Amber

Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its
color and natural beauty since Neolithic times.[1] Much valued
from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a
variety of decorative objects.[2] Amber is used in jewelry. It has
also been used as a healing agent in folk medicine.

There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their

chemical constituents. Because it originates as a soft, sticky tree
resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as
inclusions.[3] Amber occurring in coal seams is also called Pendants made of amber. The oval
pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2 by
resinite, and the term ambrite is applied to that found specifically
11⁄4 in).
within New Zealand coal seams.[4]

Contents
Etymology
History
Composition and formation
Formation
Botanical origin
Physical attributes
Inclusions
Extraction and processing
Distribution and mining
Treatment
Appearance
Classification
An ant inside Baltic amber
Class I
Ia
Ib
Ic
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Geological record
Paleontological significance
Use
 Jewelry
Historic medicinal uses
With children
Scent of amber and amber perfumery
Imitation
Imitation made in natural resins
Imitations made of plastics
See also
The Amber Room in the Catherine
References Palace, Saint Petersburg was
Bibliography reconstructed using new amber from
Kaliningrad
External links

Etymology
The English word amber derives from Arabic ʿanbar ‫[ﻋﻨﺒﺮ‬5]
(cognate with Middle Persian ambar[6]) via Middle Latin ambar
and Middle French ambre. The word was adopted in Middle
English in the 14th century as referring to what is now known as
ambergris (ambre gris or "grey amber"), a solid waxy substance
derived from the sperm whale. In the Romance languages, the Unpolished amber stones
sense of the word had come to be extended to Baltic amber (fossil
resin) from as early as the late 13th century. At first called white
or yellow amber (ambre jaune), this meaning was adopted in
English by the early 15th century. As the use of ambergris waned,
this became the main sense of the word.[5]

The two substances ("yellow amber" and "grey amber")

conceivably became associated or confused because they both
were found washed up on beaches. Ambergris is less dense than
water and floats, whereas amber is too dense to float, though less Extracting Baltic amber from
dense than stone.[7] Holocene deposits, Gdansk, Poland

The classical names for amber, Latin electrum and Ancient Greek
ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron), are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ (ēlektōr) meaning "beaming Sun".[8][9] According
to myth, when Phaëton son of Helios (the Sun) was killed, his mourning sisters became poplar trees, and
their tears became elektron, amber.[10] The word elektron gave rise to the words electric, electricity, and
their relatives because of amber's ability to bear a static electricity charge.[11]

History
Theophrastus discussed amber in the 4th century BC, as did Pytheas (c. 330 BC), whose work "On the
Ocean" is lost, but was referenced by Pliny the Elder (23 to 79 AD), according to whose The Natural
History (in what is also the earliest known mention of the name Germania):[12]
 Pytheas says that the Gutones, a people of Germany, inhabit the shores of an estuary of the
Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending a distance of six thousand stadia; that,
at one day's sail from this territory, is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores of which, amber is
thrown up by the waves in spring, it being an excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as,
also, that the inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their neighbors, the
Teutones.

Earlier[13] Pliny says that Pytheas refers to a large island - three

days' sail from the Scythian coast and called Balcia by Xenophon
of Lampsacus (author of a fanciful travel book in Greek) - as
Basilia - a name generally equated with Abalus. Given the
presence of amber, the island could have been Heligoland,
Zealand, the shores of Bay of Gdansk, the Sambia Peninsula or
the Curonian Lagoon, which were historically the richest sources
of amber in northern Europe. It is assumed that there were well-
established trade routes for amber connecting the Baltic with the Fishing for amber on the coast of
Mediterranean (known as the "Amber Road"). Pliny states Baltic Sea. Winter storms throw out
amber nuggets. Close to Gdansk,
explicitly that the Germans exported amber to Pannonia, from
Poland.
where the Veneti distributed it onwards.

The ancient Italic peoples of southern Italy used to work amber;

the National Archaeological Museum of Siritide (Museo Archeologico Nazionale della Siritide) at
Policoro in the province of Matera (Basilicata) displays important surviving examples. Amber used in
antiquity as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the Mediterranean comes from deposits of Sicily.

