Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Methods to improve efficiency of four stroke, spark

ignition engines at part load
Osman Akin Kutlar *, Hikmet Arslan, Alper Tolga Calik
Automotive Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Gumussuyu,
Beyoglu, 34437 Istanbul, Turkey

Received 6 September 2004; accepted 14 March 2005

Available online 27 April 2005

Abstract

The four stroke, spark ignition (SI) engine pressure–volume diagram (p–V) contains two main parts.
They are the compression–combustion–expansion (high pressure loop) and the exhaust-intake (low pres-
sure or gas exchange loop) parts. The main reason for efficiency decrease at part load conditions for these
types of engines is the flow restriction at the cross sectional area of the intake system by partially closing the
throttle valve, which leads to increased pumping losses and to increased low pressure loop area on the p–V
diagram. Meanwhile, the poorer combustion quality, i.e. lower combustion speed and cycle to cycle vari-
ations, additionally influence these pressure loop areas. In this study, methods for increasing efficiency at
part load conditions and their potential for practical use are investigated. The study also includes a review
of the vast literature on the solution of this problem. This investigation shows that the potential for increas-
ing the efficiency of SI engines at part load conditions is not yet exhausted. Each method has its own advan-
tages and disadvantages. Among these, the most promising methods to decrease the fuel consumption at
part load conditions are stratified charge and variable displacement engines. When used in combination,
the other listed methods are more effective than their usage alone.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: SI engine; Part load; Pumping loss; Efficiency; Fuel consumption

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 212 285 34 63; fax: +90 212 285 34 43.
E-mail address: kutlar@itu.edu.tr (O.A. Kutlar).

0196-8904/$ - see front matter
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2005.03.008
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3203

1. Introduction

The four stroke SI engine is a widely applied power source in transportation and other power
generation units. However, with the increasing number of such applications, air pollution caused
by exhaust emissions has become of primary significance due to its environmental impact. During
the past forty years, with the pressure of governmental policies and enormous research activity in
this area, the emission (NOx, CO and HC) levels have been decreased significantly. In the future, a
considerable decrease in emission levels due to further improvement in engine technology is
expected [1–3].
The second problem, which has become important with the global growth of vehicle numbers,
is the CO2 in exhaust emissions. CO2 is not directly harmful for human health, but it is one of the
main gases contributing to the greenhouse effect. Therefore, in the future, the emissions of CO2 in
the exhaust will also be drastically limited. Simultaneously, this will decrease the rate of depletion
of fossil fuel resources [3,4]. This is only possible with the increasing use of non-combustion
engine and non-hydrocarbon fuels, lowering the carbon content of fuels and/or decreasing the fuel
consumption with more efficient combustion engines [5,6]. For the next 30 years, it is not expected
that any energy source will replace the fossil energy sources in an economical manner [4].
There are some initiatives to decrease fuel consumption, i.e. CO2 emissions. For example, after
the 1973 energy crisis in USA, the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) in the USA estab-
lished an automotive fuel economy regulatory program and CAFE (corporate average fuel econ-
omy) standards to set a minimum performance requirement in terms of average number of miles
that a vehicle travels per gallon of gasoline or diesel fuel. Individual vehicles and models are not
required to meet this mileage standard; rather, each manufacturer must achieve an average level of
fuel economy for all the specified vehicles manufactured in a given model year. CAFE limits for
passenger cars were 18.0 mpg (miles per gallon) starting from 1978 and decreased to 27.5 mpg
during 1990–2004 (1 mile = 1.609 km, 1 US gallon = 3.79 l and the driving cycle used is the
FTP combined cycle (federal test procedure combined cycle)) [7]. Another initiative is the commit-
ment of the German automotive industry in 1992 just after the UN Conference on Environment
and Development in Rio de Janeiro. The aim was to reduce the fuel consumption of new vehicles
by 25%, taking 1990 as the starting point [8,9]. Another impressive initiative was started in 1993.
The US Government established the partnership for a new generation of vehicles (PNGV). The
major objective of PNGV (as well as some other European initiatives) is to demonstrate an auto-
mobile that will transport four adults with a fuel consumption of approximately 3 l fuel per
100 km [2,10]. After the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
in 1997, in July 1998, the ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Europeens DÕAutomobiles—
European Automobile Manufacturers Association) made a voluntary commitment to reduce
new car CO2 emissions [11]. The European industryÕs central commitment was to bring to market
individual car models with CO2 emissions of 120 g/km or less by 2000 and to achieve a new car
fleet with an average CO2 target of 140 g/km by 2008, which represents a 25% reduction from 1995
according to the European driving cycle (related test driving cycle and test procedure are specified
in EU 93/116/EC and 99/100/EC Directives). As a rule of thumb, 1 l of gasoline produces approx-
imately 2400 g CO2 and 1 l of diesel fuel produces approximately 2650 g CO2. In order to evaluate
the fuel consumption data given above, the driving cycles, which represent different test regimes,
must be taken into account [12]. As a result, the important constraints for fuel economy are
3204 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

