“As every runner knows, running is about more than just putting one foot in front of

the other; it is about our lifestyle and who we are”- Joan Benoit

The marathon is said to have been patterned after the run made by Pheidipides from the
city of Marathon to Athens in the year 490 B.C. Legend has it that he brought news of an
important victory over Persian forces back to Athens but died of exhaustion immediately
after delivering his message. The distance between the two cities was approximately 26
miles (LeUnes & Nation, 1989).
Marathon is an extremely physically demanding event. Runners train for months, even
years, prior to participating. Adequate preparation requires a substantial commitment
to build and maintain endurance. Some runners may devote so much time and energy to
training that they prioritize running over job and family responsibilities (Morgan, 1979).
Despite the difficulty of the endeavor, participation in marathon running has expanded
greatly in recent years. People from all shapes, sizes and abilities are now enjoying
running marathons and hence it has evolved as one of the world's most popular running
experiences among people.

This paper provides a detailed overview of : What Marathon Running is?

What are the different kinds of marathon? Why marathon running is a
topic of relevance in psychology? And what motivates people to run and
register for marathons? The paper also provides the possibility of the
future research on this topic and the conclusion of the same.

Marathon running is a recreational activity which has experienced an exceptional

development over the last years, as an increasing number of individuals consider it an
appropriate alternative for recreationally based physical activity (Ridinger et al., 2012).
Masters, Ogles, and Jolton (1993) have defined marathon running as a model of
"super-adherence" as these athletes train far more than is necessary to derive the
benefits of maintaining physical fitness. There are different types of marathons. Mostly,
the difference is attributed to the distance covered. The most common marathons
include;

1. 10km (6.21 miles

2. Half Marathon – 21.1km (13.1 miles)
3. Marathon – 42.2km (26.2 miles)
4. Ultra-Marathon – > 42.2km
5. Stage Races
Motivation is a key construct in sports and health psychology. Motivation has been
defined in a variety of ways. According to Reber (1985, p.454), most "regard it as an
intervening process or an internal state of an organism that impels or drives it to
action." Similarly, Buss (1978, p.570) defines it as the factors that arouse an organism
to exhibit goal-directed behavior. In other words, "motivation is an energizer of
behavior." (Reber, 1985, p.454).
In sports psychology, Motivation is defined as “the direction and intensity of one’s
effort” and is a significant factor in the selection of exercise and sport. Participant
motivation evaluates those factors that enhance or inhibit motivation to participate and
is represented by factors as health orientation, weight concern/weight loss, and personal
goal achievement (Masters et al. 1993, Marcus and Forsyth 2009). These motivating
factors are identified to influence the quantity of physical activity in people.
Understanding motivation is important for maintaining and improving participation
and performance in exercise and sports. The beneficial physical and psychological
effects of such participation has been well documented (Pierce, Eastmen, Tripath,
Olson, & Dewey, 1993). Sports psychology, several relevant literature, and researches
have accounted these motivating factors. In the following paragraphs, we shall see them
in detail:

Physical ​exercises like running regularly strengthens your heart by increasing ​VO2
max (aerobic capacity) and also helps keep blood pressure and high cholesterol at
healthy levels. It also improves your immune system and increases muscle strength.
Including long-distance running in routine teaches the body to store more glycogen to
combat hitting a wall after a certain number of miles. In addition, longer runs push body
to strengthen fast-twitch fibers in the muscles to combat fatigue and build strength and
power. There is a proliferation of studies which deal with the physiology of running.
Both positive and negative aspects, especially cardiovascular benefits and physical
injuries have been investigated (Chan & Lai, 1990). Harris (1981) did the study on
motives behind running marathons by sending the questionnaires to runners in New
Mexico, USA. Four hundred and eleven runners, namely 277 males and 132 females
responded. The respondents ranged between 10 and 71 years of age, had been involved
in running from 1 month to 50 years, and ran anything from 1 to 192 kms per week.
Findings show that 92,5% ran because they felt better physically, 58,4% for weight
control and 55,5% for relaxation.

