IPTC 16663

A Type Curve for Carbonates Rock Typing

A. S. Wibowo, and P. Permadi, Institut Teknologi Bandung

Copyright 2013, International Petroleum Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the International Petroleum Technology Conference held in Beijing, China, 26–28 March 2013.

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Abstract
Rock typing for heterogeneous carbonates is still a standing problem. The present work was directed to investigating the
relationship between microscopic geological characteristics of carbonates and architecture of the pore systems in the effort to
develop a better method for carbonates rock typing. Eight carbonate reservoirs with complete core analysis data of 1,838 core
plugs were used in this work. Six carbonate data sets were utilized in developing the method and the rest two were used for
verification.

The well known Kozeny’s equation was employed to provide the relationship between pore geometry and the structure. It can
be shown that these pore attributes contain only permeability and porosity. A comprehensive analysis was then carried out by
plotting pore geometry against pore structure on log-log graphs (PGS cross-plot) and identifying microscopic geological
features of every core plug employed. Results for each carbonate data set show that the data points divides into six to thirteen
clusters, each cluster has its own similarity in the microscopic geological features, the fitting line drawn on each cluster has
very high correlation coefficient, the space between two closest fitting lines is all practically the same, and interestingly all the
fitting lines tend to converge to a single point. A mathematical analysis done confirms the existence of this point, leading to
the construction of a type curve. The rest two carbonate data sets perfectly verify this type curve.

This work differs from the previous ones in that the present work honors both geological and engineering aspects equally and
reveals that certain diagenetic processes have produced certain pore architecture as exhibited on the PGS plot. This paper
overall provides a better understanding about rock type definition, a tool to identify the effects of diagenetic processes on rock
properties, and a type curve for easy rock typing.

Introduction
Rock typing is of importance in recognizing both events and the impacts of diagenetic processes on a rock formation, in
selecting intervals to perforate, and building reservoir flow models. Since the first time the term of rock type was introduced
by Archie in 1950, many researchers and engineers have cited this term to characterize petroleum reservoirs (Gunter et al.,
1997; Guo et al., 2005; Rushing et al., 2008). Originally, Archie defined rock type as units of rock that were deposited in a
similar evironment and experienced similar diagenesis, resulting in a unique permeability-porosity relationship, capillary
pressure profile and water saturation for a given height above a free water in a reservoir.

Leverett in 1941 introduced the well known J-Function which can be used for rock typing (El Khatib, 1995; Desouky, 2003;
Jooybari et al., 2010). Specifically for carbonate rocks, Lucia (1983) developed a classification based on petrophysical
properties, rock fabrics, and pore types. The terms of lithofacies, petrofacies, and electrofacies have also been used to define
rock grouping for which each group is also basically distinguishable from the others (Poras et al., 1999; Perez et al., 2003).

In 1993 and 1996, Amaefulle et al. and Abbaszadeh et al., respectively, introduced a hydraulic (flow) unit concept, a method
to predict permeability for cored and uncored intervals. Their concept is to group rock samples or parts of a reservoir on the
basis of similarity in pore attribute so called as flow zone indicator (FZI). This method for rocks grouping has been widely
used in the petroleum industry. Some other investigators adopted this concept to develop other methods of rock typing or
modified ones (Guo et al., 2005; Desouky, 2003; Corbett and Potter, 2004; Naeeni et al., 2010). Beside, many other
techniques of rock typing particularly for carbonates are available in the petroleum literature (Marzouk et al., 1998; Silva et
al., 2002; Jennings and Lucia, 2003; Bahar et al., 2004; Frank et al., 2005; Varavur et al., 2005; Skalinski et al., 2006; Bagheri
2 IPTC 16663

and Biranvand, 2006; Fleury et al., 2007; Gomes et al., 2008; Lehmann et al., 2008; Kharrat et al., 2009; Al-Farisi et al., 2009;
Permadi et al., 2011; Inês et al., 2012).