determined mainly by the vehicle acceleration and speed and the engine load and speed and their
percentages in the test cycle. For example, the European and Japanese driving cycles are lighter
load cycles than the EPA driving cycle [13].
The calculated thermodynamic efficiency (gt) of an SI engine with a typical compression ratio
(e = 9–10) following a standard ideal Otto air cycle is approximately 60%. This efficiency is a func-
tion of the compression ratio (e) and the specific heat ratio (k). Because of highly simple working
fluid properties and process assumptions in the cycle, this calculated engine efficiency of an ideal
Otto air cycle is higher than the actual efficiency by a large margin. The ideal Otto air cycle com-
bined with more realistic models of working fluid properties and heat addition with reactions of
the working fluids at constant volume is called an ideal Otto fuel–air cycle, and the calculated
thermodynamic efficiency of this cycle with stoichiometric charge is approximately 45–50%. This
efficiency is a function of the compression ratio and the air/fuel ratio [14]. After this stage, a com-
parison of a real engine cycle p–V diagram with that of an equivalent ideal Otto fuel–air cycle
shows that the enclosed area of the real engine cycle is about 20% smaller than the ideal Otto
fuel–air cycle. This difference is due to heat losses, time required for combustion, exhaust blow
down, leakages and incomplete combustion in the real engine (Fig. 1) [14,15]. Hence, in the real
engine, the maximum indicated efficiency (gi) is about 35–40%. It should be emphasized that the

Fig. 1. Comparative pressure–volume (p–V) diagram of standard ideal Otto air cycle, ideal Otto fuel–air cycle and real
engine cycle.
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3205

mentioned cycle calculations and the real engine diagram considered so far are all taken at full
load, i.e. at wide open throttle (WOT) conditions. For determining the actual efficiency, i.e. effec-
tive efficiency (ge) on the drive shaft, also the friction losses should be taken into account. Friction
losses at full load are about 10% of the indicated work [14]. The resulting effective efficiency of the
real engine cycle at full load is then about 30–35%.
The question, ‘‘What is the situation if one investigates the effect of the lower part, induction
and exhaust stroke, i.e. pumping loop, of the p–V diagram to the engine efficiency?’’ has two dif-
ferent answers according to the load conditions. First of all, at full load, i.e. WOT conditions, the
pumping loss has only a negligible effect. Secondly, at part load conditions, the pumping loss area
on the p–V diagram increases relatively as the upper part, i.e. the loop representing the compres-
sion and expansion stroke decreases (Fig. 2).
This will cause a significant decrease in the net indicated work (Wi-net), hence in the net indi-
cated mean effective pressure (IMEPnet) and in the indicated efficiency (gi). This decrease of the
gross indicated work or IMEPgross is a natural result of the part load (low load) operation, but
the unwanted result is the decrease in efficiency. The main reason for this efficiency decrease at
part load in conventional SI engines is the flow restriction at the intake cross sectional area by
closing the throttle valve in order to maintain the mixture air/fuel ratio within flammable limits.
From a thermodynamic calculation of a typical throttle load controlled SI engine (excess air coef-
ficient k = 1), the changes of the gross and net indicated efficiencies and pumping indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEPpumping) versus the load are shown in Fig. 3a [16].