Pliny also cites the opinion of Nicias (c. 470–413 BC), according to
whom amber

is a liquid produced by the rays of the sun; and that these

rays, at the moment of the sun's setting, striking with the
greatest force upon the surface of the soil, leave upon it an
unctuous sweat, which is carried off by the tides of the
Ocean, and thrown up upon the shores of Germany.

Besides the fanciful explanations according to which amber is "produced

by the Sun", Pliny cites opinions that are well aware of its origin in tree
Wood resin, the source of
resin, citing the native Latin name of succinum (sūcinum, from sucus amber
"juice").[14] In Book 37, section XI of Natural History, Pliny wrote:

Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the pine genus, like
gum from the cherry, and resin from the ordinary pine. It is a liquid at first, which issues
forth in considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened [...] Our forefathers, too, were of
opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name of "succinum" and
one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine genus, is the fact that it emits a
pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns, when ignited, with the odour and appearance
of torch-pine wood.[15]
He also states that amber is also found in Egypt and in India, and he even refers to the electrostatic
properties of amber, by saying that "in Syria the women make the whorls of their spindles of this
substance, and give it the name of harpax [from ἁρπάζω, "to drag"] from the circumstance that it attracts
leaves towards it, chaff, and the light fringe of tissues".

Pliny says that the German name of amber was glæsum, "for which reason the Romans, when
Germanicus Caesar commanded the fleet in those parts, gave to one of these islands the name of
Glæsaria, which by the barbarians was known as Austeravia". This is confirmed by the recorded Old
High German word glas and by the Old English word glær for "amber" (compare glass). In Middle Low
German, amber was known as berne-, barn-, börnstēn (with etymological roots related to "burn" and to
"stone"[16]). The Low German term became dominant also in High German by the 18th century, thus
modern German Bernstein besides Dutch barnsteen.

In the Baltic languages, the Lithuanian term for amber is gintaras and the Latvian dzintars. These words,
and the Slavic jantar[17] and Hungarian gyanta ('resin'), are thought to originate from Phoenician jainitar
("sea-resin").

Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber found in North America came from discoveries
in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury.[2]

Composition and formation

Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in
alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. Amber is a
macromolecule by free radical polymerization of several precursors in the labdane family, e.g. communic
acid, cummunol, and biformene.[18][19] These labdanes are diterpenes (C20H32) and trienes, equipping
the organic skeleton with three alkene groups for polymerization. As amber matures over the years, more
polymerization takes place as well as isomerization reactions, crosslinking and cyclization.

Heated above 200 °C (392 °F), amber decomposes, yielding an oil of amber, and leaves a black residue
which is known as "amber colophony", or "amber pitch"; when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed
oil this forms "amber varnish" or "amber lac".[18]

Formation
Molecular polymerization, resulting from high pressures and temperatures produced by overlying
sediment, transforms the resin first into copal. Sustained heat and pressure drives off terpenes and results
in the formation of amber.[20]

For this to happen, the resin must be resistant to decay. Many trees produce resin, but in the majority of
cases this deposit is broken down by physical and biological processes. Exposure to sunlight, rain,
microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi), and extreme temperatures tends to disintegrate the resin.
For the resin to survive long enough to become amber, it must be resistant to such forces or be produced
under conditions that exclude them.[21]

Botanical origin
Fossil resins from Europe fall into two categories, the famous
Baltic ambers and another that resembles the Agathis group.
Fossil resins from the Americas and Africa are closely related to
the modern genus Hymenaea,[22] while Baltic ambers are thought
to be fossil resins from family Sciadopityaceae plants that once
lived in north Europe.[23]

Physical attributes
Amber from Bitterfeld
Most amber has a hardness between 2.0 and 2.5 on the Mohs
scale, a refractive index of 1.5–1.6, a specific gravity between
1.06 and 1.10, and a melting point of 250–300 °C.[24]

Inclusions
The abnormal development of resin in living trees (succinosis)
can result in the formation of amber.[25] Impurities are quite often
present, especially when the resin dropped onto the ground, so
the material may be useless except for varnish-making. Such
impure amber is called firniss.

