SUGAR SERIES

Vol. 1. Standard Fabrication Practices for Cane Sugar Mills (Delden)

Vol. 2. Manufacture and Refining of Raw Cane Sugar (Baikow)
Vol. 3. By-Products of the Cane Sugar Industry (Paturau)
Vol. 4. Unit Operations in Cane Sugar Production (Payne)
Vol. 5. Noel Deerr: Classic Papers of a Sugar Cane Technologist (Payne,
Compiler)
Vol. 6. The Energy Cane Alternative (Alexander)
Vol. 7. Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering (Hugot, 3rd edition)
Vol. 8. Management Accounting for the Surgar Cane Industry (Fok Kam)
Vol. 9. Chemistry and Processing of Sugarbeet and Sugarcane (Clarke
and GodshalL Editors)
Vol. 10. Modern Energy Economy in Beet Sugar Factories (Urbaniec)
sugar series, 10

modern energy
economy in
beet sugar
factories
by

K. Urbaniec
Division of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer,
Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden

Elsevier

Amsterdam — Oxford — New York — Tokyo 1989

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.
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© Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1989

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Printed in The Netherlands

FOREWORD

It h a s been v e r y demanding o f t i m e and e f f o r t t o w r i t e a book on t h e energy

economy o f beet s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e s o many a s p e c t s o f this
subject t h a t d e s e r v e to be p r e s e n t e d . T r y i n g t o e x p l a i n how t h e energy
requirements s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o the p r i n c i p l e s o f beet s u g a r manufacture,
I could not a v o i d d i s c u s s i n g c e r t a i n p r o b l e m s o f modern beet s u g a r technology.
I hope t h e s u g a r t e c h n o l o g i s t s can u n d e r s t a n d t h a t f r o m t h e i r p o i n t of view,
this d i s c u s s i o n may seem i n c o m p l e t e . It w o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d if r e a d e r s would
point o u t any o m i s s i o n s o r e r r o r s w h i c h have been o v e r l o o k e d .

T h i s book c o u l d n o t have been w r i t t e n w i t h o u t t h e stimulation and d i r e c t

a s s i s t a n c e o f P r o f e s s o r J a n D o b r z y c k i and D r . W i t o l d L e k a w s k i , t o whom s p e c i a l
thanks are e x p r e s s e d . C e r t a i n ideas o r i g i n a t e d from d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h the late
P r o f e s s o r S t a n i s l a w Z a g r o d z k i d u r i n g the p e r i o d 1979-1980.

Grateful appreciation i s e x p r e s s e d to the f o l l o w i n g f i r m s and institutions

for their assistance in providing technical information, illustrations or
statistical data:

- Chemadex, C u k r o p o l and C u k r o p r o j e k t , Warsaw, Poland;

- D D S , C o p e n h a g e n , Denmark;
- F e i t e n & Guilleaume E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , Nordenham, FRG;
- Fratelli B a b b i n i , Fori i, Italy;
- GEA W i e g a n d , E t t l i n g e n , F R G ;
- H o l l y Sugar C o r p o r a t i o n , San F r a n c i s c o , USA;
- Kraftwerk Union, M٧lheim, FRG;
- I n s t i t u t f٧r Landwirtschaftliche T e c h n o l o g i e und Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , TU
Braunschweig, FRG;
- I n s t y t u t P r z e m y s l u C u k r o w n i c z e g o , Warsaw, Poland;
- Pfeifer & Langen, Cologne, FRG;
- Raffinerie Tirlemontoise, Brussels, Belgium;
- S o c k e r b o l a g e t , Malmφ, Sweden;
- S p r e c k e l s Sugar D i v i s i o n , Amstar C o r p o r a t i o n , San F r a n c i s c o , USA;
- S t o r d B a r t z , B e r g e n , Norway.
A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e p r e s e n t book was w r i t t e n d u r i n g my s t a y a t t h e University
o f L u n d , Sweden. I am g r a t e f u l t o my f r i e n d P r o f e s s o r Gunnar T y l l e r e d , whase
i n v i t a t i o n made my v i s i t to Sweden p o s s i b l e . Gunnar F e l t b o r g and D r . J a n T j e b b e s
deserve special thanks for t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e i n r e a c h i n g the relevant information
on t h e S w e d i s h s u g a r i n d u s t r y . Thanks are a l s o e x p r e s s e d to the personnel o f the
l i b r a r y o f S o c k e r b o l a g e t i n A r l φ v where I f o u n d a p e r f e c t e n v i r o n m e n t f o r my
VI

literature studies.
Finally, I would l i k e to thank those American, B e l g i a n , B r i t i s h , Bulgarian,
Canadian, Czech, Danish, F r e n c h , German, G r e e k , H u n g a r i a n , Italian, Polish,
Soviet, S w e d i s h and Y u g o s l a v c o l l e a g u e s who h e l p e d me - s o m e t i m e s u n k n o w i n g l y -
through information, advice, and f r i e n d l y d i s c u s s i o n s .
 VII

PREFACE

The 1 9 7 0 s and 1 9 8 0 s w i l l c e r t a i n l y be remembered a s a p e r i o d o f important

d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e e n e r g y m a r k e t and c h a n g e s i n industry's attitude towards
e n e r g y economy. As e n t i r e n a t i o n s were a f f e c t e d by t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
violent fluctuations in fuel p r i c e s , much i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t and numerous
practical a c t i o n s were u n d e r t a k e n w i t h t h e aim o f improving energy utilization.
For example, the energy consumption i n Swedish i n d u s t r y d e c r e a s e d by 20%
between 1973 and 1 9 8 3 , w h i l e t h e t o t a l production volume - e x p r e s s e d i n fixed
p r i c e s - remained n e a r l y constant. I n F r a n c e , where t h e industrial o u t p u t was
also nearly c o n s t a n t i n t h e same p e r i o d , t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n i n d u s t r y was
r e d u c e d by 12%. I n t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , i n d u s t r i a l o u t p u t r o s e 8%
between 1 9 7 3 and 1 9 8 4 , b u t t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n d e c r e a s e d by 18%. A l t h o u g h
few n a t i o n s have been a s s u c c e s s f u l a s t h o s e named a b o v e , t h e t r e n d towards
s a v i n g e n e r g y i s now common. I t h a s a l s o become v i s i b l e in sugar industries
throughout the world.

The book i s d e v o t e d t o the problems o f i d e n t i f y i n g the p o t e n t i a l for, and

t h e n d e s i g n i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g , e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures i n beet s u g a r factories.
As t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s in various countries d i f f e r considerably with respect
to the economic c o n d i t i o n s for factory operation and t h e level of technological
development, the problem range i s v e r y b r o a d . It may i n c l u d e the e l i m i n a t i o n of
faulty or unreliable auxiliary equipment, o r the introduction of simple
improvements i n v a p o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n schemes, i n f a c t o r i e s operated in countries
where t h e need f o r e f f i c i e n t energy u t i l i z a t i o n has not r e a l l y been v e r y urgent
up t o now. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e some o t h e r c o u n t r i e s where sugar
factories have l o n g s i n c e been v e r y h a r d p r e s s e d t o s a v e e n e r g y and where
c o n s i d e r a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s h a v e been n o t e d i n t h i s field. Further p r o g r e s s may
still be p o s s i b l e t h e r e , but o n l y if more a d v a n c e d e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s are
solved.
T a k i n g the Danish sugar industry a s an e x a m p l e , i t can be s e e n f r o m F i g . 1
t h a t t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n was d e c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y d u r i n g the 1 9 5 0 s and 1 9 6 0 s .
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the 1 9 7 0 s t h e e n e r g y economy r e a c h e d a c e r t a i n s t a t e of
m a t u r i t y ; s a v i n g s w h i c h c o u l d be a c h i e v e d i n a s i m p l e manner - r o u g h l y s p e a k i n g ,
by a v o i d i n g w a s t e o f e n e r g y - had a l r e a d y become a r e a l i t y . Further progress
became g r a d u a l l y a q u e s t i o n o f how t o m o d i f y the f a c t o r i e s in all the a s p e c t s
t h a t c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o reductions o f t h e e n e r g y demand, i n c l u d i n g the sugar
manufacturing p r o c e s s , b y - p r o c e s s e s and a u x i l i a r y p r o c e s s e s , equipment, control
VIII

2^ 5h

^0,
cn ^0.

•Ľ
Ö
Ĺ
ů X ·
§ 3h X X
CP
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

F i g . 1 . A v e r a g e c o n s u m p t i o n o f normal f u e l ( h e a t i n g v a l u e 29300 k J / k g ) i n b e e t
s u g a r manufactu'^e i n s e l e c t e d E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , w i t h t h e i r 1984 s h a r e i n
world p r o d u c t i o n o f beet s u g a r g i v e n i n b r a c k e t s .

s y s t e m s , m o n i t o r i n g methods and p r o c e d u r e s , and e v e n o t h e r areas.

In F i g . 1 , the s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n i n S w e d i s h and F r e n c h
s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s are a l s o shown. It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e d a t a a r e not
meant t o be compared d i r e c t l y , a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s must be s e e n a s e x p r e s s i o n s
o f numerous d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e i n d u s t r i e s c o n c e r n e d . I n d e e d , t h e r e are
even some d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e methods u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e the average energy
c o n s u m p t i o n : S w e d i s h d a t a a r e b a s e d on p r o d u c t i o n statistics from 6 w h i t e sugar
factories (one raw s u g a r f a c t o r y h a s been e x c l u d e d ) ; D a n i s h d a t a r e p r e s e n t 5
DDS-owned f a c t o r i e s , f o u r o f them p r o d u c i n g w h i t e s u g a r o n l y and one w h i t e
s u g a r and r a f f i n a d e ; F r e n c h d a t a have been a v e r a g e d f r o m 56 f a c t o r i e s , their
1984 o u t p u t c o n s i s t i n g o f 80% w h i t e s u g a r , 15% s y r u p s and 5% raw s u g a r . In other
w o r d s , the d i f f e r e n c e s stem p a r t l y f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t p r o d u c t s w i t h different
s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demands a r e i n v o l v e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m
a c o m p a r i s o n o f t r e n d s t h a t b o t h i n Sweden and F r a n c e , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s t o w a r d s
situations similar to t h a t i n Denmark a r e f a r advanced.
Under s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i s one j u s t i f i e d i n w r i t i n g a book d e v o t e d s o l e l y
t o t h e e n e r g y economy? T a k i n g t h e g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e , there i s no d o u b t that
much work on e n e r g y p r o b l e m s i s needed i n t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y b e c a u s e t h e r e are
still c o u n t r i e s - m a j o r b e e t s u g a r p r o d u c e r s - where t h e s p e c i f i c e n e r g y
c o n s u m p t i o n i n s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e i s much h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e c o u n t r i e s named
a b o v e . A b o u t 60% o f t h e w o r l d ' s b e e t s u g a r comes f r o m f a c t o r i e s c o n s u m i n g , on
a v e r a g e , 2 - 3 t i m e s more e n e r g y p e r u n i t mass o f b e e t s t h a n t h e D a n i s h sugar
factories.
A selection of s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n b e e t sugar
m a n u f a c t u r e i n s e v e r a l s u g a r - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s can be s e e n i n T a b l e 1 . A g a i n ,
 IX

TABLE 1
Average consumption o f nonnal f u e l ( h e a t i n g v a l u e 29300 k J / k g ) i n beet s u g a r
manufacture - pulp d r y i n g excluded - i n s e l e c t e d c o u n t r i e s .

Share i n world Normal f u e l

Country p r o d u c t i o n o f beet Year Beets worked consumption
s u g a r 1984 (%) (1000 tons) ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b )

USSR 23.03 1980 64300

FRG 8.24 1984 20189 3.1^
USA 6.89 1980 21320 7.6a
Poland 4.92 1984 15500 7.4
Czechoslovakia 2.22 1984 7540 8.5
Greece 0.62 1981 2560 4.6

estimated

t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d be c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t d i r e c t comparisons of the indices given,

as w i t h t h e s e c o u n t r i e s coming i n t o t h e p i c t u r e , one h a s t o be aware o f even
more p r o f o u n d d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a n t h o s e between F r a n c e , Sweden and Denmark.
L e t us j u s t m e n t i o n climatic conditions, w h i c h a f f e c t t h e e n e r g y demand
considerably: it i s not unusual f o r USSR, P o l i s h and some US f a c t o r i e s to
process frozen beets i n the final s t a g e o f the season, while this i s unheard of
i n Greece ( i t i s a l s o e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y i n S w e d e n , Denmark and F r a n c e ) . On t h e
o t h e r h a n d , some o f t h e countries l i s t e d had n e v e r been known f o r a very
e f f e c t i v e e n e r g y u s a g e ; n e i t h e r had t h e y r e a l l y been a f f e c t e d by the
disturbances i n the international f u e l market because t h e i r n a t i o n a l economic
policies were d e s i g n e d t o c o u n t e r a c t the worldwide t r e n d s . It seems, however,
t h a t the p r e s e n t economic d e v e l o p m e n t s in these countries f o l l o w the general
p a t t e r n , thus s t i m u l a t i n g i n t e r e s t i n a r a t i o n a l i z e d e n e r g y economy. In that
respect, the a n s w e r t o the q u e s t i o n f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e seems t o be positive.

How c o u l d the book be s h a p e d i n o r d e r t o make i t useful to the people

working in various countries, where t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
different levels of sophistication o f the e n e r g y economy? I t seems t h a t when
looking a t the e n e r g y s u b s y s t e m and i t s i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s u b s y s t e m s and
w i t h the environment o f the f a c t o r y , an a t t e m p t c a n be made t o s y s t e m a t i z e and
evaluate the most i m p o r t a n t e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e s t h a t may come i n t o question.
Such a s y s t e m a t i c review can p r o v e h e l p f u l to t h e m a n a g e r s and t e c h n o l o g i s t s in
sugar f a c t o r i e s , where a p r o b l e m may a r i s e o f c h o o s i n g t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e set
o f measures t h a t best f i t the f a c t o r y ' s unique needs. I t i s a l s o hoped t h a t the
book can be u s e d i n university-level c o u r s e s on t h e e n e r g y economy o f s u g a r
factories, and t h a t i t may be o f i n t e r e s t to design engineers as well as to
specialists engaged i n research in t h i s area.
As r e g a r d s the scope o f the book, i t must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t when a t t e m p t i n g
t o c o v e r the e n t i r e p r o b l e m f i e l d , it w o u l d be i n a p p r o p r i a t e to restrict
a t t e n t i o n to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d e n e r g y economy p r o b l e m s o n l y . Instead,
it i s n e c e s s a r y t o a d o p t an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h aimed a t demonstrating
how t h e e n e r g y demand o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y can be a f f e c t e d by t h e interactions
between a number o f factors, namely:
- layout and p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n processes;
- layout and p a r a m e t e r s o f the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s and b y - p r o c e s s e s ;
- characteristics o f t h e e q u ip m e n t and c o n t r o l systems;
- c o m p l e t e n e s s and a c c u r a c y o f t h e e n e r g y m o n i t o r i n g procedures.
The book c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of three p a r t s . In Chapters 1 to 3 , some
theoretical b a c k g r o u n d i s g i v e n and e n g i n e e r i n g p r i n c i p l e s for creating
e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n s u b s y s t e m s i n s u g a r f a c t o r i e s are
r e v i e w e d . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , C h a p t e r 1 p r o v i d e s an i n t r o d u c t o r y structuring
o f the p r o b l e m f i e l d and a r e v i e w o f t h e p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e . Chapter 2 i s
d e v o t e d t o mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s a s t o o l s for a n a l y s i n g energy processes and
s y s t e m s , and t o f u n d a m e n t a l s o f c o m p u t e r - a i d e d a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n o f energy
subsystems. Chapter 3 provides a review o f e s s e n t i a l e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s , and
methods f o r t h e i r s o l v i n g , r e l a t e d to i m p r o v i n g h e a t economy i n existing
factories o r d e s i g n i n g new, e f f i c i e n t t h e r m a l subsystems.

In the initial c h a p t e r s , the importance is indicated of other a r e a s t h a t do

not s t r i c t l y belong to energy e n g i n e e r i n g but are c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to an
e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y economy. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t , i . e . , Chapters 4
to 7, recent d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e s e a r e a s and t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e to energy
c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n i n s u g a r f a c t o r i e s are d i s c u s s e d . Chapter 4 i s
devoted to e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t p r o c e s s e s , and C h a p t e r 5 t o equi pment design.
Control s y s t e m s and t h e i r r o l e i n s a v i n g e n e r g y a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 6 . In
C h a p t e r 7 , methods and p r o c e d u r e s f o r monitoring energy-related aspects of
factory operation are reviewed. I n C h a p t e r s 6 and 7 , computer a p p l i c a t i o n s in
the r e s p e c t i v e areas are a l s o discussed.
It has been t h e a u t h o r ' s ambition to i l l u s t r a t e the p r e s e n t a t i o n with
suitable p r a c t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d e x a m p l e s . T h e s e a r e b a s e d m o s t l y on t h e author's
e x p e r i e n c e f r o m 9 y e a r s w o r k i n g w i t h an e n g i n e e r i n g company s p e c i a l i z i n g in the
design, erection and m o d e r n i z a t i o n of sugar f a c t o r i e s , as well f r o m an
additional 5 y e a r s o f c o n s u l t i n g and r e s e a r c h f o r the s u g a r i n d u s t r y . Short
e x a m p l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r s 1 , 2 , 3 and 7 . In the t h i r d p a r t o f the book,
i.e.. C h a p t e r s 8 and 9 , su m m a r ie s a r e g i v e n o f r e a l - l i f e design analyses of
energy subsystems of sugar f a c t o r i e s , characterized by d i f f e r e n t levels of
sophistication o f t h e e n e r g y economy.
It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t book i s n o t intended to g i v e any
prescriptions but r a t h e r to s t i m u l a t e t h i n k i n g and i d e a - g e n e r a t i n g . As it
 XI

d e f i n i t e l y c a n n o t r e p l a c e e n g i n e e r i n g h a n d b o o k s o r d e s i g n a i d s , an a t t e m p t h a s
been made t o a v o i d t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f b a s i c t h e o r y and f u n d a m e n t a l d a t a , such as
thermodynamic d e f i n i t i o n s and t a b l e s o f p r o p e r t i e s o f w a t e r and s t e a m o r
properties o f s u g a r s o l u t i o n s ; t h e s e c a n be f o u n d e l s e w h e r e . F o r r e a d e r s who
may need an i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s , ample r e f e r e n c e s a r e g i v e n t o the
now-classical l i t e r a t u r e , and m o s t l y t o A m e r i c a n , E n g l i s h and German s o u r c e s .
T h e n , i n A p p e n d i c e s 1 and 2 , n u m e r i c a l approximations of thermodynamic
properties of water, s t e a m and s u g a r s o l u t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d . In Appendix 3 ,
a s h o r t review o f useful relationships and d a t a r e l a t i n g t o c e r t a i n heat
transfer phenomena i s g i v e n .

When p r e s e n t i n g p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l and t e c h n i c a l data, examples, c a l c u l a t i o n s ,

etc., S I u n i t s o f measure have been u s e d t h r o u g h o u t the book. F o r r e a d e r s
accustomed to o t h e r u n i t s . Appendix 4 p r o v i d e s a s e l e c t i o n o f c o n v e r s i o n
factors.
XII

L I S T OF SYMBOLS

a juice draft
b concentration
Β fuel consumption, fuel demand
C specific heat
D steam f l o w
F surface area
G mass f l o w
h enthalpy
k overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient
Μ mass
Ν electrical effect, power
ρ pressure
Ρ power demand, power output
q, Q heat
heat of combustion
heating value
S steam r a t e
t temperature
Ô absolute temperature
ÄÔ, At t e m p e r a t u r e difference
V specific volume
ô time, duration

Most f r e q u e n t l y used s u b s c r i p t s or superscripts:

b beets, cossettes
c condensate
j juice

Ρ pulp
s steam
V vapour
w water
 Chapter 1

THE ENERGY SYSTEM AND I T S ROLE I N A SUGAR FACTORY

1.1 SUBSYSTEMS OF A SUGAR FACTORY

The sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s , b y - p r o c e s s e s and a u x i l i a r y p r o c e s s e s must

be c o n t i n u o u s l y and r e l i a b l y supplied with t h e e n e r g y needed t o perform a l l the

unit operations i n v o l v e d . By t h e i r very nature, the processes are characterized

by predetermined values of certain input, output and i n t e r m e d i a t e parameters;

other parameters may be l i m i t e d b y c o n s t r a i n t s related to process requirements,

factory economy, e n v i r o n m e n t protection and o t h e r factors. Consequently, the

freedom o f c h o i c e o f the values of parameters of the energy c o n v e r s i o n ,

distribution and u t i l i z a t i o n processes is substantially restricted. T o make

things e v e n more c o m p l i c a t e d , under l o c a l conditions in a specific factory,

some c o n s t r a i n t s may be g i v e n o n l y implicitly and, quite often, are difficult

to identify.

In such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e e n e r g y economy o f a specific

sugar f a c t o r y requires studying various aspects o f interactions between s u g a r

manufacturing, b y - p r o c e s s e s and a u x i l i a r y p r o c e s s e s on t h e one s i d e , and e n e r g y

conversion, distribution and u t i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s on t h e o t h e r . As the

interactions are taking place i n various sections and c o m p o n e n t s o f the factory,

it c o u l d be c o n c l u d e d t h a t it is necessary to study the e n t i r e factory in great

detail. However, i t s e l d o m makes s e n s e t o investigate all the details at once,

as a straightforward approach would r e s u l t in a l a r g e volume o f information

w h i c h may be d i f f i c u l t to h a n d l e and i n t e r p r e t . What i s really needed for

grasping the s i t u a t i o n and i d e n t i f y i n g potential energy savings is structured

i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m w h i c h , d e p e n d i n g on s p e c i f i c needs, relevant d a t a on the

factory regions o f interest c a n be e x t r a c t e d .

The concept o f structured i n f o r m a t i o n on e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s must be s e e n in

connection with the structure of the sugar f a c t o r y in question. This does not

n e c e s s a r i l y mean i n v e s t i g a t i n g all the physical components, like buildings,

process stations o r equipment units; the structure may be d e f i n e d in a manner

suited to specific needs. In the literature, a v a r i e t y o f approaches at

different levels of complexity c a n be f o u n d . A t one end o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y scale,

t h e a p p r o a c h e m p l o y e d b y , among o t h e r s , Schiebl (ref. 1) a n d , more recently,

Karren (ref. 2) c a n be p l a c e d . Here, t h e e n e r g y usage i s identified by t h e input

e n e r g y s t r e a m w h i c h c a n a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e sum o f p o w e r h o u s e l o s s e s and

process energy consumption; this means d i v i d i n g the factory i n t o power house

and p r o c e s s a r e a s , as i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 1.1. A bit closer to the middle of the

complexity s c a l e comes t h e s t r u c t u r i n g principle u s e d b y B a l oh (ref. 3), that

 Γ 1

1 1 electric 2
losses I 1 steam. ^
1 power
I
1

fuel

F i g , Ί . Ι . S u g a r f a c t o r y d i v i d e d i n t o p o w e r h o u s e 1 and p r o c e s s a r e a 2 . Mass and

e n e r g y s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y shown b y t h e d a s h e d l i n e a r e d e t e r m i n e d .

is, dividing the f a c t o r y into e i g h t main s e c t i o n s and i d e n t i f y i n g three

different areas o f energy p r o c e s s e s . T h i s principle is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

Fig. 1.2; note t h a t the streams o f e l e c t r i c a l power s u p p l i e d t o the factory

sections are n o t c o n s i d e r e d . Moving to t h e o t h e r end o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y scale,

t h e a p p r o a c h u s e d by Z a g r o d z k i (ref. 4) c a n be p r e s e n t e d . As c a n be s e e n in

Fig. 1.3, it relies on t h e identification o f energy streams to and from

individual equipment u n i t s , o r groups o f u n i t s . Note t h a t o n l y a p a r t o f the

factory, and o n l y t h e r m a l energy, are considered.

Examples o f e v e n more d e t a i l e d a p p r o a c h e s c a n be f o u n d i n the literature, as

iiue_gas__ : \
sludge .

L ±i-T^
-{--^-i-T

F i g . 1.2. S u g a r f a c t o r y d i v i d e d i n t o : 1 - l i m e k i l n w i t h m i l k - o f - l i m e s t a t i o n ,
2 - extraction station, 3 - juice purification station, 4 - evaporator, 5 -
s u g a r h o u s e , 6 - condensate t a n k s , 7 - p u l p d r y i n g s t a t i o n , 8 - power h o u s e .
Mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s c a n be i d e n t i f i e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t b o u n d a r i e s : I -
e n t i r e f a c t o r y , I I - h e a t economy a r e a . I I I - p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a .
 7 • 5H

JP

Ε·
EV

exhousij
steam,

η η η η
F i g . 1.3. Example o f s t r u c t u r i n g o f s u g a r f a c t o r y equipment i n v o l v e d i n t h e
e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s . Ε - e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n , J P - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , SH
s u g a r h o u s e , EV - e v a p o r a t o r , V - vacuum p a n s , " - Z - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 6 -
h e a t e r s , 7 - c o n d e n s e r . V a p o u r s t r e a m s c r o s s i r r t h e b o u n d a r y shown b y t h e
d a s h e d l i n e and t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f J P , EV and SH c a n be i d e n t i f i e d .

illustrated in Fig. 1.4 (ref. 5). T a b l e 1.1 demonstrates how t h i s structuring

principle makes i t possible to identify the consumption o f heating media in

equipment units o r groups o f units i n a model factory, thus providing a

convenient basis f o r calculations o f the o v e r a l l energy consumption in the

sugar manufacturing process or in its parts.

Generally, a s u g a r f a c t o r y may be a n a l y s e d as a w h o l e o r as a sum o f smaller

parts ( w h i c h , i n t u r n , may be s u b d i v i d e d t o o ) by e m p l o y i n g t h e n o t i o n of an

open thermodynamic system ( r e f s . 6,7). It c a n be d e f i n e d as t h e p a r t of the

physical space which i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n p r e s c r i b e d and i d e n t i f i a b l e boundaries.

The s t a t e o f an o p e n t h e r m o d y n a m i c s y s t e m c a n be d e f i n e d in terms of quantities

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g i t s boundary (see Chapter 2 ) .

By s p l i t t i n g the system i n t o subsystems, the p o s s i b i l i t y is created of

determining mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s and t h e i r parameters needed t o define the

states of the subsystems. I t s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t an i n v e s t i g a t o r is free

to define t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e s y s t e m and i t s subsystems i n t h e manner best

suited to his specific n e e d s . T h i s makes it p o s s i b l e t o decompose complicated

multivariable e n g i n e e r i n g problems i n t o a number o f simpler problems that are

easier to u n d e r s t a n d and s o l v e . A well planned system decomposition also

creates possibilities of information structuring, this in turn giving a better

 7 :

5 H(
SH
condenir
6
sate
n:
6
JP Β

•Θ
EV D4XI ®
TC,

exhpust

π π
steam

F i g . 1.4. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f s t r u c t u r i n g o f s u g a r f a c t o r y e q u i p m e n t i n v o l v e d i n
t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s . J P - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , SH - s u g a r h o u s e ,
A , B , C - vacuum pans A , Β and C , TC - t h e r m o c o m p r e s s o r s , EV - e v a p o r a t o r ,
1-4 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 5 - e x t r a c t o r , 6 - h e a t e r s , 7 - c o n d e n s e r , 8 - p u l p
p r e s s e s , 9 - t h i c k j u i c e t a n k , 10 m e l t e r , 11 - s y r u p t a n k s , 12 - s u g a r d r y e r .
N o t s h o w n : c o n d e n s a t e c o n n e c t i o n s . V a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g t h e
b o u n d a r y shown b y t h e d a s h e d l i n e and t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f J P , EV and SH a r e
identified.

insight i n t o e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s and p o t e n t i a l energy savings.

The i d e a o f t r e a t i n g a s u g a r f a c t o r y as a t h e r m o d y n a m i c system i n which

s u b s y s t e m s c a n be d e f i n e d seems t o be s o s i m p l e and o b v i o u s t h a t people tend to

shrug it off. Actually, it may be t r u e t h a t a common-sense a p p r o a c h t o energy

analyses is effective enough i n solving simple problems. When considering

complicated and s u b t l e questions, h o w e v e r , one s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e advantages

of a disciplined, theoretically well founded thermodynamic a p p r o a c h . As a m a t t e r

of fact, when t h e e n e r g y economy i n contemporary sugar f a c t o r i e s becomes so

advanced t h a t the waste o f e n e r g y i s largely eliminated, virtually no e n e r g y -

s a v i n g measure c a n be r e g a r d e d as s i m p l e . Following the law o f diminishing

returns, investments in an a d v a n c e d e n e r g y economy c a n b r i n g l i m i t e d gains only,

so t h e e c o n o m i c a n a l y s e s on w h i c h management decisions a r e based must be

TABLE 1.1

Steam and v a p o u r s t r e a m s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n e q u i p m e n t u n i t s o r g r o u p s i n the

model f a c t o r y shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 1 . 4 . Dashed l i n e s s e p a r a t e d a t a
r e l a t i n g t o J P , SH and E V .

Sources

Receivers Evaporator effects Other sources

1 2 3 4

Press water heater 1.97

Extractor 0.90 0.92
Raw j u i c e h e a t e r Vacuum pan v a p o u r

Pre-limed j u i c e heaters 2.85 3.36 Condensate

Heater a f t e r 1st carbonatation 2.62
H e a t e r b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n 2.50

Thin juice heaters 2.24 2.43 1.65

Thick j u i c e heater 0.15

Melter 0.20
I n d i r e c t l y heated tanks 0.45
D i r e c t l y heated tanks 0.58
Remelt h e a t e r 0.18
Vacuum pans A 12.80
Β 3.40
C 1.31
Sugar d r y e r E x h a u s t steam 0.50

Thermocompressors 10.00 L i v e steam 4.00

Condenser 0.90

Evaporator total 12.24 24.57 8.37 6.23

reliable i n d e e d . T h i s makes it necessary to ensure a high accuracy o f

engineering calculations s o as t o provide reliable input data for economic

analyses. F o r examples o f the application of a disciplined thermodynamic

approach i n the calculations o f e n e r g y b a l a n c e s , see C h a p t e r s 2 , 3, 8 and 9.

It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t the need f o r defining and s u b s e q u e n t l y decomposing

a thermodynamic s y s t e m may a r i s e in practical situations as d i f f e r e n t as:

(i) Rationalizing, or planning modernization of, t h e e n e r g y economy o f an

existing factory, when a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the d e f i c i e n c i e s and

limitations o f an e x i s t i n g system i s n e e d e d as a f o u n d a t i o n for proposed

improvements. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c problems are discussed in C h a p t e r s 8 and 9.

(ii) D e s i g n i n g a new f a c t o r y , including its energy subsystem. This requires

analysing the p r o p e r t i e s o f a system w h i c h does n o t y e t e x i s t w i t h t h e aim of

shaping i t optimally, as d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 9.

(iii) Monitoring the energy processes during factory o p e r a t i o n , when periodic

energy consumption checks o r attempted improvements in routine monitoring

p r o c e d u r e s may r e q u i r e locating new m e a s u r i n g instruments for more detailed

i n f o r m a t i o n on e n e r g y b a l a n c e s , o r p l a c i n g some s e e m i n g l y redundant

measurements in order to obtain i n f o r m a t i o n needed f o r systematic cross-checks

on i m p o r t a n t balance data. Problems o f this kind are presented in Chapter 7.

1.2 THE THERMAL SYSTEM AND I T S COMPONENTS

1.2.1 Definition

Taking advantage o f the flexibility inherent in the notion o f a system

b o u n d a r y , a thermodynamic s y s t e m c a n be d e f i n e d w i t h i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y s o as to

incorporate all the equipment units i n which thermal energy (heat) conversion

and u t i l i z a t i o n processes are c a r r i e d out. Interconnecting pipes and, possibly,

relevant automatic control circuits c a n a l s o be t a k e n into consideration. It

can f u r t h e r be assumed t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l energy is d i s r e g a r d e d e x c e p t as

a meaningful output in the energy balance o f the power h o u s e , o r t h a t it is

also accounted f o r as a b a l a n c e input when e q u i p m e n t units o r groups are

analysed. In the following, such a system w i l l be c a l l e d the thermal system of

a sugar f a c t o r y (an example is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1.5). It should be

noted t h a t if all the energy processes, including power g e n e r a t i o n and

utilization, are c o n s i d e r e d , then the term "energy system" w i l l be used.

Oddly enough, the notion of a thermal system i s not used i n the sugar

industry. In the literature devoted to energy problems, such terms as "thermal

scheme o f a sugar f a c t o r y " (ref. 8), "heat circuitry" (ref. 9), or "heat

economy c i r c u i t " (ref. 4) a r e u s e d , and most o f t e n , the o b j e c t under

consideration is not rigorously defined. Some a u t h o r s do n o t use any unifying

notions for the o b j e c t o f energy analyses at all. F o r example, Hugot (ref. 10)

treats evaporation and h e a t i n g independently o f w h a t he c a l l s the "steam cycle".

F a i l u r e to recognize the importance o f the e n t i r e thermal system to the

e n e r g y econoniy may l e a d t o energy wastage. To i l l u s t r a t e this point, the author

recalls a sugar f a c t o r y he v i s i t e d for a s t u d y on p o s s i b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s (the

factory is situated in a country known f o r its long-standing industrial

tradition, and f o r quite efficient energy u t i l i z a t i o n stimulated by inadequate

domestic fuel resources). In the p o w e r h o u s e , t h e r e w e r e c l e a n and shining

insulation c o v e r s and f r o n t panels o f somewhat o u t d a t e d , but well maintained,

boilers, carefully maintained turbo-generators and p e r f e c t l y functioning

auxiliary equipment and m e a s u r i n g instruments. Adequate data records were

available for the evaluation o f energy balances o f t h e power h o u s e . In the

neighbouring building containing the process equipment, however, evaporator

bodies and vacuum pans w e r e s h i n i n g too, b u t numerous p r e s s u r e and temperature

indicators were e i t h e r missing or out o f order. On t h e ground floor,

malfunctioning steam t r a p s and l e a k i n g h o t - c o n d e n s a t e lines were f o u n d . Data

r e c o r d s on e n e r g y u t i l i z a t i o n were incomplete and no h e a t b a l a n c e s o f process

equipment c o u l d be e s t i m a t e d . In s h o r t , t h e r e were s i g n s t h a t the factory

 to ammonia ι
water tank |

F i g . 1.5. E x a m p l e o f a scheme o f a t h e r m a l s y s t e m . I - p o w e r h o u s e , I I -
e v a p o r a t o r . I I I - b e e t h o u s e , I V - s u g a r h o u s e , V - c o n d e n s i n g and c o o l i n g
e q u i p m e n t , 1-4 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 5 - e x t r a c t o r , 6 - h e a t e r s , 7 - c o n d e n s e r ,
8 - p u l p p r e s s e s , 9 - t h i c k j u i c e t a n k , 10 - m e l t e r , 11 - s y r u p t a n k s , 12 -
s u g a r d r y e r , 13 - c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s , 14 - i n t e r m e d i a t e c o n d e n s a t e t a n k , 15 -
main f e e d - w a t e r t a n k , 16 - b o i l e r , 17 - t u r b i n e .
managers t r e a t t h e p o w e r h o u s e and t h e p r o c e s s - h e a t i n g a r e a as i f t h e y were not

parts of t h e same s y s t e m i n w h i c h i n t e r a c t i o n s between e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s

determine the o v e r a l l energy consumption. Needless to s a y , the fuel consumption

per unit mass o f b e e t s p r o c e s s e d was v e r y h i g h i n this factory.

Now, e v e n i f l a c k o f awareness o f the importance o f the e n t i r e thermal

system i s n o t as d r a s t i c , it may e a s i l y become a c a u s e o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , or

failure to r e c o g n i z e , the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e s g o v e r n i n g t h e e n e r g y economy in

a sugar f a c t o r y . On t h e c o n t r a r y , the t o t a l approach o f which the thermal

system concept i s o n l y a p a r t makes i t e a s i e r to grasp the e s s e n t i a l features

of the energy problems a n a l y s e d .

1.2.2 Tasks

It happens a l l too often that the sugar t e c h n o l o g i s t s assign a rather low

priority to h e a t c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n within a factory, requiring simply

t h a t t h e h e a t s u p p l y c o v e r t h e p r o c e s s h e a t demand. L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t such

a requirement is ambiguous even i f all the process parameters are exactly

specified, as a d e f i n i t e p r o c e s s h e a t demand c a n be s a t i s f i e d by v a r i o u s

thermal systems r e q u i r i n g different energy inputs.

A thermal s y s t e m c a n be a n a l y s e d and e v a l u a t e d i n terms of certain notions

w h i c h c a n a l s o be u s e d t o formulate system tasks precisely. I n each equipment

unit in the process heating area o f the system, a certain h e a t s t r e a m q^ should

be t r a n s f e r r e d to some p r o c e s s medium. H e a t s t r e a m s c a n be u n i q u e l y d e f i n e d for

individual equipment units o r groups o f units, as a t f i x e d process parameters,

heat balances o f a l l process parts c a n be s e t up and n e c e s s a r y h e a t i n p u t s can

be i d e n t i f i e d . We a r e t h u s a b l e t o define the t o t a l h e a t demand as

Ql = q^. (1.1)

where η i s the t o t a l number o f e q u i p m e n t u n i t s o r groups i n v o l v e d .

It is characteristic of thermal systems used i n the sugar i n d u s t r y that

m u l t i p l e use o f h e a t takes place. Not o n l y i s this the underlying idea o f the

multiple-effect e v a p o r a t o r , but the vapour withdrawn from the e v a p o r a t o r is

a l s o used to heat o t h e r equipment. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e losses to the

environment a n n i h i l a t e a part of the heat c i r c u l a t i n g in the system. Therefore,

the required (net) heat input to the system, is different from (and u s u a l l y

much s m a l l e r than) the t o t a l h e a t demand.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Q2 i s not identical to the primary energy

input to the factory (see Section 1.2.4). In F i g . 1.6, t h e h e a t s t r e a m s and net

h e a t demand a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n a Sankey diagram r e p r e s e n t i n g e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s

in a thermal s y s t e m . F o r t h e sake o f s i m p l i c i t y , the sugar manufacture is

divided into five subprocesses (that is, there are f i v e equipment g r o u p s ) .

 kiln gas,water,
cossettes
k evaporator
y losses

pulp,
vacuum pan
heat loss
vapour

carbonatatii
gas.
heat loss

heat loss ^

condensate
to boiler

F i g . 1.6. H e a t s t r e a m s q . and n e t h e a t demand Qp i n a S a n k e y d i a g r a m

representing the heat flows in a sugar f a c t o r y . 1 - extraction, 2 - juice
purification, 3 - thin juice heating, 4 - evaporation, 5 - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n .