Fig. 2. Schematic comparison of gross, pumping, net IMEP and their effect on indicated efficiency in high and low load
conditions in SI engines.
3206 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

Fig. 3. (a) Thermodynamic model calculation results according to load conditions of a typical SI engine. (b) Pumping
mean effective pressure to net indicated mean effective pressure ratio according to load and speed conditions of a typical
SI engine [17].

Fig. 3b shows the IMEPpumping share in the total work depending on the load and speed [17]. At
part load operation, the intake pressure decreases (Fig. 2). This, in turn, decreases the compres-
sion pressure, hence, the effective compression ratio. Fig. 4a shows the effective compression ratio
contours according to engine speed and brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) [3]. Meantime, the
residual exhaust gas fraction in the cylinder increases as the load decreases (Fig. 4b) [18]. The two
effects mentioned above lead to inefficient combustion and, together with the pumping loss, result
in a decrease in overall efficiency.
The maximum efficiency of a four stroke SI engine at full load is thermodynamically limited,
but the main problem, as mentioned above, is the dramatic decrease in the engine efficiency at part
load conditions.
Consider an SI engine that has 30–35% effective efficiency at WOT (full load) as a power source
for a vehicle. For the same engine working at 10–20% load, which corresponds to about
50–60 km/h vehicle speed on level road, the effective efficiency will be only 10–20%.

Fig. 4. (a) Effective compression ratio of a typical SI engine according to load and speed conditions [3]. (b) Residual
exhaust gas fraction ratio of a typical SI engine according to load and speed conditions [18].
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3207

Fig. 5. Engine map of a typical SI engine with 4 cylinder 1600 cm3 stroke volume and road load of the vehicle (5. Speed)
[19].

An impressive example for the impact of part load operation on fuel economy is shown below.
Consider a vehicle equipped with a four stroke SI engine with a performance map given in Fig.
5. The vertical axis shows the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) and the contours are brake
specific fuel consumptions (BSFC) calculated from measured drive shaft values. The star indicates
the maximum efficiency point (BSFC = 240 g/kW h or ge = 0.34%) [19].
The vehicle data are given in Fig. 6. A comparison of the actual and calculated fuel consump-
tions at 50, 90 and 120 km/h constant speeds in 5th gear are shown in Fig. 6. The actual fuel con-
sumption was derived from the actual engine map, and the calculated fuel consumption was found
by assuming that the engine was run at the maximum efficiency point with an overall effective effi-
ciency of 34% (designated with a star in Fig. 5). This example emphasizes the typical fuel con-
sumption problem of SI engines at part loads.
Today many automotive manufacturers have focused their research activities on this problem.
The major task is either to eliminate the throttle valve or to use it as open as possible regardless of
the load conditions [20–25]. Practical methods to increase the efficiency at part load are given
below as subtitles (Fig. 7).

2. Practical methods to increase the efficiency at part load

2.1. Variable valve timing (VVT) and lift

By using early or late inlet valve closing, the throttling or pumping losses can be reduced (Fig.
8). The engine load is controlled by closing the intake valve early or late without using the con-
ventional throttling process of the incoming charge by a throttle plate [26–29].
As shown in Fig. 8, early or late intake valve closing has a similar effect in reducing the pump-
ing (exhaust-intake) loop area, i.e. IMEPpumping. At the same time, the compression–expansion
loop area, i.e. IMEPgross, decreases as compared to the throttle controlled system at equal load
conditions (IMEPnet = IMEPgross
IMEPpumping = constant), which means that a lesser fuel
charge is admitted into the cylinder at equal excess air coefficient (k = constant). As an additional
3208 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

Fig. 6. A comparison of real and calculated fuel consumptions at 50, 90 and 120 km/h constant speeds according to
actual engine map and according to maximum engine overall effective efficiency of 34%.