Psychological benefits have been associated with various forms of aerobic exercise.
For example, regular running has been shown to improve mood (Dyer & Crouch, 1987;
Gondola & Tuckman, 1983) and reduce anxiety (Blumenthal,Williams, Needles, &
Wallace, 1982; Rudy & Estock, 1983). Aerobic exercise programs in general and running
in particular have been studied as treatment approaches for depression with some
promising results (Blue, 1979; Griest, Klein, Eischens, Fans, Gurman, & Morgan, 1979;
McCann & Holmes, 1985). In addition, improving physical fitness has been shown to
exert a positive effect on self-concept (O'Neill, 1989; Sidney & Shepherd, 1976; Wilfley &
Kunce, 1986).
Gondola and Tuckman (1982) wanted to determine whether' marathoners, experienced
a positive psychological mood because of running. Hence, participants who were waiting
in registration lines in the 1981 New York City Marathon were asked to complete
McNair, Lorrand Droppleman'S Profile of Mood States (POMS) and a background
questionnaire. Sixty-eight females and 280 males agreed to participate. The men in the
sample averaged 32 years of age, women in the sample had an average age of 34 years.
Gondola and Tuckman {1982) reported that they used the Profile of Mood States
because they considered it easy to administer. Moreover, they reported that it had been
standardized on a sample of 340 male and 516 female undergraduate college students
from a large university in the east of the USA. The results obtained from the sample of
marathoners were compared to the standardized results of the college students. The
results showed that the marathoners were significantly less tense, less fatigued, less
depressed and less confused than the college students {p < ,001}. The marathoners were
also significantly more vigourous than college students {p < ,001). However,Gondola
and Tuckman {1982) concluded that there is a strong relationship between positive
mood states and long-distance running.