From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f e n e r g y economy, i t is desirable that the ratio

Κ = QT/Q2 (1.2)

is as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e ; it tells how many t i m e s on a v e r a g e t h e heat input is

circulated in order to satisfy the t o t a l h e a t demand. In the following, Κ is

called the e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio of the thermal s y s t e m . The v a l u e o f Κ d e p e n d s on

the system l a y o u t , that is, t h e number and t y p e s o f e q u i p m e n t units, as w e l l as

v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n routes. For a system o f known l a y o u t , the

effectiveness ratio may v a r y , d e p e n d i n g on t h e thermal properties of equipment

units and p a r a m e t e r s characterizing the processes o f energy d i s t r i b u t i o n and

utilization. Values o f Κ as l a r g e as b e t w e e n 4 and 5 h a v e been r e p o r t e d for

sugar f a c t o r i e s (refs. 11,12). The t e c h n i q u e s used t o increase Κ are discussed

in Chapters 3, 8 and 9. However, d i f f e r e n t l a y o u t s , equipment and e n e r g y

processes lead to differentiated costs of investment, m a i n t e n a n c e and operation.

For this reason, there is usually a practical requirement i m p o s e d on Κ t h a t its

10

v a l u e s h o u l d be as l a r g e as a l l o w e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s t r a i n t s and criteria

according to which the results of factory operation are evaluated. It may be

noted t h a t with t h e e n e r g y c o s t s v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 3% and 17% o f the cost of sugar

in various countries, t h e most e c o n o m i c v a l u e s o f Κ may be w i d e l y differentiated.

Also, under t i m e - v a r y i n g economic c o n d i t i o n s resulting from e l e c t r i c i t y tariffs

w h i c h v a r y f r o m month t o month d u r i n g t h e autumn and w i n t e r period, variations

of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio during p r o d u c t i o n may be j u s t i f i e d (ref. 13).

It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t o t h e r indices have a l s o been p r o p o s e d i n the

literature for evaluation of the energy processes taking place i n the thermal

system. German s o u r c e s (ref. 12) employ t h e notion of efficiency of the thermal

system d e f i n e d by t h e formula

η = 1 - Q2/Q1 = 1 - 1/K (1.3)

1.2.3 Building blocks

The s y s t e m p a r t s shown i n Fig. 1.5 a r e component g r o u p s o r individual

components t h a t customarily receive separate treatment in energy analyses.

Although these parts are c e r t a i n l y important, such a "deep" decomposition does

not contribute much t o understanding of the e s s e n t i a l features of energy

processes. A better insight is g a i n e d by l o o k i n g at the subsystems defined

according to another decomposition principle, indicated by t h e dashed l i n e s in

Fig. 1.5 and a d d i t i o n a l l y illustrated b y t h e scheme shown i n Fig. 1.7(a). The

function of this v e r s i o n o f the thermal s y s t e m c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:

- using primary energy supplied in fuel, combined g e n e r a t i o n o f heat (carried

away by s t e a m e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e turbine e x h a u s t ) and e l e c t r i c a l power takes

place in the power h o u s e ,

- heat s u p p l i e d in heating steam t o the evaporator s t a t i o n generates vapours

( o f which a small fraction may be d i r e c t e d to t h e c o n d e n s e r ) and h o t condensate;

the total quantity of water evaporated is predetermined by t h e n e c e s s i t y of

transforming thin juice into thick juice,

- a part of the hot condensate i s returned to the power h o u s e ; t h e vapours and

the remaining condensate are used t o transport heat to the j u i c e heaters, vacuum

pans and o t h e r p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t in t h e b e e t h o u s e and s u g a r h o u s e ,

- a fraction o f heat supplied to the process is dissipated to the environment

or c a r r i e d away b y o u t f l o w i n g p r o d u c t s o r w a s t e m e d i a , and t h e main p a r t is

c a r r i e d away by v a p o u r s g e n e r a t e d i n vacuum p a n s ,

- the vacuum pan v a p o u r s a r e n o t u t i l i z e d but d i r e c t e d to the c o n d e n s e r , where

their energy is a b s o r b e d and r e m o v e d i n barometric water (i.e., cooling water

mixed w i t h condensed v a p o u r s ) ; t h i s e n e r g y must be f i n a l l y dissipated to the

environment i n a s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t n o t shown i n t h e scheme ( e . g . c o o l i n g towers,

cooling pond, r i v e r o r lake).

 11

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to o
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to ω ι
to S
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ι— ω
ο XI ·«
<ο ο to
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(Λ ο ι -σ
to r— LO Q.

t— Ε • ' ^
ío $- <υQ.
Ε <U «Λ
S.^ Ζ( O)
ω -M O
SZ Z3
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Μ- to 13
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12

The f o l l o w i n g building blocks can t h u s be named w i t h i n the s y s t e m : power h o u s e ,

multiple-effect (multi-stage) evaporator, p r o c e s s equipment in the beet house

and i n the s u g a r h o u s e , and c o n d e n s e r ( a l s o r e p r e s e n t i n g associated cooling

equipment). In F i g . 1.7(a), the width o f the strips l i n k i n g the blocks indicate

appoximately the proportionate energy streams circulated.

The e s s e n t i a l l a y o u t o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n processes

e x p l a i n e d above i s by f a r t h e most commonly a p p l i e d in contemporary sugar plants.

L e t us u s e i t as a s t a r t i n g point for a short presentation of other possible

layouts. F o r the sake o f s i m p l i c i t y , it will be assumed t h a t the parameters of

the sugar manufacturing process are f i x e d , t h a t is, the total heat demand

remains constant.

Suppose t h a t instead of directing the e n t i r e energy stream c a r r i e d b y vacuum

pan v a p o u r s t o the condenser, a part of it is re-used in process heating, as

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1.7(b). A prerequisite (i.e. an additional

constraint to be s a t i s f i e d ) for this is the e x i s t e n c e o f low-temperature process

parts where the temperature of vacuum pan v a p o u r s c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as

sufficiently high to allow efficient heating. If practicable, this gives the

possibility of s a v i n g e n e r g y b y r e d u c i n g t h e demand f o r vapours from the

e v a p o r a t o r a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , d e c r e a s i n g steam demand a t the e v a p o r a t o r inlet.

However, t h i s possibility c a n be r e a l i z e d o n l y if the evaporation process is

modified s o as t o satisfy the conditions that the total quantity of water

e v a p o r a t e d remains unchanged.

Now, s u p p o s e t h a t an a t t e m p t i s made t o a p p l y one o f the above l a y o u t s , but

it turns out that t h e demand f o r vapours from the e v a p o r a t o r is so small that

the required quantity o f w a t e r c a n be e v a p o r a t e d o n l y if a large vapour flow to

the condenser is a l l o w e d . T h i s must be i n t e r p r e t e d as an i n d i c a t i o n that another

energy-saving block s h o u l d be a d d e d t o t h e s y s t e m , as shown i n Fig. 1.7(c).

A vapour compressor r a i s i n g the pressure o f a part o f the v a p o u r s makes it

possible to r e c y c l e t h e c o m p r e s s e d s t e a m and t o use i t for heating purposes in

the e v a p o r a t o r . T h e r e c y c l e d h e a t d e c r e a s e s t h e h e a t demand a t the evaporator

inlet, resulting i n a h e a t s a v i n g as shown i n the scheme.

As f a r as t h e sugar manufacturing process is concerned, multi-stage

evaporation with vapour w i t h d r a w a l , utilization of vacuum pan v a p o u r s , and

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n a r e t h e main e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s e s and t h u s also the

main f u n c t i o n s of the b u i l d i n g blocks of thermal systems. Possible v a r i a n t s of

the b u i l d i n g blocks and t h e i r various combinations are p r e l i m i n a r i l y presented

in the remaining Sections of this C h a p t e r . Note t h a t any thermal s y s t e m has to

satisfy the process-imposed c o n s t r a i n t s mentioned above. Other c o n s t r a i n t s and

the interactions between them, seen from d i f f e r e n t points of view, are discussed

when p r e s e n t i n g the d e t a i l s of the b u i l d i n g blocks in the following Sections and

 13

Chapters.

An i m p o r t a n t b y - p r o c e s s employed i n a m a j o r i t y o f contemporary beet sugar

factories i s pulp drying. It i s not unusual that it requires 35% o r e v e n more

of the f a c t o r y ' s overall ( i . e . , f o r sugar manufacture and p u l p drying

considered j o i n t l y ) demand f o r p r i m a r y energy. From t h e p o i n t o f view o f energy

utilization a typical drying plant, consisting o f a d r y e r and a f u r n a c e where

fuel i s burned i n o r d e r t o generate hot g a s e s , i s r a t h e r primitive.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , much a t t e n t i o n has r e c e n t l y been d e v o t e d t o r a t i o n a l i z i n g the

e n e r g y usage i n p u l p d r y i n g . Possible energy saving modifications o f the process

l a y o u t and p a r a m e t e r s are discussed in Section 1.2.8.

In a sugar f a c t o r y employing pulp d r y i n g , an e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l exists

a l s o i n t h e thermal coupling between t h i s p r o c e s s and o t h e r factory a r e a s . An

early i d e a , developed several d e c a d e s a g o , was t o m i x h o t f l u e gas from boilers

with a i r supplied to the furnace, thus reducing the fuel consumption in the

drying plant. More r e c e n t l y , both the u t i l i z a t i o n of dryer outlet gas i n t h e

process heating i n sugar manufacture and t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f waste heat from

sugar manufacture i n t h e p u l p d r y i n g w e r e i n t r o d u c e d , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

Fig. 1.7(d). Using these techniques, the constraints imposed on t h e thermal

system by t h e s u g a r manufacturing process are favourably modified, c r e a t i n g new

possibilities o f energy s a v i n g s . The u n d e r l y i n g concepts are discussed i n

Section 1.2.9.

1.2.4 Power house

The w o r k i n g principle o f t h e power houses i n contemporary s u g a r factories

consists o f burning fuel i n a b o i l e r which s u p p l i e s live steam t o a b a c k ­

pressure turbine. The t u r b i n e drives an e l e c t r i c a l generator which supplies

electrical power t o t h e f a c t o r y ; simultaneously, t h e steam from t h e turbine

exhaust is delivered to the evaporator station.

T h e r e a r e two i m p o r t a n t constraints resulting from t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f the

power house equipment and a f f e c t i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the entire thermal

system:

(i) The c o n v e r s i o n o f l i v e - s t e a m e n e r g y t a k i n g p l a c e i n the turbine is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d e f i n i t e ratio between e n e r g y c o n v e r t e d i n t o electricity and

exhaust-steam energy which is available f o r heating. From t h e demand

characteristics o f the e n t i r e factory, a different proportion between t h e power

demand and n e t h e a t demand may r e s u l t . Only if the eventual mismatch problem is

effectively r e s o l v e d b y some s p e c i a l measures (see Section 1.5.3) can t h e power

h o u s e be r e g a r d e d as a s u i t a b l e energy source f o r a p a r t i c u l a r thermal system.

(ii) The c o n v e r s i o n o f p r i m a r y energy into live-steam energy taking place in the

boiler is associated with e n e r g y l o s s e s o f t h e o r d e r o f 10-20% o r e v e n m o r e .

14

The r e s u l t i n g demand f o r primary energy is equal to t h e sum o f live-steam

e n e r g y and b o i l e r l o s s e s . Only i f the thermal c o n n e c t i o n between t h e power

h o u s e and p r o c e s s h e a t i n g is modified c a n t h e s e l o s s e s be p a r t l y r e c o v e r e d ,

resulting in a reduction of the total energy l o s s from the thermal s y s t e m and

thus r e d u c i n g t h e demand f o r primary energy.

The problems i n d i c a t e d may come i n t o question in new o r e x i s t i n g factories

operated under d i f f e r e n t local conditions and s u b j e c t t o the influence of

different economic f a c t o r s . As t h i s defines an a r r a y o f w i d e l y diversified

situations, it c a n h a r d l y be i m a g i n e d t h a t a steam b o i l e r and a b a c k - p r e s s u r e

turbine do r e a l l y provide a universal power house s o l u t i o n . A discussion of

various situations and s o l u t i o n s is presented in Section 1.5.

1.2.5 Evaporator

The d o m i n a t i n g e v a p o r a t o r arrangement i s that using the multiple-effect,

parallel-flow principle schematically shown i n Fig. 1.5. Three to s i x effects

are used, four or five b e i n g t h e commonest s o l u t i o n . The o r i g i n a l idea of using

t h e h e a t as many t i m e s as t h e r e are e f f e c t s in the evaporator (Rillieux

principle) has been m o d i f i e d by v a p o u r w i t h d r a w a l for heating purposes. While

this results in worse heat u t i l i z a t i o n in the evaporator i t s e l f , the vapour

withdrawal turns out to be d e c i s i v e i n e n s u r i n g a h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t heat

utilization in the e n t i r e sugar f a c t o r y . This problem i s additionally discussed

in Chapter 3, and p r a c t i c a l examples a r e g i v e n i n C h a p t e r s 8 and 9.

As a b u i l d i n g block in a thermal s y s t e m , t h e e v a p o r a t o r s h o u l d be a d a p t e d to

the process-imposed c o n s t r a i n t a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , namely t h e predetermined

percentage o f water to be e v a p o r a t e d . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t constraint is concerned

with the j u i c e temperature in the heating chamber o f t h e first evaporator

effect, namely, in order to p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e thermal decay o f sucrose, this

t e m p e r a t u r e must n o t e x c e e d 125-130°C. A number o f p r o p o s a l s on e v a p o r a t o r

a r r a n g e m e n t h a v e b e e n made w h i c h aim t o ensure e f f i c i e n t heat u t i l i z a t i o n while

also satisfying the c o n s t r a i n t s ; t h e s e p r o p o s a l s h a v e been r e v i e w e d e l s e w h e r e

(ref. 3). A quintuple-effect evaporator, with parallel flow of j u i c e and v a p o u r

in effects 1 t h r o u g h 4 and c o u n t e r - f l o w in effect 5, is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

Fig. 1.8.

I n modern t h e r m a l systems where the h e a t i n g needs have been r e d u c e d to

a minimum, the o v e r a l l demand f o r vapours withdrawn f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r may be

less t h a n t h e amount o f w a t e r t o be e v a p o r a t e d , t h u s making t h e water

percentage c o n s t r a i n t difficult to satisfy. An i n c r e a s e d f l o w o f last-effect

v a p o u r t o t h e c o n d e n s e r c a n h a r d l y be a c c e p t e d , as t h i s w o u l d be a direct

energy loss requiring a corresponding increase of the heating steam s u p p l y to

the first effect. However, t h i s situation c a n be c h a n g e d i f unconventional

e v a p o r a t i o n stages heated w i t h low-temperature o r waste heat are attached to

 15

exhaust
steam ' \ -

η \ thin juice
14.5%DS.90°C
128°C thick juice
72%DS.94°C _

F i g . 1 . 8 . Scheme o f a m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r f e a t u r i n g c o u n t e r - f l o w o f j u i c e
and h e a t i n g v a p o u r i n t h e f i f t h e f f e c t . 1-5 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 6 - j u i c e
heaters.

the c l a s s i c a l evaporator. An i n t r o d u c t i o n to possible solutions b a s e d on t h i s

principle i s g i v e n i n Section 1.2.6. As an a l t e r n a t i v e , the c l a s s i c a l multi­

stage evaporation c a n be c o m b i n e d w i t h v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n , as o u t l i n e d in

Section 1.2.7.

In each e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t , while vapour i s generated at a c e r t a i n rate,

c o n d e n s a t e must be d r a i n e d a t an a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal rate from the heating

chamber. The condensate i s f l a s h e d (flash-evaporated), generating additional

vapour, t h e e n e r g y o f w h i c h c a n be u t i l i z e d i n the subsequent e f f e c t s . Among

various arrangements o f the condensate subsystem, the cascade f l a s h shown

schematically i n F i g . 1.5 i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e solution. First-effect and

possibly second-effect condensate are t y p i c a l l y u s e d as b o i l e r feed-water, while

the condensates from the remaining effects c a n be u t i l i z e d in the process

heating and f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s . V a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e u s a g e a r e

d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s 3 , 8 and 9 .

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r t o t h e e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n in

a thermal system imposes s p e c i a l requirements on t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s , as

well as t h e a s s o c i a t e d e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l systems. New d e v e l o p m e n t s in these

areas are mainly d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s 5 and 6.

1.2.6 Utilization o f low-temperature o r waste heat

As t h e vacuum pans a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e h e a t required f o r sugar b o i l i n g , and

the p r o c e s s media a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y heated i n o r d e r to s t a b i l i z e the temperatures

needed f o r i m p o r t a n t unit operations, streams o f low-temperature heat become

available, mainly i n vacuum pan v a p o u r s and s p e n t c a r b o n a t a t i o n gas. There are

still many f a c t o r i e s where t h e l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e heat i s c o n s i d e r e d u s e l e s s , so

the vapours are d i r e c t e d t o t h e c o n d e n s e r and t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n gas i s

discharged d i r e c t l y t o the atmosphere. However, i f the sugar manufacturing

process i s so a r r a n g e d t h a t in certain parts o f t h e w a t e r and j u i c e flows the

temperature i s low enough ( t h a t i s , lower than the temperature o f vacuum pan

16

vapours o r spent carbonatation g a s ) , then the low-temperature h e a t c a n be

utilized. T y p i c a l " c o l d " media a r e raw j u i c e and, in some i n s t a n c e s , water

supplied to the e x t r a c t o r , and p r e - l i m e d juice.

One o f t h e o b s t a c l e s t o utilizing low-temperature heat is that the necessary

e q u i p m e n t may be a b i t troublesome. In a j u i c e h e a t e r h e a t e d b y vacuum pan

vapours, the s p e c i f i c volume o f v a p o u r i s so l a r g e t h a t it necessitates a high

flow velocity. This i n v o l v e s the risk, among o t h e r s , o f tube v i b r a t i o n a n d , as

the water content in vapour flowing through the heater i n c r e a s e s , tube e r o s i o n .

When r e c o v e r i n g t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n heat loss in a s u r f a c e heat e x c h a n g e r , a low

film coefficient o f heat t r a n s f e r b e t w e e n t h e gas and t h e h e a t i n g surface is

u n a v o i d a b l e , and t h u s a relatively large heating s u r f a c e a r e a may be r e q u i r e d .

In the case o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n - g a s recirculation, p o w e r - e x p e n s i v e pumping may a l s o

be n e c e s s a r y .

Providing reliable and n o t t o o c o s t l y e q u i p m e n t is available, the

recirculated low-temperature h e a t c a n r e p l a c e an e q u i v a l e n t p o r t i o n o f the heat

in vapours withdrawn f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r , t h u s making i t possible to reduce the

heating steam demand a t the e v a p o r a t o r i n l e t . The h e a t i n g b y vacuum pan v a p o u r s

is additionally discussed in C h a p t e r 3, and t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o reduce the

carbonatation heat loss in C h a p t e r 4.

C e r t a i n streams o f low-temperature heat l e a v i n g the f a c t o r y a r e so difficult

to utilize that they are t r a d i t i o n a l l y called "waste h e a t " . (Some a u t h o r s use

this term f o r all the heat streams that are f i n a l l y discharged to the

environment, including the low-temperature heat). It may i n c l u d e , among o t h e r

components, h e a t c a r r i e d by o u t l e t gas from t h e p u l p d r y e r , e x c e s s condensate

f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r and e v e n b a r o m e t r i c w a t e r p r i o r to entering the cooling

towers. It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t the u t i l i z a t i o n o f waste heat is now

realizable, although not always economically feasible.

Both l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e and w a s t e h e a t c a n be u t i l i z e d in juice and s y r u p

e v a p o r a t i o n performed at a sufficiently low t e m p e r a t u r e , that is, under high

vacuum. S p e c i a l v a p o u r - and g a s - h e a t e d e v a p o r a t o r s a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d f o r this

purpose, as d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5. A l t e r n a t i v e methods o f utilization of low-

temperature heat employ thermal c o n n e c t i o n s between s u g a r manufacture and pulp

drying. This is particularly interesting if the s o - c a l l e d low-temperature drying

is a p p l i e d , as o u t l i n e d in Section 1.2.9.

1.2.7 Vapour compressors

As i n d i c a t e d in S e c t i o n 1.2.3 above, vapour compression i s a technique which

c a n be u s e d t o resolve a conflict between t h e p o t e n t i a l reductions of the vapour

demand and t h e p r o c e s s c o n s t r a i n t on w a t e r q u a n t i t y to be e v a p o r a t e d f r o m juice.

By i n t r o d u c i n g vapour compression to the thermal system, i t becomes p o s s i b l e to

evaporate the r e q u i r e d w a t e r amount w h i l e recirculating the p o r t i o n of the

 17

evaporation heat which exceeds the h e a t demand o f v a p o u r - h e a t e d equipment

outside the evaporator.

Most o f t e n , the vapour to be c o m p r e s s e d i s taken f r o m th-e f i r s t effect and,

its pressure r a i s e d , is supplied to the heating chamber o f the same effect.

A thermal machine t r a n s f e r r i n g , at the expense o f work, heat from a low-

temperature body t o a high-temperature body i s known as a h e a t pump. In a

typical thermal system i n a sugar f a c t o r y , there a r e numerous p o t e n t i a l heat

pump a p p l i c a t i o n s o t h e r than heat recirculation in the f i r s t evaporator effect.

Generally, the energy t r a n s p o r t is initiated at the highest temperature/pressure

level corresponding to the parameters of live steam and t h e n continued at the

g r a d u a l l y decreasing temperatures and p r e s s u r e s o f m e d i a c i r c u l a t e d in various

parts of the thermal s y s t e m . The l o w e s t l e v e l , a t which t h e e n e r g y t r a n s p o r t is

terminated, is d e f i n e d by t h e temperature of barometric w a t e r and the

a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e h e a t pump p r i n c i p l e c a n be applied

b e t w e e n a n y two d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e / p r e s s u r e l e v e l s . By s u p p l y i n g e n e r g y ( a s

electrical power o r live steam) to t h e h e a t pump, i t becomes p o s s i b l e to

recirculate a certain amount o f heat, thus c u t t i n g down t h e n e t h e a t demand o f

the thermal system.

In r e a l i t y , t h e number o f feasible h e a t pump a p p l i c a t i o n s i n a thermal

system i s limited. F o r example, the heat r e c o v e r y from the barometric water,

although r e a l i z a b l e , c a n n o t be p e r f o r m e d b y v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n ; i n s t e a d , it

requires c o m p l e x and c o s t l y m a c h i n e r y , making t h e solution uneconomic. Figure

1.9 shows f i v e possible locations of vapour compressors to recirculate heat in

a thermal system w i t h a q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t evaporator. It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d out

that these locations a r e by no means e q u i v a l e n t t o each o t h e r . In g e n e r a l , if

energy savings are to be o b t a i n e d , t h e n t h e heat recirculation taking place in

a certain part of the thermal s y s t e m must be c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h mass and e n e r g y

Γ"

exhaust)
steam

F i g . 1.9. P o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s o f v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r s r e l a t i v e t o e s s e n t i a l
components o f a t h e r m a l s y s t e m w i t h a q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s u p p l y i n g
s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r t o v a c u u m - p a n h e a t i n g . 1-4 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 5 - vacuum
pans, 6 - condenser.
 compressed

steam vapour

vapour

Fig. 1.10. Working principle of a jet-type compressor.

flows in other parts of the system. For example, if vacuum pan v a p o u r is

c o m p r e s s e d and r e - u s e d t o heat the vacuum p a n s , t h e n the demand f o r vapour from

the e v a p o r a t o r is r e d u c e d . As t h e amount o f w a t e r to be removed f r o m j u i c e must

be h e l d c o n s t a n t , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of vapours withdrawn from the evaporator

must be p r o p e r l y adjusted; otherwise, it may be n e c e s s a r y t o increase the energy

loss resulting from the flow of last-effect vapour to the condenser, perhaps

making t h e idea o f vapour compression meaningless.

As r e g a r d s the equipment, both j e t - t y p e compressors (thermocompressors) and

mechanical compressors (turbocompressors) c a n be u s e d . The j e t - t y p e compressor

(Fig. 1.10) must be c o n t i n u o u s l y supplied with l i v e steam, by-passing the turbo­

g e n e r a t o r and not c o n t r i b u t i n g to e l e c t r i c i t y generation. D e p e n d i n g on the

inlet and o u t l e t pressures of the vapour compressed, the compression ratio, i.e.

the ratio of v a p o u r mass f l o w to live-steam mass f l o w , varies as shown i n Table

1.2 (the v a l u e s g i v e n s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e highest attainable, while

the actual v a l u e s may a l s o d e p e n d on c o m p r e s s o r quality).

The m e c h a n i c a l compressor (Fig. 1.11) is d r i v e n by a m o t o r , to which energy

must be s u p p l i e d continuously. At p r e s e n t , electric motors are generally

r e g a r d e d as most e c o n o m i c , but steam t u r b i n e s are also u s e d as compressor

drives. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a mechanical compressor either

increases the factory's p o w e r demand, o r requires a certain flow of live steam

by-passing the turbo-generator to be s u p p l i e d to the compressor drive.

When c o n s i d e r i n g all the possible situations related to the factory's power

b a l a n c e and h e a t b a l a n c e and t h e possibility of c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h an external

TABLE 1.2
Estimated a t t a i n a b l e values o f the compression r a t i o o f j e t compressors operated
a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m shown i n F i g . 1.9 a t l i v e - s t e a m
p a r a m e t e r s 38 b a r and 450°C.

Location Compression ratio

a - 1st e f f e c t vapour t o e x h a u s t steam 2.4

b - 2nd e f f e c t vapour t o e x h a u s t steam 1.1
c - vacuum pan vapour t o e x h a u s t steam 0.3
d - 3rd e f f e c t vapour t o 2nd e f f e c t v a p o u r 1.5
e - vacuum pan vapour t o 2nd e f f e c t v a p o u r 0.7
 19

F i g . 1.11. T y p i c a l s i n g l e - s t a g e c e n t r i f u g a l c o m p r e s s o r f o r the compression of

f i r s t e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t v a p o u r . A t v o l u m e f l o w 50 000 m^/h and r o t a t i o n a l
v e l o c i t y 5000 r p m , t h e r o t o r d i a m e t e r i s a b o u t 0 . 9 m.

power g r i d , it must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t there is no u n i v e r s a l l y optimal vapour

compression technique. D e p e n d i n g on t h e constraints to be s a t i s f i e d and the

economic relations between the necessary investments and t h e a t t a i n a b l e energy

saving, one t y p e o f e q u i p m e n t o r a combination of b o t h may p r e v a i l . U n d e r West

European c o n d i t i o n s , it is generally believed that the electrically driven

mechanical compressor r e c i r c u l a t i n g first-effect vapour is most economic.

Although this seems t o be p r o v e d b y a number o f recent investments (ref. 14),

the energy-efficient Danish f a c t o r i e s employ turbine-driven compressors

recirculating second-effect vapour (possibly in combination with jet-type

compressors). T h e r e a r e a l s o numerous West E u r o p e a n s u g a r f a c t o r i e s relying on

jet-type c o m p r e s s o r s and a t t a i n i n g e x c e l l e n t results (refs. 15,16). In Eastern

E u r o p e , where the economic conditions are d i f f e r e n t , jet-type compressors are

usually preferable to mechanical ones (ref. 5).

It may be added t h a t j e t - t y p e compressors have r e c e n t l y been s e l e c t e d for

vapour compression c i r c u i t s i n G r e e k and C z e c h s u g a r f a c t o r i e s (refs. 17,18).

The a p p l i c a t i o n s of vapour compressors are d i s c u s s e d i n greater detail in

Chapters 3, 8 and 9.

1.2.8 Pulp dehydration

The p u l p dehydration process is typically operated in parallel with the

sugar manufacturing process (Fig. 1.12(a)). The d e h y d r a t i o n usually consists of

mechanical pressing of the pulp to a dry-substance content of the o r d e r of

20

(α) (b)
α ä;i >-!
CL
Ό
σι o 1
I CL ¿1 σι ·
I
t I
• •
1 u 2 3 1 2 3
pw pw
PP dpi PP dp|

(c) (d)

α
4 ' tlue g a s
Ltlue_äqs_J o
CL
II
•
PP Iι
dp 1 2 3
pw
fuel pw
PP dp|
αίΓ
dp

F i g . 1.12. P o s s i b l e schemes f o r t h e p u l p d e h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s : ( a ) t h e r m a l l y
i n d e p e n d e n t , ( b ) t h e r m a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t w i t h gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n , ( c ) p a r t l y h e a t e d
w i t h b o i l e r f l u e g a s , ( d ) w i t h t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f b o i l e r f l u e g a s . pw - p r e s s
w a t e r , pp - p r e s s e d p u l p , dp - d r i e d p u l p ; 1 - p r e s s e s , 2 - f u r n a c e , 3 - d r y e r .

20% DS and s u b s e q u e n t t h e r m a l d r y i n g t o a b o u t 90% DS. W h i l e t h e a v e r a g e e n e r g y

demand i s a b o u t 1000 k J p e r kg w a t e r r e m o v e d , t h e contributions of the two

processes to this figure are very d i f f e r e n t i n d e e d . The mechanical pressing

requires 40-80 k J e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y p e r kg w a t e r r e m o v e d , w h i l e the heat demand

in thermal drying is a b o u t 3000 k J p e r kg w a t e r . T h e d r y i n g and t h e subsequent

pelleting o f the d r i e d pulp are also associated with a power e x p e n d i t u r e o f the

o r d e r o f 0.6 kWh p e r 100 kg b e e t p r o c e s s e d .

When compared t o the sugar manufacture, the u t i l i z a t i o n o f primary energy

supplied to thermal d r y i n g o f the pulp i s rather poor. A c t u a l l y , it c a n n o t be

better in a process s t a r t i n g from f u e l combustion in a high excess of a i r , which

is equivalent to mixing theoretically possible high-temperature combustion gases

with cold a i r . There is also a large temperature difference between t h e gases

and t h e p u l p in the d r y e r . F i n a l l y , the energy stream i s c a r r i e d away b y the

outlet gases a f t e r performing o n l y one p a s s t h r o u g h t h e dryer.

Substantial energy savings are p o s s i b l e in pulp dehydration i f more w a t e r is

removed by p r e s s i n g and l e s s b y d r y i n g . This c a n be a c h i e v e d b y introducing

minor process m o d i f i c a t i o n s and a p p l y i n g i m p r o v e d p u l p p r e s s e s , as d i s c u s s e d in

C h a p t e r 4. As f a r as t h e c l a s s i c a l thermal drying is concerned, i t c a n be

concluded t h a t the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c u t t i n g down t h e e n e r g y e x p e n d i t u r e p e r unit

mass o f e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r a r e r a t h e r limited. The o n l y e f f e c t i v e energy-saving

technique is the recirculation o f gases from the d r y e r o u t l e t , either to the

 21

dryer inlet o r to the furnace i n l e t (Fig. 1.12(b)). Savings o f up t o 10-12% o f

the primary energy input c a n be a t t a i n e d (refs. 19,20). H o w e v e r , an e n t i r e l y new

field of potential e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be o p e n e d i f the p u l p d r y i n g becomes

thermally integrated with the sugar manufacture.

1.2.9 Thermal c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r manufacture

The e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f p u l p d r y i n g c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y i m p r o v e d b y utilizing

the waste heat from the b o i l e r flue g a s , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Figs. 1.12(c)

and 1 . 1 2 ( d ) . P o s s i b l e s a v i n g s c a n be e s t i m a t e d at up t o 12-15% o f the dryer's

h e a t demand.

Parallel operation of a d r y e r h e a t e d by f l u e gas and a d r y e r w i t h its own

furnace, although r e a l i z a b l e , has s e r i o u s d r a w b a c k s and i s not to be recommended

(ref. 19). I n an a l t e r n a t i v e system, the b o i l e r flue gas r e p l a c e s t h e air

admixed w i t h t h e c o m b u s t i o n gas i n the o u t l e t of the d r y i n g - p l a n t f u r n a c e . As

the f l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e is h i g h e r than the a i r temperature, l e s s c o m b u s t i o n gas

and t h u s less fuel will be consumed f o r a definite temperature at the dryer

inlet. It is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o mix t h e b o i l e r flue gas w i t h the combustion air

prior to the f u r n a c e , r a i s i n g the temperature in the furnace i n l e t and m a k i n g it

possible to reduce the fuel demand.

Generally, t h e use o f b o i l e r flue gas s e t s special requirements on t h e dryer

capacity. As shown i n the investigations o f drum d r y e r s (ref. 20), the most

effective heat u t i l i z a t i o n is attained at a c e r t a i n optimal load o f the dryer's

drum. Load d e v i a t i o n s from the optimal v a l u e cause the heat consumption per kg

water to increase.

The d i s p r o p o r t i o n in energy u t i l i z a t i o n efficiency of p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r

manufacture has r e c e n t l y inspired rationalization m e a s u r e s aimed a t intensifying

the e n e r g y usage i n factories employing pulp d r y i n g . At the high-temperature end

of the pulp d r y i n g p r o c e s s , e l e c t r i c i t y generation (preferably in a gas-turbine

set) is proposed to utilize the thermal potential of the heat obtained through

fuel combustion. The changed r e q u i r e m e n t s of power house o p e r a t i o n associated

with gas-turbine applications are discussed in Section 1.5.

At the low-temperature end o f p u l p d r y i n g , a t t e m p t s a r e made t o use w a s t e

heat in the o u t l e t gases from the d r y e r f o r heating purposes i n sugar

manufacture. As t h e o u t l e t gases c o n t a i n d u s t p a r t i c l e s a c c o m p a n i e d by s u l p h u r

dioxide, this must be s e e n i n connection with gas c l e a n i n g . Where g a s cleaning

(possibly including desulphurization) is required f o r environmental reasons, it

may be a d v i s a b l e t o complete the n e c e s s a r y equipment w i t h a heat-recovery

circuit. T h e r e c o v e r e d h e a t c a n be u t i l i z e d in juice heating o r e v a p o r a t i o n , as

has been d e m o n s t r a t e d in prototype plants (refs. 21,22), This creates additional

possibilities of satisfying the w a t e r removal c o n s t r a i n t which i s so important

to the energy balance o f sugar manufacture.

22

Another group o f rationalization measures o r i g i n a t e s from the idea of

splitting the pulp d r y i n g process i n t o parts performed at d i f f e r e n t temperature

levels (refs. 9,19,23). While the high-temperature process is essentially

identical to conventional d r y i n g , the low-temperature p r o c e s s c r e a t e s new

potential for the utilization o f waste heat from s u g a r manufacture and

reductions in overall e n e r g y demand o f t h e factory. Waste h e a t c a n be r e c o v e r e d

f r o m vacuum pan v a p o u r s , c o n d e n s a t e , s p e n t c a r b o n a t a t i o n g a s and e v e n barometric

water, raising the temperature of air supplied to the low-temperature dryer to

55-60°C. By r e m o v i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l part o f the w a t e r from the p u l p , the fuel

demand c a n be r e d u c e d i n the f i n a l d r y i n g , where the required dry substance

content o f the d r i e d pulp is attained. The economic p o t e n t i a l ssociated with

this solution has a l r e a d y b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d in industrial-scale plants

(ref. 24).

Very promising concepts o f e n e r g y - s a v i n g thermal c o u p l i n g between p u l p drying

and o t h e r s u g a r f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s a r e b a s e d on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s of steam

dryers. The i d e a o f steam d r y i n g is n o t new t o the sugar i n d u s t r y , but it is

only recently that it has become p o s s i b l e t o include the dryers - whether

supplied with live steam, o r w i t h e x h a u s t steam o r v a p o u r f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r -

into thermal systems u s i n g the p r i n c i p l e of multiple heat u t i l i z a t i o n which is

so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f sugar manufacture. If used i n combination with medium- or

low-temperature drying (refs. 25,26), steam d r y i n g makes i t possible to

eliminate primary energy input to the pulp drying plant and t o attain

considerable overall energy savings.

It must be a d m i t t e d that the thermal c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r

manufacture generally requires the a p p l i c a t i o n of rather costly equipment.

Therefore, the p r a c t i c a b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s a r e h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t on e c o n o m i c

factors, like the costs o f fuel and p o w e r , and t h e c a p i t a l c o s t . With the

exception o f the u t i l i z a t i o n of boiler flue gas, all the techniques mentioned

a b o v e s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as new d e v e l o p m e n t s r a t h e r than standard industrial

practice ( f o r a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n , see C h a p t e r 4 ) .

1.3 HEAT DEMAND

1.3.1 Scope o f the problems

Sugar i n d u s t r y people tend to think o f the link b e t w e e n h e a t economy and the

sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s i n terms of how much f u e l s h o u l d be b u r n t in the

boilers i n o r d e r t o make t h e p r o c e s s r u n . As f u e l p r i c e s go u p , h o w e v e r , the

q u e s t i o n o f how t h e p r o c e s s c a n be a l t e r e d in order to reduce the heat demand

becomes more and more important.

In S e c t i o n 1.2, three quantities were i n t r o d u c e d to e x p r e s s the

characteristics o f t h e h e a t economy: t o t a l h e a t demand net heat demand

 23

and e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio K. T h e t r a d i t i o n a l approach suggests t h a t the heat

economy c a n be i m p r o v e d b y e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e thermal system i s w e l l designed,

carefully o p e r a t e d and w e l l maintained. T h i s means t h a t a t a g i v e n Q-j, a l a r g e Κ

s h o u l d be a t t a i n e d so t h a t Q2 = Q-j/K w i l l become s u f f i c i e n t l y small.

T h e p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h stems from the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t the net heat

demand c a n a l s o be c u t down by r e d u c i n g t h e sum o f heat streams (total heat

demand) Q-j. T h i s requires adjusting the p r o c e s s s o as t o make s u g a r manufacture

less energy-intensive.

It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t in industrial practice, t h e measures taken to

increase Κ s h o u l d be t r e a t e d on an e q u a l basis with t h o s e aimed a t r e d u c i n g Q-j.

In o t h e r words, e n e r g y - s a v i n g process adjustments a r e as i m p o r t a n t as thermal

system improvements s e r v i n g t h e same p u r p o s e .