Fig. 7. Classification of some practical methods to increase the efficiency of SI engines at part load conditions.

comment, load control with early or late intake valve closing decreases both the pumping and
compression–expansion loop areas, so that the IMEPpumping/IMEPgross decreases. The main effect
of this is to increase the efficiency as compared to the throttle controlled system at equal load con-
ditions. On the other hand, under part load conditions, the exhaust valve opening time also has an
additional potential to increase the efficiency via the effect on expansion work [30,31]. The poten-
tial of VVT and lift on fuel economy at part load conditions via reducing pumping loss is limited
due to the loss in effective compression ratio. In addition, due to the reduced throttling, the air
pressure in the inlet channel is higher, and therefore, the fuel evaporation and mixture formation
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3209

Fig. 8. Comparisons of load control with and without VVT and lift (early or late intake valve closing) on p–V diagram.

conditions are poorer [32–35]. For this reason, at very low load conditions, the reduced effective
compression ratio and lower combustion quality (combustion duration and cyclic variability) lim-
it the benefits of the reduced pumping loss as compared to high load conditions (Fig. 4a and b)
[3,18]. Reported experimental data show that the potential of VVT and lift in decreasing the fuel
consumption at part load conditions is about 5–15% compared to the fixed valve control system.
It must be noted that the reported data for fuel consumptions given here and in the following
cases depend on the engine itself and test driving cycle used, i.e. engineÕs speeds and accelerations.
For example, as mentioned in Section 1, the European and Japanese driving cyclesÕ loads are
lighter than that of the EPA driving cycle, hence the expected fuel economy benefit from the
EPA driving cycle is less [13]. As an actual example, the unthrottled variable valve control system
named Valvetronic of BMW, applied to 4 and 8 cylinder engines, obtains a fuel economy of 6–
10% at n = 4000 rpm, BMEP = 0.4 MPa; 8–10% at n = 3000 rpm, BMEP = 0.4 MPa; 12% at
n = 2000 rpm, BMEP = 0.2 MPa; 20–25% at idle and 11–14% in the European driving cycle com-
pared to the conventional throttle controlled system [36,37]. Numerous valve actuation mecha-
nisms for poppet valves are in mass production or in the development stage [35–43].

2.2. Variable compression ratio

As described under the title ‘‘Description of the Problem’’, the throttling at part load conditions
decreases the intake pressure significantly, which leads to lower compression end pressure and,
hence, to lower effective compression ratio (Fig. 4a) [3]. Meanwhile, the residual exhaust gas fraction
3210 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

increases (Fig. 4b) [18]. Both of these effects result in a low indicated efficiency and poor combustion
quality (combustion duration and cyclic variability), while the knocking resistance increases. Thus,
by increasing the compression ratio at part load, the combustion quality and efficiency can be
improved without the knocking problem. Fig. 9a shows the improvement potential in the effective
efficiency according to load conditions (BMEP) and the knocking combustion limit [44].
The compression ratio of the engine should be varied according to the load and speed condi-
tions in order to improve efficiency (Fig. 9b) [44,45].
Nevertheless, by varying the compression ratio, it is impossible to control the load of an engine,
so it cannot be used to eliminate the throttling or pumping losses. The work production (compres-
sion and expansion) and consumption (pumping) loop areas both increase at a higher compres-
sion ratio as compared to that at a lower compression ratio at equal load conditions
(IMEPnet = IMEPgross
IMEPpumping = constant). The reason for this simultaneous increase at
a higher compression ratio is due to closing the throttle more, i.e. less fuel charge per cycle in
the cylinder at equal excess air coefficient (k = constant), in order to maintain constant IMEPnet.
Thermodynamic model calculations show that the increase of the compression ratio of a SI
engine with stoichiometric mixture (k = 1) at equal loads (IMEPnet = constant) increases the
IMEPpumping/IMEPgross although the amount of the fuel–air mixture charge decreases [16]. There-
fore, it is also helpful to use this method simultaneously with VVT and lift or with the lean burn
system in order to decrease the pumping losses and improve the efficiency further at part load [46].
Reported experimental data show that the potential to decrease the fuel consumption at part load
conditions is about 3–10% as compared to the fixed compression ratio. In practical application,
the upper limit of the compression ratio is about e = 15 due to the increased heat and friction
losses. Several variable compression ratio systems have been proposed or developed [45–50].