In the book, Basic Marathon Training: All the Technique and Gear You Need to Get
Started, ​Leigh Ann Chow has written, “​people run marathons for a multitude of
reasons: the chance to accomplish something extraordinary, to push oneself beyond
the limits of endurance, and to experience the thrill of triumphing over adversity seem
to be among the most common motivations​.” Finishing a marathon brings a sense of
elation. The sense of accomplishment is tremendous; some marathon finishers are
inspired to achieve goals in other aspects of their lives that they had previously thought
were attainable. People run marathons because they have some inkling that it will
change their lives. They might not know how it will change them, exactly, but they know
that their lives will be altered by the experience. One of the joys of marathon running is
that while you’re competing along with hundreds or thousands of other runners, you
really only need to compete with yourself. Although some veteran marathoners strive to
win age group awards, the vast majority of runners are essentially racing themselves,
setting goals based upon their previous personal bests. ​Achievement motivation
refers to a person’s need to “overcome obstacles, to exercise power, to strive to do
something difficult as well and as quickly as possible” (Murray, 1938, pp. 80-81). In an
attempt to fill a void in the field of sport psychology outlined by Duda and Allison
(1990), which highlights a dearth of cross cultural research, Hayashi and Weiss
measured the characteristics of achievement motivation reported by American and
Japanese marathon runners. Three hundred fifty-eight marathon runners were
administered a questionnaire that measured achievement goals (TEOSQ), sport
orientation (SOQ), and a need for uniqueness (NUS) prior to the Honolulu marathon.
Both Japanese and English versions of the questionnaire were constructed. Multivariate
analysis of covariance (using age and experience in marathon running as covariates)
results indicated that the Japanese and American samples differed on dimensions of the
Sport Orientation Questionnaire. Specifi-cally, it was found that Japanese runners were
more win oriented and that the American runners were more competitive.
Theoretical models of achievement motivation can provide a rational framework for
investigating the elements of the marathon race that distinguish it from other types of
involvement in running. Perhaps the most influential theoretical conceptualization for
the understanding of high volume running has been the addiction model. It proposes
that runners develop a dependence syndrome which pushes them to run more
frequently and at greater distances over time. Proponents of the concept of running
addiction cite phenomena such as the "runner's high," (Rudy & Estok, 1983) tolerance
or habituation effects (Pierce, McGowan & Lynn, 1993), and a withdrawal syndrome
when running is prevented (Chan & Grossman, 1988). Physiological changes that occur
with endurance training, most notably, the release of endogenous endorphins have been
hypothesized as the physiological underpinnings of such an addiction (Gambert, Hagen,
Garthwait, Dunthie, & McCarthy, 1981).
William Glasser was the first to explicitly discuss running as an addiction in his
1976 book, Positive Addiction. Glasser contended that people could gain greater
strength and self-esteem through the development of addictions to positive behaviors
such as running. Over time, one could develop an addiction to an activity by practicing it
on a daily basis for approximately 40 minutes to an hour. Eventually, the activity would
generate a positive addiction state, described as a trance-like frame of mind in which
thoughts spin free resulting in greater creativity and imagination. Glasser (1976) argued
that various activities such as meditation could develop into positive addictions.
However, running was described as "the hardest but surest way to develop a positive
addiction" (p. 100). Positive addiction was differentiated from negative addictions such
as alcohol and other drugs in that it gives strength, increases self-esteem and
confidence,and improves quality of life. Negative addictions, on the other hand, drain
strength and are destructive influences. Glasser’s (1976) theory generated much interest
in running addiction. For example, Sachs and Pargmen (1979) used an in-depth
interview procedure to assess addiction in 12 adult male runners. This sample of
runners reported feelings of euphoria after running. In addition, they listed various
withdrawal symptoms occurring approximately 24 to 36 hours after going without
running. These symptoms include feelings of anxiety, guilt, restlessness, and irritability.
Runners also reported a tendency to prioritize running over other activities in their
lives.
In addition to the addiction model of high volume running, the ​eating disorder
analogue model has been proposed to explain the motivation of some high volume
runners. Yates, Leehey, and Shisslak (1983) developed the theory that some high volume
runners are compelled to run by the same underlying pathology that motivates the
restrictive eating habits of individuals with anorexia nervosa. These authors compared a
sample of 60 male distance runners to patients with anorexia. They conducted extensive
interviews with the athletes and found that a subgroup of runners, labeled "obligatory
runners," were remarkably similar to anorectics both in background and personality.
The families of obligatory runners were noted to have many of the same characteristics
as those of anorectic patients. Also, the two groups were of similar Socio-Economic
Status. Obligatory runners reported personality characteristics that are often described
in patients with anorexia. They tended to be perfectionistic with obsessive tendencies
and they evidenced high achievement strivings. Also, obligatory runners were generally
self effacing and experienced difficulty with the overt expression of affect, especially
anger. Yates et al. (1983) proposed a single process underlying both obligatory running
and anorexia nervosa. A disruption in the developmental process associated with
identity results in feelings of depression, anxiety, and lack of direction. This typically
becomes - manifest in females during adolescence and in males at middle age. Male
obligatory runners and female anorectics engage in an all consuming pursuit of an ideal
goal. The immersion in this process provides the individual with a sense of control and
strengthens identity. The difference in expression is hypothesized to be rooted in
sociocultural factors that encourage females to focus on physical attractiveness and
males to focus on physical effectiveness. As all facets of an anorectic patient’s life come
to revolve around eating habits, so too does running become central in the lives of
obligatory runners. The theory that some individuals who engage in high volume
running suffer from an underlying psychopathology similar to anorexia nervosa has
been evaluated in several studies. There has been some corroboration for the reported
perfectionistic and obsessive personality traits of high volume runners ( Goldfarb &
Plante, 1984). Also, some studies have found altered eating attitudes among high
volume runners (e.g. Pasman & Thompson, 1988). However, there has been a
conspicuous absence of support for a key element of the theory. That is, samples of
runners consistently present as psychologically healthy on various assessments and do
not evidence an underlying psychopathology similar to anorexia (e.g. Blumenthal,
O’Toole, & Chang, 1984).
Considerable research in social psychology has examined motivational factors related to
altruistic behavior and charitable volunteerism (Batson, 1991; Batson, Bolen,
Cross, & Neuringer-Benefiel, 1986; Bennett & Kottasz, 2000; Eveland & Crutchfield,
2007; Youn & Kim, 2008). Batson (1991) and Batson et al. (1986) suggested that
individuals tended to help others for whom they felt empathy, because they then
experienced intrinsically rewarding positive feelings. When empathy was not present,
altruistic behavior was more likely to be extrinsically motivated, such as by the prospect
of material or social rewards (Batson, 1991; Batson et al., 1986). In cause-based training
programs, material rewards can include gear and clothing that bears the charitable
organization’s logo, while social rewards can include weight loss and the subsequent
compliments from others. However, studies by McAuley and Blissmer (2000) and
Raglin (2001) imply that such extrinsic rewards are more significant in exercise
adoption than in adherence. This implication supports Li’s (1999) results indicating that
consistent exercisers are more intrinsically motivated than non-adherers. It also
supports Havenar and Lochbaum’s (2007) investigation of the motivational factors of
adherers versus dropouts in cause-based marathon-training programs. The authors
(2007) suggested that dropouts were more likely to have specified primarily extrinsic
motivations for joining, such as social recognition and weight loss, than the adherers.
Therefore, the present study addressed the motivational factors not only to join a
cause-based endurance-training program, but to adhere to the training schedule and
complete the event. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a
charitable cause and the participants’ motivation to train consistently.