In 2003, Stolz and Graves compared seven methods of flow unit through a reservoir simulation study and the results showed
that the use of J-Function gave the most similar reservoir performance to the reference fine model. In the context of J-
Function, El Khatib (1995) showed mathematically a relationship between Leverett’s J-Function and hydraulic tortuosity. J-
function has thus physical meaning of effective pores connectivity for fluid to flow. It is actually well understood that capillary
pressure data, from which J-Function is constructed, reflect pore size distribution, pore network, and thus the architecture of
the pores system.

As one knows that all the solids components composing a rock may also contribute to the formation of pore architecture. This
is implicitly stated with parameter specific surface area reflecting the variations of grain size, shape, and surface roughness, as
well as grain contacts or cementation, via a well known Kozeny-Carman equation (Tiab and Donaldson, 2004). Furthermore, it
is also understood that natural porous and permeable rocks have been resulted from geological processes. The rock solid parts
at microscopic scales and the pores architecture both depend on the depositional environment and are affected in some extent
by diagenetic processes that have been experienced by the rocks. In fact, some of many investigators have shown the
importance of results of diagenesis in rock typing (Bahar et al., 2004; Gomes et al., 2008).

A better understanding about rock grouping for the purpose of building reservoir flow models is therefore critical because rock
grouping is not just for determining single phase permeability and its distribution but also establishing other rock properties for
each rock group. The objective of the present work was therefore to investigate the relation between pore architecture and
microscopic geological features in an effort to develop a simple, practical method for rock typing. The rock samples employed
in the present investigation are carbonates. The selection of this type of rocks is due to the facts that most carbonates are
heterogeneous rocks, initially composed of unstable materials on which various diagenetic processes could produce complex
pore systems, and, last bu not least, carbonate reservoirs contain about sixty percents of the world oil reserves (Akbar, et al.,
2001).

Method of Approach
This investigation requires a facility of an equation that can provide an idea of the architecture of pore systems of porous
media. The architecture here may be characterized by pore geometry and structure at a particular scale. At the same time, the
arrangements of both grains/solid particles and the effective pore spaces are considered as the elements that form the pore
architecture. In the nature, geological processes, i.e. depositional environments, early diagenesis, subsequent diagenesis, etc.,
are responsible for all of these. While, the results of geological processes in establishing the internal features of pore
architecture can be identified through detailed analysis at microscopic scale at least.

It has been shown that an extension of the Kozeny equation for permeability of a porous medium can be written as follows
(Scheidegger, 1959):

k = fcc3/(S2) ............................................................................................................................................................... (1)

where k is permeability in millidarcy, fc is a unit conversion factor, c is dimensionless pore shape factor,  is fractional
porosity,  is tortuosity defined as the ratio of an average distance ℓ of fluid particles travelling from the inlet toward the outlet
to the actual length ℓa of the porous medium, and S is specific surface area in micron, defined as the ratio of the surface area of
solid parts of the medium exposed to the fluid to the volume of the medium. It is noted that the value of c ranges from 0.5 for a
circle to 2/3 for a strip (Scheidegger, 1959).
Eq.(1) may be re-written to be:

k/3 = fcc/(S2) .............................................................................................................................................................. (2)

The term c/(S2) in Eq.(2) reflects the details of pore structure of a porous medium and can be represented by the term k/3,
simply called as pore structure for further discussion.
Further, Eq.(1) can also be re-arranged to become:

(k/)0.5 = (fcc/S2)0.5 .................................................................................................................................................... (3)

Deduction of Eq.(2) enables one to re-write Eq.(3) to be:

(k/)0.5 = (k/3)0.5 .......................................................................................................................................................... (4)

IPTC 16663 3

So, Eq.(4) relates pore geometry (k/)0.5 and pore structure (k/3) for the Kozeny’s porous media. Plotting (k/) for y-axis
against (k/3) for x-axis on a log-log graph (PGS cross plot) will yield a straight line with a slope of 0.5. One may interpret the
straight line as a line formed by the data points of a group of the porous media that all have a similarity in both pore geometry
and structure. This similarity in pore buildings manifests a similarity in pore architecture as well. As the consequence of the
model employed in deriving Eq. (1), the slope of 0.5 would of course belongs to porous media having the most simplest pore
geometry and structure, i.e. perfect smooth channels, each with no leak, neither constriction nor expansion, and all with the
same tortuosity . Even though, Eq. (4) says that the relation between pore geometry and pore structure can now be expressed
in terms of only porosity and permeability. The complexities of pore systems are no longer a problem, as long as the
conditions for Darcy’s law are met.

