
and polar coordinates is the same.
zz
 Cylindrical Coordinates (contd.)
Likewise, if we have a point in Cartesian coordinates the
cylindrical coordinates can be found by using the
following conversions.

r x y 2 2
or r  x  y2 2

 y
  tan  
1

x
zz

Let’s take a quick look at some surfaces in cylindrical

coordinates.
 Spherical Coordinates
  This is the distance from the origin
to the point and we will require
  0.

  This is the same angle that

we saw in polar/cyli ndrical
coordinate s. It is the angle
between th e positive x - axis
and the line above denoted
by r.

  This is the angle between th e positive z - axis

and the line from the origin to the point.
We will require 0    
 Spherical Coordinates
We should first derive some conversion formulas.  Let’s
first start with a point in spherical coordinates and ask
what the cylindrical coordinates of the point are.  So, we
know   ,  ,   and what to find  r ,  , z 
Of course we really only need to find r and z since, theta
 is the same in both coordinate systems
We will be able to do all of our work by looking at the right tria ngle
shown above in our sketch. With a little geometry we see that the
angle between z and  is  , so we can see that,

z   cos  and these are exactly the formulas that we

were looking for
r   sin 
 Spherical Coordinates
So, given a point in r   sin 
spherical coordinates the
cylindrical coordinates of  
the point will be:
z   cos 
It can noted that

Or
 Spherical Coordinates
Next, let’s find the Cartesian x  r cos θ
coordinates of the same
point.  To do this we’ll start y  r sin θ
with the cylindrical
conversion formulas from
zz
the previous section.
x  r sin  cos θ
Now all that we need to do is
use the formulas from above for y  r sin  sin θ
r and z to get:
z   cos 
Also note that since we know
r 2  x 2  y 2 ; we get
 2  x2  y2  z 2
 Example: 1
Convert the po int  
6 ,  , 2 from cylindrica l to
4
spherical coordinate s.
We’ ll start by acknowledging that  is the same in both
coordinate systems and so we don’ t need to do anything with that .
Next lets find  and  as follows :

  r2  z2  6  2  8  2 2

To find  , we can use z   cos 

 z  -1  2  
  cos     cos 
-1
   
   2 2 3
 Example: 1
So, the spherical coordinates of this point will are

  
  , ,     2 2 , , 
 4 3
 Example: 2
Convert the po int   2,-2,1 from Cartesian to
(a) Cylindrica l and (b) spherical coordinate s.

(a) Cartesian to Cylindrical Coordinates

r  x2  y2  2 2
 y 
  tan   
1

x 4
Whereas, z coordinate will remain same i.e. z  1

Hence Cylindrica l coordinate s are  r,  , z   (2 2 , ,1)
4
 Example: 2 (Contd.)
(b) Cartesian to Spherical Coordinates
We’ ll start by acknowledging that  is the same in both
coordinate systems and so we don’ t need to do anything with that .
Next lets find  and  as follows :

  x2  y2  z 2  3

To find  , we can use z   cos 

-1  z  -1 1
 
  cos     cos 3    70.5
 


So, the spherical coordinates of this point will are

   
  , ,     3, ,70.5 
 4 