The research of ​sportscape factors in the framework of outdoor recreation is

comparably newly equated to studies of the variable presented by geography and
environmental psychology literatures. Sportscape factors refer to the physical
surroundings individuals face during their participation in a recreational activity.
Sportscape attachment can be defined as the degree to which an individual appreciates
or identifies with specific natural surroundings (Moore and Graefe, 2000). A crucial
precondition of satisfying half marathon experiences are participants‘ anticipated
freedom and intrinsic motivation in selecting the conditions under which half
marathons will take place. Among the most crucial decisions made either explicitly or
implicitly by marathon participants is the physical surroundings of the marathon, which
play a crucial role in the subsequent satisfaction and intention to participate (Hill and
Green, 2012).
Elizabeth Murphy (2016) conducted a semi structured interview on 13 people from
running community to identify the important pull factors for marathon runners. It was
found that location was selected as the crucial pull factor for these participants when
deciding whether or not to participate. Location was referred to in two ways. First, if the
race was close to home and convenient, they were more likely to participate because
they were already in the area. Local races such as the Thanksgiving Day 10K’s were
preferred since they were convenient for the holiday. Second, location was referenced in
terms of a vacation option based on the destination. The race became an excuse for the
runner to take a trip with their family when the event is out of state or not easily
accessible from home. If the runner were to travel outside of their local area, the race
would need to be in an attractive location and/or somewhere they had always wanted to
go.
The prestige and the costs of attending the race were also identified as a key pull
factors in the semi structured interview done by Elizabeth Murphy (2016). The New
York Marathon, Chicago Marathon, and the Boston Marathon have been the three most
prestigious races in the US (RunningUSA, 2011) and also mentioned by all interview
participants. Because entry is only possible through a race lottery or qualifying, the
interviewees felt they must participate in these events if they got in. These races were
also preferred to others because runners would not normally ever be able to run through
those streets had they not participated in the event.
The cost of the event was chosen as another factor that encouraged race participation.
All of the participants preferred to take part in races that were scenic and well known,
but due to the high costs of travel and race entries, they would participate in events close
to home. Even though the participants felt that local races were not nearly as exciting as
destination events, these races were cheaper than traveling all over the country.
Interestingly, the ​medal and t-shirt earned at most races, were not driving factors for
participation. The participants collected them to remember what they accomplished, but
they were not driving factors to register. The Disneyland Marathon and the Nike
Women’s Marathon offered unique finisher medals and were mentioned as an
“exception to the rule” for normal race participation. Specifically with the Disneyland
race, the location and the unique Mickey Mouse medal were driving factors for two
runners because the course allowed participants to run through the “happiest place on
earth.” The Nike Women’s Marathon awarded a race specific Tiffany necklace to all
finishers. In this instance, runners must earn their Tiffany necklace rather than going to
the store and purchasing one.
Psychologist Mihaly Csickszentmihalyi dubbed Runner’s High or “in the zone” as a “flow
state,” describes an experience of near athletic perfection. Masters (1992) investigated
the runner's high in a sample of marathon runners in the Southwest United States
Marathon. Subjects were recruited by means of an announcement placed in several
sports shops, announcements at local road races and at three local running clubs. Of the
1428 who completed the marathon, only 30 men and 18 women completed
questionnaires which were mailed to them. The Runner's High Questionnaire was an
exploratory instrument designed to acquire definitional information about the high. Six
adjective phrases, based on previous descriptions on this phenomenon, were supplied.
The runners were required to indicate which adjective described the high most
accurately. The runners' own descriptions could be a seventh choice. When more than
one description applied, they had to rank them. Results indicated that 73% had
experienced a high in training and 66% had experienced it in the marathon. The
description most given to the high was a feeling of general relaxation. Of the sample of
48, 29 gave this response. The description used least was a feeling of total euphoria.
Only two of the respondents used it. Unfortunately, no other details of the six adjectives
was given. The runners' own descriptions included 'no pain,' 'floating,' 'strong feelings'