Such inclusion of other substances can cause amber to have an

unexpected color. Pyrites may give a bluish color. Bony amber
Baltic amber with inclusions
owes its cloudy opacity to numerous tiny bubbles inside the
resin.[26] However, so-called black amber is really only a kind of
jet.

In darkly clouded and even opaque amber, inclusions can be imaged using high-energy, high-contrast,
high-resolution X-rays.[27]

Extraction and processing

Distribution and mining

Amber is globally distributed, mainly in rocks of
Cretaceous age or younger. Historically, the Samland
coast west of Königsberg in Prussia was the world's
leading source of amber. The first mentions of amber
deposits here date back to the 12th century.[28] About
90% of the world's extractable amber is still located Open cast amber mine "Primorskoje" in Jantarny,
Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia
in that area, which became the Kaliningrad Oblast of
Russia in 1946.[29]

Pieces of amber torn from the seafloor are cast up by the waves, and collected by hand, dredging, or
diving. Elsewhere, amber is mined, both in open works and underground galleries. Then nodules of blue
earth have to be removed and an opaque crust must be cleaned off, which can be done in revolving
barrels containing sand and water. Erosion removes this crust from sea-worn amber.[26]
Caribbean amber, especially Dominican blue amber, is mined through bell pitting, which is dangerous
due to the risk of tunnel collapse.[30]

Treatment
The Vienna amber factories, which use pale amber to manufacture pipes and other smoking tools, turn it
on a lathe and polish it with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil. The final luster is given by
friction with flannel.[26]

When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be
united by smearing the surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them together while hot.
Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is
due.

Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now used on a large scale in the
formation of "ambroid" or "pressed amber".[26] The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and
then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure, the softened amber being forced
through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewelry and
articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colors in polarized light.

Amber has often been imitated by other resins like copal and kauri gum, as well as by celluloid and even
glass. Baltic amber is sometimes colored artificially, but also called "true amber".[26]

Appearance
Amber occurs in a range of different colors. As well as the usual
yellow-orange-brown that is associated with the color "amber",
amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon
yellow, to brown and almost black. Other uncommon colors
include red amber (sometimes known as "cherry amber"), green
amber, and even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought
after.[31]

Yellow amber is a hard fossil resin from evergreen trees, and Unique colors of Baltic amber.
despite the name it can be translucent, yellow, orange, or brown Polished stones.
colored. Known to the Iranians by the Pahlavi compound word
kah-ruba (from kah "straw" plus rubay "attract, snatch", referring
to its electrical properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or kahraba (which later became the Arabic
word for electricity, ‫ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎء‬kahrabā'), it too was called amber in Europe (Old French and Middle English
ambre). Found along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, yellow amber reached the Middle East and
western Europe via trade. Its coastal acquisition may have been one reason yellow amber came to be
designated by the same term as ambergris. Moreover, like ambergris, the resin could be burned as an
incense. The resin's most popular use was, however, for ornamentation—easily cut and polished, it could
be transformed into beautiful jewelry. Much of the most highly prized amber is transparent, in contrast to
the very common cloudy amber and opaque amber. Opaque amber contains numerous minute bubbles.
This kind of amber is known as "bony amber".[32]
Although all Dominican amber is fluorescent, the rarest
Dominican amber is blue amber. It turns blue in natural sunlight
and any other partially or wholly ultraviolet light source. In long-
wave UV light it has a very strong reflection, almost white. Only
about 100 kg (220 lb) is found per year, which makes it valuable
and expensive.[33]

Sometimes amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as

it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees.[26] It
Blue amber from Dominican Republic
is thought that, in addition to exuding onto the surface of the tree,
amber resin also originally flowed into hollow cavities or cracks
within trees, thereby leading to the development of large lumps of amber of irregular form.