So, based on all the description given above, a hypothesis would say that rock samples having a similarity in pore architecture
should be produced by particular similar geological processes. An integration of the petrophysical analysis with the
microscopic geological characteristics should bring about a foundation for rock typing. The workflow used in establishing rock
types is shown in Figure 1.

Data Used
The present investigation was supported with eight carbonate data sets obtained from eight different carbonate reservoirs (see
Table 1). These various carbonate sources were to obtain a wide variation of depositional environments and diagenetic
processes to work on. Types of the data employed include whole core photo, routine core, and petrographic (thin section,
XRD, and SEM) analysis. The SEM and XRD analysis data available for each carbonate set are limited but all of the plug
samples have lithologic description data. The permeability of all the core plugs used is the equivalent liquid permeability in
effort to avoid mis-interpretation. The porosity and permeability values of all the rock samples available range from 3.63 to
42.0% and 0.01 to 1,800 millidarcies, respectively. SCAL data available for this work were used to analyze the J-Function and
compare with the corresponding rock types established using the method developed herein.

Results and Discussion

Rock typing. Six of eight carbonate data sets (Carbonates A to F) were employed to investigate the relation between pore
architecture and the microscopic geological features using the workflow shown in Figure 1. The rest two carbonates
(Carbonates G and H) were used to validate the type curve developed. This validation will be discussed at the end of this
Section.

Implementing the workflow allows us grouping the core plugs data for each of the six Carbonates on the basis of similarity in
microscopic geological characteristics or features. A typical result of grouping is presented in Table 2 for the Carbonate C. It
can be clearly seen in this table that each group has a specific microscopic feature(s) that is (are) distinguishable from the
others although there are some groups, each with sample members of different fabrics. For an instance, grainstone and
packstone or packstone and wackstone can exist in the same group but no group has sample members of more than two
fabrics. Such behaviors are also demonstrated by the rest of the Carbonates used. After microscopic feature grouping, the data
set of (k/) and (k/3) of each group were plotted on a log-log graph of (k/) versus (k/3) for each Carbonate set. The results
of plotting and the best trend line on each data point group for the six carbonates are exhibited in Figure 2. It was observed in
the early investigation that some data points of a certain group fell on a next group, the upper or lower group. This was
because the corresponding lithologic description data available are not detail enough so that the microscopic geological
features could not be clearly distinguished from the neighboring groups during sorting. However, the cases found like this
were very small in number when compared with the whole data points. Overall, the results have eventually shown that rock
samples having a similarity in microscopic geological features reveal a similarity in pore architecture as well. This supports the
previous work employing limited data (Permadi et al., 2011).

In regard with Eq. (4), Figure 2 tell us that all the groups of carbonate samples yield the exponent of less than 0.5 for the pore
structure term, deviating from the one for the ideal model. This deviation indicates incapability of the Kozeny’s flow channel
model in representing the complexity of pore systems of natural porous media. The explanation of deficiency of Carman-
Kozeny’s (C-K) equation has been previously made (Haro, 2006). Nevertheless, the concept of pore architecture similarity
employing the Kozeny equation is meaningful as complexities of pore systems can be represented by a combination of basic
reservoir parameters, porosity and permeability.

The effects of microfractures. The existence of hairy microfractures were identified from thin section analysis data of some
of the rock samples. For an example presented here, Carbonate A having eleven rock types established was selected. The pore
geometry-pore structure behavior of this Carbonate is shown in Figure 3. A part of the samples having microfractures, lower
porosity, and higher permeability when compared with the other samples give the data points of (k/),(k/3) at positions
some distance away from the main corresponding cluster but remain on the trend-line track (see blue elipses in Figure 3).
4 IPTC 16663

Another phenomenon observed is that some other samples containing also microfractures (see a red elipse in Figure 3),
however, yield the data points located within the corresponding main cluster having samples with no microfracture. These
different microfracture behaviors provide us information about the existence of two types of microfractures: active and non-
active. The former improve rock hydraulic conductivity, while the latter do not contribute significantly or not at all to
hydraulic conductivity of the rock samples. It may be concluded that these two types of fracture do not change the pore
geometry and structure overall at macro scale. The use of Eq. (4) may explain such behaviors.