and 'total concentration on the finish line'. After running for a while, one experiences
pain which releases endorphins. These act at central nervous system receptor sites,
reduce pain and allow the runner to continue. As the runner continues, there is a
gradual increase in occupied receptor sites until a particular threshold is reached. This
results in a pleasurable or euphoric state of mind. Because of one's desire to experience
pleasure, one would run more. Glasser has suggested that this may account for "the
addictive in positive addiction" (1978,p.2). This account is speculation. One may
conclude that further research is needed not only to describe the runner's high, but to
explain why it occurs.
Training for a marathon and then actually taking part on race day provides a great
opportunity to ​meet new people with shared interests together. Whether it’s
spectators or fellow runners, the marathon experience brings myriad contact with
people with whom you have plenty in common. In the book, Basic Marathon Training:
All the Technique and Gear You Need to Get Started, ​Leigh Ann Chow has mentioned
that, “It's hard not to bond when you run over 20 miles together. One of the greatest
joys of being a runner is the chance to share your passion with millions of others around
the world. The moment you take the first step, you join a community of fellow runners
who are just as enthusiastic as you are- or more so. The sense of camaraderie and
belonging that comes from running with a group can’t be denied. Although some
runners say they prefer solitude, most treasure the runs they share with others and rely
on their companions for support, encouragement and also help them in social as well as
self adjustment.”
A motivation related construct, ​passion ​is also said to be a driving force for many
people to run marathons. Passion has been defined as “a strong inclusion toward a self
defining activity that one loves, values, and devotes a significant amount of time and
energy to” (Vallerand 2012). Vallerand (2003) distinguished passion from the concept
of motivation suggesting that not all forms of motivation entails an aspect of liking the
activity, an inherent feature of passion. In his dualistic model of passion, Vallerand et
al. (2003) outlined two types of passion - harmonious and obsessive - The major
difference between these two being how the individual internalizes an activity into their
identity. Harmoniously passionate individuals engage in an activity of their own
volition and accept the activity as important for them without any contingencies
attached to it while obsessively passionate people feel compelled to engage in a
particular pursuit because they feel controlled by external or internal contingencies such
as feeling of social acceptance, self esteem or an uncontrollable excitement derived from
the activity ( Vallers 2012). A review of passion research in marathon runners suggest
that harmonious and obsessive forms of passion lead to distinct cognitive, affective,
behavioural, social and performance outcomes. For example: harmonious passion has
been associated with positive affect, concentration and flow (Vallerand et al. 2003),
while obsessive passions has been linked to a variety of maladaptive outcomes such as
increased negative affect (Vallerand et al. 2008), and aggressive behaviours (Donahue
et al. 2009)

Conclusion
With a dramatic increase in marathon participation rates over the past years, it’s evident
that marathon running has become a popular vehicle for exercising one’s competitive,
social and fitness needs across the lifespan (Buman et al. 2008). Given the popularity of
marathon running, this paper sought to address the issue of what motivates individuals
to undertake such an endeavor and how different motivational factors might impact well
being, performance and other important outcomes. Although physical fitness remains
an important motivational factor for adherence to the marathon, psychological reasons
(such as tension reduction, a decrease in depression, stress reduction and a positive
self-image as a result of running) were also taken into account as an important reasons
for adherence to long-distance running. However, runners experience negative
psychological effects, if unable to run. These include depression, anxiety and irritability.
The other findings from this body of research suggests a plethora of motives for
marathon running ranging from concerns about health and fitness, social interest,
achieving certain personal goals, and social interaction. Findings also suggested that
running a marathon in order to address a social issue or doing charity has become
increasingly popular in recent years. Despite advances in the knowledge of motivation
and marathon running, there remain numerous areas for further research. Research
testing the value of various motivational interventions would be beneficial. Given the
physical and psychological challenges associated with marathon running, examination
of empirically validated interventions for optimizing motivation seems worthwhile.
Testing theory based interventions, using experimental designs would be beneficial.

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