In t h i s S e c t i o n , we s h a l l study the influence of process parameters on the

sum o f heat streams Q-j. T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t t h e number o f parameters

characterizing the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s and t h e b y - p r o c e s s e s may be quite

l a r g e , we s h a l l restrict our treatment to t h e most important parameters that can

a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d a d j u s t a b l e . Before d i s c u s s i n g the d e t a i l s , however, l e t us

mention some l i m i t a t i o n s of this approach.

There is much t r u t h in the saying that sugar is essentially produced i n the

beet f i e l d s and t h e factory is only processing i t . The i n f l u e n c e of beet growing

on t h e factory's h e a t demand i s at least twofold:

(i) An i n c r e a s e d s u g a r c o n t e n t of beets is equivalent to a relative reduction of

the intake o f w a t e r and n o n - s u g a r s t o the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s . As the

sugar content is increased from 16 t o 19%, a h e a t s a v i n g ( p e r 1 kg s u g a r

produced) of t h e o r d e r o f 6% c a n be o b t a i n e d .

(ii) A reduced content of non-sugars in beets, that is, a higher juice purity,

positively affects t h e mass b a l a n c e s o f the purification and crystallization

processes. As r a w - j u i c e purity is i n c r e a s e d from 88.5 to 90%, t h e resulting heat

saving ( p e r 1 kg b e e t ) amounts to about 3%.

Understandably enough, despite this interesting energy-saving potential, it

is impossible to adjust the beet p r o p e r t i e s quickly b y t a k i n g some technically-

o r i e n t e d measures. T h e r e f o r e , the problems of b e e t g r o w i n g must be c o n s i d e r e d

as b e i n g b e y o n d t h e scope o f the present book.

The e n e r g y demands o f sugar manufacture may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , d e p e n d i n g on

the t y p e and q u a l i t y of the s u g a r . When c o n s i d e r i n g the e n t i r e factory, other

factors of importance are the t y p e and q u a l i t y of the b y - p r o d u c t s , whether or

not t h i c k - j u i c e storage for subsequent processing i s employed, whether o r not

syrups are s o l d , etc. In the contemporary sugar i n d u s t r y , white sugar

manufacture and t h e classical operation are dominant, being often accompanied by

the p r o d u c t i o n o f d r i e d pulp. Our treatment will therefore concentrate on white

24

sugar f a c t o r i e s , with pulp d r y i n g taken into account.

R e t u r n i n g now t o the problems t h a t are w e l l within the scope o f t h i s book,

let us q u o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t g i v e n by S c h i e b l (ref. 1) half a century ago:

"The heating steam demand c a n be d e c r e a s e d i f the following conditions are

satisfied:

- t h e steam demand f o r auxiliary p u r p o s e s and f o r s u g a r wash i n centrifugals is

decreased,

- the f a c t o r y is operated at low j u i c e draft,

- a high concentration o f thick juice is maintained.

A t t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f b e e t s u g a r t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e a r e no o t h e r

possibilities o f d e c r e a s i n g t h e heat demand."

Things have changed c o n s i d e r a b l y s i n c e t h e s e words were p u b l i s h e d . T h e r e is

a vast literature devoted to t h e methods o f r e d u c i n g t h e h e a t demand f o r sugar

manufacture, and t h e most i m p o r t a n t sources w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o in the

following.

I n s t e a d o f naming a f e w s e l e c t e d e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e s , as S c h i e b l d i d (and,

actually, many o t h e r a u t h o r s too), let us a d o p t a t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h , first

taking a broader view o f the f i e l d o f e x i s t i n g possibilities and t h e n t r y i n g to

define smaller areas o f special interest. The n o t i o n o f t h e sum o f heat streams

c a n be u t i l i z e d as a s t a r t i n g point. For a specific sugar f a c t o r y , it c a n be

conveniently split into three components

where Q ] Q is t h e sum o f h e a t s t r e a m s that are necessary f o r carrying out unit

operations t o w h i c h h e a t must be d e l i v e r e d , l i k e heating, evaporation,

crystallization and d r y i n g ; Q-j^ i s the t o t a l h e a t stream needed t o balance heat

dissipation f r o m t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s , and Q-j^^ i s the t o t a l h e a t stream needed t o

heat the rooms i n the f a c t o r y buildings.

The l a s t quantity is deliberately, even i f untypically, considered together with

t h e p r o c e s s h e a t demand. As f a r as t h e e n e r g y s u p p l y v i a t h e t h e r m a l system is

concerned, there is no r e a s o n f o r a separate treatment b e c a u s e room h e a t i n g is

also necessary f o r factory operation.

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t a t definite p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , c o m p o n e n t s Q-j^ and Q-j^

may d e p e n d on f a c t o r s that are not s p e c i f i c to the p r o c e s s , l i k e the q u a l i t y of

thermal insulation o r the e f f i c i e n c y of room h e a t i n g equipment. Consequently, it

may be p o s s i b l e t o c u t down Q-j^ and Q - , ^ , t h u s reducing the t o t a l heat stream,

without introducing any changes t o the p r o c e s s . Energy savings o f this kind are

the e a s i e s t to a c h i e v e and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d first.

T h e component Q-j^ c a n be c u t down by a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s , t h a t c a n be

grouped w i t h regard to the p r i n c i p l e s according to which the energy i s saved.

L e t us d e f i n e three groups:
 25

- reductions of the water intake to the sugar manufacturing process,

- reductions of the water t r a n s f e r from o t h e r factory sections to the sugar

house,

- introduction o f modified o r new e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t processes.

This Section is devoted to t h e e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures t h a t c a n be taken

independently o f , or within the framework of, the conventional sugar

manufacturing process. Modified o r new p r o c e s s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 4.

1.3.2 Heating o f factory buildings

In those parts of the factory buildings where a comfortable temperature is

needed f o r w o r k i n g people, heating may be n e c e s s a r y d u r i n g the operating and

a part of the o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d . While the factory is in operation, the heat

demand Q ^ ^ i s a small fraction o f the sum o f the heat streams and t h u s not very

important to the design o f the thermal s y s t e m , and c o n t r i b u t e s very little to

t h e n e t h e a t demand o f the factory. D e p e n d i n g on t h e climatic conditions and the

process h e a t demand, h o w e v e r , t h e heat consumption in room h e a t i n g during the

entire heating p e r i o d may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 4-6% o f the factory's total annual

energy consumption.

As c u t t i n g down t h e h e a t demand i n room h e a t i n g installations requires

s o l v i n g problems that are not s p e c i f i c to the sugar i n d u s t r y , no d e t a i l s will be

d i s c u s s e d h e r e . T h e main p o i n t s to be c o n s i d e r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in older

factories, are:

- improvements of the thermal insulation of factory buildings,

- reduction of the heat l o s s e s from the heat distribution system (by improving

thermal insulation of the hot-water pipes, introducing effective flow control

methods, etc.),

- introduction of automatic room-temperature control to prevent local

overheating, thus e l i m i n a t i n g heat l o s s e s c a u s e d by e x c e s s i v e ventilation.

When s e l e c t i n g suitable heat sources to cover the h e a t demand f o r heating

purposes, u s e can be made o f w a s t e - h e a t supplies that are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the

sugar industry. As shown i n a study carried out for a Swedish sugar factory

(ref. 27), more t h a n 90% o f the h e a t demand f o r room h e a t i n g during operations

can be c o v e r e d by s u p p l y i n g h o t c o n d e n s a t e f r o m vacuum p a n s . U n d e r Middle-

European c l i m a t i c conditions, this corresponds to 1/4 of the factory's annual

heat consumption for heating p u r p o s e s , o r an e q u i v a l e n t of 1-1.5% o f the total

annual energy consumption.

U s i n g more a d v a n c e d t e c h n i q u e s , t h e w a s t e h e a t c a n be a c c u m u l a t e d during

operations and u t i l i z e d for heating during the off-season period. For example,

warm w a t e r c a n be s t o r e d u n d e r g r o u n d and l a t e r supplied to a h e a t pump. T h e

realizable s a v i n g s h a v e been e s t i m a t e d at 60-70% o f t h e factory's annual heat

consumption for heating purposes, that is, 2.4-4.2% o f the total annual energy
26

consumption. However, the economic p o t e n t i a l of this solution depends h e a v i l y on

fuel and p o w e r p r i c e s , as w e l l as c a p i t a l cost. For example, a combination of

cheap f u e l and r e l a t i v e l y costly power c o u n t e r a c t s the profitability of heat-

pump a p p l i c a t i o n s , justifying rather the utilization, during the off-season

period, of a conventional heating system i n which heat is g e n e r a t e d by burning

fuel in a boiler. F o r such a s o l u t i o n to be c o m p e t i t i v e , a high boiler

efficiency is required.

1.3.3 Heat d i s s i p a t i o n from the process

Heat l o s s e s from the sugar manufacturing process to the environment are

caused b y :

- mass and h e a t e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e a t m o s p h e r e and f r e e surfaces of high-

temperature media i n open t a n k s , s i p h o n s and distributors,

- heat exchange between the a i r and t h e surfaces of process equipment and

piping.

In F i g . 1.13, the estimated heat d i s s i p a t i o n from the water surface in an

open v e s s e l , at typical ambient temperature, is shown as a f u n c t i o n of water

temperature (ref. 28). A similar rate of heat d i s s i p a t i o n c a n be e x p e c t e d at

20000

10 000

water agitated

- 5000 \ \

W ( 3ter at rest

2000

o
ω
χ 1000

500

200
40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Water temperature (°C)

Fig. 1.13. Heat l o s s from the s u r f a c e o f w a t e r in an o p e n t a n k (after ref. 28).

 27

free juice surfaces i n the j u i c e purification station, while the heat transfer

between a i r and m a s s e c u i t e s u r f a c e s i n open v e s s e l s i s less intensive. If no

precautions are taken, the combined e f f e c t of heat l o s s e s from the free surfaces

of p r o c e s s media i n o p e n v e s s e l s and s i p h o n s may e a s i l y a t t a i n a level

corresponding to heating-steam consumption o f t h e o r d e r 1-3 k g / 1 0 0 kg b e e t . It

is thus a d v i s a b l e to minimize the area o f free contact between a t m o s p h e r i c air

and h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e m e d i a , by p r o p e r l y s h a p i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t units or applying

s c r e e n s o r c o v e r s mounted on t h e equipment.

H e a t l o s s e s f r o m t h e s u r f a c e s o f p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g d e p e n d on the

total s u r f a c e a r e a and t h e q u a l i t y of thermal insulation. When s h a p i n g the

e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g in new o r m o d e r n i z e d f a c t o r i e s , c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n of

the t r a n s p o r t routes of high-temperature media, so t h a t the o u t e r surface area

o f the pipes i s minimized. Heat l o s s e s w i l l a l s o be r e d u c e d i f the number of

b a r e v a l v e s and o t h e r p i p i n g components a l o n g the t r a n s p o r t routes is minimized.

Normally, heat l o s s e s from a bare v a l v e are l a r g e r than from 1 m o f the pipe.

The p i p e - l e n g t h e q u i v a l e n t o f a heat-dissipating bare flange is usually about

0.5 m. In F i g . 1.14, the estimated heat d i s s i p a t i o n from bare p i p e s , a t typical

ambient temperature, is shown as a f u n c t i o n of the temperature of the fluid

contained in the pipes (ref. 28).

It is difficult to give quantitative information on t h e e n e r g y s a v i n g s w h i c h

4000

2000

_ 1000

4
α
Q.

α
Φ

100 150 200

Fluid temperature (°C)

Fig. 1.14. Heat l o s s from t h e surface o f a bare pipe (after ref. 28).
28

c a n be a t t a i n e d by i m p r o v i n g the thermal insulation, as t h i s d e p e n d s on the

initial loss level to which the s a v i n g s must be c o m p a r e d . In F i g . 1.15, the

relationship between heat d i s s i p a t i o n and i n s u l a t i o n thickness at a definite

pipe diameter is shown ( r e f . 28). Under g i v e n economic c o n d i t i o n s , there is

a trade-off between t h e cost of insulation and t h e cost o f energy l o s t to the

environment. D e p e n d i n g on l o c a l conditions, the economically j u s t i f i e d loss

level (to be a c c o u n t e d f o r when c o n s i d e r i n g insulation improvements) may vary

(ref. 29). It c a n be e s t i m a t e d that the "energy equivalent" of the difference

b e t w e e n p o o r and s a t i s f a c t o r y insulation o f p r o c e s s equipment and p i p i n g is of

t h e o r d e r o f 4-6% o f t h e sum o f the heat streams.

300

25 50 75 100
Insulation thickness (mm)

F i g . 1.15. Heat l o s s f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f an i n s u l a t e d p i p e as a f u n c t i o n of
insulation thickness ( a f t e r r e f . 28).

The heat d i s s i p a t i o n can a l s o be e f f e c t i v e l y r e d u c e d by d e c r e a s i n g the

temperature level of the process or i t s sections. The heat f l u x resulting from

free c o n v e c t i o n from a s u r f a c e at absolute temperature Τ to an environment

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e T^ is a function o f the difference

ΔΤ = Τ - T g , namely

q^ = Α ^ ( Δ Τ ) ^ · 2 5 (^5)

where is a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d i n g on g e o m e t r i c factors.

P r o v i d i n g the temperature difference ΔΤ i s small in comparison w i t h the surface

temperature T , the radiation heat f l u x c a n be e x p r e s s e d by t h e following

approximate relationship

= A^TV (1.6)

where A ^ i s a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d i n g on s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s and g e o m e t r i c factors.

 29

It follows from the above formulae that if the surface temperature Τ is

decreased at a constant environment temperature T ^ , then the r e l a t i v e reduction

in overall heat f l u x + q^^ i s l a r g e r than the r e l a t i v e reduction in

temperature d i f f e r e n c e Τ - T ^ . Taking i n t o account that the heat l o s s reduction

applies to a total o f 2-3% o f t h e sum o f t h e h e a t s t r e a m s , o n l y a substantial

temperature reduction is really interesting. Obviously, any t e m p e r a t u r e changes

must be t r e a t e d c a u t i o u s l y b e c a u s e o f the r i s k of interfering with the process.

It has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d i n p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n the juice

purification station c a n be s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduced. In s s p e c i f i c factory, this

is possible only to t h e e x t e n t w h i c h c a n be a c c e p t e d f r o m t h e p o i n t of view o f

purification results. No g e n e r a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s c a n be g i v e n h e r e , as the

p r a c t i c a b l e temperature changes a r e c o n s t r a i n e d by such l o c a l factors as b e e t

quality and i t s variations, required purification effect, equipment properties

and s o o n . U n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Greek s u g a r factories,

possible temperature adjustments h a v e been d i s c u s s e d i n t h e literature (ref. 30).

The p u r i f i c a t i o n method c o n s i d e r e d i s a c l a s s i c a l one c o m p r i s i n g p r o g r e s s i v e

pre-liming, main l i m i n g , and d o u b l e - s t a g e c a r b o n a t a t i o n and f i l t r a t i o n . In F i g .

1.16, the j u i c e temperature is shown as a f u n c t i o n o f the average time it takes

for the j u i c e to reach c o n s e c u t i v e process s e c t i o n s . At a g i v e n processing

capability, this t i m e r e p r e s e n t s t h e v o l u m e o f p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g as

40 60 100
Time (mini

F i g . 1.16. J u i c e t e m p e r a t u r e v s . t i m e i n j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n stations: A - with

h o t main l i m i n g o n l y , Β - w i t h c o l d and h o t main l i m i n g . 1 - extraction, 2 -
p r e - l i m i n g , 3 - h e a t i n g o f p r e - l i m e d j u i c e , 4 - main l i m i n g , 5 - 1st
carbonatation, 6 - j u i c e heating before 1st f i l t r a t i o n , 7 - 1st f i l t r a t i o n , 8 -
j u i c e h e a t i n g b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n , 9 - 2nd f i l t r a t i o n , 10 - h e a t i n g o f t h i n
j u i c e ( a f t e r r e f . 30).
30

well a s , by a n o n l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the area o f o u t e r surfaces o f equipment

and p i p i n g . The diagram v i s u a l i z i n g t e m p e r a t u r e as a f u n c t i o n o f time thus

demonstrates the heat d i s s i p a t i o n potential of the j u i c e purification station.

As c a n be s e e n , this potential ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e surface area

under the r e s p e c t i v e c u r v e ) i s much s m a l l e r in case Β than in case A. T h i s is

a result of the a p p l i c a t i o n o f main l i m i n g p e r f o r m e d e s s e n t i a l l y a t a low

temperature, with a small high-temperature section only. Other contributing

factors are: short retention time o f the filtration o p e r a t i o n s , and a relatively

low temperature o f the second c a r b o n a t a t i o n . It is realistic to expect t h a t in

case B, the h e a t consumption w i l l be l e s s t h a n h a l f of that i n case A. Although

t h e e x a c t f i g u r e w o u l d d e p e n d on l o c a l conditions, it c a n be e s t i m a t e d that the

h e a t demand i n j u i c e purification will be r e d u c e d t o as l o w a l e v e l as the

e q u i v a l e n t o f a b o u t 5 kg h e a t i n g steam p e r 100 kg beet.

Another i n t e r e s t i n g s t u d y on p o s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e reductions in the juice

purification station has been p u b l i s h e d by S o v i e t a u t h o r s (ref. 31). It has b e e n

shown i n a s p e c i f i c sugar f a c t o r y that the average temperature c a n be d e c r e a s e d

if pre-carbonatation is i n t r o d u c e d a t 60°C w i t h the CaO r a t e a b o u t 45% o f the

total. Although the temperature o f the first carbonatation remains unchanged a t

85°C, t h e h e a t l o s s o c c u r r i n g t h e r e is substantially r e d u c e d due t o a l o w e r CaO

rate (40% o f the t o t a l , a g a i n s t 80% i n the o r i g i n a l process). The t e m p e r a t u r e of

the second c a r b o n a t a t i o n is d e c r e a s e d f r o m 95^C t o 75^C. The r e s u l t i n g reduction

in the heat d i s s i p a t e d from the j u i c e purification process to the environment

can be e s t i m a t e d at about 60%.

Potential temperature reductions in other sections of the sugar manufacturing

process are l i m i t e d , but s t i l l p o s s i b l e . A n o t h e r s t u d y by S o v i e t a u t h o r s (ref.

32) indicates that in a specific factory, the b o i l i n g temperatures o f A , Β and C

massecuites c a n be d e c r e a s e d by a b o u t 5 K, 10 Κ and 15 K, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Although

t h e new t e m p e r a t u r e regime i s aimed a t c u t t i n g down t h e s u g a r l o s s e s c a u s e d b y

thermal decay o f s u c r o s e i n vacuum p a n s , t h e h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n from the sugar

h o u s e c a n a l s o be r e d u c e d .

1.3.4 Water i n t a k e to the process

Most o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l i e d t o the sugar manufacturing process in beets or

o t h e r mass s t r e a m s ( F i g . 1.17) must u l t i m a t e l y be r e m o v e d , m a i n l y as v a p o u r o r

as h o t c o n d e n s a t e . T h e a s s o c i a t e d h e a t e x p e n d i t u r e i s approximately proportional

to t h e amount o f w a t e r s u p p l i e d . If this amount i s r e d u c e d , and p r o v i d i n g there

is no s e r i o u s i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the p r o c e s s , t h e n e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be

obtained. T h e most i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e s b a s e d on t h i s principle are:

- reduction of the j u i c e draft,

- elimination of unnecessary water additions to the j u i c e , particularly in the

juice purification station.

 31

vapour
vapour

water

cossettes s u g a r to d r y e r
pressed pulpl molasses

..LX
sludge condensate

F i g . 1.17. Main s t r e a m s o f w a t e r and w a t e r - c o n t a i n i n g media e n t e r i n g o r l e a v i n g

a sugar f a c t o r y . 1 - process a r e a , 2 - e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n , 3 - j u i c e
p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , 4 - e v a p o r a t o r , 5 - sugar house, 6 - condensate t a n k ,
7 - condenser.

- reduction of the water intake to the sugar house.

It is also possible to reduce the total water i n t a k e by i n t r o d u c i n g new

processes; e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures o f this kind are considered in Chapter 4.

The j u i c e draft, i.e. the ratio of raw-juice flow to cossettes flow, cannot

be j u d g e d on t h e basis of heat expenditure only, as i t is certainly one o f the

most important variables governing the extraction process, influencing also the

sugar loss in exhausted c o s s e t t e s . The s u g a r l o s s d e p e n d s a l s o on b e e t quality,

cossettes q u a l i t y , and on pH and t e m p e r a t u r e distributions in the extractor, and

those factors may v a r y d u r i n g the operating period. It may t h e r e f o r e be

necessary to vary the j u i c e draft s o as t o keep t h e sugar loss at an acceptably

low l e v e l , and t h i s requirement may e v e n t u a l l y clash w i t h the energy-based

requirement of draft minimization.

If the energy savings are l a r g e enough, then the local economic conditions

may s t i m u l a t e d r a f t reduction even a t the cost of increased sugar loss

(particularly if sugar retention increases the value o f exhausted cossettes sold

as f o d d e r ) . This situation has been a n a l y s e d f o r trough- and tower-type

extractors (ref. 33). Assuming a s u g a r c o n t e n t in pressed pulp o f about 2%, i.e.

a sugar loss a b o u t 0.6%, juice draft v a l u e s as l o w as 95.5% for a trough-type

extractor and 98.6% for a tower-type extractor h a v e been c o n s i d e r e d . T h e

resulting e n e r g y s a v i n g s h a v e been e s t i m a t e d at 5-10% of the factory's demand

for primary energy.

Actually, the prices of fuels and s u g a r seem t o stimulate factory operation

at an e x t r a c t i o n loss substantially lower than the above v a l u e , so t h e juice

draft s h o u l d be r e d u c e d b y m o d i f y i n g the extraction process. This depends mainly

on e q u i p m e n t adjustments (see Chapter 5).

32

The w a t e r intake to the j u i c e purification station results mainly from milk-

of-lime additions to the j u i c e and c a r b o n a t a t i o n sludge sweetening-off in the

filters. A typical milk-of-lime composition is 20% CaO and 80% w a t e r , and the

CaO r a t e is o f t h e o r d e r o f 2 kg p e r 1 kg b e e t . The w a t e r intake in the milk-of-

l i m e can be m i n i m i z e d by m a i n t a i n i n g a l o w CaO r a t e and h i g h CaO c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,

but u n d e r no c i r c u m s t a n c e s can a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e j u i c e purification effect be

allowed. Therefore, a prerequisite for this kind o f energy saving is to apply

properly designed process equipment and e f f e c t i v e automatic control of key

process variables. U n n e c e s s a r y w a t e r can a l s o be l a r g e l y e l i m i n a t e d if lime

slaking is performed using j u i c e tapped from a p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d p l a c e in the

juice purification station (typically, juice s e p a r a t e d from s u b s i d e r s l u d g e is

used).

The s i t u a t i o n with the sludge s w e e t e n i n g - o f f is to some e x t e n t similar to

that with c o s s e t t e s e x h a u s t i o n , namely t h a t there is a trade-off between the

amount o f w a t e r s u p p l i e d and t h e sugar loss in s l u d g e . D e p e n d i n g on the

filtration scheme and e q u i p m e n t used, water intake c a n be l i m i t e d t o 2-4 kg per

100 kg b e e t , this resulting in a final sugar content o f the sludge below

0.5-0.7%.

Water i n t a k e to the s u g a r h o u s e may be r e q u i r e d for:

- dilution of s y r u p s , when t h e p r o c e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s are that their concentration

has t o be d e c r e a s e d t o a definite value,

- sugar melting,

- s u g a r wash i n centrifugals,

- magma c o n c e n t r a t i o n control during sugar b o i l i n g in vacuum p a n s ,

- viscosity control during C-massecuite crystallization,

- ion-exchange processes.

Various components o f the water intake, and t h e i r proportions, d e p e n d on the

crystallization scheme a p p l i e d . As t h e q u a l i t y of thick juice and t h e properties

o f non-sugars vary during operations, it may be n e c e s s a r y t o adjust these

components a c c o r d i n g l y . For a given c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme, s p e c i f i c measures

c a n be t a k e n to minimize the total water intake.

The need f o r the dilution of syrups usually results from the filtration

requirements. For example, remelt filtration is typically performed at a dry

substance content b e l o w 68%, and i f the remelt concentration exceeds t h i s value,

t h e n w a t e r must be a d d e d . H o w e v e r , t h e crystallization schemes c a n be s o

d e s i g n e d as t o m i n i m i z e o r even e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r w a t e r a d d i t i o n to syrups

i n normal operating conditions. It is also possible to eliminate the water

intake to the melting o p e r a t i o n , using t h i n j u i c e instead.

The w a t e r intake to the vacuum pans c a n be r e d u c e d t o a negligibly small

value, providing o t h e r measures a r e t a k e n to secure e f f i c i e n t supersaturation

 33

control during the sugar boling p r o c e s s . T o some e x t e n t , this d e p e n d s on the

crystallization scheme, but vacuum pan a u t o m a t i o n (automatic boiling control)

seems t o be a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r . This problem is additionally discussed in Section

1.3.5 and C h a p t e r 6.

T h e amount o f w a t e r s u p p l i e d t o batch c e n t r i f u g a l s c a n be o p t i m i z e d with

respect to crystallization needs, that is, for maximum y i e l d of crystalline

sugar o f a d e f i n i t e quality (refs. 34,35). A prerequisite for the optimization

is t h a t t h e w a t e r wash o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as a p a r t o f the centrifuging

cycle in which time, rotational velocity and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s y r u p wash c a n

also contribute to the final results. T h e w a t e r wash o p t i m i z e d in this manner

c a n a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d as o p t i m a l with respect to the energy consumption o f the

sugar house. Experience p r o v e s , however, t h a t the o p t i m i z a t i o n results may be

very s e n s i t i v e to local conditions. An e x a m p l e o f an o p t i m i z e d cycle for

A massecuite c e n t r i f u g i n g in a specific batch centrifugal is shown i n Fig. 1.18.

Water i n t a k e to C massecuite c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s t y p i c a l l y serves the purpose of

bringing down m a s s e c u i t e v i s c o s i t y . As t h e v i s c o s i t y a l s o d e p e n d s on the

temperature, it is also p o s s i b l e to obtain a viscosity reduction by increasing

the temperature of the massecuite. This a p p r o a c h has i t s limitations, however,

as t o o h i g h a t e m p e r a t u r e may a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t crystallization efficiency.

Another v i s c o s i t y - c o n t r o l method w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e w a t e r intake employs the

addition o f molasses to the massecuite.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t that a net water intake may a l s o result from direct

use o f steam i n the sugar house. This applies to such o p e r a t i o n s as:

- vacuum-pan steaming,

- steam wash i n centrifugals,

- direct heating of syrups in storage tanks.

1200 Γ

α 1000

800 green wash

600

400
^ / ii \
: J I I! 1
o
er
200
114 41-3 ι
I I I I . I I 1 I
\ ^ 4 ^.5

D 60 120 180
Time ( s )

F i g . 1.18. O p t i m i z e d c e n t r i f u g i n g c y c l e f o r A m a s s e c u i t e . 1 - charging, 2 -
syrup wash, 3 - water wash, 4 - d i s c h a r g i n g , 5 - cleaning ( c o u r t e s y DOS).
34

There i s no d o u b t t h a t these operations s h o u l d be a v o i d e d , o r t h e e q u i p m e n t and

instrumentation s h o u l d make i t p o s s i b l e to minimize the steam c o n s u m p t i o n . For

example, t h i s c a n be done w i t h modern a i r - t i g h t steaming systems w h i c h can also

be i n s t a l l e d i n o l d e r vacuum p a n s .

1.3.5 Thick juice concentration and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme

It was m e n t i o n e d in S e c t i o n 1.3.1 t h a t the h e a t demand o f the crystallization

p r o c e s s c a n be d e c r e a s e d b y r e d u c i n g the water intake to the sugar house. This

is a complex q u e s t i o n , o f w h i c h o n l y a p a r t belongs to the problem field

discussed in the p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n . The remaining parts are:

- maintaining a high t h i c k - j u i c e concentration,

- optimizing the scheme and p a r a m e t e r s of the crystallization process.

Figure 1.19 shows t h e e s t i m a t e d relationship between t h e h e a t demand of

a s u g a r house e m p l o y i n g the classical three-boiling s c h e m e , and the

concentration of thick juice. When r e d u c i n g t h e w a t e r intake in the thick-juice

s t r e a m b y 50%, t h a t is, from 11.60 to 5.80 kg p e r 100 kg b e e t , the heat demand

c a n be d e c r e a s e d by n e a r l y 1/3 of its initial value (assumed t o correspond to

65% D S ) . T h i s is an i n d i c a t i o n of a considerable energy-saving potential

associated with p o s s i b l e adjustments of the thick-juice concentration. However,

its utilization d e p e n d s on w h e t h e r o r n o t c e r t a i n constraints c a n be met.

Water in t h i c k j u i c e ( kg / 1 0 0 kg b )
11 10 9 8 7

62 64 66 68 70 72 74

C o n c e n t r a t i o n of thick juice ( % DS)

F i g . 1.19. H e a t demand o f t h e t h r e e - b o i l i n g crystallization p r o c e s s , as a

function of thick-juice concentration.

The d i f f i c u l t i e s appear a l r e a d y i n t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s , as i n a specific

multiple-effect evaporator, increased outlet concentration may r e q u i r e prolonged

juice retention time, and t h e final effects have t o be o p e r a t e d a t increased dry

substance content. This induces the risk o f e x c e s s i v e thermal decay o f sucrose

and c o l o u r b u i l d - u p , as w e l l as d a n g e r o u s i n c r u s t a t i o n s w h i c h may be initiated

 35

by c o n c e n t r a t i o n fluctuations i n the last effect. When a t t e m p t i n g t o increase

the concentration of thick juice, e v a p o r a t o r d e s i g n and t e m p e r a t u r e levels in

all effects, as w e l l as t h e e v a p o r a t o r c o n t r o l s y s t e m , s h o u l d be r e v i e w e d a n d ,

if necessary, modified for safer operation. Experience proves that it is not

only in the initial effects operated at highest temperatures, but also in the

final effects, where the s i t u a t i o n may become c r i t i c a l with respect to colour

build-up. T h i s may n e c e s s i t a t e replacing t h e e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s c o n c e r n e d b y new

ones e n s u r i n g r e d u c e d j u i c e retention time.

Another problem i s associated with thick-juice f i l t r a t i o n at concentrations

e x c e e d i n g 65-67% DS. C o n v e n t i o n a l f i l t e r s are not suited to higher

concentrations and s h o u l d p e r h a p s be r e p l a c e d by c e n t r i f u g a l separators, which

have p r o v e d t o work s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n numerous f a c t o r i e s . There is also

a possibility o f applying conventional filters, not next to the evaporator

outlet but p r i o r to the last evaporator e f f e c t ; one p o s s i b l e a r r a n g e m e n t is

shown i n Fig. 1.20 (ref. 36).

exhaust 3a 3b
steam

thin j u i c e
U % D S . 125°C
ϊ [ rt Γ ] Γ thick juice
75%DS.96%
55^60% D S ^
110 °C

F i g . 1.20. J u i c e f i l t e r F b e t w e e n e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s i n t h e t h i r d effect of
a " f o u r - a n d - a - h a l f - e f f e c t " evaporator ( a f t e r r e f . 36).

As r e g a r d s t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o f the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme and parameters,

this is n e c e s s i t a t e d by i n c r e a s e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of thick juice and s y r u p s
b e c a u s e new p r o b l e m s are created in the b o i l i n g p r o c e s s . White sugar b o i l i n g in
a b a t c h - t y p e vacuum pan c a n be r o u g h l y d i v i d e d i n t o three stages (Fig. 1.21):

(1) Evaporation o f the initially drawn u n d e r s a t u r a t e d solution until a

supersaturation o f a b o u t 1.15 is attained. A high concentration of thick juice
is favourable with r e s p e c t t o e n e r g y e c o n o m y , as i t results in less heat
consumed d u r i n g this stage.
(2) S e e d i n g and c r y s t a l formation, followed by s l o w c r y s t a l g r o w t h as t h e vacuum
pan i s loaded to its maximum c h a r g e . In order to maintain the intensive
circulation required for uniform syrup supersaturation and u n i f o r m magma
structure, the e v a p o r a t i o n i s continued with accompanying i n t a k e s of
undersaturated s o l u t i o n s . There is a risk that the t h i c k juice concentration may
36

Stages:

F i g . 1.21. S t a g e s o f t h e w h i t e - s u g a r b o i l i n g p r o c e s s : 1 - e v a p o r a t i o n , 2 -
s e e d i n g , c r y s t a l f o r m a t i o n and s l o w c r y s t a l g r o w t h , 3 - a c c e l e r a t e d c r y s t a l
growth.

turn out to be j u s t too high f o r intakes meant t o bring t h e s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n down

to the r e q u i r e d v a l u e .

(3) Accelerated c r y s t a l g r o w t h as t h e s t r i k e is thickened until the desired

crystal c o n t e n t has been r e a c h e d . An e v e n t u a l intake of high-concentration thick

juice c o u l d a g a i n be f a v o u r a b l e .

Because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h may o c c u r i n stage ( 2 ) , the introduction of

high-concentration thick juice and s y r u p s c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d as a m i n o r

modification o f the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s . The s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n can o f course

be a d j u s t e d by t a k i n g i n w a t e r , but this would c o u n t e r a c t heat s a v i n g s . The

p r o b l e m becomes l e s s c r i t i c a l when s t i r r e d vacuum pans a r e u s e d , making it

easier to maintain uniform supersaturation in the e n t i r e strike volume.

Operational safety can be f u r t h e r i m p r o v e d by e q u i p p i n g t h e pans w i t h automatic

boiling controls. The b e s t s o l u t i o n seems t o be t o r e l y on c r y s t a l footing,

w h i c h c a n h a r d l y be r e g a r d e d as a l i m i t e d m o d i f i c a t i o n but rather as a new

process; it is therefore discussed in C h a p t e r 4.

If the f o o t i n g process turns out to be t o o a d v a n c e d w i t h regard to the sugar

house equipment a v a i l a b l e , then the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme w i t h two juice

concentrations can be a p p l i e d (ref. 37). Its essential idea c o n s i s t s of

thickening a part o f the j u i c e flow to a c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x c e e d i n g 70% D S , w h i l e

the remaining part is tapped immediately after filtration, that is, at

65-67% DS. H i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n j u i c e is used f o r intakes during the first and

third stages o f the boiling process, while the a v a i l a b i l i t y of low-concentration

j u i c e makes i t e a s i e r to perform the c r i t i c a l second s t a g e . It s h o u l d be made

clear that this method does n o t a l l o w full utilization o f the heat-saving

potential of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i c k juice. It has been r e p o r t e d t h a t if

a half o f the t h i c k - j u i c e stream a f t e r filtration is thickened to 74% DS and

the other h a l f r e m a i n s a t 67% D S , t h e n t h e f a c t o r y ' s s t e a m demand c a n be r e d u c e d

b y a b o u t 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b ( r e f . 38). If the e n t i r e thick-juice s t r e a m was thickened

 37

to 74% D S , t h e n a c c o r d i n g to Fig. 1.18 a 15% r e d u c t i o n , that is, by

3.2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , w o u l d be p o s s i b l e .

1.4 POWER DEMAND

1.4.1 Scope o f t h e problems

With combined g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y , the l a r g e r the steam flow

extracted from the turbine e x h a u s t , t h e more p o w e r c a n be p r o d u c e d i n the

electrical generator. In a sugar f a c t o r y equipped with a properly dimensioned

turbo-generator, and w h e r e t h e heat consumption exceeds the e q u i v a l e n t of

40-45 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t , the e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r s h o u l d be ample.

The t r e n d towards fuel savings implies a r e d u c e d steam f l o w through the

turbine. A t t h e same t i m e , economic f a c t o r s stimulate a tendency to mechanize

and a u t o m a t e all the u n i t operations in the sugar i n d u s t r y , this resulting in

i n c r e a s e d p o w e r demand. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of new e l e c t r i c i t y - c o n s u m i n g equipment

needed f o r environmental protection, like sludge presses, waste-water treatment

plants, etc., o r the application o f mechanical v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r s , may also

i n c r e a s e t h e p o w e r demand. C o n s e q u e n t l y , an i n c r e a s i n g number o f sugar factories

are reaching the p o i n t of imbalance between the s t e a m demand and p o w e r d e m a n d ,

and s p e c i a l m e a s u r e s may be r e q u i r e d to secure a r e l i a b l e energy supply. It thus

becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y important to have s u f f i c i e n t information on t h e relation

between t h e p o w e r demand and t h e factory's ability to generate its own p o w e r .

From t h e p o i n t of view o f energy balances, a d e s c r i p t i o n of the p o w e r demand in

terms o f time-averaged figures is needed. F o r the dimensioning of power-

generating and power-distributing equipment and f o r reliable control of the

operation of the e n t i r e electrical subsystem, the instantaneous demand and its

variations s h o u l d a l s o be defined.

1.4.2 Power n e t w o r k

The e l e c t r i c i t y is p r o d u c e d as a l t e r n a t i n g current in a three-phase supply.

When compared t o the direct-current installations still in use i n many

factories, mostly for historical reasons, alternating-current systems o f f e r the

advantages of:

- easy transformation from h i g h t o low voltage,

- economic s o l u t i o n for power t r a n s m i s s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n in large and medium-

size units,

- low c o s t o f the motors.

The s y n c h r o n o u s t h r e e - p h a s e g e n e r a t o r s employ t h r e e groups o f fixed windings

i n which the a l t e r n a t i n g current is i n d u c e d , and a r o t a t i n g w i n d i n g supplied

with direct current f r o m a dynamo ( e x c i t e r ) situated at t h e end o f the rotor

shaft. The power o u t p u t o f the generator i s controlled by t h e e x c i t e r current.

Smaller turbo-generators are g e n e r a l l y o f geared t y p e : the turbine runs a t up to

38

20 000 rpm a n d , t h r o u g h reduction g e a r s , d r i v e s a generator running at 1500 rpm.

At higher output ratings, the turbine runs at 3000 rpm w i t h d i r e c t drive to

a generator.

In o r d e r to minimize energy l o s s e s , e l e c t r i c i t y generation and transmission

s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d at low c u r r e n t and, correspondingly, high voltage. Typical

voltage l e v e l s employed a r e s e v e r a l thousands v o l t s . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to the

voltage level o f motors and o t h e r power r e c e i v e r s (i.e. power-consuming d e v i c e s )

takes place in transformers which are c o n v e n i e n t l y placed w i t h i n c l o s e range of

the r e c e i v e r s . The h i g h - v o l t a g e p a r t of the power network is s e p a r a t e d by

circuit-breakers from energy sources (that is, generators or supply lines from

the external grid) and t r a n s f o r m e r s . The l o w - v o l t a g e w i n d i n g of a transformer is

typically c o n n e c t e d v i a a power c a b l e o r b a r t o a switchboard, further energy

distribution taking place to local switchboards or d i r e c t l y to large individual

receivers. P o s s i b l e power network arrangements and t h e i r connections to the

external power g r i d a r e d i s c u s s e d i n the literature (ref. 39).