It should be noted first, as will be discussed in the next sub-section, that a given rock type has a particular value of tortuosity,
implying that the pore structure term (k/3), which is (c/S2), for the rock type may depend more heavily on specific surface
area S rather than the pore shape factor c because the value of c slightly fluctuate as pore shape changes (Scheidegger, 1959),
at least in our case here. Thus, the formation of active microfractures in that rock type should produce a larger relative pore
size in terms of (k/) without changing the effective tortuosity. Consequently, in order to have also a high value of (k/3), any
sample member of the rock type, that has active microfractures, should have a low value of S. This condition exists only when
the porosity is low that should correspond to a low S and a high permeability k. This is the case for the examples here where
the corresponding carbonate core plugs, containing active microfractures, have porosity and permeability, respectively,
ranging from 1.7 to 15.1% and 6.1 to 916.9 millidarcies as compared to the other plugs with no microfracture having porosity
and permeability, respectively, ranging from 2.3 to 27.5% and 0.02 to 1,800 millidarcies. Whereas, for the same rock type, the
core plugs with non-active microfractures have porosity and permeability ranging from 2.6 to 26.5% and 0.02 to 514.6
millidarcies, respectively, which are within the range of those owned by the other plugs having no microfracture. This all
means that the Kozeny equation above can indicate the heterogeneity of a rock type but this type of heterogeneity is still within
the rule of the nature on the basis of the concept of similarity in pore geometry and structure.

The existence of microfractures in some samples of a rock type indicates that the intensity of the related diagenetic events was
probably limited and selective. The diagenetic events have worked effectively on the parts of the rock with initial much lower
porosity than the other parts by forming active microfractures and enhancing the permeability of the rock. With this respect,
recognition of such microfractures is important in the attempt for instance to select perforation interval and predict the flow
capacity. The use of pore geometry-pore structure analysis just described above provides us a way to differentiate active
microfractures from non-active ones. The development of a technique to identify pore geometry and structure by use of logs
data for uncored intervals is underway.

The rock typing model versus J-Function. In a comparison with Leverett’s J-Function, we present typical results for
Carbonate A as exhibited in Figure 4. The SCAL plugs grouping based on microscopic feature similarity has resulted in 6
(six) sample groups and the capillary pressure data sets of each group were transformed to J-Functions. The left figure of
Figure 4 is the J-Function curves constructed for all the groups. As we can see here that J-Function data points of each group
show a trend differently from the others, indicating different pore architecture among groups.

The right side of Figure 4 is(k/)-(k/3) crossplot in which the data points of the SCAL plugs are also plotted with different
colors (solid symbols), each representing a rock type. Observation of this figure give us indication of the SCAL data points
falling on 6 (six) different rock types as well. More interestingly, the microscopic geological features of each SCAL sample
group established by J-Function are very similar with the features of the corresponding (k/)-(k/3) rock type. This implies
that a J-Function curve is representation of rock samples having, not only similarity in pore geometry and structure, but also
similarity in microscopic geological features. The comparison and analysis made conclude that the results of grouping or
typing rock samples employing J-Function are the same as those resulted by using (k/)-(k/3) crossplot. Since tortuosty  is a
function of J(Sw) (El Khatib, 1995), hence, a given rock type has its own tortuosity  value.

Cores selection for SCAL tests. In the industry, the availability of SCAL data are frequently limited, not covering all the rock
types that might exist for the reservoir although a lot of the corresponding conventional core samples are available. If, for
some reasons, one would like to have just some reservoir rock samples tested for his SCAL data, a plugs selection to represent
the rock types needed should be done properly. In the effort to select core plugs for SCAL tests, therefore, we recommend that
the rock types be established first using routine core analysis data. The type curve, discussed next, can be very helpful in
establishing rock types quickly and then select the plugs as needed.