2.3. Supercharging

Supercharging with an exhaust gases driven turbocharger can compensate for the pumping
losses by using the waste energy of the exhaust gases. However, supercharging to boost the output

Fig. 9. (a) Improvement of effective efficiency of an SI engine through increasing compression ratio and the knocking
combustion limit [44]. (b) Variable compression ratio engine map with optimum compression ratios and improvements
of BSFC in comparison to standard engine with e = 9 [45].
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3211

of an SI engine will aggravate the knock problem. This is the reason for the lower compression
ratio of a supercharged engine compared to a naturally aspirated one. Nevertheless, the potential
advantages of power boosting are significant. The higher output for a given displacement volume
means lower engine specific weight and volume. Thus, the same power requirements can be met by
a smaller sized turbocharged engine (this is usually named downsizing) instead of a bigger sized
naturally aspirated engine. The smaller turbocharged engine offers better fuel economy at part
load conditions [14]. At a given part load requirement, the mechanical efficiency of the smaller
turbocharged engine is higher, but the pumping loss is still not eliminated. Since the load is con-
trolled by a throttle, the amount of the intake charge and, therefore, the exhaust gas decrease at
part load, in turn, cancels the charge effect of the turbo system at part load. It must be noted that
the comparison of a supercharged engine with a naturally aspirated engine differs from the com-
parisons made in the other methods in that the supercharged engine will have a smaller stroke
volume than the naturally aspirated one. Assuming equal loads, i.e. equal net indicated works
(Wi-net = IMEPnet · VH = constant), results in higher IMEPnet and lower IMEPpumping/IMEPgross
for the supercharged engine due to the smaller stroke volume. This will result in higher fuel
efficiency at part load (Fig. 10) [51–54]. However, the lower compression ratio and limited spark
advance to prevent knock in the supercharged engine causes an opposite trend in efficiency at
higher loads as compared to that at part load (Fig. 10). As a conclusion, supercharging in SI
engines at part load cannot eliminate the pumping losses, but a smaller stroke volume as com-
pared the naturally aspirated engine with equal maximum power permits a higher IMEPnet, hence,
a higher efficiency at equal part load conditions. Reported experimental data show that the poten-
tial of supercharging in decreasing the fuel consumption at part load conditions is about 3–10%
compared to the naturally aspirated engine.

Fig. 10. Comparison fuel consumption of a turbocharged and a naturally aspirated SI engine with similar maximum
performance in the same vehicle [52].
3212 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

2.4. Stratified charge lean burn engine

The potential of increasing the fuel economy at part load conditions using stratified charge lean
burn engines instead of homogenous charge engines has been known since the 1920s [55,56]. Strat-
ified charge lean burn engines combine the best features of the SI and the diesel engines. The main
idea is to supply a rich mixture around the spark plug that ignites readily, while the major volume
of the combustion chamber is filled with a very lean mixture. So, leaner mixtures in SI engines
means a more open throttle valve and a higher mean polytropic exponent of expansion, hence
better fuel economy at part load. Fig. 11a shows the thermodynamic calculation results for a
SI engine working with a lean air–fuel mixture (1.0 6 k 6 2.5) [16]. At constant IMEPnet, increas-
ing the excess air coefficient (k) improves the indicated efficiency, while at the same time,
IMEPpumping/IMEPgross decreases. The decrease in this ratio at a higher excess air coefficient is
due to the higher rate of decrease of IMEPpumping in comparison to IMEPgross.
Fig. 11b shows that deep stratification of the air–fuel mixture, along with the unthrottled load
control, has the ability to increase the burning speed, hence the combustion quality at part load
conditions [57,58]. In addition, the nature of the stratification increases the knock resistance,
which gives the possibility to increase the compression ratio of the engine. In the 1960s and
1970s, many different types of stratified charge engines were proposed, and some of them were
mass produced [59–61].
From the late 1970s to 1990s, because of the imposed limits on the exhaust emissions and with
the use of three way catalyst systems, the lean burn concept experienced a stagnation period. After