Classification
Amber can be classified into several forms. Most fundamentally, there are two types of plant resin with
the potential for fossilization. Terpenoids, produced by conifers and angiosperms, consist of ring
structures formed of isoprene (C5H8) units.[1] Phenolic resins are today only produced by angiosperms,
and tend to serve functional uses. The extinct medullosans produced a third type of resin, which is often
found as amber within their veins.[1] The composition of resins is highly variable; each species produces
a unique blend of chemicals which can be identified by the use of pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass
spectrometry.[1] The overall chemical and structural composition is used to divide ambers into five
classes.[34][35] There is also a separate classification of amber gemstones, according to the way of
production.

Class I
This class is by far the most abundant. It comprises labdatriene carboxylic acids such as communic or
ozic acids.[34] It is further split into three sub-classes. Classes Ia and Ib utilize regular labdanoid
diterpenes (e.g. communic acid, communol, biformenes), while Ic uses enantio labdanoids (ozic acid,
ozol, enantio biformenes).[36]

Ia
Class Ia includes Succinite (= 'normal' Baltic amber) and Glessite.[35] They have a communic acid base,
and they also include much succinic acid.[34]

Baltic amber yields on dry distillation succinic acid, the proportion varying from about 3% to 8%, and
being greatest in the pale opaque or bony varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning
amber are mainly due to this acid. Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, hence the
name succinite. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other
fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1.05 to 1.10.[18] It can be distinguished from other ambers
via IR spectroscopy due to a specific carbonyl absorption peak. IR spectroscopy can detect the relative
age of an amber sample. Succinic acid may not be an original component of amber, but rather a
degradation product of abietic acid.[37]

Ib
Like class Ia ambers, these are based on communic acid; however, they lack succinic acid.[34]
Ic
This class is mainly based on enantio-labdatrienonic acids, such as ozic and zanzibaric acids.[34] Its most
familiar representative is Dominican amber.[1]

Dominican amber differentiates itself from Baltic amber by being mostly transparent and often
containing a higher number of fossil inclusions. This has enabled the detailed reconstruction of the
ecosystem of a long-vanished tropical forest.[38] Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the
source of Dominican amber and probably of most amber found in the tropics. It is not "succinite" but
"retinite".[39]

Class II
These ambers are formed from resins with a sesquiterpenoid base, such as cadinene.[34]

Class III
These ambers are polystyrenes.[34]

Class IV
Class IV is something of a wastebasket; its ambers are not polymerized, but mainly consist of cedrene-
based sesquiterpenoids.[34]

Class V
Class V resins are considered to be produced by a pine or pine relative. They comprise a mixture of
diterpinoid resins and n-alkyl compounds. Their main variety is Highgate copalite.[35]

Geological record
The oldest amber recovered dates to the Upper Carboniferous period
(320 million years ago).[1][40] Its chemical composition makes it
difficult to match the amber to its producers – it is most similar to
the resins produced by flowering plants; however, there are no
flowering plant fossils known from before the Cretaceous, and they
were not common until the Late Cretaceous. Amber becomes
abundant long after the Carboniferous, in the Early Cretaceous,
150 million years ago,[1] when it is found in association with insects.
The oldest amber with arthropod inclusions comes from the Levant,
from Lebanon and Jordan. This amber, roughly 125–135 million
years old, is considered of high scientific value, providing evidence
of some of the oldest sampled ecosystems.[41]

In Lebanon, more than 450 outcrops of Lower Cretaceous amber Typical amber specimen with a
were discovered by Dany Azar,[42] a Lebanese paleontologist and number of indistinct inclusions
entomologist. Among these outcrops, 20 have yielded biological
inclusions comprising the oldest representatives of several recent
families of terrestrial arthropods. Even older, Jurassic amber has been found recently in Lebanon as well.
Many remarkable insects and spiders were recently discovered in the amber of Jordan including the
oldest zorapterans, clerid beetles, umenocoleid roaches, and achiliid planthoppers.[41]