Development of Type Curve for easy rock typing. Observation of the best trend lines for all the carbonates gives us
information that all the slopes are smaller than 0.5. The trend-line equation and the slope value are, respectively, called as
Rock Type (RT) equation and RT exponent or mRT for further discussion. For the six carbonates employed, the RT exponents
obtained range from 0.211 to 0.473. Most of carbonates with the groups having vugs yield high rock type qualities with high
RT exponent and the exponent decrease as the vugs disappear, resulting in lower rock type quality. The exponent values of
lower than 0.5 are probably as the consequence of the deviation of natural rocks from the smooth capillary pipe models. This is
the fact that pore systems of the former are so complex with the grain surfaces so irregular that no perfect mathematical k-
IPTC 16663 5

relation exists for any of the rock types. Mathematically, for easy understanding, Eq.(1) says that permeability k inversely
proportional toS2, while pore structure term (k/3)  (1/S2). Thus, Figure 2 implies that permeability of the lowest rock type
should be more sensitive to specific surface area S than to porosity. In contrast, permeability of the highest rock type should be
more sensitive to both porosity and specific surface area S. This means that a decrease in rock type quality (from the upper
rock type to lower ones) reduces porosity sensitivity to permeability and increases sensitivity of specific surface area to
permeability.

It is interesting to further observe all the graphs in Figure 2, showing that the slope or RT exponent tends to decrease gradually
started from the most upper rock type to the lowest rock type and all the trend lines tends to converge to a point. Based on this
behavior, we may expect that the slope mRT would be in the range between 0 and 0.5, or 0 < mRT < 0.5 for. As has been
described in the Section of method of approach above that the upper limiting slope or exponent is 0.5, which belongs to the
ideal capillary tube model. Assuming that the lower limiting slope is 0, which is for a group of porous media with the ideal,
most complex pore architecture, we have 0  mRT  0.5. One can then mathematically find the intersection between these two
limiting lines to be a situation where the numerical value of (k/)0.5 equals to k1/3, which requires a very small value of
permeability. The physical meaning of this intersection, or called as the convergent point, is that pore geometry and structure
of all rock types would be hardly differentiated for the very small permeability value. Observing again the data points shown
in Figure 2 indicates no single rock type data point even close to the expected convergent point as no data available yielding
(k/3) < 1.0.

The rock type convergent point was then used as starting point to diverge rock type lines. For practical purposes, the
separation between two closest rock type lines was determined by use of an arithmetic average of the RT exponent difference
(ΔmRT) between two closest neighboring rock types established on all the carbonates. As shown in Figure 2, ΔmRT varies from
one carbonate to another. This is due to variation in the number of data points available for each rock type for most of the
Carbonates so that the best trend lines obtained as they are. Larger separation than the common one found in this work was
considered due to a lack of data or missing rock types and not used in averaging. The overall average ΔmRT is about 0.0229. In
fact, the Carbonate D, that has much more data point population for each rock type than that for the other Carbonates,
demonstrates a nearly equal separation from one trend line to the next, upper or lower. The Carbonate D yields an average
ΔmRT of exactly 0.02, which is very close to the overall average. Therefore, we empirically used ΔmRT = 0.02 to diverge the
rock type lines started from the convergent point and obtained the best matches with the all existing, actual rock type lines.
Figure 5 shows the established type curve for carbonate rock typing and 23 rock type lines are provided to be used as the
reference lines. One line is for one rock type.

To validate the type curve, two (Carbonates G and H) of the eight Carbonate data sets have been separated from those
employed for developing the type curve. All the plug samples of these two Carbonates have been grouped on the basis of
similarity in microscopic geological features. The values of (k/) and (k/3) were already calculated for each samples group.
The results of plotting these values on the type curve for Carbonate G and Carbonate H are presented in Figures 6 and 7,
respectively. Carbonates G and H, respectively, has 7 (seven) and 8 (eight) rock types as revealed in these figures. The data
points of each sample group assigned with a specific color fall around along a certain rock type line as expected and no single
data point goes too far from its group. This validation strengthens the concept of similarity in both the detailed geological
analysis and pore architecture. The rock type curve developed may be used to enhance a carbonate diagenetic study or for a
quick help establishing carbonate rock types without availability of the detailed microscopic geological analysis data.