Fig. 11. (a) Thermodynamic model calculation results according to excess air coefficient and load condition of a SI
engine. (b) Pressure rates of C3H8–air mixture in a constant volume chamber with different ignition timing delays (td)
after fuel injection, which means different charge stratification. Injected fuel–air mixture is k1 = 0.6 and overall mixture
is k = 1.25 [57].
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3213

development of a de-NOx catalyst and direct injection systems, the stratified charge lean burn
combustion engine has reached a very promising potential for overcoming the efficiency lag at
part load conditions with acceptable emission levels [62–66]. One of the most popular stratified
charge ultra-lean burn engines today is the Mitsubishi GDI (gasoline direct injection) engine
[64]. The reported vehicle experiments show that at part load conditions, the fuel consumption
decreases 17–28% as compared to a similar vehicle equipped with a throttle controlled engine.
Apart from the GDI technology, there are also suggestions and experimental research activities
to develop ultra-lean burn systems with classical intake port injection, which will have an advan-
tage of a lower price without using the complex high pressure direct injection technology [67].

2.5. Variable displacement (cylinder deactivation or cut off)

As early as 1916, the potential of using a variable displacement engine to increase the fuel effi-
ciency at part load conditions was known and tested [68]. The aim is to reduce the stroke volume
by selectively shutting off several cylinders of an engine at the part load conditions. This means
that instead of reducing the air–fuel mixture charge by the throttle valve at part load conditions,
the stroke volume of the engine is reduced by disabling some of the working cylinders. The result
is that, while the total average IMEPnet (active + inactive cylinders) remains constant, the
IMEPnet of the working cylinders (active cylinders) increases, hence the pumping loss
(IMEPpumping) decreases compared to that of the throttle controlled SI engine at equal load con-
ditions. A schematic example is given for a 2 cylinder SI engine in Fig. 12.
Simultaneously, the combustion efficiency increases with the increase of the IMEPnet of the
active cylinders. The key point here is that the decrease in the IMEPpumping/IMEPgross ratio is
achieved simultaneously by decreasing the IMEPpumping and increasing the IMEPgross. A similar
example to that given in Fig. 6 for fuel economy at part load conditions is given for a variable
displacement engine application in Fig. 13. Consider a vehicle with a four stroke SI engine oper-
ating at maximum efficiency at 0.8 MPa BMEP and 2750 rpm (point indicated with a star in Fig.
5). The assumed vehicle specifications are the same as those in the first example given in Fig. 6.
Fig. 13 emphasizes the superiority of the load control of an SI engine by the stroke volume var-
iation (variable deactivation) concept.
Cylinder deactivation is initialized by cutting off the fuel supply to the selected cylinders [18,69].
There are also several systems that shut off the valves of the deactivated cylinders too. In these
systems, the reduction in pumping losses is more than that achieved by cutting off the fuel supply
only [70–72]. Some applications of the valve shut off systems use a classical cam profile with addi-
tional mechanisms. There are also other systems, which utilize hydraulic or electromechanical
valve actuators. Since 1981, some of the systems mentioned above (cylinder deactivation) have
been mass produced. Reported results of vehicle tests show that 7–26% reduction in fuel consump-
tion is possible. In practice, cylinder deactivation will be constrained by noise, vibration and
harshness [73].
There are also some other methods of application, which have different and more flexible strat-
egies to decrease the displacement volume of the engine [74–76]. As an example, Basshuysen has
proposed a hydraulic valve actuator system to control the engine load by reducing the effective
stroke volume by expanding the four stroke strategy to 8 or 12 stroke operation [77]. Salber
et al. have made the same proposal with an electromagnetic valve actuating system [78]. A
3214 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

Fig. 12. Schematic comparison of a 2 cylinder SI engine p–V diagrams and corresponding efficiency without and with
variable displacement at part load. Left side: 2 cylinders active. Throttle valve is nearly closed and pumping losses are
high. Right side: 1 cylinder is cancelled and 1 cylinder is active. Throttle valve is more opened to get the same power and
pumping losses are lower.

Fig. 13. Variation of stroke volume (variable displacement) in an SI engine according to load conditions for maximum
effective efficiency (assumed vehicle specifications are the same as with the first example given in Figs. 5 and 6).
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3215

variable displacement volume engine named ‘‘Skip-Cycle Engine’’, operating by skipping some of
the working cycles according to a given strategy, have been developed in the Automotive Division
laboratory of the Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Istanbul Technical University. This system is
also applicable to single cylinder engines to reduce the cylinder volume displacement; and hence, it
is a superior alternative of the variable displacement engine [79,80].