Baltic amber or succinite (historically documented as Prussian amber[18]) is found as irregular nodules in
marine glauconitic sand, known as blue earth, occurring in the Lower Oligocene strata of Sambia in
Prussia (in historical sources also referred to as Glaesaria).[18] After 1945, this territory around
Königsberg was turned into Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, where amber is now systematically mined.[43]

It appears, however, to have been partly derived from older Eocene deposits and it occurs also as a
derivative phase in later formations, such as glacial drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur as inclusions
trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern Asia
and the southern part of North America. Heinrich Göppert named the common amber-yielding pine of the
Baltic forests Pinites succiniter, but as the wood does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it
has been also called Pinus succinifera. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was
limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are
represented in the amber-flora.[26]

Paleontological significance
Amber is a unique preservational mode, preserving otherwise unfossilizable parts of organisms; as such it
is helpful in the reconstruction of ecosystems as well as organisms;[44] the chemical composition of the
resin, however, is of limited utility in reconstructing the phylogenetic affinity of the resin producer.[1]

Amber sometimes contains animals or plant matter that became caught in the resin as it was secreted.
Insects, spiders and even their webs, annelids, frogs,[45] crustaceans, bacteria and amoebae,[46] marine
microfossils,[47] wood, flowers and fruit, hair, feathers[3] and other small organisms have been recovered
in Cretaceous ambers (deposited c. 130 million years ago).[1] The oldest amber to bear fossils (mites) is
from the Carnian (Triassic, 230 million years ago) of north-eastern Italy.[48]

The preservation of prehistoric organisms in amber forms a key plot point in Michael Crichton's 1990
novel Jurassic Park and the 1993 movie adaptation by Steven Spielberg.[49] In the story, scientists are
able to extract the preserved blood of dinosaurs from prehistoric mosquitoes trapped in amber, from
which they genetically clone living dinosaurs. Scientifically this is as yet impossible, since no amber with
fossilized mosquitoes has ever yielded preserved blood.[50] Amber is, however, conducive to preserving
DNA, since it dehydrates and thus stabilizes organisms trapped inside. One projection in 1999 estimated
that DNA trapped in amber could last up to 100 million years, far beyond most estimates of around 1
million years in the most ideal conditions,[51] although a later 2013 study was unable to extract DNA
from insects trapped in much more recent Holocene copal.[52]

Use
Amber has been used since prehistory (Solutrean) in the manufacture of jewelry and ornaments, and also
in folk medicine.

Jewelry
Amber has been used as jewelry since the Stone Age, from
13,000 years ago.[1] Amber ornaments have been found in
Mycenaean tombs and elsewhere across Europe.[53] To this day it
is used in the manufacture of smoking and glassblowing
mouthpieces.[54][55] Amber's place in culture and tradition lends
it a tourism value; Palanga Amber Museum is dedicated to the
fossilized resin.

Historic medicinal uses

Amber has long been used in folk medicine for its purported Solutrean amber from Altamira in the
healing properties.[56] Amber and extracts were used from the Muséum de Toulouse
time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece for a wide variety of
treatments through the Middle Ages and up until the early
twentieth century. Traditional Chinese medicine uses amber to
"tranquilize the mind", and there is limited evidence that it has a
sedative effect in mice.[57]

With children
Amber necklaces are a traditional European remedy for colic or
teething pain due to the purported analgesic properties of succinic
acid, although there is no evidence that this is an effective
remedy or delivery method.[56][58][59] The American Academy of
Pediatrics and the FDA have warned strongly against their use, as
they present both a choking and a strangulation hazard.[58][60]

Scent of amber and amber perfumery

In ancient China, it was customary to burn amber during large
festivities. If amber is heated under the right conditions, oil of Amber necklace from 2000-1000 BC
amber is produced, and in past times this was combined carefully
with nitric acid to create "artificial musk" – a resin with a
peculiar musky odor.[61] Although when burned, amber does give off a characteristic "pinewood"
fragrance, modern products, such as perfume, do not normally use actual amber due to the fact that
fossilized amber produces very little scent. In perfumery, scents referred to as "amber" are often created
and patented[62][63] to emulate the opulent golden warmth of the fossil.[64]

The modern name for amber is thought to come from the Arabic word, ambar, meaning ambergris.[65][66]
Ambergris is the waxy aromatic substance created in the intestines of sperm whales and was used in
making perfumes both in ancient times as well as modern.