Conclusions
The conclusions of this investigation can be summarized as follows:
1. A new type curve for easy carbonate rock typing has been developed. Pore attributes in terms of pore geometry and
pore structure have been used as the basis of rock typing.
2. Kozeny equation for permeability has been used as the basis for defining pore geometry and pore structure. The
fundamental property of a porous rock, such as pore shape factor, tortuosity, and specific surface area, all together
can be represented by a combination of permeability and porosity.
3. The development method has integrated the Kozeny’s concept of permeability with the detailed geological analysis.
This investigation has revealed that similarity in microscopic geological features of carbonate rock samples strongly
relates to similarity in pore geometry and structure.
4. Different fabrics from two close depositional environments can exist in a rock type, indicating the importance of both
extensive and intensive diagenetic processes in playing the role of altering the rocks and creating a similarity in pore
architecture. Therefore, rock type is diagenetically process dependent.
5. Some diagenetic events may be limited and selective in altering carbonate rocks so that the hydraulic conductivity of
the rocks was or was not improved without changing the pore architecture significantly. In this regard, the type curve
developed can be used to identify whether microfractures are active or not in contributing to the rock hydraulic
conductivity.
6 IPTC 16663

6. For the Carbonates used, the Leverett’s J-Function for grouping reservoir rock samples is in excellent agreements
with the concept developed in the present investigation. In selecting core plugs for SCAL tests, the rock types should
be established first using the routine core analysis data in order to have SCAL data representative for each of the rock
types.
7. Conclusions No. 4 to No. 7 still follow Archie’s rock type definition. Even though, the concept of similarity through
the use of Eq. (4) should be elaborated more in the attempt to verify Archie’s statement about the relation between
rock properties.
After all, it is demonstrated that the nature have created some regularities in terms of pore architecture at macro scales from
irregularities at micro scales within irregularities at mega or higher scales.

Acknowledgements
One of the authors, Andy S. Wibowo, would like to thank the PPPTMGB “Lemigas” for the scholarship to enroll for doctoral
program at the Petroleum Engineering Study Program, Institut Teknologi Bandung, and for the core analysis data provided for
his research work.

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Routine k & φ data
Core description, petrographic (thin section, SEM and XRD)

Grouping core samples based on
microscopic geological features

Plotting
(k/φ)0.5 vs. (k/φ3) on a log‐log graph
for each Group

Rock Types

Figure 1. Workflow for rock typing.

8 IPTC 16663

Table 1. General data of the eight Carbonates used in this investigation.