2.6. Use of combination of listed systems

Some of the mentioned systems can be used simultaneously for overcoming the fuel efficiency
lag at part load conditions in SI engines. This will give an opportunity to combine the advantages
and simultaneously eliminate some of the disadvantages of these systems. The Otto–Atkinson
cycle (combination of VVT and variable compression ratio) and Miller cycle systems (combina-
tion of VVT and supercharging) are some of the popular combinations [81–83]. Besides these
examples, it is also possible to derive other combinations of the aforementioned systems. For
example, combinations of lean burn stratified charge with supercharging; supercharging with di-
rect injection and with VVT and lift (controlling valve overlap); and VVT and lift with direct
injection stratified charge and cylinder deactivation [84–86]. The potential achieved by combining
different systems is not an algebraic sum of their individual potentials since these systems are
affecting the same physical losses in the engine [13,86]. It is essential to get a synergetic effect in
the combined systems. For example, according to the reported data, the fuel economy potential
of a fully variable valve train is 8–10%, but this potential increases to 14–16% when cylinder
deactivation is included. The potential of the direct injection stratified charge is 10–14%; but
the fuel economy potential increases to 15–18% when a variable valve timing system is introduced
and 19–23% when a cylinder deactivation system is added. These quantitative estimations of the
combined potentials are based on test bench results from engines with direct gasoline injection
and electromechanical valve actuation as well as on simulation studies [86].

3. Conclusion

All of these mentioned methods show that the potential to increase the efficiency of the SI en-
gine at part load conditions is not yet exhausted. Each method has its own advantages and dis-
advantages. As shown in the explanation above, the stratified charge and variable displacement
methods have the best potential to increase the efficiency of the engine at part load conditions.
However, the load control ability in the stratified charge engine without throttling is restricted
due to the lean combustion limit. On the other hand, in variable displacement engines, discontin-
uous (stepwise) control and engine speed fluctuations are the problems. Other methods are more
effective when used in combination. The VVT and lift method has the ability to control the load at
full range without the throttle valve, but the variable compression ratio and supercharging meth-
ods do not have this ability at all. Table 1 summarizes the main characteristics of these methods in
comparison with the conventional throttle controlled SI engine. The selection and combination of
the methods as a strategy for a firm, depends not only on the potential to reduce the fuel con-
sumption but also on the manufacturing costs, marketing aspects and legislations.
3216 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220

Table 1
Comparison of the methods to decrease the fuel consumption of SI engines at part-load with the throttle controlled SI
engine
Methods to increase the Compression– Exhaust-intake part IMEPpump Load
efficiency at part load combustion–expansion (low pressure loop or IMEPgross control
part (high pressure loop) gas exchange) ability
IMEPgross IMEPpumping
Throttle controlled engine
at constant excess air
ratio (k = 1) and equal
load conditions
(IMEPnet = constant)

In comparison with
throttle controlled
engine: variable valve # # # ++c
timing (VVT) and lift
• Equal size (VH)
• k=1
In comparison with
throttle controlled
engine: variable compression ratio " " " 0a
• Equal size (VH)
• k=1
In comparison with
throttle controlled
engine: supercharging " # # 0a
• Equal max. power
• k=1
In comparison with
throttle controlled
engine: stratified charge # # # +b
lean burn engine
• Equal size (VH)
• k>1
In comparison with
throttle controlled
engine: variable displacement " # # +b
(cylinder deactivation or cut off):
• Equal size (VH)
• Wi-net = IMEPnet ·
VH-active = constant
• k=1
a
No effect to unthrottled load control ability.
b
Partial unthrottled load control ability.
c
Full unthrottled load control ability.
 O.A. Kutlar et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 3202–3220 3217

Acknowledgments

The authors also want to thank Prof. Dr. Metin Ergeneman, Prof. Dr. Rafig Mehdiyev and Prof.
Dr. Taner Derbentli for their invaluable advice and discussions on the preparation of this paper.

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