The scent of amber was originally derived from emulating the scent of ambergris and/or the plant resin
labdanum, but due to the endangered species status of the sperm whale the scent of amber is now largely
derived from labdanum.[67] The term "amber" is loosely used to describe a scent that is warm, musky,
rich and honey-like, and also somewhat earthy. It can be synthetically created or derived from natural
resins. When derived from natural resins it is most often created out of labdanum. Benzoin is usually part
of the recipe. Vanilla and cloves are sometimes used to enhance the aroma.
"Amber" perfumes may be created using combinations of labdanum, benzoin resin, copal (itself a type of
tree resin used in incense manufacture), vanilla, Dammara resin and/or synthetic materials.[61]

Imitation

Imitation made in natural resins

Young resins, these are used as imitations:[68]

Kauri resin from Agathis australis trees in New Zealand.

The copals (subfossil resins). The African and American (Colombia) copals from
Leguminosae trees family (genus Hymenaea). Amber of the Dominican or Mexican type
(Class I of fossil resins). Copals from Manilia (Indonesia) and from New Zealand from trees
of the genus Agathis (family Araucariaceae)
Other fossil resins: burmite in Burma, rumenite in Romania, simetite in Sicilia.
Other natural resins — cellulose or chitin, etc.

Imitations made of plastics

Plastics, these are used as imitations:[69]

Stained glass (inorganic material) and other ceramic materials

Celluloid
Cellulose nitrate (first obtained in 1833[70]) — a product of treatment of cellulose with
nitration mixture.[71]
Acetylcellulose (not in the use at present)
Galalith or "artificial horn" (condensation product of casein and formaldehyde), other trade
names: Alladinite, Erinoid, Lactoid.[70]
Casein — a conjugated protein forming from the casein precursor – caseinogen.[72]
Resolane (phenolic resins or phenoplasts, not in the use at present)
Bakelite resine (resol, phenolic resins), product from Africa are known under the misleading
name "African amber".
Carbamide resins — melamine, formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde resins.[71]
Epoxy novolac (phenolic resins), unofficial name "antique amber", not in the use at present
Polyesters (Polish amber imitation) with styrene. Ex.: unsaturated polyester resins
(polymals) are produced by Chemical Industrial Works "Organika" in Sarzyna, Poland;
estomal are produced by Laminopol firm. Polybern or sticked amber is artificial resins the
curled chips are obtained, whereas in the case of amber – small scraps. "African amber"
(polyester, synacryl is then probably other name of the same resine) are produced by
Reichhold firm; Styresol trade mark or alkid resin (used in Russia, Reichhold, Inc. patent,
1948.[73]
Polyethylene
Epoxy resins
Polystyrene and polystyrene-like polymers (vinyl polymers).[74]
The resins of acrylic type (vinyl polymers[74]), especially polymethyl methacrylate PMMA
(trade mark Plexiglass, metaplex).
See also
Amber Road
Amber Room
Ammolite
Copal
List of types of amber
Pearl
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Precious coral

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Attribution

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Rudler,
Frederick William (1911). "Amber". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 792–794.

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External links
Farlang many full text historical references on Amber (http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/a
mber) Theophrastus, George Frederick Kunz, and special on Baltic amber.
IPS Publications on amber inclusions (https://web.archive.org/web/20050731084240/http://f
ossilinsects.net/lib.htm) International Paleoentomological Society: Scientific Articles on
amber and its inclusions
Webmineral on Amber (http://www.webmineral.com/data/Amber.shtml) Physical properties
and mineralogical information
Mindat Amber (http://www.mindat.org/min-188.html) Image and locality information on
amber
NY Times (https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE2DD123BF936A1575AC
0A964958260) 40 million year old extinct bee in Dominican amber

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