Among t h e r e c e i v e r s connected to the power n e t w o r k , asynchronous electric

motors are o f particular importance. The c o n v e r s i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l into

mechanical energy taking place in these motors is a c c o m p a n i e d by alternating

magnetization of the a c t i v e iron. With the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c frequency of the

current (50 Hz i n E u r o p e , 60 Hz i n U S ) , the e l e c t r i c a l energy is consumed and

recovered corresponding to magnetization and c o u n t e r - m a g n e t i z a t i o n . As a result,

in addition to the flow of electrical power b e i n g c o n v e r t e d i n t o mechanical work

(called effective power N ^ ) , m a g n e t i z a t i o n energy is oscillating between the

s o u r c e and t h e m o t o r s . This implies that the conductors o f power c a b l e s are

carrying some a d d i t i o n a l current; the a d d i t i o n a l power i s called the reactive

power, N^. The a c t u a l load o f the source is equal to the geometric sum o f

effective and r e a c t i v e p o w e r , a l s o c a l l e d the

a p p a r e n t power N^. T h i s phenomenon
a
is u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e s o - c a l l e d power f a c t o r
c o s φ = Ng/Ng^ (1.7)

where φ i s t h e phase l a g between t h e e f f e c t i v e p o w e r and t h e a p p a r e n t power.

Generally, each power r e c e i v e r i n a power network c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d , at

each i n s t a n t , by a s p e c i f i c power f a c t o r . For three-phase asynchronous motors,

w h i c h a r e by f a r t h e most important motors for sugar f a c t o r i e s , the power factor

is a function o f m o t o r d e s i g n , p o w e r r a t i n g and l o a d f a c t o r . In F i g . 1.22,

a typical relationship between t h e power f a c t o r , p o w e r r a t i n g and l o a d f a c t o r is

shown f o r enclosed-type, 4-pole motors o f J a p a n e s e make w o r k i n g at 50 Hz (ref.

28). As can be s e e n , the load deviation from the motor rating is decisive in

reducing cos φ.

The a v e r a g e d power f a c t o r s of the receivers define the power f a c t o r of the

generator. In a f a c t o r y i n w h i c h no s p e c i a l measures a r e t a k e n to improve it.

 39

0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0

Load factor

F i g . 1.22. Power f a c t o r of enclosed-type, 4-pole induction motors operated at

50 Hz ( a f t e r r e f . 2 8 ) .

cos φ i s usually in the range 0.65-0.70. L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t t h e maximum

effective power o f t h e g e n e r a t o r is determined by the mechanical output of the

turbine. The e l e c t r i c dimensioning of the generator must, h o w e v e r , be adapted

to the apparent power, t h a t is, the turbine output divided by t h e power factor.

I n an e x i s t i n g factory, the reactive power o s c i l l a t i n g in the power network may

cause the apparent power t o exceed the level for which the generating and

distributing equipment is dimensioned, even i f the t u r b i n e output is

sufficiently large to supply the System w i t h effective power. In o r d e r to

prevent this situation, the power f a c t o r of t h e g e n e r a t o r can be m o d i f i e d by

generating reactive power i n power c a p a c i t o r s . The c a p a c i t o r s c a n be c o n n e c t e d

either to t h e main s w i t c h b o a r d o f the power h o u s e , o r t o the local switchboards

where r e c e i v e r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a low power f a c t o r a r e c o n n e c t e d . As indicated

above, these r e c e i v e r s are asynchronous motors and p a r t i c u l a r l y ones loaded

below t h e i r nominal outputs.

Disregarding the case o f improperly dimensioned motors, it can t h u s be

c o n c l u d e d t h a t when a t t e m p t i n g t o m a x i m i z e t h e power f a c t o r , c a r e s h o u l d be

taken of:

- batch c e n t r i f u g a l drives during most o f their working cycle,

- drives of pumps and f a n s employing flow control by t h r o t t l i n g during the

periods of reduced flow.

L e t us n o t e t h a t the power f a c t o r s o f the motors m e n t i o n e d may v a r y as their

l o a d s a r e c h a n g e d , and i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o v a r y the reactive power generated

in the c a p a c i t o r s accordingly. However, i f the operation of a group o f large

motors can be c o n t r o l l e d for nearly constant total power c o n s u m p t i o n , it may

40

a l s o become e a s i e r t o control the o v e r a l l r e a c t i v e power o f t h e e n t i r e group.

This principle is applied in the group c o n t r o l o f batch c e n t r i f u g a l drives (see

Section 1.4.3).

1.4.3 S h a p i n g t h e p o w e r demand

The s p e c i f i c p o w e r demand o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s u g a r f a c t o r i e s is usually of the

o r d e r 2-4 kWh p e r 100 kg b e e t . It is interesting to note the influence of the

economy o f s c a l e , namely a l a r g e r p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y usually implies a lower

p o w e r demand p e r u n i t mass o f beets processed. In F i g . 1.23, the continuous line

represents S o v i e t d a t a on t h e s o - c a l l e d b a s i c p o w e r demand ( e x c l u d i n g p o w e r

consumed i n p u l p d r y i n g and w a s t e - w a t e r t r e a t m e n t ) o f w h i t e - s u g a r manufacture in

factories with processing capabilities up t o 9000 t o n s p e r day ( r e f . 40). The

discrete points i n the diagram r e p r e s e n t s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on o v e r a l l power

consumption, including pulp d r y i n g , in a f e w West E u r o p e a n w h i t e - s u g a r factories

during the 1985 s e a s o n ; owing to d i f f e r e n c e s in p r o c e s s e s and equipment

employed, the influence of t h e economy o f scale is not apparent from these data.

3.2

3.0

o
2.8

o 2.6 χ
JZ

2.4

TD
C 2.2
Ό
Ε
α;
•Ό 2.0

1.8

3 4 5 6 7

Processing capability (1000 t / d )

F i g . 1 . 2 3 . S p e c i f i c p o w e r demand as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y .
T h e l i n e i n d i c a t e s S o v i e t d a t a on w h i t e - s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e , and t h e p o i n t s -
s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on 5 West E u r o p e a n f a c t o r i e s .

The c o n t r i b u t i o n s od v a r i o u s f a c t o r y sections to the o v e r a l l p o w e r demand may

vary, d e p e n d i n g on l o c a l conditions. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e e n e r g y consumed b y pump

drives d e p e n d s on h e i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s between p i e c e s o f equipment located along

the t r a n s p o r t routes o f a l i q u i d . The f o l l o w i n g approximate indices describe

a typical structure o f t h e p o w e r demand o f w h i t e - s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e in factories

with processing capabilities of 4000-6000 t o n s per day:

 41

- extraction station 10-12%,

- juice purification and j u i c e transport 20-25%,

- s u g a r h o u s e 14-20%,

- lime k i l n , milk-of-lime preparation and k i l n - g a s pumping 12-16%,

- o t h e r p u r p o s e s 36-43%.

At the present s t a t e o f development o f power networks and t h e i r equipment,

various t e c h n i q u e s c a n be u s e d t o m o d i f y t h e p o w e r demand t o w a r d s b e t t e r energy

economy. F o u r a p p r o a c h e s c a n be e m p l o y e d .

(i) Introduction of alternative p r o c e s s e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l o w e r p o w e r demand.

(ii) Application of new e q u i p m e n t c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a b e t t e r efficiency of power

utilization.

(iii) Application of alternative control methods a t the local (equipm.ent) level,

preventing the losses o f energy d e l i v e r e d to e l e c t r i c a l l y driven equipment,

particularly under v a r i a b l e load.

(iv) Introduction of new c o n t r o l methods a t the subsystem o r system l e v e l ,

making i t possible to influence the time v a r i a t i o n s of p o w e r demand.

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of introducing alternative processes v a r y from f a c t o r y to

factory, d e p e n d i n g on t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to invest, usually in connection with

factory e x t e n s i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , h y d r a u l i c b e e t u n l o a d i n g and transport,

requiring that a b o u t 3 m^ w a t e r p e r 1 t beet r e c e i v e d i s pumped, i s more e n e r g y -

intensive than d r y unloading and t r a n s p o r t . Power s a v i n g s r e p o r t e d from F r e n c h

factories w h e r e t h e d r y method has been i m p l e m e n t e d are o f t h e o r d e r o f 0.3 kWh

per 100 kg b e e t (ref. 41). Different methods o f dirt s e p a r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , may

differ with respect to t h e power c o n s u m p t i o n .

In the p a s t , too little a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e p o w e r demands o f various

processes. Now t h i s is beginning to c h a n g e , as has been i n d i c a t e d b y some r e c e n t

publications i n which the i n f l u e n c e o f process parameters on t h e e n e r g y demand

is studied (refs. 42,43). The e n e r g y i n t e n s i t y of new p r o c e s s e s i s additionally

discussed in Chapter 4.

As r e g a r d s t h e e l e c t r i c a l equipment, the o p e r a t i o n o f batch centrifugal

d r i v e s which are the cause o f l o a d peaks i s particularly important. F o r economic

reasons, a trend has been e s t a b l i s h e d t o w a r d s l a r g e - c a p a c i t y machines, today

r e a c h i n g 1000-1700 kg p e r c h a r g e . T h e moments o f inertia of rotors in the

l a r g e s t machines a r e o f t h e o r d e r 1000-1400 kg m . In o r d e r to a c c e l e r a t e such

rotors to t y p i c a l rotational velocities of 1000-1500 rpm i n a b o u t 20 working

cycles p e r h o u r , motors r e a c h i n g a power l e v e l of 250-300 kW a r e r e q u i r e d . Every

acceleration section of the c e n t r i f u g i n g c y c l e causes a l a r g e temporary load,

while every deceleration section allows the possibility of returning power to

the e l e c t r i c a l subsystem o f the f a c t o r y . The o p e r a t i o n o f batch-centrifugal

drive thus results in time-varying effective and r e a c t i v e loads. It is therefore

42

essential that during the operation o f a group o f centrifugals, the cycles of

individual machines a r e c o o r d i n a t e d in order to avoid simultaneous acceleration

of several units.

The c o n t r o l of batch c e n t r i f u g a l s according to this principle constitutes

an e x a m p l e o f e q u i p m e n t operation control at the local (equipment g r o u p , or

station) level. This solution is particularly useful for large power r e c e i v e r s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s u b s t a n t i a l load variations.

In the contemporary sugar i n d u s t r y , perhaps the largest power-saving

potential is associated w i t h the d r i v e s o f pumps and f a n s . On a v e r a g e , t h e s e

machines are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a b o u t 60% o f the e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y consumed in

a sugar f a c t o r y . Dimensioned f o r the largest possible flows o f media, the pumps

and f a n s a r e c o n t r o l l e d u s i n g methods w h i c h induce energy l o s s e s , that is, flow

by-passing or t h r o t t l i n g . This is a decisive factor in causing increased

specific p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n when t h e factory's processing capability falls below

its nominal level (Fig. 1.24). W i t h modern d r i v i n g systems, older control

methods can be r e p l a c e d b y t h e variable speed c o n t r o l which i s discussed in

C h a p t e r 6. T y p i c a l savings are o f the o r d e r o f 20-40% o f t h e e n e r g y consumed

when u s i n g t h e o r i g i n a l methods.

o
o
" 1.6
•α

i 1.^

ir •'^
φ
φ
•o

o
o- 1.0
50 60 70 80 90 100

Average to n o m i n a l d a i l y c a p a b i l i t y ( % )

F i g . 1.24. R a t i o o f a c t u a l t o n o m i n a l s p e c i f i c p o w e r demand as a f u n c t i o n of
the u t i l i z a t i o n o f processing c a p a b i l i t y .

At the factory l e v e l , a time-varying total p o w e r demand may c a u s e

difficulties in securing a reliable power s u p p l y . Load p e a k s e x c e e d i n g the

generating capability of the e l e c t r i c a l s u b s y s t e m c a n n o t be met without

s u p p l y i n g power from t h e e x t e r n a l grid. In o r d e r to avoid unnecessary energy

purchases, or i f no e l e c t r i c i t y supplies from o u t s i d e the factory are available,

s u c h peaks must be e l i m i n a t e d by t e m p o r a r i l y disconnecting certain power

receivers. This c a n be done w i t h o u t reducing the total e n e r g y amount required

for normal factory operation, that is, by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e p o w e r demand o n l y when

it approaches i t s maximum.
 43

The p o w e r r e c e i v e r s t o be d i s c o n n e c t e d a r e s e l e c t e d s o as n o t to cause any

damage t o normal factory operation. T y p i c a l l y , these are aerators of waste-water

treatment plants, air conditioning systems o f s u g a r and p e l l e t silos, and

electric room h e a t e r s .

Experience proves t h a t control of t h e maximum p o w e r demand c a n be effective

only if automated load-monitoring and l o a d - d i s c o n n e c t i n g equipment is used. The

necessary e l e c t r o n i c equipment c a n be r a t h e r i n e x p e n s i v e , as p r o v e d b y

application examples p r e s e n t e d i n the literature (refs. 45,46). The system is

measuring the instantaneous p o w e r demand and c o m p a r i n g it with the generating

capacity. If a predetermined critical difference b e t w e e n t h e s e two quantities

is approached, then a group o f receivers is disconnected. In a broader load

range, the system o p e r a t i o n is usually semi-automatic, allowing for the

intervention of human o p e r a t o r s , and i t may a l s o incorporate trend monitoring,

signalling of critical situations, printing of procotols and r e p o r t s , etc. As

an o p t i o n , the monitoring o f the reactive p o w e r and t h e a u t o m a t i c control of

t h e power c a p a c i t o r s to improve the power f a c t o r c a n a l s o be included.

1.5 I N T E R A C T I O N BETWEEN POWER GENERATION AND HEAT ECONOMY

1.5.1 Energy p o l i c y considerations

The task of t h e p o w e r h o u s e c a n be u n d e r s t o o d as t r a n s f o r m i n g the primary

energy supplied to the factory into the necessary net heat input Q2 and p o w e r

input P'. The n e t heat input is often e x p r e s s e d as t h e mass f l o w of steam

required to carry i t ; this flow w i l l be c a l l e d s t e a m demand i n the following.

Assuming t h e s o - c a l l e d normal steam p a r a m e t e r s , that is, dry saturation state at

tg = l O O ^ C and s p e c i f i c heat o f evaporation r^ = 2256.9 k J / k g , t h e s t e a m demand

can be d e f i n e d as

D' = Q2/r3 (1.8)

The a b o v e c o n v e n t i o n i s to some e x t e n t similar to the use o f the w i d e l y known

concept o f t h e demand f o r normal fuel (heating v a l u e 29 300 k J / k g ) in expressing

t h e demand f o r primary energy. It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t in the present book, the

t e r m "demand" u s u a l l y applies to a predicted or calculated quantity. If measured

in an e x i s t i n g factory, the corresponding q u a n t i t y will rather be called

"consumption".

The most w i d e l y a p p l i e d method o f supplying the necessary energy inputs is to

rely on c o m b i n e d g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y in a steam c y c l e equipped

with a boiler and a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e , shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1.25

(refs. 38,46,47). N e v e r t h e l e s s , the economic c o n d i t i o n s for this method being

workable v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y between d i f f e r e n t countries and e v e n b e t w e e n

different factory locations.

Taking a global perspective, there is no d o u b t t h a t combined g e n e r a t i o n saves

44

lossf ' loss

steam 10% 1.1%

\fuel heat
/100%| ^ 76 %
fuel
power
air 13.4%
condensate 0.5%

F i g . 1.25. E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t and S a n k e y d i a g r a m ( l i v e s t e a m 80 b a r and 520 C ,

b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3 b a r ) f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam t u r b i n e .
1 - b o i l e r , 2 - turbine, 3 - process.

primary e n e r g y and r e d u c e s a i r pollution. Where h e a t i n g is n e c e s s a r y , power can

additionally be o b t a i n e d , using t h i s method, a t the expense o f about h a l f as

much f u e l as i n a thermal power p l a n t equipped with condensing turbo-generators.

T h i s means a l s o t h a t h a l f as much b o i l e r flue gas i s discharged to the

atmosphere.

After the bitter lessons o f the 1970s, many c o u n t r i e s now r e c o g n i z e the

industrial p o w e r h o u s e s as b e i n g important to their energy p o l i c i e s and long-

term p l a n n i n g in this field. D e p e n d i n g on t h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n and available

energy r e s o u r c e s , governments try to cope w i t h w o r l d market developments by

influencing, directly or indirectly ( e . g . by t a x regulations), the fuel prices,

power p r i c e , and c a p i t a l cost. The economic c o n d i t i o n s thus created for power

h o u s e o p e r a t i o n may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , as c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e examples of

electricity purchases i n two i m p o r t a n t beet-sugar producing countries - USSR and

USA. In the USA, a t y p i c a l situation is that steam s a v i n g s s h o u l d n o t be

compromised t o keep t h e e l e c t r i c i t y and s t e a m i n b a l a n c e , as purchased

electricity is cheaper than power g e n e r a t i o n w i t h o u t full utilization of the

exhaust steam. Contrary to that, it may be j u s t i f i e d in the USSR t o generate

electricity with some steam b l o w - o f f e v e n u n d e r normal operating conditions

(refs. 48,49).

Fluctuating fuel prices stimulate an i n t e r e s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h has become

visible in fuel-importing countries, namely t h e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of fuels to

eliminate t h e d e p e n d e n c e on f u e l oil w h i c h was d o m i n a n t before the o i l crises.

F r a n c e and Sweden c a n be named as e x a m p l e s o f countries where the sugar

industries reduced the percentage o f fuel oil in the t o t a l energy consumption

f r o m more t h a n 95% t o a b o u t 50%. In both c o u n t r i e s , the percentage o f natural

gas was c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d a b o u t 1985. In the sugar i n d u s t r i e s in other

countries, like Denmark, use o f b i t u m i n o u s coal as t h e main s u b s t i t u t e for fuel

oil was preferred.

As r e g a r d s t h e d e c i s i o n s on p o w e r h o u s e i n v e s t m e n t , which are usually

associated with large capital e x p e n d i t u r e s , the following factors s h o u l d be

considered:
 45

- the p o s s i b i l i t y of p u r c h a s i n g power from t h e e x t e r n a l grid, grid reliability,

and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of selling power t o the grid,

- fuel price,

- the ratio of fuel price t o power p r i c e ,

- capital cost,

- if applicable, the p r i c e o f power s o l d t o the grid.

As t h e p a y - b a c k p e r i o d s o f p o w e r h o u s e i n v e s t m e n t s may be r e l a t i v e l y long, there

is the risk of future fluctuations o f t h e above f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e outcome of

i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n s . As a r e s u l t , there is an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t in

alternative technologies for h e a t and p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n t o replace or supplement

the e x i s t i n g steam cycles.

1.5.2 S o l u t i o n s b a s e d on c o n n e c t i o n t o a power grid

A seemingly e x o t i c a l t e r n a t i v e is to avoid the use o f fuels and r e l y on the

external g r i d as t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f e n e r g y . T h i s c a n be an o p t i m a l solution if

cheap h y d r o e l e c t r i c power i s available, as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a B r a z i l i a n cane

sugar f a c t o r y using e l e c t r i c a l l y heated b o i l e r s to g e n e r a t e steam (ref. 50).

The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c power a l s o p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e in adopting

the e x t e r n a l grid alternative in the Aarberg f a c t o r y in Switzerland nearly four

d e c a d e s ago ( r e f . 51,52). A s o p h i s t i c a t e d thermal system employing vapour

c o m p r e s s i o n was a p p l i e d t h e r e in order to achieve e f f i c i e n t energy utilization

in sugar manufacture, and s p e c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e made t o sell pressed pulp

without drying. F o l l o w i n g the changes i n S w i t z e r l a n d ' s energy balance, however,

i n v e s t m e n t s w e r e made i n t h e e a r l y 1970s p r e p a r i n g future power s u p p l i e s from

a dedicated generating unit. As h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e r i s now c o v e r i n g a b o u t 60% o f

t h e c o u n t r y ' s e n e r g y d e m a n d s , a steam c y c l e w i t h a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e has

been p u t into operation in Aarberg (ref. 53) to supply nearly half of the power

consumed i n the factory.

In s p i t e o f the global advantages o f the combined g e n e r a t i o n o f heat and

electricity, local e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s may j u s t i f y solutions consisting of steam

generation in low-pressure boilers and p o w e r p u r c h a s e s f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l grid.

If the g r i d reliability is sufficiently high, this solution is fully flexible

with regard to the ratio b e t w e e n h e a t and p o w e r c o n s u m e d . When r e l y i n g on this

alternative today, however, i t is advisable to keep o p e n t h e o p t i o n to apply

combined g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e future.

R e t u r n i n g now t o the a p p l i c a t i o n of power-generating units b a s e d on t h e steam

cycle, let us o b s e r v e t h a t a back-pressure turbine is just a special case o f

a steam t u r b i n e . I f we d e f i n e A as t h e ratio o f s t e a m demand D' (kg/h) to power

demand P' (kW)

A = D'/P' (1.9)

then f o r A>10, a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e is u s u a l l y the best choice. F o r A<10,

46

a condensing/extraction turbine ( F i g . 1.26) s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as a s e r i o u s

alternative. It assumes t h e use o f e x t r a c t i o n steam i n s t e a d o f e x h a u s t steam

from a b a c k - p r e s s u r e u n i t , while the remaining steam f l o w i n g t o the condenser

generates some e x t r a p o w e r . A l t h o u g h t h i s solution is expensive, it c a n a l s o be

operated during the o f f - s e a s o n period i f p o w e r c a n be s o l d t o the e x t e r n a l grid.

This seems t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y attractive to industrial combines o f w h i c h the

sugar f a c t o r y is only a part, and w h e r e h e a t and p o w e r a r e n e e d e d d u r i n g the

off-season period. Examples o f t h i s solution c a n be f o u n d i n the Bulgarian and

Soviet sugar i n d u s t r i e s , as w e l l as i n cane s u g a r f a c t o r i e s in r e g i o n s where

power s u p p l i e s t o the g r i d are r e q u i r e d (refs. 54-56).

steam
1 L

1
til-Θ 3

Ί
fuel

k'.
condensate

F i g . 1.26. E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c o n d e n s i n g / e x t r a c t i o n
turbine. 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - process, 4 - condenser.

1.5.3 Solutions b a s e d on a b a c k - p r e s s u r e turbine

In a sugar f a c t o r y equipped w i t h its own p o w e r h o u s e , a m i s m a t c h problem

between t h e p o w e r demand and p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n may o c c u r . T h e e l e c t r i c a l output

Ρ o f a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r c a n be e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n of steam

flow D

Ρ = D/S (1.10)

where S i s t h e steam r a t e , i.e. t h e steam c o n s u m p t i o n p e r u n i t power p r o d u c e d

(kg/kWh), of the turbo-generator.

D i v i d i n g t h e above e q u a t i o n by t h e d a i l y processing capability o f the factory

R, we obtain

P/R = ( D / R ) / S (1.11)

A s s u m i n g a c o n s t a n t steam r a t e , this is a linear relationship illustrated in

Fig. 1.27. L e t us now e x p r e s s t h e f a c t o r y ' s e n e r g y demand b y two indices

p' = P ' / R and d ' = D ' / R r e p r e s e n t i n g p o w e r demand and steam d e m a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

per u n i t daily capability. Two d i f f e r e n t situations can be i m a g i n e d f o r a back­

pressure turbo-generator c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y steam r a t e S:

(i) P' < d'/S

T h i s means t h a t t h e s t e a m f l o w covering the factory's h e a t demand is

 47

60 bar/500°C/
40 b a r 7 420 °C

10 20 30 40 50 60
Steam d e m a n d (kg/IOOkgb)

F i g . 1.27. Power g e n e r a t e d as a f u n c t i o n of the steam f l o w through a back-

-pressure turbine.

sufficiently large to g e n e r a t e p o w e r n e e d e d (d-j in Fig. 1.27). The f a c t o r y is

likely to be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t with respect to power g e n e r a t i o n ,

(ii) P' > d'/S

T h e steam f l o w covering the factory's h e a t demand i s too small to satisfy the

p o w e r demand ( d ^ i n Fig. 1 . 2 7 ) , and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y with respect to power

generation is impossible or very d i f f i c u l t to achieve.

Case (i) is a favourable situation. If no e l e c t r i c i t y sales to the external

grid are p o s s i b l e , then a p a r t of the live s t e a m s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d to

a throttling-desuperheating station and s u p p l i e d t o the p r o c e s s , thus by-passing

the t u r b i n e . This is t h e most w i d e l y used s o l u t i o n ; it is extensively described

in the literature (ref. 39).

Case (ii) necessitates a critical review o f the structure of the p o w e r demand,

and a c t i o n s aimed a t s a v i n g power u s i n g the techniques mentioned in Section

1.4.3. If no m e a n i n g f u l improvements c a n be a t t a i n e d , then it becomes n e c e s s a r y

to modify the power house c o n c e p t assumed. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l possible solutions

in which the b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam c y c l e r e m a i n s dominant:

- electricity purchases from the e x t e r n a l grid to cover the deficit;

- u s i n g steam from t h e turbine exhaust to heat combustion air supplied to the

boilers or pulp-dryer furnace, thus increasing the steam f l o w through the

turbine;

- installing a new b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l o w e r s t e a m rate

(in Fig. 1.27, this is interpreted as m o v i n g t o the turbine characteristics

shown b y t h e d a s h e d line),

- installing a new b o i l e r generating steam a t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e and an

additional "topping" back-pressure turbine (Fig. 1.28(a)), and s u p p l y i n g steam

48

(α) (b)

fuel
steam steam
3
fuel
H3
fuel

condensate condensate

F i g . 1.28. E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t s f o r t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l b a c k -
- p r e s s u r e steam c y c l e s : ( a ) w i t h a t o p p i n g t u r b i n e , ( b ) w i t h a c o n d e n s i n g
turbine. 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - process, 4 - condenser, 5 - topping
t u r b i n e , 6 - condensing t u r b i n e .

from the exhaust o f the "topping" turbine to the e x i s t i n g turbine;

- installing an a d d i t i o n a l condensing t u r b i n e t o be s u p p l i e d w i t h a part of the

e x h a u s t steam f l o w (Fig. 1.28(b));

- in cases where a thermal c o n n e c t i o n between t h e factory and an e x t e r n a l heat

receiver (e.g. a district heating system) is possible, applying a back-pressure/

/extraction turbine (ref. 57).

The complementing power purchases from the e x t e r n a l grid are economically

attractive, providing the power p r i c e is sufficiently low i n relation to the

fuel price. This solution is widely used nowadays; v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f the

cooperation with the e x t e r n a l grid, including technical details related to the

power n e t w o r k , are discussed in the literature (ref. 39).

Interesting developments c a n be s e e n i n F r a n c e , where the power t a r i f f s are

differentiated d e p e n d i n g on t h e time o f y e a r , the p r i c e s rising i n O c t o b e r and

November and r e a c h i n g a maximum i n December. T h i s stimulates power purchases in

the initial stage o f the season, while electric self-sufficiency is preferred

later on. T h e r e f o r e , time-dependent operation o f the energy systems i n the sugar

industry is p r o p o s e d s o t h a t t h e p o w e r demand c a n v a r y (ref. 13). During the

initial weeks o f t h e s e a s o n p o w e r c a n be p u r c h a s e d t o operate advanced v a p o u r -

compression c i r c u i t s , making i t p o s s i b l e to minimize the steam demand and thus

a l s o the fuel consumption. L a t e r o n , no p o w e r w i l l be p u r c h a s e d , and t h e fuel

consumption w i l l be a l l o w e d t o increase.

The second s o l u t i o n from the above l i s t c a n be a p p l i e d o n l y if the installed

boiler and t u r b i n e capacities a r e l a r g e enough t o allow for a steam flow

increase. It requires installing steam-heated air preheaters i n which the energy

of t h e c o n d e n s i n g e x h a u s t steam can be t r a n s f e r r e d to the combustion air. The

temperature range o v e r which a i r preheating must be c o n t a i n e d is limited, thus

 49

l i m i t i n g the a t t a i n a b l e steam-flow i n c r e a s e . Where a i r preheating applies to the

boilers only, t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n can be i n c r e a s e d b y a b o u t 7-8%. An a n a l y s i s

o f relevant energy balances, including the case o f preheating of air directed to

t h e p u l p - d r y e r f u r n a c e , c a n be f o u n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e (ref. 58).

The t h i r d s o l u t i o n , i.e. a back-pressure turbine w i t h an i m p r o v e d steam rate,

can o n l y be a p p l i e d p r o v i d i n g t h e p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e o f the live steam are

i n c r e a s e d , which a l s o r e q u i r e s i n s t a l l i n g a new b o i l e r . F i g u r e 1.29 shows

a diagram i n d i c a t i n g t h e steam r a t e , and t h e ratio o f the e l e c t r i c a l energy

produced to the input o f primary energy in fuel d e l i v e r e d , as f u n c t i o n s of live-

steam p r e s s u r e ( t h e r e may be some s c a t t e r i n the data because the q u a l i t y of

turbines s u p p l i e d by v a r i o u s m a n u f a c t u r e r s may v a r y ) . L e t us n o t e t h a t t h e steam

rate can be r e d u c e d n o t o n l y b y i n c r e a s i n g live-steam p r e s s u r e and temperature

b u t a l s o by a p p l y i n g the reheat c y c l e . For a proposed u n i t operated at live-

steam p a r a m e t e r s 80 b a r and 5 0 0 ^ 0 , w i t h r e h e a t a t 30 b a r and 4 5 0 ^ 0 , an

estimated steam r a t e is 5.5 kg/kWh (ref. 59).

The r e m a i n i n g c o n c e p t s named a t t h e end o f t h e a b o v e l i s t , requiring

relatively complex power house l a y o u t s , might be c o n s i d e r e d when s o l v i n g factory

extension or modernization problems. It has been p r o v e d u n d e r s p e c i f i c economic

conditions that a topping turbine operated at steam p a r a m e t e r s 100 b a r and 540°C,

h a v i n g t h e a d v a n t a g e o f l a r g e r p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n , may be a t least economically

e q u i v a l e n t t o an a d d i t i o n a l back-pressure turbine s u p p l i e d w i t h steam a t 40 b a r

and 440°C ( r e f . 60). As r e g a r d s an a d d i t i o n a l condensing t u r b i n e , this is a

typical solution i n cane s u g a r f a c t o r i e s in which a l l bagasse i s b u r n e d , and the

electricity surplus is sold to the e x t e r n a l grid (refs. 61,62).

1 14
15 ι ^ 520 °C
500
•D
\
SI
\ - 12
L-
0; —
> >%
x\
X40°C c.t:
o υ
V • o Ζ
\ >Χ>
cnSí
o 400 ° c / • 10 Φ^
' — ^ C ο
£
o φ
φ '360°C D
LL
LH
Η
- 8

20 40 60 80
Pressure (bar)

F i g . 1.29. Steam r a t e , and p e r c e n t a g e o f f u e l e n e r g y c o n v e r t e d t o electricity,

as f u n c t i o n s o f l i v e steam p a r a m e t e r s a t b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3 b a r .
50

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a new b o i l e r - t u r b i n e unit operated at increased

steam p a r a m e t e r s , o r an a d d i t i o n a l boiler-turbine unit, require large

investments, including c o s t l y foundations and p e r h a p s b u i l d i n g s . In o r d e r to

avoid t h i s , alternative p o w e r - g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s may be c o n s i d e r e d . T h e

alternative solutions a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o w e r i n v e s t m e n t c o s t s , and eliminate

the rigid relationship between t h e steam f l o w and t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t e d t h a t is

characteristic o f the steam cycle.

1.5.4 Combustion-engine based solutions

A c o n c e p t w h i c h has r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n is to apply gas-turbine driven

generating s e t s , which are a v a i l a b l e t o d a y w i t h power r a t i n g s up t o 100 MW. A t

the present s t a t e o f development o f g a s - t u r b i n e technology, however, t h i s limits

the choice o f fuels to liquid o r gaseous t y p e s .

A gas-turbine set includes a compressor r a i s i n g the pressure of the

atmospheric air to a b o u t 3-5 b a r and d e l i v e r i n g it to a combustion chamber w h e r e

the fuel is b u r n e d . Hot combustion gases s u b s e q u e n t l y expand i n a turbine, which

is typically mounted on t h e same s h a f t as t h e c o m p r e s s o r . T h e rotational

v e l o c i t y may be as h i g h as 10 000 r p m , s o t h e r e is usually a reducing gearbox

between t h e t u r b i n e - c o m p r e s s o r s e t and t h e e l e c t r i c a l generator. T h e gas

pressure in the turbine exhaust equals atmospheric p r e s s u r e , and t h e temperature

is typically a b o u t 4 3 0 - 5 5 0 ° C . T h e scheme o f a g a s t u r b i n e s e t and a typical

Sankey d i a g r a m a r e shown i n Fig. 1.30. The w e i g h t s and d i m e n s i o n s of two g a s -

turbine driven continuous-duty generating sets are given in Fig. 1.31.

fuel heat
70.6%

2 h IV p o w e r

-Θ ^ 275%

exhaust
Qir I gas compressor
w o r k 38.3%

F i g . 1.30. W o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e o f a g a s - t u r b i n e s e t and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g S a n k e y
diagram. 1 - compressor, 2 - combustion chamber, 3 - t u r b i n e .

An e a r l y i d e a was t o c o n n e c t t h e gas t u r b i n e to a low-pressure b o i l e r , in

which the energy o f gases l e a v i n g the turbine e x h a u s t c a n be u s e d t o generate

heating s t e a m , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1.32(a) (ref. 63). From t h e point

of v i e w o f t h e e n e r g y economy, t h i s solution ensures the largest power o u t p u t at

a g i v e n h e a t demand. H o w e v e r , a b o i l e r heated by gases a t a relatively low

initial temperature is so c o s t l y t h a t t h e economic r e s u l t m i g h t be questionable.

 51

(α) (b)

-c
1?
7m 15m

F i g . 1.31. E x a m p l e s o f g a s - t u r b i n e d r i v e n g e n e r a t i n g s e t s , ( a ) r a t i n g 2.5 MW,

w e i g h t 18 t , ( b ) 6 . 2 MW, 60 t . 1 - a i r i n l e t , 2 - gas o u t l e t , 3 - g e n e r a t o r .

(a) (b)
I fuel I fuel
I I

2 3 0- 1

gas
gas

power heaf power heat power "heat

275% 41.6% 275% 61.7% 20.0% 69.4%

F i g . 1 . 3 2 . E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t s and t y p i c a l Sankey diagrams f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

o f gas t u r b i n e s , ( a ) i n c o n n e c t i o n t o a l o w - p r e s s u r e steam b o i l e r , ( b ) i n
c o n n e c t i o n t o a p u l p d r y e r , ( c ) as a t o p p i n g u n i t . 1 - gas t u r b i n e , 2 - steam
b o i l e r , 3 - process, 4 - pulp d r y e r , 5 - steam t u r b i n e .
52

A more a t t r a c t i v e solution consists of s u p p l y i n g the gases from the turbine

exhaust d i r e c t l y to pulp d r y i n g , as i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 1.32(b) (refs. 64-67).

A prototype installation with a gas t u r b i n e rated at 1200 kW i s operated in

a French f a c t o r y (ref. 41). Assuming t h a t t h e total amount o f pulp pressed to

22% DS i s dried to 90% D S , and t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f t h e turbine is essentially

identical to that shown i n Fig. 1.30, p o w e r c a n be g e n e r a t e d a t the rate of

about 1.9 kWh p e r 100 kg beet.

T h e most a d v a n c e d and e c o n o m i c a l l y attractive concept is b a s e d on the

application o f a topping gas-turbine from which the e x h a u s t gases are supplied

to a steam b o i l e r equipped with its own f u r n a c e , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

Fig. 1.32(c). By b u r n i n g additional fuel in the b o i l e r furnace, the temperature

of t h e g a s e s c a n be r a i s e d , w h i c h a l l o w s the heat transfer surfaces to be made

as compact as i n a conventional boiler and t h u s no more c o s t l y . The g a s - t u r b i n e

s e t and t h e s t e a m - t u r b i n e set together g e n e r a t e more p o w e r t h a n a conventional

steam c y c l e . An i n t e r e s t i n g feature of this solution, demonstrated in a full-

scale industrial application in the chemical industry (ref. 69), is that the

topping gas-turbine c a n be c o n n e c t e d t o a conventional boiler after modestly

expensive b o i l e r modifications.

The economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n of the three variants d e s c r i b e d d e p e n d s on fuel

and e l e c t r i c i t y p r i c e s , as w e l l as c a p i t a l cost. In s p e c i a l economic conditions,

namely h i g h power p r i c e , low D i e s e l - o i l p r i c e and a r e l a t i v e l y large power

demand d u r i n g the o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d , i t might be p r a c t i c a l to consider a topping

Diesel engine connected to a b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam c y c l e , or to a pulp dryer

equipped with an a u x i l i a r y furnace (refs. 70,71). During the off-season period,

t h e e n g i n e c a n be o p e r a t e d f o r t h e purpose o f power g e n e r a t i o n only.

Although r e l y i n g on e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o g y , the feasibility of the application

of Diesel e n g i n e and gas t u r b i n e in the sugar industry y e t remains to be

demonstrated in practice. It c a n be n o t e d t h a t after the first wave o f interest

in combustion-engine based s o l u t i o n s in the late 1970s, no large-scale

investments were u n d e r t a k e n , and some s c e p t i c i s m b a s e d on e c o n o m i c

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s was e x p r e s s e d i n the literature (ref. 72).

1.5.5 Unconventional thermal coupling between the p o w e r h o u s e and t h e heat

economy

A conventional approach to the link between t h e p o w e r h o u s e and t h e sugar

manufacturing p r o c e s s assumes t h a t t h e power house i s functioning as an e n e r g y

source, and t h e p r o c e s s as an e n e r g y r e c e i v e r . An e n e r g y s t r e a m f l o w i n g in the

reverse d i r e c t i o n , namely t h e condensate returned from the e v a p o r a t o r t o the

boilers, is seldom t r e a t e d as a p a r t o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and utilization

processes but rather as an a r r a n g e m e n t to secure proper q u a l i t y o f the boiler

feed water.
 53

A considerable energy-saving potential is associated with the possibility of

recuperating low-temperature heat from c e r t a i n sections of the process and

returning it for re-use in other sections. A difficulty inherent in this

approach i s to f i n d p r o c e s s media w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e s l o w e n o u g h t o make the

absorption of the recuperated heat p o s s i b l e . (It is precisely for this reason

that low-temperature pulp drying is so i n t e r e s t i n g as an e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e ,

because a i r directed to a low-temperature dryer is heated by waste heat which

would otherwise be d i s s i p a t e d to the environment.)