No. of 
Depth  Depositional 
Carbonate  Basin   Formation   Age   sample  Diagenetic events 
(m)   environments  
plugs  
Micritization, dissolution, 
Early‐
North‐ 1802 ‐  Reef flat – lagoonal  neomorphism, 
A  BRF   middle  233 
west Java   2192   back reef   precipitation and high 
miocene  
compaction degree  
Micritization, 
Early‐ neomorphism, 
North‐east  2056 ‐  Open lagoon with 
B  TBN   middle  113  dissolution, 
Java   2112   many patch reefs  
miocene   stylolitization, fracturing 
and cementation  
Micritisation, 
neomorphism, 
North‐ Late  969 –  Reef flat – lagoonal 
PRG   dissolution, 
west Java   miocene   970   back reef  
stylolitisation, fracturing 
and cementation  
Micritization, 
Reef associated 
cementation by calcite 
environments/ 
North‐ Late  1367 –  spar, minor dissolution, 
PRG   proximity to a reef 
west Java   miocene   1370   minor clay formation and 
complex with low, 
minor‐intensive 
moderate‐high energy  
neomorphism  
Shallow marine  Micritization, 
C  76  carbonate platform,  neomorphism, 
North‐ Late  1327 – 
PRG  proximity to a reef  dissolution, 
west Java   miocene   1334   
growth (low‐moderate  stylolitization, fracturing 
energy)   and cementation  
Micritization, 
North‐ Late  1486–  Reef flat – lagoonal  neomorphism, 
PRG  
west Java   miocene   1493    back reef   dissolution, and 
cementation  
Micritization, 
neomorphism, 
North‐ Late  929–  Reef flat – lagoonal 
     PRG   dissolution, 
west Java   miocene   934   back reef  
stylolitization, fracturing 
and cementation  
Micritisation, 
early‐ neomorphism, 
North‐east  2725 ‐  Open lagoon with 
D  TBN   middle  1032  dissolution, 
Java   3128   many patch reefs 
miocene   stylolitisation, fracturing 
and cementation  
Cementation and 
Early‐
South‐ 1525‐ Lagoonal ‐ shallow  replacement, mechanical 
E  BRF   middle  40 
Sumatera   1543   marine    compaction (stylolite) 
miocene  
and dissolution.  
Micritization, dissolution, 
Early‐
South‐ 2239 ‐  Reef flat – lagoonal  neomorphism, 
F  BRF   middle  105 
Sumatera   2302   back reef   precipitation and high 
miocene  
compaction degree  
West  Early‐late  2121 ‐  Micritization, dissolution, 
G  KAS   118  Carbonate shelf, slope  
Papua   miocene   2331   dolomitization  
1829 ‐ Micritization, 
Shallow marine (low‐
1839  cementation by calcite 
Early‐ moderate energy), 
Banggai‐ spar, dissolution, 
TMR   middle  back reef to lagoonal 
Sula   1950 –  replacement, local 
miocene   proximity to a reef 
1960  fracture and calcite and 
buildup  
H  121  dolomite cementation.  
Recrystalization, 
open marine 
Early‐ dissolution, precipitation 
Banggai‐ 1955 –  environments, distal 
TMR   middle  of calcite cements and 
Sula   1965  slope – deep shelf 
miocene   low–moderate level 
margin platforms.  
compaction.  
IPTC 16663 9

Table 2. Rock Types and microscopic characteristics for Carbonate C.

10 IPTC 16663

1000 1000

A B
100 100
(k/ )0.5

(k/)0.5
10 10

1 1

0,1
0,1
1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8
1,E+0 1,E+1 1,E+2 1,E+3 1,E+4 1,E+5 1,E+6 1,E+7 1,E+8
k/( 3)
k/( 3)
1000 1000

C D
100 100
(k/)0.5

10 (k/)0.5 10

1 1

0,1 0,1
1,E‐3 1,E‐2 1,E‐1 1,E+0 1,E+1 1,E+2 1,E+3 1,E+4 1,E+5 1,E+6 1,E+7 1,E+8 1,E+0 1,E+1 1,E+2 1,E+3 1,E+4 1,E+5 1,E+6 1,E+7 1,E+8

k/( 3) k/(3)

1000 1000

E F
100 100
(k/)0.5

(k/)0.5

10 10

1 1

0,1 0,1
1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8 1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8

k/(3) k/(3)

Figure 2. Pore geometry-Pore structure crossplot for the six Carbonates.

IPTC 16663 11

1000

100

(k/ )0.5

10

Active microfractures

1
Non‐active microfractures

0,1
1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8

k/( 3)

Figure 3. Pore geometry-Pore structure crossplot for Carbonate A.

30 1000

25

100
J(Sw) Dimensionless

20
(k/ )0.5

15 10

10

0 0,1
0 20 40 60 80 100 1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8
Sw (%) k/ф3

Figure 4. J-Function (left) dan Pore geometry-Pore structure (right) plots for Carbonate A.
12 IPTC 16663

1000
RT‐1 RT‐2 RT‐3 RT‐4 RT‐5

Rock Type Curve RT‐6
RT‐7

RT‐8
RT‐9
100
RT‐10

RT‐11

RT‐12
(k/ )0.5

RT‐13

10 RT‐14

RT‐15

RT‐16

RT‐17

RT‐18
1 RT‐19

RT‐20

RT‐21

RT‐22

RT‐23
0.1
1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8

k/ 3
Figure 5. Rock Type Curves.

Figure 6. Carbonate G validating. Figure 7. Carbonate H validating.