The l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e heat can a l s o be r e t u r n e d to the power h o u s e , by heating

combustion air supplied to the boiler furnaces. By making i t possible to cut

down t h e fuel consumption in the boilers, this solution c a n be economically

justified if the fuel saving is l a r g e enough t o p a y back t h e investment in the

heat-recuperating and a i r - h e a t i n g equipment.

The d e t a i l s of the thermal coupling between t h e p o w e r h o u s e and t h e heat

economy may v a r y . A s o l u t i o n implemented in a Belgian factory has been described

in the literature (ref. 73). The heat is r e c o v e r e d from spent c a r b o n a t a t i o n gas

in a direct-contact h e a t e r where the temperature of circulating water is raised

f r o m 50'^C t o a b o u t 80°C ( s e e a l s o S e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 ) . Water i s subsequently pumped

to air preheaters connected to the boilers (alternatively, it c a n be pumped to

air preheaters connected to the sugar d r y e r ) . Fuel savings of the o r d e r of

0.1 kg n o r m a l fuel p e r 100 kg b e e t h a v e been r e p o r t e d for this solution.

Air preheaters c a n a l s o be s u p p l i e d w i t h h e a t r e c o v e r e d from vacuum-pan

vapours condensing in a special condenser (ref. 74). The temperature of heat-

carrying water at the condenser o u t l e t is about 58-59°C. For this reason, the

economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n of this solution m i g h t be more d i f f i c u l t to establish.

F o r a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r methods of utilization of vacuum-pan v a p o u r , see

Section 3.3.1.

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 57

Chapter 2

ENERGY BALANCES

2.1 P R I N C I P L E S OF E S T A B L I S H I N G ENERGY BALANCES

The e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y , or a part of it, c a n be a n a l y s e d on

the basis o f the f i r s t law o f thermodynamics, which is essentially a statement

o f the p r i n c i p l e o f the c o n s e r v a t i o n o f e n e r g y . The f i r s t law o f thermodynamics

can be r i g o r o u s l y s t a t e d i n the form o f a mathematical equation, provided the

object under c o n s i d e r a t i o n is unambigously defined as a t h e r m o d y n a m i c system

(refs. 1,2). As a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 1.1, the identification of a

p r e s c r i b e d and i d e n t i f i a b l e boundary i s necessary f o r system d e f i n i t i o n ; the

boundary separates the system from i t s surroundings. Once t h e b o u n d a r y has been

defined, the f i r s t law o f thermodynamics states simply that i n any p r o c e s s , the

energy d e l i v e r e d to t h e s y s t e m must e q u a l the sum o f t h e e n e r g y s t o r e d in it and

t h e e n e r g y removed t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s . The mathematical formulation takes

account o f the f a c t t h a t e n e r g y c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o m a t t e r contained in the

system o r , possibly, flowing across i t s b o u n d a r y , and t h a t e n e r g y c a n a l s o be

transferred t o and f r o m t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s as h e a t and w o r k . If t h e b o u n d a r y has

been so d e f i n e d that there is no mass t r a n s f e r across i t , then the system is

s a i d t o be c l o s e d . E n e r g y c a n e n t e r o r l e a v e a c l o s e d s y s t e m o n l y as h e a t or

work.

I n most p r o b l e m s discussed in this book, however, a t y p i c a l situation is that

the o b j e c t under c o n s i d e r a t i o n has t o be i n t e r p r e t e d as an o p e n s y s t e m , t h a t is,

its b o u n d a r y has t o be d e f i n e d s o as t o a l l o w f o r mass t r a n s f e r t o and f r o m the

surroundings. Such a b o u n d a r y i s sometimes called a control s u r f a c e and the

system encompassed, a c o n t r o l volume.

A prerequisite for determining t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f an o p e n s y s t e m i s that

t h e mass f l o w s c r o s s i n g t h e system boundary a r e known. In c e r t a i n engineering

problems, however, i t may i n i t i a l l y be n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e some unknown mass

flows. If this is the c a s e , t h e n one has t o u s e a mass b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n w h i c h is

an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e l a w o f mass conservation

M3 = ΔΜ + (2.1)

where is t h e mass d e l i v e r e d t o the system, Δ Μ is the increase o f the system

m a s s , and is t h e mass removed f r o m t h e system.

The above e q u a t i o n holds for the f i n i t e time p e r i o d during which the

measurements to determine M ^ , Δ Μ and h a v e been p e r f o r m e d . In the problems

c o n s i d e r e d h e r e , mass i n f l o w and o u t f l o w usually result f r o m m u l t i p l e mass flows

^sl' ^s2»-*' ^sp entering the s y s t e m and G ^ ^ ^ r 2 " * ' ^ r q "'^siving i t (Fig. 2.1).
58

mass flows niass Uows

entering the system BOUNDARY leaving the systenn

work

Fig. 2.1. Mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f an o p e n t h e r m o d y n a m i c system.

It may t h e r e f o r e be c o n v e n i e n t t o e x p r e s s t h e mass b a l a n c e f o r unit time

%} ' Gsp = ^V^t + ^ ^ + +..+G,q (2.2)

w h e r e M^ i s the system mass, i . e . t h e mass c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the system boundary.

A typical case o f an o p e n s y s t e m i s a steady-state system which is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t i m e - i n v a r i a n t mass and c o n s t a n t mass f l o w s . As t h e time

derivative o f the s y s t e m mass e q u a l s zero, the balance equation becomes

(2.3)
^si ^ h z ^1 ^ ^ 2 ^ - - ^ ^ q

Having determined t h e mass f l o w s c r o s s i n g the s y s t e m b o u n d a r y , we c a n return

to t h e main p r o b l e m . A general form o f the energy balance equation is

E3 = ΔΕ + E ^ (2.4)

w h e r e E^ i s the energy d e l i v e r e d to the s y s t e m , ΔΕ i s the increase of the

s y s t e m ' s e n e r g y , and E^, i s t h e e n e r g y removed f r o m t h e system.

U s i n g t h e mass f l o w s and e x p r e s s i n g t h e balance f o r unit t i m e , we o b t a i n for

the s y s t e m shown i n Fig. 2.1

- ^V^t ^ L + G^^h^T . G^^VZ ^qVq ' (2-5)

where h ^ ^ . . , h^p and h ^ - j , . . , h^^ are the e n t h a l p i e s per unit mass i n inflowing

and o u t f l o w i n g streams, E^ i s the energy associated w i t h the matter contained

w i t h i n the system boundary, L is the mechanical power (work per u n i t time) and

Q is the thermal power (heat per u n i t time) delivered to the system. In steady-

state systems, the time d e r i v a t i v e of E^ i s zero, all the q u a n t i t i e s concerned

are constant, and t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n becomes

•^sl^sl ' %2\2 h p h , - L * ^ ^ ^ ^ - \ 2 \ 2 ' - ^ V r q " ^ (^.6)

It is assumed i n e q n s . (2.5) and ( 2 . 6 ) that the s i g n o f the work is positive if

it is removed f r o m t h e system, while the sign o f the heat is positive if it is

 59

d e l i v e r e d to the s y s t e m . The r e s u l t s of the calculations in which these

equations a r e used a r e c o r r e c t o n l y if this sign convention is o b s e r v e d . One

s h o u l d a l s o be a w a r e o f c e r t a i n inherent limitations of the balance equations,

as w e l l as o f the conditions for their correct u s e . The d e t a i l s of the problems

may v a r y , d e p e n d i n g on t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h t h e e q u a t i o n s a r e s e t u p , as

explained below.

(i) In the design a n a l y s e s , i t is usually assumed t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t , including

auxiliary d e v i c e s , is working in accordance with the t e c h n i c a l specifications,

i.e. that there a r e no m a l f u n c t i o n i n g steam t r a p s , unreliable valves, leaking

packings, etc. Another t y p i c a l assumption is that the processing capability is

constant (most o f t e n , the nominal o r maximum c a p a b i l i t y value is assumed). Even

these seemingly obvious assumptions, however, c o n s t i t u t e an i d e a l i z a t i o n of the

e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s a n a l y s e d . The r e a l processes w i l l certainly be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y

f l u c t u a t i n g parameters, the processing c a p a b i l i t y may d e v i a t e from the value

a s s u m e d , and t h e r e w i l l be some unknown f l o w s of the p r o c e s s media leaking

between system p a r t s and f r o m t h e system to the s u r r o u n d i n g s . Under such

circumstances, although it is essential not to introduce any significant

systematic errors into the balance r e l a t i o n s h i p s , it is also meaningless to

complicate the balance equations by i n t r o d u c i n g factors w h i c h can a c t u a l l y be

neglected without increasing the o v e r a l l uncertainty margin. This applies, in

the f i r s t place, to the energy streams associated with the heat of

crystallization of s u g a r and t h e m e c h a n i c a l work supplied to the process

equipment, as t h e i r o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e may be c o m p a r a b l e w i t h that of the

unknown l o s s e s t o the surroundings.

(ii) In the process monitoring applications, a number o f different situations

s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d . When i n v e s t i g a t i n g an e x i s t i n g factory to be m o d e r n i z e d ,

the calculation errors should not exceed the uncertainty margin characteristic

of the subsequent design c a l c u l a t i o n s . In the routine monitoring tasks aimed at

providing the f a c t o r y managers w i t h information on how e f f i c i e n t l y the energy is

utilized, the s p e c i f i c requirements may v a r y d e p e n d i n g on t h e e x p e c t e d factory

performance. U s u a l l y , the desired accuracy is similar to that typical of the

design problems. H o w e v e r , t h e r e may be s p e c i a l cases i n which r a t h e r high

accuracy is required, for e x a m p l e , when t h e g u a r a n t e e t e s t s of equipment units

or entire stations have t o be monitored.

(iii) As a r u l e , the balance c a l c u l a t i o n s relating to sugar f a c t o r i e s , or parts

o f them, are performed under the assumption of steady-state conditions, using

eqns. (2.3) and (2.6). While t h i s may be p e r f e c t l y correct i n most c a s e s , great

care i s recommended i n interpreting the results o f experimental investigations.

If t h e measurements h a v e been p e r f o r m e d w i t h o u t strictly maintaining steady-

state conditions, then n e g l e c t o f t i m e - d e r i v a t i v e s of and E^ i n eqns. (2.2)

60

and (2.5), r e s p e c t i v e l y , may become a s o u r c e o f errors.

2.2 INPUT DATA FOR ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATIONS

2.2.1 Nature o f the input data

The calculation principles p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s S e c t i o n c a n be applied

to any thermodynamic system w i t h i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y . For a particular system,

a s e t o f balance equations c a n be f o r m u l a t e d , making i t p o s s i b l e to determine

the v a l u e s o f as many unknown v a r i a b l e s as t h e r e a r e e q u a t i o n s in the s e t . For

e a c h e n e r g y b a l a n c e p r o b l e m , an a p p r o p r i a t e set of input d a t a must be a v a i l a b l e .

If some r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e b e e n i m p o s e d on t h e s t r u c t u r i n g of the balance

results, that is, if the system i s to be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e sum o f specific

s u b s y s t e m s , b o t h t h e s e t o f e q u a t i o n s and t h e s e t o f input d a t a s h o u l d be

p r e p a r e d i n a manner making i t possible to satisfy these requirements. This

implies, in turn, the necessity not only to account f o r the system s t r u c t u r e ,

but also to s a t i s f y the c o n s t r a i n t s that are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the sugar

manufacturing process. F i n a l l y , the input d a t a s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e , t h a t is,

among t h e q u a n t i t i e s appearing in t h e b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s , o n l y as many c a n be

left unknown as t h e r e a r e e q u a t i o n s in the set.

The g u i d e l i n e s for a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s t r u c t u r e o f a thermodynamic system

and its subsystems have been f o r m u l a t e d in S e c t i o n 1.1, and t y p i c a l structural

elements encountered in thermal systems o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s h a v e been d i s c u s s e d

in Section 1.2.

C l o s e l y associated with the i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s y s t e m s t r u c t u r e is the

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t h e r m o d y n a m i c properties of t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a and on the

equipment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In the equations presented in the preceding S e c t i o n ,

the enthalpies of t h e p r o c e s s media a p p e a r . T h e e n t h a l p i e s c a n be d e t e r m i n e d as

functions o f temperature, pressure o r other parameters. In practical

calculations, inverse functions may a l s o be n e e d e d , as w e l l as a number o f other

thermodynamic f u n c t i o n s not n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d to the notion o f e n t h a l p y . The

thermodynamic functions c a n be f o u n d i n d i a g r a m o r t a b u l a r form i n the

literature, and t h e i r numerical approximations are discussed i n Appendices 1

and 2.

As r e g a r d s t h e e q u i p m e n t d a t a , two k i n d s o f them a r e o f particular

importance:

- heat loss coefficients,

- equations expressing the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients.

A p o s s i b l e approach to this p a r t o f the energy-balance data w i l l be p r e s e n t e d in

the remaining Sections o f this C h a p t e r , The v a l u e s o f the h e a t loss coefficients

and the equations d e s c r i b i n g the heat t r a n s f e r characteristics o f the equipment

are d i s c u s s e d i n A p p e n d i x 3.

As r e g a r d s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f d a t a on t h e s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g process.
 61

t h e use o f e q u a t i o n s o f p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e s h o u l d be named f i r s t . T h e mass

flows o f t h e p r o c e s s media represented in the energy balance equations have to

satisfy the equations o f t h e p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e . A p r a c t i c a l consequence is

that the mass-balance i n v e s t i g a t i o n - experimental, theoretical, or a

combination o f b o t h - must be c o m p l e t e d b e f o r e the e n e r g y - b a l a n c e problem is

approached.

Setting up t h e e q u a t i o n s of t h e mass b a l a n c e o f a sugar manufacturing process

c a n be a d i f f i c u l t problem i n itself. Usually, it requires identifying the

process scheme and c a l c u l a t i n g the flows o f mass c o m p o n e n t s : w a t e r , dry matter,

s u c r o s e , and - if applicable - sucrose c r y s t a l s . The c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n be

performed manually; p o s s i b l y , two- o r three-component diagrams for sugar

solutions c a n be u s e d t o simplify t h e manual work. Examples o f the up-to-date

approach to this type of calculation method c a n be f o u n d in the literature

(refs. 3-5). Increasingly often, however, the p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e s are

calculated with the aid o f computer programs. T h e methods used i n computerized

calculations a r e based e i t h e r on t h e process simulation approach (refs. 6-8) or

on t h e s o l u t i o n of a system o f linear equations (ref. 9).

2.2.2 Example

The s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g process is to be c o n s i d e r e d f o r a factory featuring

a trough-type extractor, a classical juice purification station with subsequent

juice decalcification and a s t a n d a r d - l i q u o r - b a s e d , three-boiling crystallization

scheme. T h e p a r a m e t e r s defining the o v e r a l l process c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are given in

Table 2.1. T h e scheme o f t h e b e e t house i s shown i n Fig. 2.2 and the

c o r r e s p o n d i n g mass b a l a n c e d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 2 . T h e scheme o f the

s u g a r house i s shown i n Fig. 2.3 and t h e mass b a l a n c e d a t a are presented in

Table 2.3. L e t us a n a l y s e t h e p r o c e s s scheme and t h e mass b a l a n c e d a t a from the

point of view o f t h e i r suitability as i n p u t data for energy balance

calculations.

TABLE 2.1

Essential process data for the Example.

Name Dimension Value

Polarization of cossettes % 18.0

Juice draft % 110.0
CaO r a t e :
pre-liming k g / 1 0 0 kg b 0.28
main l i m i n g 1.52
II II
2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n 0.22
Thick j u i c e concentration % DS 56.0
Molasses p u r i t y % 62.0
62

feed cossettes
water

HEATER

ΙΛ
i_ I
press
Ε EXTRACTOR
o water

c y. L-wet pulp PRESSES

raw juice
!5
pressed pulp
4 to drying
HEATERS

sweet water
to lime slaking

PRE-LIMING

Φ
HEATERS

Φ
i
Φ
MAIN LIMING
•σ Φ

1
CARBONATATION I

en
TD HEATERS
juice

-D Φ
(Λ THICKENERS I Φ
Χ)
(Λ
ω
VACUUM FILTERS

HEATER sludge^

water -
CARBONATATION I I
thin juice
to heating and evaporation.

THICKENERS Π DECALCI FICATION

thin juice
to s u g a r h o u s e ^

SAFETY FILTERS 1 SULPHITATION

juice

Fig. 2.2. Scheme o f the b e e t house c o n s i d e r e d in the Example.

 63

TABLE 2.2

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e b e e t h o u s e i n t h e Example

Total flow Concentration Purity

No. S t r e a m name
( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) (% DS) (%)

1 Cossettes 100.00 86.90

2 Wet p u l p 84.60
3 Pressed pulp 27.04 19.00
4 Dried pulp 5.58 92.00
5 Press water 57.56 0.90 74.50
6 Feed w a t e r 37.04
7 Raw j u i c e 110.00 18.16 88.11
8 J u i c e t o main l i m i n g 135.84 17.88
9 J u i c e to carbonatation I 143.46 17.99
10 J u i c e f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s 13.73 12.00 92.38
11 Juice to thickeners I 157.19 17.47
12 J u i c e to carbonatation I I 124.50 16.28 91.48
13 Subsider sludge I 32.69 20.00
14 S u b s i d e r s l u d g e I t o vacuum f i l t e r s 20.69
15 S w e e t e n i n g - o f f w a t e r t o vacuum 12.72
filters
16 Sludge 8.48 50.00
17 S w e e t w a t e r f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s 11.02 7.00 89.00
18 Juice to thickeners I I 127.30 92.04
19 Subsider sludge I I to pre-liming 3.59 18.00
20 Juice to safety f i l t e r s 125.42 15.76 92.03
21 Juice to sulphitation 123.71
22 Juice to d e c a l c i f i c a t i o n 118.50 16.68 92.03
23 Sweetening-off water to 7.00
decalcification
24 Sweet w a t e r from d e c a l c i f i c a t i o n 3.50 1.08 88.00
25 Thin j u i c e to evaporation 122.00 15.51 92.04
26 Milk-of-lime to pre-liming 1.41
27 " main l i m i n g 7.62
28 " " carbonatation I I 1.09
29 K i l n gas t o c a r b o n a t a t i o n I 3.80
30 II II II II JJ 0.79

T h e scheme and t h e d a t a d e s c r i b i n g t h e b e e t h o u s e p r o v i d e a c o m p l e t e

definition of all t h e mass s t r e a m s t o w h i c h h e a t s h o u l d be d e l i v e r e d . It is

possible to determine, for e a c h s t r e a m , t h e mass f l o w and t h e material

properties affecting the enthalpy ( o r the specific heat). No t e m p e r a t u r e s are

given, however, t h i s implying that the temperature requirements s h o u l d be

separately considered, possibly together with the structure of the part of the

thermal system which i s associated with the beet house.

T h e scheme o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e seems t o be i n c o m p l e t e , as no heating

o p e r a t i o n s a r e s p e c i f i e d . T h e mass b a l a n c e d a t a d e f i n e c o m p l e t e l y a l l the time-

a v e r a g e d mass f l o w s o f media w i t h i n the s u g a r h o u s e . Once t h e heating

operations h a v e been s p e c i f i e d (typically, heating of thick juice delivered to

t h e s u g a r h o u s e and s y r u p s s t o r e d i n intermediate tanks is required), it will be

possible to identify all t h e mass f l o w s and m a t e r i a l properties that are

64

thick juice

1
VACUUM PANS Β
1 Γ
MELTER

Q.
13

FILTER MIXERS Β 1
sz
ΙΛ
O
standard liquor
1 CENTRIFUGALS Β

VACUUM PANS A 1 sugar Β

^1
σ ι >>
1 MIXERS A

3 ί
1 CENTRIFUGALS A VACUUM PANSC

green
" syrup A "
I
sugar A MIXERS C

z r :
MAGMA MIXER CENTRIFUGALS C

L- s u g a r C —-I

- magma-
•
white sugar molasses

Fig. 2.3. Scheme o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e c o n s i d e r e d i n the Example.

TABLE 2.3

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e s u g a r house i n t h e Example.

Total flow Concentration Purity

No. Stream name
( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) {% DS) {%)

1 Thick juice 33.61 56.00 92.02

2 Standard l i q u o r 39.88 62.62 93.60
3 A massecuite 29.09 92.50 93.46
4 G r e e n s y r u p A t o vacuum pans C 2.79 82.50 84.60
5 II II II II II g 5.80 82.50 84.60
6 · magma 3.82 82.50 84.60
7 Wash s y r u p A 2.65 75.50 91.96
8 A sugar 14.80 99.10 99.85
9 Β massecuite 13.35 92.80 87.18
10 Green s y r u p Β 6.25 83.80 74.20
11 Wash s y r u p Β 1.26 79.50 86.18
12 Β sugar 6.27 98.10 98.40
13 C massecuite 7.92 93.50 76.94
14 C sugar 3.62 97.10 93.50
15 Magma 7.44 89.60 89.29
16 Molasses 4.66 83.50 62.00
 65

r e l e v a n t to the energy balance c a l c u l a t i o n s . A g a i n , the temperature requirements

can c o n v e n i e n t l y be s p e c i f i e d when d e f i n i n g the s t r u c t u r e o f the associated part

of the thermal system.

2.3 EXTERNAL ENERGY BALANCE OF A SUGAR FACTORY

The e n e r g y demand i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y is u l t i m a t e l y determined by the

interactions between the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , the thermal s y s t e m and t h e

p o w e r h o u s e . When s o l v i n g c e r t a i n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s , i t may be o f interest to

i n v e s t i g a t e key i n t e r a c t i o n p a r a m e t e r s and t o identify or evaluate essential

p r o p e r t i e s o f the three f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s named, w i t h o u t analysing their

details. This can be done by s e t t i n g up t h e s o - c a l l e d e x t e r n a l mass and e n e r g y

balance o f the f a c t o r y . Examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n of this a p p r o a c h c a n be f o u n d in

the literature (refs. 10,11).

Let us c o n s i d e r an o p e n t h e r m o d y n a m i c s y s t e m c o m p r i s i n g t h e main p r o c e s s

e q u i p m e n t and t h e r m a l equipment from the e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n to the sugar house,

t h a t i s , e x c l u d i n g t h e b e e t w a s h i n g and s l i c i n g station, s u g a r áryer^ lime kiln,

power h o u s e , b a r o m e t r i c c o n d e n s e r and b a r o m e t r i c - w a t e r cooling c i r c u i t . A block

diagram r e p r e s e n t i n g the system i s shown i n F i g . 2.4. It c a n be s e e n t h a t most

mass f l o w s t o and f r o m t h e s y s t e m a r e r o u t i n e l y m e a s u r e d f o r process control

p u r p o s e s o r can be d e d u c e d f r o m s u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s , so o n l y a f e w mass flows

s h o u l d be a d d i t i o n a l l y determined in o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e mass b a l a n c e fully.

Spent qas
from 1 s f / 2 n d carb.
SYSTEM
BOUNDARY vapour
I vapour
4-
VQPOur

cosseHes ^ I sugar
1 ES JP EV SH
1
1— ^ \ — s i
molasse^

1 α
o
•α
χί
steann

1 δ

F i g . 2 . 4 . B l o c k scheme i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e e x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f a s u g a r
f a c t o r y . ES - e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n , J P - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , EV -
e v a p o r a t o r , SH - s u g a r h o u s e . 1 - b e e t w a s h i n g and s l i c i n g e q u i p m e n t , 2 - l i m e
k i l n and m i l k - o f - l i m e s t a t i o n , 3 - p o w e r h o u s e , 4 - s u g a r d r y i n g and p a c k a g i n g
s t a t i o n , 5 - c o n d e n s e r and c o o l i n g c i r c u i t .
66

T h e number o f t e m p e r a t u r e ( a n d , p o s s i b l y , p r e s s u r e ) measurements required to

identify the enthalpies of flowing media is also small.

The i n t e r n a l complexities o f the system d e f i n e d a b o v e need n o t be known for

the e x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e , w h i c h c a n be d e s c r i b e d b y i n t r o d u c i n g the

quantities characterizing the flowing media into eqns. (2.5) or (2.6). The n e t

h e a t demand i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e heat stream in t h e steam d e l i v e r e d from the

p o w e r h o u s e and we a r e f r e e to s t u d y how t o reduce i t by a d j u s t i n g other

streams. Of course, i t is desirable that the sum o f o u t f l o w i n g energy streams

s h o u l d be as s m a l l as p o s s i b l e , w h i c h c a n be o b t a i n e d by l i m i t i n g t h e outflowing

mass f l o w s and/or decreasing the temperatures o f t h e media leaving the system.

In the first place this applies to vapour streams, because the vapour enthalpies

are highest. It is thus e s s e n t i a l to minimize the vapour flow from the last

evaporator effect to t h e c o n d e n s e r , and t h e e n e r g y o f the vacuum pan v a p o u r s

s h o u l d be u t i l i z e d as much as p o s s i b l e b e f o r e t h e v a p o u r s e n t e r t h e condenser.

Similar recommendations apply to excess condensate from the e v a p o r a t o r , and

spent carbonatation gas.

An i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n c a n be d r a w n f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l energy balance, namely

t h a t as l o n g as e x c e s s c o n d e n s a t e (ammoniacal water) from the evaporator is

s u p p l i e d as f r e s h w a t e r t o the e x t r a c t i o n station, and t h e c o n d e n s e r l o s s from

the last evaporator effect is held constant, the net h e a t demand i s independent

of t h e amount o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d i n the e v a p o r a t o r . If the above c o n d i t i o n s are

satisfied, then the j u i c e draft c a n be i n c r e a s e d o r c o n d e n s a t e c a n be a d d e d to

juice without necessarily increasing the n e t h e a t demand. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , any

intake o f e x t r a w a t e r from o u t s i d e the system, f o r example t o vacuum p a n s ,

inevitably i n c r e a s e s t h e n e t h e a t demand.

As r e g a r d s t h e calculations of the energy streams, it s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d that

if a high accuracy o f the e x t e r n a l balance i s r e q u i r e d , then it is necessary to

account f o r three entries which are t r a d i t i o n a l l y neglected in engineering

analyses.

(i) Heat o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n reaction. Assuming t h a t it is generated at the rate of

70 k J p e r 1 mol of CaO and t h a t the e f f e c t i v e CaO r a t e is 1.9%, we o b t a i n an

e n e r g y s t r e a m o f a b o u t 2 4 0 0 k J / 1 0 0 kg b , this being e q u i v a l e n t to 1.1 kg steam

per 100 kg b.

(ii) Heat o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n of s u g a r . A t 75°C, t h i s is 82 k J / k g . Multiple

crystallization-dissolving operations in t h e s u g a r h o u s e c a n be d i s r e g a r d e d , on

the assumption t h a t the heat generated equals the heat absorbed. However, the

sugar stream l e a v i n g t h e s u g a r house c o r r e s p o n d s t o a definite amount o f heat

generated. At a t y p i c a l sugar y i e l d , t h i s corresponds to a b o u t 0.5 kg s t e a m per

100 kg b.

(iii) Mechanical work supplied to t h e p r o c e s s . Power consumed b y t h e motors

 67

driving t h e pumps, s t i r r e r s and o t h e r e q u i p m e n t is c o n v e r t e d to mechanical work

and finally dissipated - a part to t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a , and t h e rest to the

environment. Assuming a t y p i c a l equipment configuration and a 50:50 e n e r g y

dissipation, t h e s t r e a m o f m e c h a n i c a l w o r k a b s o r b e d b y t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a c a n be

estimated at a b o u t 0.8 kg steam p e r 100 kg b.

TABLE 2.4

E x t e r n a l mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y c o n s i d e r e d as a
t h e r m o d y n a m i c s y s t e m shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 2 . 4 .

Mass f l o w Temperature Enthalpy Enthalpy stream

No. Name ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) (OQ) (kJ/kg) ( M J / l O O kg b )

Inflowing streams

1 Cossettes 100.0 12 45 4.5

2 Milk-of-lime 11.9 40 150 1.8
3 K i l n gas 5.3 35 80 0.4
4 Heat o f - - - 2.4
carbonatation reaction
5 Wash w a t e r t o c e n t r i f u g a l s 1.4 15 63 0.1
6 Wash steam ( 7 b a r ) t o 1.2 165 2762 3.3
centrifugals
7 C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n heat
- - - 1.2
8
9
Mechanical work t o p r o c e s s
Steam ( 3 . 4 b a r ) t o
-
52.0
- -
2730
1.8
142.0
138
e v a p o r a t o r and vacuum pan
steaming

Total 1-9 171.8 _ _ 157.5

Outflowing streams

10 P r e s s e d p u l p 14.35% DS 34.3 40 160 5.5

11 Carbonatation sludge 8.5 60 150 1.3
50% DS
12 Sweet w a t e r t o l i m e 6.7 65 267 1.8
slaking
13 Gas f r o m l s t / 2 n d 6.3 82/92 7.3
carbonatation
14 Vacuum f i l t e r v a p o u r 0.6 65 2618 1.6
15 Vapour from the l a s t 8.4 90 2660 22.3
evaporator effect
16 Condensate to b o i l e r s 60.2 114 478 28.8
17 Vacuum pan v a p o u r 20.3 62 2613 53.0
18 Sugar from c e n t r i f u g a l s 14.2 70 97 1.4
19 Heating vapour to sugar 0.9 125 2713 2.4
dryer
20 Molasses 5.0 50 115 0.6
21
22
Cooling o f C massecuite
Wash s t e a m d i s s i p a t e d f r o m
- - - 0.6
1.0 165 2762 2.8
centrifugals
23 Steam d i s s i p a t e d f r o m 0.5 138 2730 1.4
vacuum pans

Total 10-23 166.9 - - 130.8

24 Various l e a k s and h e a t 4.9 - - 26.7
losses

Total 10-24 171.8 - - 157.5

68

A q u e s t i o n may be p o s e d a b o u t t h e p u r p o s e o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r these relatively

small incoming energy streams, w h i l e simultaneously calculating not-so-well

defined l o s s e s caused by t h e l e a k s o f media and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r to the

environment. The answer i s that it is o n l y when a l l the incoming energy streams

are known t h a t it becomes p o s s i b l e t o evaluate the losses r e a l i s t i c a l l y . Of

course, one c a n a l s o i m a g i n e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s in which approximate

calculations o f the energy balance are s u f f i c i e n t to a r r i v e at a correct

solution, this implying that very small e n e r g y streams need n o t be t a k e n into

account.

In Table 2.4, an e x a m p l e i s presented o f the external energy balance with the

heat o f the carbonatation r e a c t i o n , h e a t o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f s u g a r and

mechanical work taken into a c c o u n t . As c a n be s e e n , the uncontrollable energy

losses correspond to a b o u t 19% o f the energy stream d e l i v e r e d i n the heating

steam. Had t h e s m a l l incoming streams been n e g l e c t e d , t h e l o s s e s w o u l d have been

calculated at a b o u t 15% o f t h e s t e a m e n e r g y , t h i s being a c l e a r underestimate.

Let us o b s e r v e a l s o t h a t the d e f i n i t i o n of the thermodynamic s y s t e m so as to

exclude the sugar d r y e r is a matter o f c o n v e n i e n c e . T h e h e a t demand o f t h e dryer

can be c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t in sugar leaving the

centrifugals. Had t h e d r y e r been i n c l u d e d , i t w o u l d h a v e been n e c e s s a r y t o

account f o r the streams o f a i r entering and l e a v i n g t h e s y s t e m , a i r enthalpy

being a f u n c t i o n o f humidity and t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s w o u l d make t h e balance

calculations a little more laborious.

It s h o u l d be f i n a l l y noted t h a t the t o t a l h e a t demand and, consequently,

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio o f the thermal s y s t e m c a n n o t be c a l c u l a t e d from the

external energy balance. This is illustrated b y T a b l e 2.4 w h i c h c o n t a i n s the

inflowing and o u t f l o w i n g e n e r g y streams b u t n o t t h e ones c i r c u l a t i n g in the

process.

2.4 MASS AND HEAT BALANCES OF HEAT RECEIVERS

2.4.1 Introductory remarks

It is often necessary to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a s u g a r

factory i n o r d e r to determine the d e t a i l s corresponding to the individual

equipment units. Such a s i t u a t i o n may a r i s e when d e s i g n i n g a new t h e r m a l system

f o r g i v e n parameters o f the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s , o r when a n a l y s i n g the

e n e r g y econorny o f an e x i s t i n g sugar f a c t o r y . In o r d e r to a r r i v e at a s o l u t i o n ,

it is necessary to identify all t h e h e a t s t r e a m s q^. d e f i n e d in Section 1.2.2;

this makes i t also possible to calculate the t o t a l h e a t demand, t h e n e t heat

demand and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio o f the thermal s y s t e m . Examples o f

formulation of this k i n d o f p r o b l e m c a n be f o u n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e (refs.

12-14).

Virtually all thermal s y s t e m s i n c o r p o r a t e s u c h e q u i p m e n t as j u i c e heaters.

 69

extractors, heated intermediate s t o r a g e tanks and vacuum p a n s . G e n e r a l formulae

used i n b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e equipment u n i t s named a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

following. The balances o f o t h e r equipment, n o t c o n s i d e r e d h e r e , c a n be m o d e l l e d

in a similar manner.

2.4.2 Juice heaters

Juice heaters are c e r t a i n l y among t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t components o f t h e

thermal s y s t e m s , as i t i s v i a the heaters that a large part o f the t o t a l heat

demand i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o c e s s . T h e b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a heater i s

r a t h e r s i m p l e , b u t t h e problem o f c o o r d i n a t i n g i t with the calculations o f other

p a r t s o f the thermal s y s t e m may be d i f f i c u l t to solve.

L e t us c o n s i d e r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e i n a h e a t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by a g i v e n h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a F and o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient k,

supplied with heating vapour a t temperature t^, while the required final

temperature o f t h e f l u i d heated i s t ^ . The q u a n t i t i e s determining t h e mass and

heat balances o f the heater are i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 2.5(a). ( I t s h o u l d be n o t e d

that the calculation p r o c e d u r e t o be a p p l i e d i n t h e c a s e o f an unknown heating

surface area i s given i n r e f . 14.)

(a) (b)

G,ti , t2 ,
-h-i-H- ttttt
Gvitv ^
iliü Gc.tci, Miii
liiii
i ΜΜI Ii!
Ι
ιιιι ι
Mill
ι ι ι ; ι

F i g . 2 . 5 . P r i n c i p l e o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f j u i c e heaters: (a) vapour-

heated, ( b ) condensate-heated.

If the f l u i d temperature at the heater i n l e t i s t-j, then the r e s u l t i n g final

t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l be

t2 = - ( t v - t i ) e x p ( - F k / ( ( l + n)GC)) (2.7)

where η i s t h e heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t and C i s t h e j u i c e specific heat.

N e g l e c t i n g c o n d e n s a t e s u b c o o l i n g , t h e mean l o g a r i t h m i c temperature difference
can be c a l c u l a t e d as

At = ( t ^ - t i ) / l n ( ( t ^ - t^)/(t^ - t2)) (2.8)

Taking the subcooling i n t o account, the approximate value o f the o u t l e t

temperature o f the condensate i s

^c = + ^1 ^ ^ 2 ) / δ (2.9)
70

D e n o t i n g t h e e n t h a l p y o f d r y s a t u r a t e d steam a t temperature t by h " ( t ) , vapour

enthalpy is t h u s h^ = h " ( t ^ ) , and a s s u m i n g a l l the e n t h a l p i e s are expressed in

kJ/kg, condensate enthalpy is h^= 4 . 1 9 t^ .

The h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d from vapour t o j u i c e in the heater is

q = (1 + n ) G C ( t 2 - t^) (2.10)

and t h e h e a t i n g v a p o u r demand

Gv = q / ( h v - \ ) (2.11)

The f u r t h e r course o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s d e p e n d s now on t h e relation between the

two f i n a l temperatures, the required t^ and r e s u l t i n g t2. Too low a t2 value is

an i n d i c a t i o n of insufficient heat s u p p l y . In order to ensure c o r r e c t heating,

the heating s u r f a c e a r e a s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d , o r a n o t h e r h e a t e r s h o u l d be

p l a n n e d n e x t t o t h e one b e i n g e v a l u a t e d ; i n e i t h e r case, it is necessary to

repeat the c a l c u l a t i o n according to eqns. (2.7)-(2.11) with a new s e t o f input

data. If t^ turns out to be t o o h i g h , t h e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n c o u l d be d r a w n that

t o o much h e a t w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d to the j u i c e . It is possible to leave the

heating s u r f a c e a r e a u n c h a n g e d , h o w e v e r , as i n reality, the temperature control

circuit will adjust t h e v a p o u r c o n s u m p t i o n s o as t o o b t a i n the required final

juice temperature t^. Consequently, the heat t r a n s f e r r e d becomes

q ^ = (1 + n ) G C ( t ^ - t^) (2.12)

and t h e resulting logarithmic temperature difference is

At^ = ( t f - t^)/ln((tf - t^)/(t^ - t2)) (2.13)

The r e s u l t i n g temperature and e n t h a l p y o f the condensate are

t^^ = (6t^ + t^ + ti)/8 (2.14)

and

h^f = 4.19 t^^ (2.15)

and t h e h e a t i n g v a p o u r demand is

Gvf = qf/(hv - h^f) (2.16)

It is also possible to determine the e f f e c t i v e (i.e., minimum r e q u i r e d ) heating

s u r f a c e a r e a as
= q^/(kAt^) (2.17)

In the case o f condensate-heated h e a t e r s , the course o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s and

the subsequent decision-making p r o c e d u r e may be d i f f e r e n t . T y p i c a l l y , condensate

mass f l o w G ^ and i n l e t temperature t^-j a r e known, along w i t h heating surface

area F, o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient k and r e q u i r e d f i n a l temperature t^

of the liquid h e a t e d . The q u a n t i t i e s determining t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s of

the heater are i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 2.5(b). Counter-current operation o f the heater

i s assumed.
 71

The d i f f i c u l t y in initiating the calculations i s the u n c e r t a i n t y about the

final temperatures o f both the l i q u i d h e a t e d and t h e c o n d e n s a t e . I t c a n be

r e s o l v e d b y making an i n i t i a l g u e s s t2^- on t h e o u t l e t temperature o f the liquid

( l a t e r o n , we w i l l be a b l e t o c h e c k how g o o d t h e g u e s s i s ) . I t t h u s becomes

possible to estimate the o u t l e t temperature o f the condensate

\ 2 = ^cl - ^ ")^^(^2i - ti))/(4.19 (2.18)

The r e s u l t i n g mean l o g a r i t h m i c temperature d i f f e r e n c e is thus

At = ( ( t ^ T - t^^) - (t^2 - ^ΐ))/"'"((^ο1 " ^2i)/(^c2 - ^l)) (2·^^)

and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d c a n be e s t i m a t e d as

q = kFAt (2.20)

It now becomes p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e an i m p r o v e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l

temperature o f the l i q u i d heated

t2 = t^ + q / ( ( l + n)GC) (2.21)

If | t 2 - t2^-| > t ^ , w h e r e t ^ i s t h e assumed t e m p e r a t u r e - e r r o r t o l e r a n c e , then

a new g u e s s on t h e v a l u e o f t2^- s h o u l d be made and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be

repeated, starting from e q n . ( 2 . 1 8 ) . Once an a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e o f t 2 has b e e n

found, the course o f the calculations depends on t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t 2 and

the required f i n a l temperature t ^ . I f t2 i s too l o w , then the heating surface

a r e a s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d , o r a n o t h e r h e a t e r s h o u l d be p l a n n e d immediately

following t h e one b e i n g e v a l u a t e d . I n e i t h e r c a s e , the calculations according

to eqns. (2.18)-(2.21) must be r e p e a t e d w i t h a new s e t o f i n p u t d a t a . Too high

a t 2 v a l u e s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as an i n d i c a t i o n o f too l a r g e a condensate

flow o r too large a heating s u r f a c e a r e a . The r e a l i s t i c value o f the heat

transferred is

q ^ = (1 + n ) G C ( t ^ - t ^ ) (2.22)

and t h e f i n a l c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as

^c2 = ^ c l ^ V(^-^^ ^c) (2.23)

The r e s u l t i n g mean l o g a r i t h m i c temperature d i f f e r e n c e is

Lt^ = ((t^^ - t^) - (t^2 - t i ) ) / l n ( ( t c l - tf)/(tc2 • ^l)) (2.24)

and t h e e f f e c t i v e heating s u r f a c e a r e a c a n be d e t e r m i n e d as

= q^/(kAtf) (2.25)

A convenient feature o f the formulae g i v e n above i s t h a t they are easy to

a r r a n g e i n a manner f a c i l i t a t i n g the calculations f o r a group o f heaters

supplied with v a r i o u s heating media. T y p i c a l l y , a d e f i n i t e temperature o f the

liquid is required at the l a s t heater outlet and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r surface

areas are g i v e n f o r a l l t h e h e a t e r s . The c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n be c o m p u t e r i z e d

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f l o w d i a g r a m shown i n F i g . 2 . 6 . I f the i n i t i a l assumptions are

correct, then the temperatures o f the l i q u i d between h e a t e r s are d e t e r m i n e d and

72

"densateW
heated L

assign
evaporator
effect
guess

t2,ec^n.(2.7)

ecins.(2-ie)- new t 2 i
C2.21)

At^.tcf^^r^vf'^f
eans.(2.12)- eons. ( 2 . 8 ) -
(2.17) (2.11)

eans.(2.22)-
(2.25)

i
CANNOT BE
set next t^ ,ATTAIN ED
ecj,ual to

STQP1 ^ 1= ί +1 ^
I
STOP 2 ^

Fig. 2.6. Flow diagram o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s for a group o f j u i c e heaters.

 73

STOP 1 i s reached. If the c a l c u l a t i o n s prove that the required final temperature

of the liquid c a n n o t be a t t a i n e d , t h e n a message i s output and t h e a c t i o n is

terminated at STOP 2 , this implying that the input d a t a must be m o d i f i e d . It

s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t a s i n g l e h e a t e r c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as a s p e c i a l case of

a heater group, this making i t possible to apply the algorithm t o most heater

arrangements encountered in the sugar industry.

2.4.3 Extractor

A characteristic feature of t h e mass and h e a t balances o f the e x t r a c t o r is

that it may be n e c e s s a r y t o split the calculations into parts corresponding to

various process requirements i m p o s e d on e x t r a c t o r parts. The d e t a i l s d e p e n d on

extractor d e s i g n , and may v a r y f r o m f a c t o r y to factory. Calculations of a tower-

type e x t r a c t o r h a v e been d e s c r i b e d i n the literature (ref. 13). In the

following, a possible procedure o f the approximate balance c a l c u l a t i o n s of

a trough-type (DOS) e x t r a c t o r is presented.

The q u a n t i t i e s determining t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s a r e indicated in

Fig. 2.7. The i d e a o f splitting the equations into two g r o u p s stems from the

fact that correct extraction d e p e n d s on e f f e c t i v e heating of the incoming

cossettes in extractor zone A ; t h i s c a n be r e f l e c t e d by a r e q u i r e m e n t that the

temperatures o f the j u i c e and c o s s e t t e s b e t w e e n z o n e s A and Β be sufficiently

high.

fresh v\^oter Gw.tw pulp

req,ulrecl temperatures:
cossettes t
juice t^j
cosseites

vapour

Fig. 2.7. Principle o f mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a trough-type extractor.

The t o t a l h e a t demand o f the e x t r a c t o r is approximately

Q = (1 + «.)(Gjhj . GpCptp - 4.19(G^t^ - Gp^tpJ - G^C^t^) (2.26)

where m i s the heat loss c o e f f i c i e n t , hj is the enthalpy o f j u i c e at temperature

tj, Cp i s the s p e c i f i c heat o f p u l p , and C^^ i s the s p e c i f i c heat o f cossettes.

74

The e s t i m a t e d temperature and e n t h a l p y o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e a t t h e o u t l e t o f zone A

can be c a l c u l a t e d as

tcA = ( " ^ A ' C^jtj - Stb)/(S- ' ' (Vj ^ *rb)/2)/8 (2.27)

= 4.19 t,, (2.28)

The r e s u l t i n g h e a t demand o f z o n e A i s

Qa = (1 + m ) ( G ^ ^ C j ^ ( t ^ ^ - t ^ ) - G.(h^. - h.}) (2.29)

and t h e h e a t i n g v a p o u r demand i n z o n e A i s

S = V ( ^ A - ^ca) (2.30)
The t e m p e r a t u r e and e n t h a l p y o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e a t the o u t l e t o f zone Β are

estimated as

tcB = ("^B ' ( V j ' V b ) / 2 - ( V „ - GpwSw ' W^^% ' Sw ' (2-31)
(2.32)

The h e a t demand o f z o n e Β i s thus

Qb = Q - Qa (2.33)

and t h e h e a t i n g v a p o u r demand i n z o n e Β i s

%= v(^B • ^b) (2.34)

2.4.4 Sugar house equipment

The e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s u g a r house a r e dominated by t h e h e a t consumption

i n t h e vacuum p a n s , t y p i c a l l y batch pans. I n t h e mass and h e a t balance

calculations, t h e d i s c r e t e n a t u r e o f vacuum pan h e a t i n g is usually disregarded

and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are performed f o r the e n t i r e massecuite streams in the

respective strikes. The q u a n t i t i e s determining t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a

fictive continuous pan r e p r e s e n t i n g b a t c h pans a r e i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 2.8(a).

(Q) a evaporated (b)

water Ge.te

syrups: G,b,-t,

Gv>tv^

Ac

massecuite

F i g . 2.8. P r i n c i p l e o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f s u g a r h o u s e e q u i p m e n t : (a)

( a ) vacuum p a n , ( b ) s y r u p t a n k .
 75

From t h e p r o c e s s d a t a , t h e sum o f i n c o m i n g mass f l o w s o f s y r u p s and t h e a v e r a g e

values o f their specific heats, initial temperatures and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c a n be

determined as

G = Σ G. (2.35)

^a = (2.36)

t^ = (Σ G.C.t.)/(GC^) (2.37)

b^ = ( Σ G . b . ) / G (2.38)

T h e mass f l o w o f the evaporated water (i.e., vacuum pan v a p o u r ) is

= G(l - b^/b^) (2.39)

Having determined the s p e c i f i c h e a t o f t h e m a s s e c u i t e C ^ , and t h e e n t h a l p y of

t h e v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r h^ = h " ( t g ) , the t i m e - a v e r a g e d h e a t demand i s e x p r e s s e d as

q = (1 + u ) ( G ^ h g + ( G - G g ) C ^ t ^ - GC^t^) (2.40)

where u i s the heat loss coefficient.

Let us o b s e r v e t h a t e v e n t h o u g h t h e h e a t o f sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n is neglected

here, the formula can y i e l d c o r r e c t h e a t demand v a l u e s p r o v i d i n g t h e h e a t loss

coefficient is appropriately d e f i n e d . The estimated values o f the temperature

and enthalpy o f the condensate are

^c = ^ ^ ^ V)/^ (2.41)

h^ = 4.19 t^ (2.42)

and the time-averaged heating v a p o u r demand is

% = q / ( ^ - ^ ) (2-43)

A substantial s h a r e o f t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e i s associated with the

tanks in which t h i c k juice, run-off, remelt a n d , p o s s i b l y , o t h e r media are

temporarily s t o r e d and h e a t e d t o d e f i n i t e temperatures. The quantities

determining t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f an i n d i r e c t l y heated tank supplied

with heating vapour at temperature t^ are indicated in Fig. 2.8(b). After

determining the inlet and o u t l e t enthalpies of the s y r u p h-j and h ^ , and a s s u m i n g

the heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t m is known, t h e h e a t demand c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as

q = (1 + m ) G ( h 2 - h^) (2.44)

The t e m p e r a t u r e and e n t h a l p y o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e c a n be e s t i m a t e d as

= (^S ^ ^1 ^ ^2)/^ (2-'^5)

h^ = 4.19 t^ (2.46)

and the heating v a p o u r demand is

^ = q / ( ^ - h^) (2.47)
76

2.5 MASS AND HEAT BALANCES OF A M U L T I P L E - E F F E C T EVAPORATOR

2.5.Ί Introduction

The m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t evaporator is a process s t a t i o n in which j u i c e thickening

takes place; i t c a n a l s o be s e e n as a b u i l d i n g block playing a decisive role in

the m u l t i p l e utilization o f energy in the thermal s y s t e m . The a c c u r a c y o f the

calculations o f evaporator balances determines the accuracy w i t h w h i c h t h e mass

and heat flows w i t h i n the thermal s y s t e m c a n be c a l c u l a t e d . It should therefore

be n o t e d t h a t i n the literature, two t e n d e n c i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e methods of

evaporator calculations c a n be identified.

(i) R e l y i n g on s i m p l i f i e d mathematical m o d e l s w h i c h e n a b l e one t o make

calculations manually, or with the aid o f a pocket c a l c u l a t o r . Although such

methods a r e c e r t a i n l y useful i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s , there is the r i s k that the

u s e r may be u n a w a r e o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e r r o r m a r g i n . Because o f the

calculation error, it may be i m p o s s i b l e t o u s e t h e s e methods in certain design

problems o r i n the o p t i m i z a t i o n of evaporators.

(ii) Using d e t a i l e d mathematical m o d e l s w h i c h may r e q u i r e t h e calculations to be

computerized. A number o f m o d e l s o f this kind h a v e been d e s c r i b e d i n the

literature. However, i t may sometimes be d i f f i c u l t to u s e them b e c a u s e t h e

publications do n o t s p e c i f y model a c c u r a c y and no i n f o r m a t i o n is g i v e n on the

numerical p r o b l e m s o f model use. I n t h e c a s e o f c a l c u l a t i o n methods relying on

the iterative improvements o f initially guessed values o f unknown v a r i a b l e s ,

an i m p r o p e r l y chosen numerical p r o c e d u r e may c a r r y t h e risk of uncontrollable

numerical errors.

Both approaches mentioned w i l l be s t u d i e d i n the f o l l o w i n g . A convenient

starting point is the s o - c a l l e d g e n e r a l i z e d evaporator s t r u c t u r e . It c a n be

u n d e r s t o o d as a s e t o f a l l p o s s i b l e c o m p o n e n t s and t h e i r connections in

a multiple-effect e v a p o r a t o r . Once a m a t h e m a t i c a l model o f the generalized

structure has been f o r m u l a t e d , one c a n e a s i l y g e n e r a t e a u n i q u e model of a

specific evaporator version.

F i g u r e 2.9 shows s c h e m a t i c a l l y a repetitive block o f the s t r u c t u r e of a co-

current (parallel flow) multiple-effect evaporator comprising an arbitrary

number o f e f f e c t s . The f o l l o w i n g c o n n e c t i o n s between t h e b l o c k and its

surroundings (including neighbouring blocks) c a n be t a k e n into account:

- vapour withdrawal for heating p u r p o s e s and c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n from heat

receivers,

- s u p p l y o f v a p o u r o b t a i n e d by c o n d e n s a t e f l a s h evaporation,

- condensate withdrawal for heating o r o t h e r purposes (to the receivers outside

the e v a p o r a t o r ) ,

- condensate supply to the condensate tank i n the next evaporator effect.

In the f o l l o w i n g , the e f f e c t s o f an N - e f f e c t evaporator w i l l be numbered

 77

extracted ν ν
vapour I

steam I to
or ; i-th condenser
heating effect
vapour t'

juice I GÓ.^¿,bt G'. t.' b.' i

"ί-ΐ' ί-ΐ' i-1 • II Άψ t' Β

condensate'
flash vapouH^ I
L
condensatej i-r 1-1

returned I Gi,t¿ •\
condensate EVAPORATOR
BOUNDARY
extracted \
condensate!

F i g . 2 . 9 . Scheme o f t h e i - t h r e p e t i t i v e b l o c k i n an N - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r and the

symbols used i n t h e mathematical model.

1,2,..,N. Certain variables w i l l be i n d e x e d 0 a t inlet and N+1 a t outlet.

A typical set of input data f o r evaporator calculations comprises the

following parameters:

- t h i n j u i c e mass f l o w G ^ ,

- concentration of thin juice and t h i c k j u i c e Bj^,

- thin juice temperature t¿.

The mass f l o w o f w a t e r t o be e v a p o r a t e d c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as

G = G¿(1 - b Q / B ^ ) (2.48)

The following process parameters a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s

and must be s p e c i f i e d b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e calculations:

- temperature and p r e s s u r e o f t h e h e a t i n g steam s u p p l i e d t o the f i r s t effect

4-S „s
Pp

- temperature differences At^ At2,.., ät^ between t h e h e a t i n g steam o r v a p o u r ,

and the vapour generated from j u i c e ; alternatively, temperature differences

between t h e h e a t i n g steam o r v a p o u r , and t h e j u i c e , c a n be s p e c i f i e d .

From t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f o t h e r components o f t h e t h e r m a l system, the

following d a t a must a l s o be k n o w n :

- mass f l o w s of vapours withdrawn from the individual effects for h e a t i ng

purposes G ^ , G ^ , . . , G ^ ;
78

- mass f l o w s and t e m p e r a t u r e s o f condensates returned to the condensate tanks,

G!|*, G29..J GJJ and tp t2j..j tjj;

- condensate w i t h d r a w a l / s u p p l y c o e f f i c i e n t s r^ i ^ 2 " * » '^Ν'

For the i-th effect, r^ = 0 means t h a t the e n t i r e condensate stream is withdrawn

to the surroundings, while r^. = 1 means t h a t the e n t i r e condensate stream is

supplied to the tank i n the e f f e c t numbered (i+1).

F o r known e v a p o r a t o r d e s i g n s and known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the thermal

insulation in the individual effects, the f o l l o w i n g thermal d a t a c a n be

specified:

- subcooling (relative to the s a t u r a t i o n temperature) of the condensates leaving

the c o n s e c u t i v e heating chambers s ^ S 2 » . . , Sj^;

- vapour temperature d r o p s due t o throttling in the pipes linking neighbouring

effects d p d 2 , . . , d^^;

- heat loss c o e f f i c i e n t s of the evaporator bodies e ^ e2,.., ej^ and c o n d e n s a t e

tanks C p 0 2 » . . > Cj^.

Having s p e c i f i e d a l l the input d a t a , one i s able to determine the vapour

temperatures in the e n t i r e evaporator (for effects numbered i = 1, 2,.., N) as

tV = t? - At. (2.49)

t l , - t^ - d,. (2.50)

It now becomes p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t a mathematical description of the multi­

stage evaporation process, in the form o f a system o f e q u a t i o n s containing

unknown mass f l o w s , temperatures and j u i c e concentrations i n o r between the

individual evaporator effects. The f o l l o w i n g thermodynamic functions must be

known i n o r d e r t o formulate the energy balance relationships:

- h'^(t,b), juice e n t h a l p y as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature and c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,

- AT(t,b), boiling point e l e v a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of temperature and

concentration,

- h"(t), e n t h a l p y o f d r y s a t u r a t e d s t e a m as a f u n c t i o n of temperature,

- h'(t), e n t h a l p y o f s a t u r a t e d w a t e r as a f u n c t i o n of temperature.

2.5.2 Simplified model

The mathematical description of a single evaporator effect becomes much

e a s i e r to handle i f t h e h e a t l o s s e s and c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n s a r e n e g l e c t e d and the

amount o f v a p o u r e v a p o r a t e d f r o m j u i c e is s e t equal to t h e amount o f heating

v a p o u r o r steam condensed ( t h a t is, the i n f l u e n c e o f the temperature and

c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e j u i c e enthalpy is d i s r e g a r d e d ) . These assumptions c a n be

written down, f o r i = 1, 2,.., N, as e.¡ = c^. = 0 , οξ* = 0 , and

G^ = G ^ - GT + G ^ ^ . , (2.51)

where G Í i s t h e mass f l o w o f condensate f l a s h vapour, to be c a l c u l a t e d from the

 79

relationship

= (G' + G^_^)(h^^ - h ^ ) / ( h [ - h^) (2.52)

where the e n t h a l p i e s h ^ ^ , h9 and h t a p p l y t o the subcooled condensate leaving

the heating chamber, the condensate i n the t a n k , and t h e f l a s h vapour,

respectively. These e n t h a l p i e s are determined as

h^' = h'(t^ - s.) (2.53)

= h'(t^^^) (2.54)

hf = h"(t^^T) (2.55)

The mass f l o w o f c o n d e n s a t e t o t h e t a n k in the next e f f e c t is

G? = r . ( G ^ + G ^ . ^ - G f ) (2.56)

The mass b a l a n c e o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r can now be d e t e r m i n e d by s o l v i n g an e q u a t i o n

with t h e mass f l o w o f t h e l a s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r t o t h e c o n d e n s e r , G ^ ^ ^ , as the

unknown v a r i a b l e . Linking t h e mass b a l a n c e s o f t h e e f f e c t s numbered

N, N - 1 , . . , i, formulated in accordance with eqn. ( 2 . 5 1 ) , we o b t a i n

= ¿ « ^ N - k - i k ) ^ (2.57)

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , we can c o n c l u d e f r o m t h e mass b a l a n c e o f t h e entire

evaporator that

G^^l = (G - ^E^i(Gy - GÍ))/N (2.58)

where G i s d e f i n e d by e q n . (2.48).

T h e m a s s - b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n can now be o b t a i n e d b y s u b s t i t u t i n g , for

i = Ν, N - 1 , . . , 1, eqns. (2.53)-(2.56) into eqn. (2.11), thus determining g[ as

functions o f G ^ _ ^ ^ , and s u b s e q u e n t l y s u b s t i t u t i n g these functions into eqn.

(2.58). F o r a s p e c i f i c number o f e f f e c t s N, t h i s can be done a n a l y t i c a l l y . It is

also p o s s i b l e to devise a simple algorithm delivering numerical solutions for

arbitrary N , as shown i n F i g . 2 . 1 0 ( a ) . The a l g o r i t h m is b a s e d on a c h a i n of

substitutions g e n e r a t i n g an e q u a t i o n o f t h e form

" l l -η<^Μ) (2-59)

T h i s e q u a t i o n can be s o l v e d by i t e r a t i v e l y improving approximate s o l u t i o n s to

s a t i s f y the condition

IG^^I - f(G^^^)| < g (2.60)

where g i s a sufficiently small number.

In o r d e r t o simplify the flow diagram, the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the condensate

mass f l o w a c c o r d i n g t o e q n . (2.56) is n o t shown i n Fig. 2.10(a). As this
80

(α) (b)
eqn.(2A8) eqn.(2A8)

for i = 1.2. . . . N for i=1.2, . . . N

eqns.{2.49).(2.58) eqns.{2.49).(2.50)
{2.53)- (2.55) (2.53)-(255).(2.80)
Gi = 0

initial
guesses

for G ^ , ^

for i=N,N-1,..,1

eqn.(2.57)
eqn.(2.52)

- J -
G ^ ^ ^ from(2.58)

F i g . 2 . 1 0 . Flow diagram o f the a l g o r i t h m s o f e v a p o r a t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s : (a) using

the s i m p l i f i e d model, (b) using the d e t a i l e d model.

calculation is performed before checking c o n d i t i o n (2.60), t h e mass b a l a n c e of

t h e e v a p o r a t o r becomes u n a m b i g u o u s l y d e f i n e d . Known v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e flows

make i t possible to calculate juice flows and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , for

i = 2, 3,.., N-1, as

= Q J . ^ - G? (2.61)

Consequently, boiling point e l e v a t i o n s and e f f e c t i v e temperature differences in

the e f f e c t s numbered i = 1, 2 , . . , Ν are

ΔΤ. = AT(tr, b . ) (2.63)

 81

At. = t^ - (tV + ΔΤ.) (2.64)

Known t e m p e r a t u r e s and j u i c e concentrations now make i t possible to estimate

overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients k^. i n each e f f e c t , using graphs o r formulae

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the evaporator design a p p l i e d . Consequently, heat transfer

s u r f a c e a r e a s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as

F,. = G ^ ( h ? - h f )/(k.At.) (2.65)

2.5.3 Detailed model

It was o b s e r v e d a l o n g t i m e ago t h a t the accuracy o f the simplified model may

be i n s u f f i c i e n t when s o l v i n g c e r t a i n e n g i n e e r i n g problems (ref. 15). The

systematic e r r o r inherent in the simplified model r e s u l t s mainly from neglected

changes in j u i c e e n t h a l p y between c o n s e c u t i v e e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , neglected heat

losses to t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s , and i n c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the condensate flash.

More d e t a i l e d m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s h a v e been c o n s i d e r e d by v a r i o u s authors

(refs. 16-18). A complete s e t o f equations d e s c r i b i n g a s i n g l e e v a p o r a t o r effect

is presented below. It is assumed t h a t the j u i c e concentration is known, which

implies that some h i g h e r - o r d e r a l g o r i t h m must s u p p l y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s for each

calculation step corresponding to a single effect. T h e r e f o r e , t h e model may

include eqns. (2.63) and ( 2 . 6 4 ) . The e n t h a l p y o f the j u i c e is

h^* = h J ( t ^ ' , b.) (2.66)

T h e mass f l o w o f t h e v a p o u r o b t a i n e d is

G? = G- - G ( + G ^ ^ ^ (2.67)

T h e mass f l o w o f the heating vapour required to evaporate this amount o f water

can be c a l c u l a t e d as

G^ = ( ( 1 + e.)/(h^ - h f ))(G?(hy - hl^) - GJ(hJ_^ - hJ)) (2.68)

where t h e e n t h a l p y h?^ i s d e f i n e d by e q n . (2.53) and t h e e n t h a l p y hV o f vapour

generated i s defined as

= h"(t^) (2.69)

The t o t a l mass f l o w o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e e n t e r i n g the tank is

G - ^ = G ^ _ . , + G^ + G C (2.70)

and i t s average temperature c a n be c a l c u l a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y as

t f = (G?(t^ - s.) + G^.^t^.^ + G;'t^)/Gf (2.71)

The c o n d e n s a t e e n t h a l p y a t the average temperature is

h f = h ' ( t f ) (2.72)
82

The mass f l o w of the condensate f l a s h vapour is

= G f ( h f - h^)/((hi - h^)(l + c.)) (2.73)

and t h e mass f l o w of the condensate withdrawn to the surroundings is

G^ = G9^ - - G^ (2.74)

It is now p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e mass f l o w of the j u i c e at the outlet as

GJ = GJ.^ - G? (2.75)

and the j u i c e concentration at the outlet as

bi = b^-iG^-j/G^' (2.76)

As in the simplified model, the above e q u a t i o n s c a n be f o r m u l a t e d for the

effects numbered 1, 2,.., Ν and t h e n combined into one e q u a t i o n (with one

unknown v a r i a b l e G^^^^) a n a l o g o u s t o eqn. (2.59). As t h e chain of substitutions

is rather complicated, the equation c a n o n l y be s o l v e d n u m e r i c a l l y . Contrary to

the simplified model, d i r e c t iterations may n o t converge; i t is therefore

necessary to use o t h e r numerical methods. The e q u a t i o n is conveniently rewritten

in the form

'^l,-n^l^)-0 ( 2 ). 7 7

In Fig. 2.10(b), the flow diagram o f the algorithm b a s e d on a p p l i c a t i o n of the

s e c a n t method is shown. A p r e r e q u i s i t e for a successful iterative computation is

to find two initial approximations of the unknown v a r i a b l e for which e r r o r s of

eqn. (2.77) have o p p o s i t e s i g n s . It is usually possible to set G^^^ = 0 as the

first approximation, and G^^-j r e s u l t i n g from the initial chain of substitutions

as the second. When c o m p u t e r i z i n g the algorithm, it is recommended t o check the

error signs for both approximations and, i f necessary, to modify one o f them

before the iterative process is started. Some i n i t i a l approximations have also

to be f o u n d f o r several other v a r i a b l e s whose v a l u e s a r e n o t known as l o n g as

G^^^ is unknown. B e f o r e e n t e r i n g the iteration loop, it c a n be assumed t h a t for

i = 2, 3,.., N-1, the concentrations and t h e mass f l o w s of the j u i c e are

b. = b._^ + (B^ - bQ)/N (2.78)

and

GJ = GJ.^b..i/b. ( 2 ). 7 9

The initial guesses f o r t h e mass f l o w s of the flash vapours f o r i = 1, 2,.., N-1

can be

Gf = 0.005 G^ (2.80)

The iterations in the internal l o o p c a n be t e r m i n a t e d if, in two s u b s e q u e n t

 83

iterations numbered n-1 and n , the j u i c e concentrations at the evaporator outlet

do n o t d i f f e r by more t h a n t h e assumed t o l e r a n c e b^

|bi") - b("-1)| < (2.81)

After completing the iteration loop c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s e c a n t method, a l l the

mass f l o w s w i t h i n the m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r a r e known. E q u a t i o n s (2.64) and

(2.65) c a n t h e n be u s e d t o determine the heat exchange areas i n the individual

evaporator bodies.

2.5.4 Example

The d i f f e r e n c e between the s i m p l i f i e d model and t h e d e t a i l e d model c a n be

demonstrated by a numerical example. The i n p u t data f o r a quintuple-effect

e v a p o r a t o r a r e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 5 , and t h e r e s u l t s of the c a l c u l a t i o n s performed

u s i n g b o t h m o d e l s a r e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 6 . As c a n be s e e n , w h i l e the results

p r o d u c e d by t h e d e t a i l e d model are f u l l y a c c e p t a b l e , the simplified model yields

a negative vapour flow from the last evaporator effect to the condenser, which

is physically impossible.

TABLE 2.5

Main i n p u t data for t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t evaporator.

T h i n j u i c e mass f l o w (t/h) 219.9

Thin j u i c e temperature (OC) 127.0
Thin j u i c e concentration {% DS) 14.1
Thick j u i c e concentration (% DS) 52.0
H e a t i n g steam t e m p e r a t u r e (OC) 139.0

Effect No. 1 2 3 4 5

Mass f l o w o f v a p o u r w i t h d r a w n (t/h) 4.75 49.00 8.10 8.10 6.93

Temperature d i f f e r e n c e between h e a t i n g (K) 9.2 8.1 6.8 12.3 13.5
s t e a m / v a p o u r and v a p o u r g e n e r a t e d

TABLE 2.6

E x c e r p t s f r o m t h e c a l c u l a t e d mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a quintuple-effect

e v a p o r a t o r ( a l l mass f l o w s i n t / h ) .

Simplified Detailed
Quantity Effect No.
model model

Mass f l o w o f v a p o u r g e n e r a t e d 1 67.60 66.85

2 64.01 63.22
3 16.09 15.60
4 9.11 9.66
5 3.10 5.03

Mass f l o w o f c o n d e n s a t e flash 1 1.16 0.98

vapour 2 1.08 0.76
3 1.13 1.00
4 2.08 2.28
5 2.26 2.67

Mass f l o w o f vapour to the

condenser -1.58 0.76
84

It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e in vapour flows to the condenser r e s u l t s

from d i f f e r e n t approaches o f t h e models t o the j u i c e flash phenomenon a t the

inlet t o e a c h s t a g e . As t h i s phenomenon i s disregarded in the s i m p l i f i e d model

(the influence o f temperature and c o n c e n t r a t i o n on j u i c e enthalpy is neglected),

the t o t a l amount o f vapours generated i n the evaporator i s underestimated, and

so i s the vapour flow from the last effect.

2.6 MASS AND HEAT BALANCES OF A THERMAL SYSTEM

2.6.1 Principles of utilization of the results of balance calculations

The a l g o r i t h m s used t o calculate the m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r and t h e heat

receivers c a n be c o m b i n e d i n t o one a l g o r i t h m o f a d e t a i l e d mass and h e a t

balance o f the thermal s y s t e m . T o make a d i s t i n c t i o n from the e x t e r n a l energy

balance, this principle is sometimes called e v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r approach. In

order to turn t h e combined a l g o r i t h m into a tool for engineering analyses, it

s h o u l d be g e n e r a l e n o u g h t o make i t possible to calculate the balances of

various hypothetical thermal systems. The a l g o r i t h m s h o u l d a l s o make i t easy

for the user to handle p r a c t i c a l situations associated with solving engineering

problems. F o r e x a m p l e , when d e s i g n i n g a new t h e r m a l system, the results of the

calculation o f an e v a p o r a t o r m i g h t prove that t h e assumed d i s t r i b u t i o n of

vapours to the individual receivers is incompatible with the required value of

thick juice concentration. Alternatively, for other sets of input data, the

results might indicate that the j u i c e temperatures assumed i n certain places

c a n n o t be r e a c h e d . I n b o t h c a s e s , t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e r e q u i r e s t h a t some

changes t o the input d a t a be i n t r o d u c e d , and two b a s i c t y p e s o f c h a n g e s c a n be

imagined: corrections of t h e mass b a l a n c e , o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s of the s t r u c t u r e of

the thermal s y s t e m . Once t h e input data h a v e been c h a n g e d , t h e calculations must

be r e p e a t e d .

A slightly different situation a r i s e s when i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e mass and h e a t

b a l a n c e s o f an e x i s t i n g system. U s u a l l y , the b a l a n c e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d from

input data which i n c l u d e o n l y a p a r t o f the data o b t a i n e d from the measurements.

The r e s u l t s are then s e t a g a i n s t the remaining m e a s u r e m e n t d a t a , and an a t t e m p t

i s made t o interpret p o s s i b l e d i s c r e p a n c i e s . Once a h y p o t h e s i s f o r the cause o f

t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s has b e e n f o r m u l a t e d , changes t o the input data are introduced

and t h e b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s are repeated. (The a p p l i c a t i o n s of this procedure

are mentioned in Chapter 3.)

It c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e s t h a t the analyses o f energy

balances often require repetitive calculations. T h i s must be s e e n i n connection

with the handling o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v o l u m e s o f d a t a and t h e r e p e t i t i v e use o f

thermodynamic functions. The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the balance r e s u l t s is also a non-

trivial problem, because i t is necessary to show a l l the d e t a i l s w h i c h may be

needed t o a n a l y s e t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f the b a l a n c e and t o identify the necessary

 85

changes i n the input data.

2.6.2 Computer-aided balance calculations

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c features o f the engineering tasks discussed in the

preceding Section j u s t i f y the use o f computers to automate data handling,

calculations and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f results. Contemporary computers, i n c l u d i n g the

so-called professional personal computers, are very well suited to this kind of

application. As r e g a r d s t h e d a t a h a n d l i n g , the p r o b l e m s c a n c o n v e n i e n t l y be

s o l v e d u s i n g s t a n d a r d d a t a - b a s e programs t o c r e a t e and u p d a t e t h e d a t a files.

The c a l c u l a t i o n program, i n c l u d i n g the thermodynamic functions, c a n be written

in some h i g h - l e v e l programming language, l i k e Basic, Fortran or Pascal. The

p r o g r a m s h o u l d r e a d most i n p u t data from the f i l e s , possibly accepting the

remaining d a t a f r o m t h e k e y b o a r d , and t h e results s h o u l d p r e f e r a b l y be s t o r e d in

the f i l e s . It is also important to have h i g h l y flexible presentation programs

available, t o make i t possible to s e l e c t from the files and t o display or print

only the part of the r e s u l t s which i s really needed a t a particular moment.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t to computerize the balance c a l c u l a t i o n s is

p e r h a p s more a p r o b l e m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a n o f the engineering activities

content. T h e r e f o r e , no s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n e s on p r o g r a m d e s i g n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

here, as i t is never possible to eliminate t h e need f o r a careful analysis of

the p r a c t i c a l requirements and c o n d i t i o n s for program u s e . It may be o f some

interest, however, to take a look at t h e main f e a t u r e s o f a program, developed

with the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the present a u t h o r , and l a t e r used i n hundreds of

applications (ref. 19). Most a p p l i c a t i o n cases were r e l a t e d to design problems,

b u t s e v e r a l d o z e n s o f mass a n d h e a t b a l a n c e s w e r e a l s o c a l c u l a t e d when

investigating e n e r g y economy p r o b l e m s in existing sugar factories.

T h e p r o g r a m was g r a d u a l l y improved d u r i n g the p e r i o d 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 8 0 , as i t was

d e s i g n e d and c o d e d f o r new v e r s i o n s o f m i c r o c o m p u t e r s . A simplified flow diagram

v i s u a l i z i n g the e s s e n t i a l actions and d e c i s i o n s l e f t to t h e p r o g r a m u s e r and the

essential blocks o f routines performed by t h e computer i s shown i n F i g . 2.11. It

c a n be s e e n t h a t t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e u s e r and t h e c o m p u t e r p l a y s an

important role in the functioning of the program. In a d d i t i o n , it has b e e n taken

into account that a complete a p p l i c a t i o n c y c l e comprising data input,

calculations, p o s s i b l e data m o d i f i c a t i o n s and r e - c a l c u l a t i o n s , presentation of

intermediate and f i n a l r e s u l t s , and f i n a l p r o b l e m a n a l y s i s may require

a considerable time. Therefore, it has been made p o s s i b l e t o interrupt, and

later restart, program a c t i o n at several points between t h e routine b l o c k s . The

resulting flexibility o f program use t u r n e d o u t to be a c r u c i a l factor in its

successful applications.

Much a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o t h e u s e r ' s c o n v e n i e n c e when u t i l i z i n g the

data input routines, as l a r g e d a t a v o l u m e s a r e a l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the risk

 86

key in update

calculations
of heat recei­
vers, printouts

:ey in data
on thernnal
syslenr) details

corrected At

F i g . 2 . 1 1 . S i m p l i f i e d f l o w d i a g r a m o f a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m c a l c u l a t i n g t h e mass
and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e r m a l s y s t e m s o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s . T h e b o x e s marked *
d e n o t e d i s k e t t e memory.

of typing errors. Input data are l o g i c a l l y divided into segments r e l a t e d to the

p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e , e q u i p m e n t p a r a m e t e r s , p r o c e s s h e a t i n g requirements and

thermal system s t r u c t u r e . Within each segment, a s e r i e s o f ergonomically

 87

optimized screen formats p r o v i d e s g u i d a n c e f o r t h e u s e r and c r o s s - c h e c k s on d a t a

correctness and c o n s i s t e n c y , as w e l l as a l l o w i n g convenient introduction of all

n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s and c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e d a t a a l r e a d y s t o r e d i n t h e c o m p u t e r

memory.

Concerning the outputs, b o t h t o v i d e o s c r e e n and h a r d c o p y , a number o f

options h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d t o e n a b l e t h e u s e r t o c h o o s e t h e v o l u m e and t h e

form o f the o u t p u t information. Among o t h e r s , it i s p o s s i b l e t o choose from four

languages f o r o u t p u t descriptions. A section of printout with the t e x t in

English i s shown i n F i g . 2 . 1 2 .

IFABLÖ ü f EVAPORATOR PARAMETERS T A B L E 1

E F F E C T NUMBER
PAF;:AMETER D E S C R I P T I O N U N I T
1 ! 2 ! 3 : 4 : 5
14 Η e 3 1 I. Ι Ί SI S t e a M t E ΐϊι Ρ e r a t Υ E C 136. 0 ! 1 2 8 . 8 Ί 1 2 1 . 5 1110 . 4 ! 9 9 . 8
II II II II
2 . V a Ρo u r t e in ΡE & ur t e C 1 2 9 . 8 ! 1 2 2 . 5
II
1111.4
II
1 1 0 0 . 8 !
II II
90.1

3 . J Υ ;J. C E t E ιϊι ρ e A t ϊ· e C
130 . 3 ! 1 2 3 . 2 Ί113 . 9 ! 1 0 4 . 4 I 94 . 5
4 • LHI E f U I t θ iTi Ρ E A t . d i f f E r e E Nc C
5 . 7 ! 5 . 5 ! 7 . 3 ! 5 . 4 ! 4 . 4

5 . E.' V 3 Ρ o a t :I. o Η E F f e C t %PB J I J J

¿ . Ε Ηt r y S B E Β ιϊι q i.j A iί t I t \:i %PB

3 2 . 1 9 ! 2 0 . 3 5 ! 2 5 . 1 5 !
! ! !
4 . 3 4 !
!
1.81

7 *\}aFOIJ f o r hea t i r η η e %e PdB S

3 3 . 1 1 Ί 2 5 . 6 5 ! 2 4 . 6 1 !

7 . 0 2 !
I I I
2 . 3 6 ! 2 1 . 7 7 !
3 . 9 4 !
!
4 . 2 3 !
1.46

1.82
8 . J U I C E Q u a n t i t y a f t e r E F F E C T %PB 82 . 8 3 ! 5 6 . 4 8 ! 3 1 . 3 2 ! 2 6 . 9 9 ! 2 5 .18

9. J U i C e COΙΊCEιίtr *aF t E r ef f ect BX 19 . 7 6 ! 2 8 . 9 8 ! 5 2 . 2 5 ! 6 0 . 6 4 ! 6 5 . 01

1 0 . U A Ρ O IJ Ρ e SSΥ ν e MP A
ATA
! ! !
0 . 2 6 8 ! 0 . 2 1 4 ! 0 . 1 5 0 ! 0 . 1 0 4 ! 0 .
2 . 7 3 ! 2 . 1 8 ! 1.53! 1.06!
!
071
0.7;;

11. Τ A Γι S F e r e d Hea t Α Υ a γί ti t y KW 2 0 5 4 7 ! 1 6 0 6 6 ! 1 5 5 6 2 ! 2 5 2 8 ! 947

F i g . 2 . 1 2 . P a r t o f a p r i n t o u t f r o m a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m c a l c u l a t i n g t h e mass and
heat balances o f thermal systems o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s ( c o u r t e s y Chemadex).

2.7 EXERGY BALANCES

2.7.1 Theoretical background

When i n t r o d u c i n g the energy balance equations ( 2 . 5 ) and ( 2 . 6 ) , we h a v e i n

fact accepted a convention according to which the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the energy

flow i s b a s e d on t h e e n t h a l p y o f m a t t e r entering or leaving the thermodynamic

system. T h e same c o n v e n t i o n i s u s e d when r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e e n e r g y f l o w in

88

a Sankey d i a g r a m . L e t us o b s e r v e , n o w e v e r , t h a t if the reference parameters in

the definition of the enthalpy are changed ( f o r example, zero enthalpy assumed

at 20°C i n s t e a d o f a t O ^ C ) , then the representation of the energy flow is

changed t o o , even though the essence o f the e n e r g y b a l a n c e does n o t change at

all. In order to accentuate the fact that the energy balance representation is

s o d e p e n d e n t on t h e notion of enthalpy, some a u t h o r s have adopted t h e terms

"enthalpy balance" and " e n t h a l p y flow diagram" (refs. 14,20).

The e n t h a l p y - b a s e d e n e r g y b a l a n c e s a r e indispensable to the design a n a l y s e s ,

and p a r t i c u l a r l y to the preparation of the data for equipment selection

decisions. T h e same a p p l i e s to the monitoring o f energy p r o c e s s e s , including

the determination of the energy consumption. I n a n a l y s e s aimed a t the

identification of the energy-saving potential of p o s s i b l e thermal system

improvements, h o w e v e r , t h e e n t h a l p y - b a s e d b a l a n c e s c a n be e x p e c t e d t o deliver

only a part of the information required. The r e a s o n i s that in real-life

systems, the e f f i c i e n c y of energy u t i l i z a t i o n c a n be r e d u c e d n o t o n l y b y direct

heat losses to the environment, but a l s o by i n d i r e c t l o s s e s known as the

thermal degradation o f energy. For example, if a certain amount o f e n e r g y has

been t r a n s f e r r e d from a high-temperature medium t o a low-temperature one, then

the range o f possibilities for the utilization of this amount o f e n e r g y is

narrowed. A similar effect is obtained when t h e flow of an energy-carrying

medium i s t h r o t t l e d down f r o m a h i g h e r to a lower pressure. G e n e r a l l y , the

processes resulting in the thermal degradation o f energy are c a l l e d irreversible

processes.

While the direct e n e r g y l o s s e s c a n be q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d e s c r i b e d on the

conceptual basis p r o v i d e d by t h e first law o f thermodynamics, the indirect

losses cannot. A quantitative description of the indirect energy losses requires

use o f the notions associated w i t h the second law o f thermodynamics, and

particularly the notion of entropy. F o r a thermodynamic system which is isolated

from i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s , the second law s p e c i f i e s that for any infinitesimally

small change o f s t a t e of the system, the change o f entropy ( d e n o t e d S ) must be

non-negative

dS > 0 (2.81)

where the inequality sign applies to irreversible, and t h e e q u a l i t y sign to

reversible, processes. In a f i n i t e process i n i t i a t e d at state 1 and terminated

at state 2, the entropy increase

2
AS = / dS (2.82)
1
c a n be u n d e r s t o o d as a m e a s u r e o f t h e energy degradation caused by t h e process.

As t h e e n t r o p y is always a t t r i b u t e d t o the matter contained in the system, it

c a n a l s o be e x p r e s s e d p e r 1 kg m a s s ; it will t h e n be c a l l e d specific entropy.

 8 9

and d e n o t e d s.

I n an a t t e m p t t o construct a unified theoretical approach t o both direct

energy l o s s e s and e n e r g y d e g r a d a t i o n , a new t h e r m o d y n a m i c function called exergy

has been i n t r o d u c e d w i t h the definition

e = h - hQ - T Q (S - S Q ) ( 2 ). 8 3

where s u b s c r i p t 0 denotes t h e s t a t e of thermodynamic equilibrium with the

environment. T Q thus denotes the environment temperature and h g , S Q the enthalpy

and e n t r o p y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , at the parameters corresponding to the state of

equilibrium; h and s d e n o t e e n t h a l p y and e n t r o p y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , at the

parameters f o r which exergy i s defined.

An e x e r g y l o s s t a k i n g p l a c e i n a p r o c e s s c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as an indication

that, following direct energy l o s s e s o r thermal degradation o f energy (this

resulting in enthalpy c h a n g e , e n t r o p y change o r a combination of both), the

state o f t h e s y s t e m moves c l o s e r t o thermodynamic equilibrium with the

environment. Obviously, this is associated with a reduction o f the range of

possibilities for the utilization of system e n e r g y .

Using the notion o f e x e r g y , the p r o c e s s e s o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and

distribution c a n be d e s c r i b e d by e x e r g y b a l a n c e s . A g r a p h i c a l representation of

the exergy balance (that is, the exergy flow diagram) is known as t h e Grassmann

diagram. It c a n g e n e r a l l y be s t a t e d that the e x e r g y - b a s e d approach i s very

g r a p h i c and u s e f u l in comparisons o f d i s s i m i l a r solutions of energy processes.

Examples o f successful applications of exergy analyses to sugar technology

problems c a n be f o u n d i n the literature (refs. 2 2 , 2 3 ).

As r e g a r d s industrial practice, it c a n be o b s e r v e d t h a t o n c e a f e w solution

concepts h a v e been s e l e c t e d f o r an e n e r g y p r o c e s s , i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o

determine the process parameters, s e l e c t the equipment and e s t i m a t e the costs.

Of c o u r s e , c o s t estimates s h o u l d be b a s e d on t h e e n t h a l p y balances, possibly

prepared in parallel with the exergy balances. If the field of possible

solutions is limited, as i s rather characteristic of the sugar i n d u s t r y , then

the enthalpy balance alone is effective e n o u g h as a t o o l for s o l v i n g most energy

engineering problems. After all, the exergy balance i s nothing more t h a n another

convention f o r describing the energy processes.

2.7.2 Example

Compare e n t h a l p y - f l o w and e x e r g y - f l o w r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of energy conversion

and u t i l i z a t i o n in the pulp drying p r o c e s s . T h e amount o f pulp delivered to

a drum-type dryer is 2 4 kg p e r 1 0 0 kg b e e t , the dry substance content changes

from 2 0 % to 90%, t h e gas t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e drum i s 900°C at inlet and l l O ^ C at

outlet, and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n is 2 9 00 k J p e r kg w a t e r removed. O t h e r data

a r e as f o l l o w s : fuel used - oil, furnace efficiency 0.93, heat loss coefficient

90

of t h e d r y e r drum 0 . 0 3 , environment temperature 20 C .

E n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n in the pulp drying p r o c e s s c a n be divided

into three steps: fuel combustion, air admixing to the combustion g a s , and

drying. The Sankey diagram (enthalpy flow representation) is shown in

Fig. 2.13(a) and t h e Grassmann d i a g r a m (exergy flow representation) in

Fig. 2.13(b).

(a) (b)

fuel 100% fuel 100%

loss Λ ) .
7% VI

, . pressed
Η pulp 0.4%
loss I

L. dried
pulp 0.1%
exhaust
e x h a u s t g a s 102.1% g a s 11.9%

F i g . 2 . 1 3 . E n t h a l p y - f l o w ( a ) and e x e r g y - f l o w ( b ) r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f the pulp

d r y i n g p r o c e s s . 1 - f u r n a c e , 2 - mixing chamber, 3 - d r y e r drum.

The e n t h a l p y - f l o w a p p r o a c h seems t o suggest that significant energy savings

c o u l d o n l y be o b t a i n e d by c u t t i n g down t h e e n t h a l p y flow in t h e gas a t the dryer

outlet, as t h e d i r e c t energy losses are small.

In the e x e r g y - f l o w r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , however, considerable exergy losses are

a t t r i b u t e d to the furnace, the mixing chamber and t h e d r y e r d r u m . Starting from

the last process s t e p , the exergy loss in t h e d r y e r c o u l d be r e d u c e d b y

decreasing the initial gas t e m p e r a t u r e . Then, i n the mixing c h a m b e r , one could

imagine the e l i m i n a t i o n o f air admixing, which is the cause o f the exergy loss

occurring there. I n s t e a d , gas c o o l i n g by h e a t exchange w i t h a steam-generating

t u b e b u n d l e c o u l d be a p p l i e d , and b y d e l i v e r i n g steam t o a turbo-generator,

electrical e n e r g y c o u l d be p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t any e x t r a e n e r g y s u p p l y from the

environment. Finally, in the f u r n a c e , the exergy loss is u n a v o i d a b l e , as i t is

associated with the v e r y nature o f the combustion process.

2.8 A N A L Y S I S OF TRANSIENT ENERGY PROCESSES USING COMPUTER S I M U L A T I O N

In engineering problems related to the automatic control and m o n i t o r i n g of

energy processes, i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y the dynamic behaviour of the

thermal system under changing o p e r a t i n g conditions. For example, i t may be

 91

necessary to e v a l u a t e p o s s i b l e consequences o f the a p p l i c a t i o n s of various

control systems w i t h r e s p e c t to the e n e r g y l o s s e s accompanying t r a n s i e n t states

of the evaporator. Problems o f t h i s k i n d c a n be a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e a i d of

computer s i m u l a t i o n methods.

The e s s e n c e o f computer s i m u l a t i o n is illustrated by t h e scheme i n Fig. 2.14.

For the system under i n v e s t i g a t i o n (i.e., an e q u i p m e n t unit, a process station

or a factory s e c t i o n ) , an a d e q u a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l model must be f o r m u l a t e d in

terms of variables representing the key p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s and t h e e x p r e s s i o n s

(i.e., equations, inequalities and f u n c t i o n s ) representing the relationships

between t h e p a r a m e t e r s . Having transformed t h e model into a computer program,

one is able to c a r r y out calculations of the behaviour of the system i n steady-

state and d y n a m i c conditions.

input data reflecting

operating conditions

_L_
MATHEMATICAL COMPUTER
SYSTEM
MODEL PROGRAM

1^
simulation results predicting
II system behaviour
11
' I engineering decisions regarding
sysfenrTproperties.automatic controls, etc.

F i g . 2.14. P r i n c i p l e o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t e c h n o l o g i c a l systems w i t h the a i d o f computer s i m u l a t i o n .

Simulation o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r c a n be r e g a r d e d as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e x a m p l e of

simulation problems related to the e n e r g y economy. The p e r t i n e n t literature

reflects the development o f computer s i m u l a t i o n techniques during the last two

decades. I n an e a r l y s t u d y , a l i n e a r i z e d e v a p o r a t o r model suited to programming

on an a n a l o g c o m p u t e r was p r o p o s e d ( r e f . 24). Later on, a leaning towards

digital c o m p u t e r s has been g e n e r a l l y a d o p t e d . S e v e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s c a n be named

where e v a p o r a t o r models a r e d e s c r i b e d u s i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l equations s o l v e d by

such numerical methods as t h e o r t h o g o n a l c o l l o c a t i o n method (ref. 25), the

c o r r e c t o r - p r e d i c t o r method (ref. 26) and R u n g e - K u t t a i n t e g r a t i o n (ref. 27). The

m o d e l s assume t h e u s e o f special computer programs, w r i t t e n in the Fortran

language. To t h e knowledge o f the p r e s e n t a u t h o r , h o w e v e r , none o f these

p r o g r a m s has been w i d e l y applied.

An a l t e r n a t i v e approach to e v a p o r a t o r s i m u l a t i o n assumes t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of

widely circulated general-purpose simulation programs. Such p r o g r a m s e n a b l e one

92

to solve typical differential equations encountered in the simulation of

transient states of various technological systems. A p r e r e q u i s i t e for successful

application o f a s p e c i f i c program i s to formulate t h e e v a p o r a t o r model in

a manner c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the requirements a d o p t e d by t h e program d e s i g n e r . This

a p p r o a c h has been i m p l e m e n t e d in practice u s i n g a w i d e l y known IBM p r o g r a m

(ref. 28).

Examples o f simulation results d e s c r i b i n g the dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f multiple-

effect evaporators are given in Fig. 2.15.

(a) (b)
v a p o u r flow vapour flow
withdrawn from 3rd effect withdrawn from 2nd effect

iJllUUlr I
3rd effect

jrd effect

j u i c e temperatures
v a p o u r consumption

5th effect

1000 2000 3000 4000 5 10 15

Timéis) Time (min)

F i g . 2.15. Examples o f s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s d e s c r i b i n g t h e dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f

q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s , (a) j u i c e temperatures at v a r i a b l e vapour
w i t h d r a w a l from the t h i r d e f f e c t , d i s c h a r g e - c o n t r o l l e d j u i c e l e v e l s ( a f t e r
r e f . 2 6 ) , ( b ) consumption o f heating vapours a t v a r i a b l e vapour withdrawal from
the second e f f e c t , f e e d - c o n t r o l l e d j u i c e l e v e l s ( a f t e r r e f . 2 8 ) .

REFERENCES

1 T . D . E a s t o p and A . M c C o n k e y , A p p l i e d T h e r m o d y n a m i c s f o r E n g i n e e r i n g
T e c h n o l o g i s t s , 3 r d e d n . , L o n g m a n , L o n d o n and New Y o r k , 1978.
2 G . J . Van W y l e n and R . E . S o n n t a g , F u n d a m e n t a l s o f C l a s s i c a l T h e r m o d y n a m i c s ,
3 r d e d n . , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1985.
3 J . C u e l , Le b i l a n t h e r m i q u e en s u c r e r i e , S u c r . F r . , 1 1 9 ( 2 1 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 4 2 4 - 4 3 4 ,
119(22) (1978) 455-466.
4 P.W. v a n d e r P o e l ( e t a l . ) , Z u c k e r h a u s s c h e m a t a , e i n B e i s p i e l v o n I n f o r m a ­
tionsverbesserung mit H i l f e der e l e k t r o n i s c h e n D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g , Z u c k e r ,
2 8 ( 3 ) ( 1 9 7 5 ) 122-131.
5 T . B a l o h , Z u c k e r t e c h n o l o g i s c h e R e c h n u n g e n m i t dem D r e i k o m p o n e n t e n - D i a g r a m m ,
Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(6) (1982) 515-525.
6 A . K u b a s i e w i c z , W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , A u t o m a t e d d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s
o f b e e t s u g a r p l a n t s u s i n g m i c r o c o m p u t e r COMPUCORP 425 G , P r o c . 3 r d Symp.
Use o f C o m p u t e r s i n C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , G l i w i c e , 1974, p p . 2 1 3 - 2 1 7 .
7 L.W. W e i s s , C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m t o a i d s u g a r e n d o p e r a t i o n s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t
2 1 s t ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o , 1981.
8. H . R . D e l a n e y , D. G o t t h a r d and J . B . N i c h o l s , U s e o f an e n e r g y model i n s u g a r
r e f i n i n g . I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1014) (1983) 171-176.
9 R . G . H o e k s t r a , A f l e x i b l e computer program f o r four-component m a t e r i a l
balances i n s u g a r i n d u s t r y b o i l i n g h o u s e s . I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1016) (1983)
227-232, 85(1017) (1983) 262-265.
 93

10 P.M. S i l i n , V o p r o s y T e k h n o l o g i i Sakharnykh V e s h c h e s t v , P i s h c h e p r o m i z d a t ,
M o s k v a , 1950.
11 W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , M o d e r n i s i e r u n g d e r W ' á r m e w i r t s c h a f t i n Z u c k e r ­
f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(4) (1983) 338-343.
12 Κ. U r b a n i e c and Α . K u b a s i e w i c z , M o d e l e m a t e m a t y c z n e d í a p r o j e k t o w a n i a
w i e l o d z i a l o w y c h i n s t a l a c j i w y p a r n y c h , I n z . C h e m . , 7 ( 1 ) (1977) 207-221.
13 T . B a l o h , W ä r m e w i r t s c h a f t , i n : F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s ,
S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 7 0 5 - 7 7 6 .
14 Τ . B a l o h , Wärmeatlas f ü r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r ,
1975.
15 A . L . W e b r e , E v a p o r a t i o n and h e a t i n g , i n : D. S p e n c e r and G . P . Meade ( E d s . ) ,
Cane S u g a r H a n d b o o k , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1948, p p . 1 3 4 - 1 7 4 .
16 Τ . B a l o h , Wärmetechnische Berechnung d e r V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n , Zucker-Beihefte,
3 ( 2 ) (1956) 29-74.
17 G . K i m e n o v , E n e r g e t i s c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n an e i n e r m e h r s t u f i g e n V e r d a m p f ­
s t a t i o n a l s DampfUmformer, Z u c k e r , 2 5 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 7 2 ) 2 2 5 - 2 3 0 .
18 V . U r b a n , M a t e m a t i c k y model c u k r o v a r n i c k e p r u t o k o v e o d p a r k y p r a c u j i c i s e
s t o u p a j i c i v r s t v o u , L i s t y C u k r . , 8 9 ( 6 ) (1973) 114-118.
19 G . B a t o r and K. U r b a n i e c , P r o j e k t i e r u n g v o n V e r d a m p f a n l a g e n i n Z u c k e r ­
f a b r i k e n m i t H i l f e v o n C o m p u t e r n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1035-1042.
20 T . B a l o h , E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t b e i E i n d a m p f u n g s - und T r o c k n u n g s p r o z e s s e n ,
Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(1) (1980) 50-61.
21 T . B a l o h , Methodik bei e x e r g e t i s c h e n Untersuchungen i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n ,
Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(1) (1981) 29-40.
22 0. A u e r s w a l d , E x e r g e t i s c h e A n a l y s e e i n e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k m i t Brüdenkompression
am B e i s p i e l d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k A a r b e r g , S c h w e i z , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 6 ( 9 ) ( 1 9 8 1 )
804-815.
23 T . Baloh, Studie e i n e r Zuckerfabrik mit Brüdenkompression, Z u c k e r i n d . ,
109(4) (1984) 285-294.
24 0. W i k l u n d , T h e c a l c u l a t i o n and c o n t r o l o f m u l t i p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s .
S o c k e r H a n d l . , 2 2 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 6 8 ) 1-22.
25 υ. B o l m s t e d t and Α . J e r n q v i s t , S i m u l a t i o n o f t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e and d y n a m i c
b e h a v i o u r o f m u l t i p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t i o n p l a n t s . Comp. A i d e d D e s . ,
8 ( 3 ) (1976) 142-148, 9 ( 1 ) (1977) 29-40.
26 Μ. M ä k e l ä , M a t e m a t i s c h e s F o r m u l i e r e n und d i g i t a l e s S i m u l i e r e n e i n e r V e r ­
d a m p f s t a t i o n i n d e r R ü b e n z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(11) (1981)
989-993.
27 A . L e b e r t ( e t a l . ) , S i m u l a t i o n s u r o r d i n a t e u r d ' u n e v a p o r a t e u r de s u c r e r i e
a m u l t i p l e e f f e t s , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 7 ( 7 - 8 ) (1980) 691-698.
28 Κ. U r b a n i e c and M. S z c z e n i o w s k i , N a c h b i l d u n g e i n e r m e h r s t u f i g e n V e r d a m p f ­
s t a t i o n u n t e r V e r w e n d u n g des C S M P - S y s t e m s , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 5 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 8 0 )
628-631.
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Chapter 3

SELECTED PROBLEMS OF HEAT ECONOMY

3.1 A N A L Y S I S AND EVALUATION OF THE HEAT ECONOMY

3.1.1 Methodological hints

Any attempt to improve the h e a t economy o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y begins with the

acquisition of information on t h e e x i s t i n g state of things, and an initial

effort may be n e e d e d t o e s t a b l i s h the t y p e and amount o f information that will

be s u f f i c i e n t . T h e aim o f an i n i t i a l investigation is to reach a c e r t a i n level

of knowledge o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f the thermal system, i t s mass and h e a t balances,

and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the equipment. This s h o u l d e n a b l e one t o perform an

overall e v a l u a t i o n and t o formulate a d i a g n o s i s o f the d e f i c i e n c i e s o f the heat

economy.

Let us o b s e r v e t h a t if t h e d i a g n o s i s can be made v e r y a c c u r a t e , t h e n it may

become e a s i e r t o outline p o s s i b l e improvements and t h e way t h e y can be

implemented in the f a c t o r y . Therefore, it is always advisable to h a v e more than

minimum i n f o r m a t i o n at h a n d , and a d e t a i l e d knowledge o f the scheme o f t h e sugar

manufacturing p r o c e s s , the values of process parameters, and t h e characteristics

of p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l systems i s particularly useful.

It can t h u s be g e n e r a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e more d e t a i l e d are the available

data, the e a s i e r it is to p e r f o r m an a n a l y s i s o f t h e existing state of the heat

economy. T h e r e is no p o i n t , however, in investigating details w h i c h may be

costly to obtain but w i l l eventually turn out irrelevant to the problems of

interest. This applies, in p a r t i c u l a r , to t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s , the

details o f w h i c h may be d i f f i c u l t to establish unless time-consuming and costly

measurements a r e p e r f o r m e d . Experience proves that a s a t i s f a c t o r y level of

knowledge o f the b a l a n c e d a t a can o f t e n be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h a p p r o x i m a t e analyses

of thermodynamic systems p r o p e r l y d e f i n e d w i t h i n a factory. Approximate balance

calculations c a n be p e r f o r m e d on t h e b a s i s o f e s s e n t i a l data e x t r a c t e d from

routine factory records. If the a n a l y s i s i s intended to create a basis for

limited modifications o f an e x i s t i n g factory, this approach i s often, but not

always, effective enough. A d i s c u s s i o n o f limited-scale modifications of thermal

systems, including practical examples, i s given in Chapter 8.

A different situation a r i s e s when t h e u n d e r l y i n g intention is to modernize

the f a c t o r y e x t e n s i v e l y . In t h i s case, in-depth s t u d i e s o f new s o l u t i o n s ,

i n c l u d i n g mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o both the e x i s t i n g state and

the modernized f a c t o r y , are indispensable.

A summary o f information requirements associated with typical modernizations,

including practical examples, i s g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 9. The need t o a n a l y s e more

 95

d a t a d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean, h o w e v e r , t h a t the initial state of the heat

economy must be known i n f u l l detail. A g a i n , approximate balance calculations

turn out to be e f f e c t i v e enough i n typical modernization cases.

A practical correlation seems t o e x i s t between the level of sophistication of

the h e a t economy and t h e amount o f w o r k n e e d e d t o p r e p a r e a d e c i s i o n on t h e most

suitable and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e improvements. When t a l k i n g t o t h e managers of

energy-efficient factories, one can u s u a l l y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y h a v e a g r a s p of

the s i t u a t i o n and a r e w e l l aware o f t h e a r e a s where improvements a r e n e e d e d , as

well as t h e solutions t h a t may come i n t o q u e s t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, in a not-

so-efficient factory, it may be t h a t the manager's p e r c e p t i o n o f energy problems

is incomplete, no p r o b l e m h i e r a r c h y e x i s t s and t h e r e is a lot of uncertainty

about p o s s i b l e courses o f action.

F o r an e n e r g y s p e c i a l i s t , the latter case c o n s t i t u t e s a really challenging

situation. L e t us assume t h a t the starting point of the investigation o f a heat

economy i s the manager's d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n with the existing state, but t h a t there

is no c l e a r idea of the e x t e n t of the rationalization m e a s u r e s n e e d e d and the

priorities o f the problems to be s o l v e d . P r i o r to formulating a diagnosis and

proposing a set of remedies, it is necessary to collect information related to

the f o l l o w i n g questions:

(i) C o n s i d e r i n g the e x i s t i n g possibilities and l i m i t a t i o n s resulting from its

l a y o u t and t h e characteristics o f the equipment, does the real performance of

the thermal s y s t e m match t h e expected performance ? If not, what are the reasons

and how can t h e y be e l i m i n a t e d ?

(ii) What a r e t h e decisive factors enabling the thermal systems to satisfy the

actual total h e a t demand a t t h e n e t h e a t demand r e c o r d e d , and how can the

effectiveness ratio be i n c r e a s e d ?

(iii) What a r e t h e limitations i m p o s e d on t h e e n e r g y economy b y t h e existing

scheme and p a r a m e t e r s of the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s and b y the

characteristics o f p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l s y s t e m s ? How can t h e s e factors

be a d j u s t e d t o reduce the total h e a t demand ?

(iv) How e f f e c t i v e are the energy monitoring p r o c e d u r e s b a s e d on t h e existing

instrumentation, and w h a t a c t i o n s can be t a k e n to i m p r o v e them ?

In p r a c t i c e , it is not possible to obtain directly pieces of information that

fall neatly into one o f t h e four categories mentioned. Very often, one has to

identify, interpret and s o r t symptoms w h i c h may p o i n t at some information

related t o more t h a n one c a t e g o r y .

T h e r e a r e t h r e e main t e c h n i q u e s o f identifying the symptoms w h i c h

characterize the functioning o f the thermal system:

- to analyse the data in the routine factory r e c o r d s , to question the managers

and t h e t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l , and t o i n s p e c t the factory ( p r e f e r a b l y when in

96

operation),

- to s e t up and t o investigate the external mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f the

factory,

- to a n a l y s e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m and its

components.

I n more c o m p l i c a t e d cases, it may be u s e f u l to split the symptom-finding

procedure into two p a r t s . Initially, b a s i c d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d t o make the

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s posible. Once t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s h a v e been

established, the f i g u r e s o b t a i n e d and t h e p r e l i m i n a r y diagnosis are compared

with the reality.

As r e g a r d s t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e balance f i g u r e s , a v a r i e t y of techniques can

be c o n s i d e r e d . I t is popular to define several sets of input data i n a manner

allowing the changes o f certain important factors to be s t u d i e d , and to

calculate s e v e r a l mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s f r o m w h i c h i n f o r m a t i o n on the

importance of these f a c t o r s can be e x t r a c t e d . More a d v a n c e d m e t h o d s f o r energy

a n a l y s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 9.

3.1.2 Collecting essential information

In a d d i t i o n to the requirements mentioned in the preceding S e c t i o n , it

follows from the d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n t e d in Chapters 1 and 2 t h a t information on

t h e e n e r g y economy s h o u l d a l s o be w e l l structured. This can be a c h i e v e d using

the top-down approach, t h a t is, presenting the o v e r a l l picture first, then

analysing the e s s e n t i a l building blocks o f the thermal s y s t e m , and finally

investigating the characteristics of the equipment units.

The f i r s t s t e p s h o u l d be d e v o t e d t o identification o f t h e schemes and

parameters o f the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s and t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s . A l l the

data taken from the e x i s t i n g d o c u m e n t s s h o u l d be v e r i f i e d , preferably during

normal factory o p e r a t i o n when a n y c h a n g e s o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s relative to the

documented s t a t e can e a s i l y be o b s e r v e d . When d o c u m e n t i n g the data a c q u i r e d , it

is advisable to p r e s e n t them i n f o r m s facilitating easy i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the

information structure and t h e relations between i m p o r t a n t segments of

information. Although the conventional schemes and t a b l e s like those used i n the

p r e s e n t book a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y effective i n most p r a c t i c a l applications, it may

prove useful to combine them w i t h other forms enabling one t o look at the data

from a d i f f e r e n t angle. F i g u r e 3.1 shows an e x a m p l e o f a d i a g r a m w h i c h makes it

p o s s i b l e t o match t h e a v a i l a b l e h e a t i n g media t o t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a t h a t must be

heated (ref. 1).

Among t h e main f e a t u r e s of the thermal system, the stability of the

operating parameters is of utmost importance. I n most f a c t o r i e s , parameter

fluctuations may o c c u r e v e n u n d e r p e r f e c t l y normal operating conditions, mostly

b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e v a p o u r demand f l u c t u a t i o n s due t o the batchwise operation

 97

cossettes

recirculated juice * .
p r e s s water
make-up water
pre-limed juice
σ J limed j u i c e
~
TD clear juice —
Φ thin juice
Ε j u i c e in 1 s t e f f e c t
ω vacuum pans A χ
syrups —
υ vacuum pans Β χ
o room h e a t i n g

1st-effect v a p o u r
2nd-effect vapour •o
condensóte 3 rd-effect vapour χ
Ε
noncondensables — en
v a p o u r from vacuum p a n s A χ c
recirculated juice o
press water —

15 20 30 AO 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Temperature { °C )

' i n the e x t r a c t i o n station

F i g . 3 . 1 . G r a p h i c a l compendium o f t h e p r o c e s s media t o be h e a t e d , o r heat

r e c e i v e r s , and t h e h e a t i n g m e d i a .

o f vacuum p a n s . A n y p a r a m e t e r change i n t r o d u c i n g a deviation from a balanced

state o f the thermal system c r e a t e s the risk of increased energy l o s s .

Typically, the immediate causes o f the loss are increased vapour flow from the

last evaporator effect to the condenser, or reduced t h i c k - j u i c e concentration

which r a i s e s the h e a t demand o f t h e sugar house. At v e r y rapid parameter

changes, t h e r e may be u n f a v o u r a b l e e m e r g e n c y d i s c h a r g e s o f high-temperature

media w i t h i n the thermal system o r even d i r e c t l y to the environment (examples:

o p e n i n g s a f e t y v a l v e s on a steam p i p e l i n e o r on an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y , overflowing

hot-juice tanks, etc.).

It follows from the above i n t r o d u c t i o n that abnormally large parameter

fluctuations which are d i f f i c u l t to dampen s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as a symptom of

dangerous d e f i c i e n c i e s o f the thermal s y s t e m . The u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r s a r e most

frequently as follows:

- too small a heating surface area in the evaporator effect from which vapour is

s u p p l i e d t o vacuum p a n s ,

- a faulty control system in the throttling-desuperheating station, which is

decisive in stabilizing the p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e of the exhaust steam,

- a faulty condensate drainage subsystem causing p e r i o d i c accumulation of the

condensate in the heating chambers o f e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s .

The e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y may be i n f l u e n c e d n o t o n l y b y
98

uncontrollable parameter fluctuations but also by r o u t i n e parameter adjustments,

like those associated with a temporarily introduced reduction of the processing

capability. G e n e r a l l y , the responses o f a thermal system to changes o f this

kind are worth studying as an i n d i c a t i o n of p o s s i b l e system d e f i c i e n c i e s that

need t o be c o r r e c t e d . On t h e other hand, even c o r r e c t l y f u n c t i o n i n g systems

with perfect parameter stabilization are a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d by continued

deviations from t h e i r nominal operating parameters. This phenomenon s h o u l d be

studied with the aim o f identifying possible indications of the existence of an

energy-saving strategy for the factory operation. Most n o t a b l y , a daily

processing capability falling below i t s nominal level usually causes the energy

consumption per u n i t mass o f beets processed to i n c r e a s e . There are r a t h e r few

factories, h o w e v e r , where t h e managers a r e f u l l y aware o f t h e consequences, in

terms of additional fuel burned per u n i t mass o f beets processed, of a decision

to reduce the processing capability. Another important factor is the juice

draft, which a f f e c t s both the sugar loss i n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s and t h e energy

demand o f t h e p r o c e s s .

F i g u r e s 3.2 and 3 . 3 show t h e results of studies o f the fuel consumption under

changing operating conditions in two s u g a r f a c t o r i e s with different processing

capabilities. Statistical data from 9 seasons were taken to construct the

diagrams, and b r a c k e t s d e n o t e s e a s o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by abnormal climatic

conditions, unusual beet p r o p e r t i e s , etc.

The a b i l i t y of the thermal system's piping to create correct flow conditions

for all t h e e n e r g y - c a r r y i n g media is another important point to be investigated.

It is not o n l y the flow conditions during normal factory operation, but also

those i n d u c e d by f a c t o r y start-up or parameter fluctuations, t h a t may affect

energy l o s s e s and e q u i p m e n t safety. T h e symptoms o f abnormalities are parameter

instabilities, excessive pipe v i b r a t i o n s , hydraulic shocks, etc. Generally,

three factors are of critical importance to the functioning of the piping:

(i) The d i m e n s i o n s o f the pipes determine the flow velocities under both normal

and abnormal operating conditions. Flow v e l o c i t i e s , in turn, determine pressure

l o s s e s t h a t may e a s i l y become a c a u s e o f d i s t u r b a n c e s in thermal system

operation, s u c h as p r e s s u r e l o s s e s i n the vapour pipes l i n k i n g the evaporator

with t h e vacuum p a n s , o r in the pipelines between t h e vacuum pans and the

condenser. It is recommended t o keep t h e p r e s s u r e l o s s between t h e evaporator

and t h e vacuum pans b e l o w 0.1 bar, which corresponds to a condensation-

temperature drop o f l e s s t h a n 2 K. ( L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t in both cases mentioned,

the pipe dimensions s h o u l d be b a s e d on maximum v a p o u r f l o w s . ) Flow velocities

w h i c h can be recommended f o r different pipe dimensions are discussed in the

literature (refs. 3,4,6).

(ii) The s l o p e s o f horizontal sections of the pipelines allow gravitational flow

 99

4.3

A.2h

4.1

cn 4.0
O
O
3.9

cn
^. 3.8
(71)

o
Ε 3.7
Ι­
ο
c
3.6
c
o
α
Ε 3.5
D
(Λ
C
O

o 3.4

3.3

3.2

94 96 98 100 102 104

A v e r a g e to n o m i n a l d a i l y c a p a c i t y {% )

Fig. 3.2. Fuel consumption v s . average d a i l y c a p a c i t y i n two s u g a r f a c t o r i e s

with n o m i n a l c a p a c i t i e s o f 2100 t / d ( p o i n t s ) and 5800 t / d ( c r o s s e s ) .

of the condensate to take p l a c e . T h e recommended s l o p e o f condensate l i n e s is at

l e a s t 2%. T h e h o r i z o n t a l sections of steam and v a p o u r l i n e s s h o u l d be inclined

too, i n o r d e r t o make i t possible to drain the condensate forming there during

the s t a r t - u p of the thermal system.

(iii) Condensate d r a i n a g e equipment a t t a c h e d t o steam and v a p o u r l i n e s is

essential. This is a prerequisite for a safe start-up of the thermal system.

An i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e p i p i n g aimed a t checking the d i m e n s i o n s and s l o p e s , and

the a v a i l a b i l i t y of a u x i l i a r y equipment (see also Section 7 . 7 . 4 ) , can be

combined w i t h a preliminary inspection of the thermal insulation and can

preferably be e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e an i n s p e c t i o n o f the insulation of the main

factory equipment. While it is relatively easy to get a general qualitative

100

4.3

0 0,4.0

^ § 39

3.8 [

1 ^-^

120 122 124 126 128 130 132

Average juice draft (% )

Fig. 3.3. Fuel consumption v s . average j u i c e draft i n a 2100 t/d factory.

picture o f the s t a t e o f thermal insulation, the magnitude o f heat dissipation

losses r e m a i n s unknown u n l e s s a s p e c i a l investigation is undertaken. A very

effective t e c h n i q u e w h i c h can be u t i l i z e d for this purpose i s thermographic

surveying with the aid of infra-red-sensitive cameras. The u n d e r l y i n g

principles, and e x a m p l e s o f the a p p l i c a t i o n of thermography in British sugar

factories, are presented in the literature (ref. 2).

Another important feature o f the thermal system i s its ability to guarantee

safe b o i l e r operation without unnecessary energy l o s s e s . Normally, the

condensates from the tanks in the f i r s t and s e c o n d e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s are

s u p p l i e d as f e e d w a t e r t o the b o i l e r s . If the q u a l i t y o f the condensate in a

certain t a n k becomes u n a c c e p t a b l e w i t h regard to safe b o i l e r operation, then the

entire amount o f t h e h o t c o n d e n s a t e must be removed f r o m t h i s particular tank

and f r o m t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m . When r e p l a c i n g it by make-up w a t e r , a b o u t 20 kg of

normal fuel must be b u r n e d i n order to heat 1 m^ w a t e r to the required

temperature.

There are s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e causes o f the degradation o f the q u a l i t y of

condensate:

(a) T o o much o f t h e g a s e o u s p r o d u c t s o f thermal decay o f sucrose, or certain

n o n s u g a r s p r e s e n t i n v a p o u r and d i s s o l v e d i n t h e condensate. This phenomenon

endangers the q u a l i t y of the condensate o b t a i n e d from f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour.

(b) Juice penetrating the heating chambers o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s o r heaters

through leaking tubes. Normally, the pressure difference between the heating

chamber and t h e j u i c e s p a c e i n an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y w o u l d p r e s s t h e condensate

into juice, but the d i r e c t i o n of l e a k s may be t e m p o r a r i l y r e v e r s e d due to

pressure fluctuations.
 101

(c) First-effect juice carried over as foam o r s m a l l droplets to the heating

chamber o f t h e second e f f e c t . T h i s may be c a u s e d b y e x c e s s i v e f o a m i n g , too high

flow velocity in t h e v a p o u r chamber o f the first effect and/or inefficient

entrainment separators. It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t no s e p a r a t o r can be

c o n s i d e r e d as f u l l y reliable at too high vapour-flow v e l o c i t i e s (exceeding

1-1.2 m/s in the vapour chamber). It may t h e r e f o r e happen t h a t a separator works

perfectly well u n d e r normal operating conditions, but j u i c e carryover occurs at

abnormally low v a p o u r p r e s s u r e s i n d u c e d by parameter fluctuations in the thermal

system.

The r i s k of juice carryover is always present in the heating chamber o f the

second e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t . In thermal systems employing vapour compression, the

first effect may a l s o be e n d a n g e r e d . S p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n s m u s t be t a k e n to

minimize the consequences o f condensate p o l l u t i o n in such systems (see Section

3.4.4).

A p a r t from the immediate causes o f the presence of unwanted s u b s t a n c e s in

the condensate, i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o detect the d a n g e r and t o react quickly,

preventing boiler damage. T o a l a r g e e x t e n t , this d e p e n d s on t h e instrumentation

and m o n i t o r i n g procedures r e l a t i n g to the condensate c o n t r o l , as w e l l as on the

procedures of replacing the d i s c a r d e d c o n d e n s a t e b y make-up water.

3.1.3 Interpreting external balances

By a n a l y s i n g t h e external e n e r g y b a l a n c e and t h e p r o c e s s mass balance

together, it becomes p o s s i b l e t o determine certain factors causing excessive

energy consumption in a factory. These f a c t o r s may be r e l a t e d to any o f the four

questions listed in Section 3.1.1. As an e x a m p l e , let us c o n s i d e r t h e external

e n e r g y b a l a n c e shown i n C h a p t e r 2 , Table 2.4, together with the design data on

the p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e s u m m a r i z e d in Table 3.1.

The c o n s u m p t i o n of heating steam i s certainly very l a r g e ; when c o n v e r t e d to

normal steam, it amounts t o 46.7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . T h e main r e a s o n s can be summarized

as follows:

(i) The t h i c k - j u i c e concentration o f 65% DS i s relatively low; this is certainly

one o f the process constraints w h i c h c o u l d be m o d i f i e d to decrease the total

h e a t demand. E v e n a t this concentration, h o w e v e r , t h e mass f l o w of vacuum-pan

vapours (Table 2.4, entry 16) is too large, exceeding the design value (Table

3.1, e n t r y 35) by n e a r l y 13%. T h i s may be c a u s e d b y t o o large a water intake to

t h e vacuum p a n s a n d , p r o b a b l y , t o o much wash w a t e r supplied to the centrifugals.

Excessive water intakes to the s u g a r h o u s e can a l s o be r e g a r d e d as a p r o c e s s

constraint to be modified.

(ii) The e l e v a t e d temperature in the pre-liming tank is maintained by recycling

a large flow of hot j u i c e after first carbonatation (Table 3.1, entry 9). This

is a process constraint preventing the raw j u i c e from being h e a t e d by low-

102

TABLE 3.1

Summary o f t h e d e s i g n d a t a on p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e o f t h e f a c t o r y d e s c r i b e d by
t h e e x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 4 .

Total flow Concentration

No. S t r e a m name
(kg/100 kg b ) (% DS)

1 C o s s e t t e s , p o l . 17.5% 100.0
2 Wet p u l p 90.0
3 Pressed pulp 34.3 14.35
4 Press water 55.7
5 Feed w a t e r ( c o n d e n s a t e ) 49.3
6 Raw j u i c e , p u r i t y 88% 115.0
7 J u i c e t o main l i m i n g 176.4
8 Juice to carbonatation I 188.3
9 J u i c e from c a r b o n a t a t i o n I r e c y c l e d t o
pre-1iming 40.0
10 Juice to decanter 148.0
11 S u b s i d e r s l u d g e I t o vacuum f i l t e r s 21.3
12 ^ Subsider sludge I recycled to pre-liming 15.0
13 Juice to safety f i l t e r s I 130.2
14 Juice to carbonatation I I 129.8
15 Juice to thickeners I I 129.0
16 Subsider sludge I I recycled to pre-liming 5.0
17 T h i n j u i c e to b u f f e r tank 124.0
18 Water ( c o n d e n s a t e ) added f o r c o n t r o l
purposes 5.0
19 Thin j u i c e to evaporator 129.0 14.3
20 Milk-of-lime to pre-liming 1.4
21 M i l k - o f - l i m e t o main l i m i n g 9.9
22 Milk-of-lime to carbonatation I I 0.6
23 Thick juice 24.8 65.0
24 Water ( c o n d e n s a t e ) t o r e m e l t Β 3.8
25 Wash w a t e r t o c e n t r i f u g a l s 1.2
26 C o n d e n s a t e f r o m steam wash 0.2
27 Water ( c o n d e n s a t e ) added t o m a s s e c u i t e C 0.3
28 Condensate from vacuum-pan steaming 0.2
29 W a t e r ( c o n d e n s a t e ) i n t a k e t o vacuum p a n s 2.5
30 Condensate from d i r e c t h e a t i n g o f s y r u p s 1.1
31 Sugar A t o d r y i n g 14.2 99.1
32 Molasses 5.0
33 Vapours from s e l f - e v a p o r a t i o n o f s y r u p s 0.5
34 W a t e r e v a p o r a t e d i n vacuum pans 18.0

temperature vapours from the last evaporator effect o r f r o m t h e vacuum p a n s . If

this constraint can be e l i m i n a t e d , then improved u t i l i z a t i o n of low-temperature

v a p o u r s becomes p o s s i b l e .

(iii) The vapour f l o w from the last evaporator effect to the condenser (Table

2.4, entry 14) is very large. It is hard to believe that this can be compatible

with the intention of the d e s i g n e r o f the thermal system or w i t h the wishes of

the operating personnel. I f an i n s u f f i c i e n t utilization of the last-effect

vapour f o r heating p u r p o s e s had i n d e e d been p l a n n e d , it w o u l d have t o be

interpreted as a t h e r m a l system d e f i c i e n c y r e q u i r i n g immediate action. More

likely are the f o l l o w i n g reasons:

 103

- vapour leaks through condensate drainage l i n e s in the evaporator a r e a , and

p e r h a p s t o o much v a p o u r i s w i t h d r a w n a l o n g w i t h the noncondensable gases from

the preceding evaporator e f f e c t , together c a u s i n g an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e vapour

inflow to the last effect,

- fluctuations in the thin-juice flow, in combination with too small a volume of

the t h i n - j u i c e tank before the e v a p o r a t o r , thus f o r c i n g condensate intakes to

the j u i c e as t h e j u i c e level in the tank f a l l s too low o r the concentration of

thick juice becomes t o o high.

The f a c t o r s named a b o v e must be s e e n as i n d i c a t i o n s that the thermal system is

not working as o r i g i n a l l y planned because o f deficiencies of the auxiliary

equipment.

(iv) Poor c o n d i t i o n o f the thermal insulation, direct heat d i s s i p a t i o n from open

tanks containing high-temperature media, and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e leaks o f vapour or

condensate cause r e l a t i v e l y large heat losses to the environment (Table 2.4,

entry 23). A fact-finding visit to the f a c t o r y in question would probably lead

to the conclusion that both the thermal s y s t e m and t h e p r o c e s s equipment should

be i m p r o v e d i n t h a t respect.

3.1.4 Interpreting e v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r balances

It is perfectly normal that the real steam c o n s u m p t i o n o f an e v a p o r a t o r is

1-2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b g r e a t e r than the steam demand d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e mass-balance

and e n e r g y - b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s . This is a result of fluctuations of the

operating parameters that are disregarded in the b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s b a s e d on the

steady-state approach. A difference larger than t h a t named a b o v e , h o w e v e r , may

indicate that the thermal s y s t e m d o e s n o t w o r k as d e s i g n e d and p l a n n e d . It is

impossible to study the reasons f o r this situation using the external-balance

approach o n l y . In order to o b t a i n more i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e energy p r o c e s s e s , the

mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r and v a p o u r r e c e i v e r s s h o u l d be

d e t e r m i n e d and a n a l y s e d .

L e t us c o n s i d e r an e x t e n s i o n o f the example p r e s e n t e d i n the preceding

Section. In F i g . 3.4, t h e v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme o f the same

factory is shown t o g e t h e r w i t h the results o f m a s s - and heat-balance

calculations performed using the e v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r approach.

As i t turns out, the calculated steam demand i s 2.0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n the

consumption indicated in the e x t e r n a l balance, while the c a l c u l a t e d mass f l o w of

last-effect vapour d i r e c t e d to the condenser i s 3.9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n the

e x t e r n a l - b a l a n c e v a l u e . T h i s may be an i n d i c a t i o n of s t e a m and v a p o u r leaks

through the steam t r a p s in the condensate drainage lines and/or through the

venting lines, or through c e r t a i n v a l v e s w h i c h may be c l o s e d b u t a r e n o t fully

tight. (Additional indications of leaks of steam o r h e a t i n g v a p o u r can be

104

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F i g . 3 . 4 . E x c e r p t s f r o m mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h e r m a l system p r e v i o u s l y

c o n s i d e r e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 ( f l o w s g i v e n i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) .

o b t a i n e d by checking temperatures and p r e s s u r e s i n t h e e v a p o r a t o r effects.

Usually, vapour leaking to a s p e c i f i c effect induces a tendency towards

temperature and p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s w h i c h a r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y r e d u c e d e v a p o r a t i o n .

If the leaks are s i g n i f i c a n t , then it may be d i f f i c u l t to maintain a high thick-

juice concentration at the evaporator outlet.)

F i g u r e 3 . 5 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f mass- and h e a t - b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s performed

for t h e same t h e r m a l system under the f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e steam

and vapour leaks:

(i) E x h a u s t steam l e a k i n g , at the rate o f 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h a steam t r a p in

the f i r s t effect and a c o n d e n s a t e f l a s h pipe t o second e f f e c t vapour.

(ii) E x h a u s t steam l e a k i n g , at the rate o f 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h t h e same s t e a m

trap a s a b o v e and a n o t h e r steam t r a p at the o u t l e t o f the condensate tank in the

first effect, t o the condensate tank i n the f o u r t h effect.

(iii) First-effect vapour l e a k i n g , at the rate o f 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h a steam

trap i n the second e f f e c t to second-effect vapour.

(iv) Second-effect vapour leaking, at the rate o f 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h a

faulty condensate d r a i n a g e subsystem i n t h e vacuum-pan s t a t i o n , to third-effect

vapour.

As can be s e e n , t h e c a l c u l a t e d steam demand i s now 5 2 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b a n d t h e mass

flow o f the l a s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r t o t h e c o n d e n s e r i s 7.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b ; b o t h values

 105

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F i g . 3 . 5 . E x c e r p t s f r o m mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m p r e v i o u s l y
c o n s i d e r e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 , w i t h steam and v a p o u r l e a k s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

are p r e t t y close to the real figures.

Steam and v a p o u r l e a k s occurring in the condensate drainage subsystem
constitute just one p o s s i b l e t y p e o f d e v i a t i o n from the correct operation of the
thermal system. Another type of d e v i a t i o n is associated with leaking evaporator
tubes. As t h e condensate i s pressed into j u i c e , the required thick-juice
concentration may be i m p o s s i b l e to maintain, but the reason w i l l be d i f f i c u l t to
identify. D e p e n d i n g on t h e methods o f b a l a n c e calculations applied, t h e mass and
energy balances d e r i v e d from the v a l u e s o f the parameters m e a s u r e d may indicate,
for example, that there is a certain vapour flow entering the evaporator (when
using the evaporator-balance algorithm presented i n Chapter 2, a reversed vapour
flow from the condenser to the last evaporator effect may be obtained).

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of evaporator-receiver b a l a n c e s can c o n v e n i e n t l y be

extended by d e t e r m i n i n g the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients in the evaporator
bodies, juice heaters, vacuum pans and o t h e r equipment. ( T h e methods of
m o n i t o r i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a and c a l c u l a t i n g the coefficients are discussed in
Chapter 7.) Abnormally low heat t r a n s f e r intensities may be c a u s e d b y the
following factors encountered in all t y p e s o f e v a p o r a t o r s and h e a t e x c h a n g e r s :

- scale build-up a f f e c t i n g heating surfaces;

- too high a condensate l e v e l in the heating chamber, due t o inefficient
condensate drainage;
106

- decreased vapour condensation temperature, due t o the presence of

noncondensable gases;

- decreased vapour condensation temperature due t o the throttling of the vapour

flow.

In Robert-type e v a p o r a t o r s , the overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients are

r e d u c e d when t o o high j u i c e l e v e l s are maintained. Too low a heat transfer

coefficient in the first evaporator effect may a l s o indicate that the juice

temperature at the evaporator inlet is too low.

In multiple-pass tubular heaters, the heat t r a n s f e r intensity may be

d e c r e a s e d when t h e j u i c e - s i d e s e a l s between t h e passes are leaking. Leaky seals

may c a u s e t h e j u i c e flow in certain passes to decrease, which is equivalent to

a reduction of the e f f e c t i v e heating surface area.

3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF CORRECT OPERATION OF A THERMAL SYSTEM

3.2.1 Condensate drainage

One o f the e s s e n t i a l requirements of p r o p e r steam o r v a p o u r h e a t i n g is a

reliable condensate d r a i n a g e . W h i l e no c o n d e n s a t e s h o u l d a c c u m u l a t e in the

heating chambers o f t h e e q u i p m e n t , as t h i s w o u l d r e d u c e t h e effective overall

heat t r a n s f e r coefficient, neither s h o u l d v a p o u r o r steam be a l l o w e d t o flow

through condensate l i n e s , as t h i s w o u l d be e q u i v a l e n t to short-circuiting the

thermal system. These c o n d i t i o n s c a n be s a t i s f i e d providing the entire drainage

subsystem i s p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d and m a i n t a i n e d . Important points are the

dimensions of the components, the locations of the condensate-outlet nozzles,

the positioning of the c o n d e n s a t e p i p e s and t h e i r venting, the type, dimensions

and p o s i t i o n i n g o f the steam t r a p s and c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e condensate pipes to

correctly selected receivers. In the existing literature, there are relatively

f e w s o u r c e s i n w h i c h p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o these problems (refs.

3,4).

The d e t a i l s o f a c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n may v a r y , d e p e n d i n g on t h e pressure level

in the associated heating chamber. At higher pressures corresponding to exhaust

steam and f i r s t - or second-effect vapour, the condensate u s u a l l y flows out by

gravity and t h e e s c a p e o f v a p o u r i s p r e v e n t e d b y a steam t r a p . Further details

may d e p e n d on t h e type of steam t r a p selected. Four t y p e s a r e most widely

applied in beet-sugar factories:

- float type;

- nozzle type;

- Niessner columns;

- level control circuits acting as s t e a m traps.

Other designs are also known ( r e f s . 3,4) and new d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e r e c e n t l y been

reported (ref. 5).

 107

A float-type steam t r a p as shown i n Fig. 3.6(a) is a very popular device.

A float opens o r c l o s e s t h e d i s c h a r g e v a l v e , d e p e n d i n g on t h e condensate level

in the trap. Providing it is well maintained and i t s s i z e has been correctly

chosen w i t h regard to the actual operating conditions, this device ensures

a reliable condensate d r a i n a g e even a t large flow changes. I t s h o u l d be pointed

out, however, t h a t the trap throughput d e p e n d s n o t o n l y on i t s size, but also

on t h e pressure difference between the inlet and o u t l e t nozzles.

Malfunctions of float-type steam t r a p s arise mostly because o f wear i n the

moving p a r t s . A damaged v a l v e s e a t o r v a l v e head may c a u s e v a p o u r l e a k s , and

a damaged l e v e r s y s t e m may r e s u l t in valve lock-out, causing insufficient

c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e o r steam l e a k s . It should also be remembered t h a t before

normal steam-trap operation is attained during a factory start-up, venting of

the t r a p chamber is necessary. Consequently, the applications of float-type

steam t r a p s are associated with a requirement for a careful maintenance. It is

therefore necessary to install the devices in e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e p l a c e s and to

equip the drainage lines with shut-off v a l v e s and b y - p a s s s e c t i o n s . If these

conditions are not satisfied, then l e a k y steam t r a p s may e a s i l y become a c a u s e

of reduced evaporator throughput or i n c r e a s e d steam consumption.

(a) (b)

3J 2 \

F i g . 3 . 6 . Steam t r a p s : ( a ) f l o a t t y p e , ( b ) n o z z l e t y p e . 1 - i n l e t , 2 - o u t l e t ,
3 - v e n t , 4 - v a l v e , 5 - f l o a t , 6 - diaphragms, 7 - throughput adjustment
spindle.

Another type of steam t r a p is the n o z z l e d e s i g n shown i n Fig. 3.6(b). Its

working principle consists of throttling the vapour flow while allowing for a

relatively free condensate f l o w . The t h r o t t l i n g effect is obtained in a nozzle

equipped with a system o f diaphragms w i t h holes of areas adjusted to the

operating conditions. This device is small and e a s y t o install, and a s t h e r e are

no c o n s t a n t l y m o v i n g p a r t s , a high mechanical reliability is ensured. However,

the e f f i c i e n c y o f the steam t r a p may v a r y w i t h variable operating conditions.

108

and f o r condensate flows well below t h e i r nominal v a l u e , vapour leaks are

unavoidable.

In c e r t a i n designs, i t is possible to adjust the p o s i t i o n o f the diaphragms

for changed t h r o u g h p u t . Throttling the flow t o o m u c h , h o w e v e r , may c a u s e the

condensate level in the heating chamber t o rise e x c e s s i v e l y . N o z z l e - t y p e steam

traps are t h e r e f o r e p r e f e r r e d where condensate d r a i n a g e from equipment heated

w i t h an a l m o s t c o n s t a n t steam f l o w , like evaporators, is required.

Vapour leaks c a u s e d by r a p i d f l o w changes o f short duration can be eliminated

if the n o z z l e - t y p e t r a p is p r e c e d e d by a w a t e r s e a l in a U-tube, Fig. 3.7(a).

At reduced f l o w , the condensate l e v e l in the inlet leg of the U-tube i s lowered,

reducing the pressure d i f f e r e n c e across the steam t r a p and t h u s r e d u c i n g its

throughput. This solution can be recommended f o r the c o n n e c t i o n s between the

condensate tanks collecting the condensates from the individual evaporator

effects. Similar a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e a l s o n e c e s s a r y when a p p l y i n g n o z z l e - t y p e steam

traps in the condensate d r a i n s attached to b a t c h vacuum p a n s , w h e r e periodic

changes o f the condensate f l o w occur. This application case i s schematically

shown i n Fig. 3.7(b).

(a) (b)

i-th effect vapour

1 to (i*l)th effect
vapour
Ε
in
^1 ' "
Ε
I- l.J
L.J

F i g . 3 . 7 . Recommended a r r a n g e m e n t s o f c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n s f e a t u r i n g n o z z l e - t y p e
steam t r a p s : ( a ) b e t w e e n t w o c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s , ( b ) b e t w e e n a vacuum pan and a
c o n d e n s a t e m a n i f o l d . 1 - steam t r a p , 2 - n o n - r e t u r n v a l v e , 3 - vacuum p a n ,
4 - condensate m a n i f o l d .

A N i e s s n e r column i s a simple and s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g device requiring only that

enough space i s available for its installation. The p l a c i n g of the column

relative to the heating chamber i s shown i n F i g . 3.8. The e f f e c t i v e height Η

s h o u l d be l a r g e e n o u g h t o guarantee t h a t the water seal can work p r o p e r l y even

if the pressure d i f f e r e n c e between t h e heating chamber and t h e column's vapour

chamber i n c r e a s e s due t o parameter fluctuations or to fouled heating surfaces

in the evaporator s t a t i o n . Component s h o u l d be n o t l e s s than 3 m to

compensate f o r the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s , and component s h o u l d be small

enough t o p r e v e n t the condensate from accumulating in the heating chamber at

 109

condensate

F i g . 3 . 8 . Scheme o f a c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e f e a t u r i n g a Niessner column.

1 - evaporator, 2 - l e v e l gauge, 3 - t h r o t t l i n g v a l v e .

a reduced pressure d i f f e r e n c e across the column. These requirements can be

stated in the form o f inequalities

w h e r e Δρ and Δρ . a r e t h e maximum and minimum p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s , γ is

max mi η c
the density of condensate in the central pipe, and g i s the acceleration of

gravity.

If the height is too small, the efficiency of the column c a n be i m p r o v e d b y

installing a t h r o t t l i n g valve at the condensate i n l e t . This causes the

condensate l e v e l in the inlet pipe to rise, thus creating an additional

safeguard against vapour entering the column.

All the shortcomings o f the classical steam t r a p s c a n be a v o i d e d b y applying

a control circuit consisting of a level transducer, controller and control

valve. It is arranged to maintain a stable water seal in the drainage line. Such

a device is highly reliable, and e a s y t o operate and m a i n t a i n . When u s e d in

a condensate drainage subsystem connected to a multiple-effect evaporator, it

can e l i m i n a t e the steam o r v a p o u r l e a k s between the evaporator effects

completely. A quadruple-effect evaporator with a condensate drainage subsystem

employing this idea is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 3.9. The condensate drainage

from the f i r s t and s e c o n d e f f e c t s , and t h e condensate flow between the

condensate t a n k s , are level-controlled.

110

to main
condensate c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n e d from h e a t e r s
tank and vacuum pans

F i g . 3.9. Scheme o f a c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e subsystem f e a t u r i n g level-controlled

hydraulic s e a l s and c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s .

In a condensate d r a i n connected to a heating chamber o p e r a t e d a t a low

pressure, the e s c a p e o f v a p o u r c a n be e f f e c t i v e l y prevented without using a

steam t r a p ; it is enough t o connect the drainage pipe to the bottom p a r t of a

c l o s e d condensate tank in which a c e r t a i n minimum l e v e l of the condensate is

always maintained. Sometimes the drainage pipe can be f o r m e d as a U - t u b e , or

s i p h o n , w i t h the two liquid columns in the legs of the U-tube acting as a

pressure-balancing d e v i c e and a h y d r a u l i c seal. T h e s i p h o n can a l s o be u s e d to

let the condensate f l o w f r o m one v e s s e l to another when a d e f i n i t e pressure

difference between the vessels is to be m a i n t a i n e d . It is important to choose

the height of the siphon with a sufficient s a f e t y margin of at least 50%, making

it possible to neutralize the pressure fluctuations and t h e condensate f l a s h in

the low-pressure leg of the U-tube. In order to avoid the risk of the liquid

column b e i n g d e s t r o y e d by the flash vapour, the diameter of the low-pressure leg

s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y large to limit the flow velocity o f the condensate

(assumed t o be f r e e of vapour bubbles) to a b o u t 0.6 m/s.

In the condensate drainage s u b s y s t e m shown i n Fig. 3.9, the flow of

condensates from the t h i r d and f o u r t h evaporator effects and f r o m t h e juice

heaters supplied with second-, third- and f o u r t h - e f f e c t vapours is

gravitational. As t h e condensate tanks are level-controlled, the drainage pipes

c a n be c o n n e c t e d t o the condensate tanks without using siphons.

Special condensate drainage problems are associated w i t h intermittent

operation o f the b a t c h vacuum p a n s , t h e large distance between t h e p a n s and the

 in

evaporator being a contributing factor. The r e a s o n is that the pressure in the

heating chambers o f the individual pans i s subject to large fluctuations. During

steaming and o t h e r auxiliary phases o f the boiling cycle, the vapour supply

valve is closed while the v e n t i n g v a l v e remains open, t h i s causing the pressure

in the heating chamber t o fall. During the syrup-thickening p h a s e , when t h e heat

demand i s largest, a large vapour flow results in a considerable pressure loss

in the supply line. As t h e vapour flow i s much s m a l l e r during the crystal-growth

phase, the corresponding pressure loss is also smaller. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , e v e n

if all the vacuum pans a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h v a p o u r f r o m t h e same e v a p o r a t o r effect,

the pressure difference between the heating chambers o f two vacuum p a n s , one of

them i n t h e syrup-thickening and t h e other in the crystal-growth p h a s e , may

e a s i l y a t t a i n v a l u e s about 0.5 bar.

If a condensate d r a i n cannot adequately respond to pressure fluctuations,

t h e r e may be a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s condensate accumulation in the heating chamber

during the periods o f d e c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e . On t h e other h a n d , when t h e pressure

is raised, a v a p o u r l e a k may o c c u r in the condensate line. Drainage malfunctions

are p o s s i b l e even w i t h c o r r e c t l y working steam t r a p s , when t h e devices are

installed too high (relative to the heating chamber) or their outlets are

connected to a manifold of too small a diameter.

L e t us a n a l y s e t h e operation of a condensate drainage subsystem equipped with

float-type steam t r a p s , as shown i n Fig. 3.10. The condensate m a n i f o l d is

connected to the condensate tank in the evaporator effect next to the one

supplying the heating vapour. Even t h o u g h the condensate leaving the heating

i-th effect
vapour

\ Ζ 7 t o ( i ^ 1 ) t h effect^
vapour

F i g . 3 . 1 0 . P r i n c i p l e o f c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e f r o m vacuum p a n s u s i n g float-type
steam t r a p s and a c o n d e n s a t e m a n i f o l d c o n n e c t e d t o a t a n k .

chambers o f t h e vacuum p a n s may be s u b c o o l e d , t h a t is, its temperature may be

lower than that of the heating vapour, it begins to boil as s o o n as i t has

passed the trap and i s exposed to the pressure corresponding to the next

evaporator effect. The r e s u l t i n g increase of average s p e c i f i c volume induces an

112

increased flow velocity and a l a r g e r pressure loss in the manifold, this leading

to a reduced system throughput and a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s condensate accumulation in

the individual drains and h e a t i n g chambers.

The s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d c a n be p r e v e n t e d b y i n c r e a s i n g the height of the

condensate leg in the line connecting the heating chamber and t h e steam trap,

that is, by i n s t a l l i n g the steam t r a p at least 5-6 m below the condensate outlet

nozzle. In large-capacity sugar f a c t o r i e s where the vacuum p a n s must be located

at a relatively long d i s t a n c e from the evaporator, it is advisable to install

a separate condensate tank c o l l e c t i n g the condensate from the vacuum p a n s .

Mutual interference between t h e p a n s c a n be p r e v e n t e d b y e l i m i n a t i n g the

manifold, that is, connecting the individual drainage lines directly to the

condensate tank.

Among o t h e r drainage v e r s i o n s , a solution b a s e d on t h e application o f a non­

return valve instead of a steam t r a p is particularly sensitive to the relation

between the level difference and t h e m a g n i t u d e of pressure fluctuations.

Reliable operation can be a c h i e v e d u s i n g t h e configuration shown i n Fig. 3.11,

where the level-control principle is introduced to eliminate the vapour leaks

accompanying p r e s s u r e peaks in the heating chambers o f the pans.

10-12m

F i g . 3 . 1 1 . Scheme o f c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e f r o m vacuum p a n s u s i n g non-return

v a l v e s and a l e v e l - c o n t r o l l e d c o n d e n s a t e t a n k .

3.2.2 Venting of noncondensables

The e l e v a t e d j u i c e temperature in the evaporator causes thermal decay of

amides, bicarbonates, invert s u g a r and s u c r o s e . As a r e s u l t , ammonia and carbon

dioxide are produced. In a d d i t i o n , pressure drops associated w i t h j u i c e flow

between the consecutive evaporator effects contribute to the liberation of air

dissolved in the j u i c e . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e g a s e s (known as n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s )

in heating v a p o u r s s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s an i m p o r t a n t factor to be k e p t under

control.

It is difficult to evaluate the amount of noncondensables produced in the

evaporator. T h e amount of ammonia was e s t i m a t e d at 0.015 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b y C l a a s s e n

 113

(ref. 7) and 0 . 0 0 5 - 0 . 0 1 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b y D o b r z y c k i (ref.8). The t o t a l amount of

n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s was e s t i m a t e d at 0 . 0 2 4 - 0 . 0 3 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b y G o r o k h ( r e f . 9).

An e s t i m a t e g i v e n by Koren ( r e f . 1 0 ) of the concentration of noncondensables in

third-effect vapour from a q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r was 2 . 0 - 5 . 6 % . It seems

t h a t the actual figures characterizing the processing of beets o f inferior

quality (following prolonged storage or f r o s t damage) may be e v e n higher.

At a constant total pressure of the gas/vapour mixture in the heating chamber

of an e v a p o r a t o r body, the build-up of noncondensables causes the partial

pressure of vapour to d e c r e a s e . As a r e s u l t , the condensation temperature

d e c r e a s e s and t h e effective temperature difference between h e a t i n g vapour and

juice is r e d u c e d . L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t when a t y p i c a l temperature difference of

10 Κ i s r e d u c e d b y as l i t t l e as 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 K, the resulting reduction of the amount

of heat t r a n s f e r r e d is 15-20%. More d a t a illustrating the impact of

n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s on t h e temperature difference affecting the heat transfer are

presented in Table 3.2.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d out t h a t there are also other disadvantageous

consequences o f the presence of noncondensables. While the film coefficient of

heat t r a n s f e r at a heating s u r f a c e where the condensation of p u r e steam takes

place is of the order of 10 000 W / ( m ^ K ) , i t does n o t e x c e e d 100 W / ( m ^ K ) at

a surface exposed to air. C o n s e q u e n t l y , when t h e surface is exposed to a mixture

o f v a p o u r and n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s , t h e film coefficient of heat transfer may be

substantially r e d u c e d . A t 0.5-1.0% noncondensables in the m i x t u r e , the reduction

of the coefficient relative to its pure-vapour value is about 50-60%. Generally,

the film coefficient of heat transfer is inversely proportional to the square

root of t h e mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n of noncondensables (ref. 12).

In order to p r e v e n t an e x c e s s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of noncondensables, the gas/

vapour mixture s h o u l d be c o n t i n u o u s l y vented. While it is popular in practice to

discharge the mixture to the condenser or d i r e c t l y to the atmosphere, cascade

venting between c o n s e c u t i v e e v a p o r a t o r effects h a s been recommended b y some

authors. The advantages o f t h i s method a r e h i g h l y dubious because o f the

accumulation of noncondensables in final evaporator effects, t h i s making it

necessary to vent to the condenser anyway. Another consequence o f cascade

venting is that at constant heating-vapour demand i n the thermal system, water

evaporation in the evaporator is reduced because the vapour vented replaces

a part of the vapour which would otherwise be g e n e r a t e d in the actual evaporator

effect itself.

T h e most e f f e c t i v e method t o vent the evaporator bodies is to let the entire

amount o f v a p o u r f r o m t h e preceding effect flow through the heating chamber in

the next e f f e c t . As a p a r t of the n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s becomes d i s s o l v e d i n the

condensate, the rest is supplied in the heating vapour to the j u i c e heaters.

114

TABLE 3.2

R e d u c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e due t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a i r in
t h e c o n d e n s i n g v a p o u r , as a f u n c t i o n o f mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a i r , t o t a l
p r e s s u r e and t h e o r e t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e A t .

(bar) (K)
2.5 5 7.5 10

0.3 5 11.5 22.9 34.8 48.1

10 5.8 11.5 17.4 24.0
15 3.8 7.6 11.6 16.0
20 2.9 5.7 8.7 12.0

0.5 5 12.6 25.4 39.0 52.1

10 6.3 12.7 19.5 26.0
15 4.2 8.5 13.0 17.4
20 3.2 6.4 9.8 13.0

0.75 5 13.3 27.2 41.2 55.0

10 6.7 13.6 20.6 27.5
15 4.4 9.1 13.7 18.3
20 3.3 6.8 10.3 13.8

1.0 5 14.7 28.6 43.9 58.4

10 7.3 14.3 21.9 29.2
15 4.9 9.5 14.6 19.5
20 3.7 7.1 11.0 14.7
1.5 5 15.2 30.9 46.6 62.4
10 7.6 15.5 23.3 31.2
15 5.1 10.3 15.5 20.8
20 3.8 7.8 11.7 15.6

2.0 5 15.8 32.2 48.8 66.0

10 7.9 16.1 24.4 33.0
15 5.3 10.7 16.3 22.0
20 4.0 8.1 12.2 16.5

2.5 5 16.6 33.6 51.0 69.0

10 8.3 16.8 25.5 34.5
15 5.5 11.2 17.0 23.0
20 4.2 8.2 12.8 17.9

3.0 5 17.0 35.0 52.6 71.2

10 8.5 17.5 26.3 35.6
15 5.7 11.7 17.5 23.7
20 4.3 8.8 13.5 17.8

3.5 5 17.8 35.6 54.0 73.2

10 8.9 17.8 27.0 36.6
15 5.9 11.9 18.0 24.4
20 4.5 8.9 13.5 18.3

vacuum p a n s and o t h e r r e c e i v e r s . An i n c r e a s e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n of noncondensables

in the heating chambers o f heat r e c e i v e r s causes l e s s inconvenience there than

in the e v a p o r a t o r , because the a c t u a l temperature differences are larger than

those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the evaporator bodies.

A venting s y s t e m b a s e d on v a p o u r w i t h d r a w a l from the heating chambers of

 115

a quadruple-effect evaporator is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 3.12 (ref. 6). The

entire amount o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s l i b e r a t e d in the first effect and a b o u t half of

the gases from the second e f f e c t are d i r e c t e d to the heater before the second

carbonatation. Third-effect v a p o u r and n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s w i t h d r a w n from the

heating chamber o f the fourth effect are supplied to the heater before hot main

liming. In order to minimize vapour l o s s e s when v e n t i n g the heating chambers of

the heaters named, a u t o m a t i c control c a n be a p p l i e d by u t i l i z i n g the phenomenon

of condensation temperature changes accompanying the changes o f gas

concentration. The s i g n a l from the j u i c e - t e m p e r a t u r e controller is acting, via

correction elements, on a c o n t r o l valve in the vapour supply l i n e and a n o t h e r in

the venting line. The c o r r e c t i o n elements are transforming the signal in such

a way t h a t a t too high a j u i c e temperature, the venting valve closes f i r s t and

the vapour v a l v e second. At too low a j u i c e temperature, the vapour v a l v e opens

first and t h e venting valve second.

Media h e a t e d :
α - thin juice
b - clear juice
c - limed juice
Pi
to the
condenser

steam
iL
F i g . 3 . 1 2 . Scheme o f a v e n t i n g s u b s y s t e m f e a t u r i n g a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l o f t h e
d i s c h a r g e o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s f r o m t h e h e a t i n g chambers o f j u i c e h e a t e r s .

Practical experience w i t h the above s o l u t i o n is satisfactory. Normally, the

venting v a l v e opens o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y , at too low j u i c e temperatures induced by

juice-flow fluctuations. When t h e venting v a l v e c l o s e s , the concentration of

noncondensables i n the heating chamber is increased to a level enabling the

gases to become d i s s o l v e d i n the c o n d e n s a t e and d r a i n e d w i t h o u t vapour loss.

However, the c o n d e n s a t e s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d to the ammonia-water tank r a t h e r than

to the condensate tank, because the gases l i b e r a t e d by the condensate f l a s h may

otherwise re-enter the evaporator.

Another control method f o r the venting o f noncondensables from the heating

chambers o f e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s has been t e s t e d in the P o l i s h sugar industry

116

(ref. 13). The b u i l d - u p o f noncondensables taking place in a heating chamber can

be d e t e c t e d b y c o m p a r i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s o f the heating vapour flowing in the

inlet n o z z l e and t h a t condensing at the heating s u r f a c e . The s i g n a l from a

special transmitter measuring the temperature difference may be s u p p l i e d t o an

automatic controller opening the v e n t i n g valve.

3.2.3 S c a l e p r e v e n t i o n and r e m o v a l

A considerable quantity of the impurities present in t h i n j u i c e becomes l e s s

s o l u b l e as t h e concentration of the j u i c e r i s e s , and some o f t h e s e impurities

may d e p o s i t on t h e heating surfaces of the evaporator b o d i e s , forming a hard

scale. Being a poor conductor o f heat, the scale decreases the heat transfer

coefficients across the heating s u r f a c e s . Consequently, the evaporator

throughput is r e d u c e d and can be a d j u s t e d t o the required value only if the

temperature differences are i n c r e a s e d , w i t h i n c r e a s e d steam c o n s u m p t i o n as a

result.

The d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s e f f e c t s of scale formation d e p e n d on t h e thermal

c o n d u c t i v i t y o f d e p o s i t s and t h e scale thickness. The g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n is

k = l/(l/a^ + ό/λ + ό^/λ^ + Ι/α^) (3.4)

where k i s the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient, a-j and are the film

coefficients o f heat t r a n s f e r on t h e j u i c e s i d e and t h e v a p o u r s i d e ,

respectively, δ and are the t h i c k n e s s e s o f the tube wall and t h e deposit

layer, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and λ and are the thermal conductivities of the tube

material and d e p o s i t s , respectively.

The thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y o f d e p o s i t s may v a r y i n t h e range 0.08-2.00 W/(mK),

d e p e n d i n g on t h e chemical composition and s t r u c t u r e o f the deposited substance.

Therefore, a v e r y t h i n s c a l e may be e n o u g h t o affect the heat transfer

seriously. The l a r g e r the initial overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

corresponding to a clean heating s u r f a c e , t h e more p r o n o u n c e d i s this effect, as

shown i n Fig. 3.13.

The k i n d o f s c a l e d e p o s i t e d by t h e j u i c e during e v a p o r a t i o n o b v i o u s l y depends

on many f a c t o r s , and p r i n c i p a l among them i s the composition of mineral salts in

the raw j u i c e . The j u i c e purification method a l s o has a marked e f f e c t , as well

as t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of juice decalcification techniques.

It is possible to prevent the formation o f s c a l e by u s i n g v a r i o u s addition

products, a l t h o u g h no p a r t i c u l a r product is universally efficient if used with

different raw j u i c e p r o p e r t i e s and d i f f e r e n t purification methods. In the Danish

sugar i n d u s t r y , where the c o n t e n t o f c a l c i u m s a l t s in beets is usually very low,

scale prevention is simply b a s e d on s o d a a d d i t i o n to the second c a r b o n a t a t i o n .

A number o f m a n u f a c t u r e r s are o f f e r i n g preparations b a s e d on o r g a n o p h o s p h a t e s

or p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s as s c a l e - p r e v e n t i n g a g e n t s , c l a i m i n g a reduction of scaling
 117

1.0

0.8
SI φ
Initial heat
transfer coefficient:
o 0.6

ο 1 0 0 0 W/(m*K)
Ο.Α
υ
2000 W/(m^K)
0.2 3000 W/(m^K)
C

0 0.2 0Λ 0.6 OB 1.0

Scale thickness (mm)

F i g . 3.13. O v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n of scale thickness

a t s c a l e c o n d u c t i v i t y 0.97 W / ( m K ) .

in the evaporator of up t o 90%. A discussion of the properties of these agents,

as w e l l as m e t h o d s of application and e x p e r i e n c e s a r i s i n g in sugar factories,

can be f o u n d in the literature (refs. 14,15).

Another scale-prevention technique is b a s e d on t h e activation of molecules of

mineral salts dissolved in j u i c e in an e l e c t r i c field or in a magnetic field.

The a c t i v a t e d molecules tend to remain in suspension rather than depositing on

the heat-exchange s u r f a c e s , and some r e p o r t s indicate that the scale becomes

more e a s i l y r e m o v e d , sometimes being changed i n t o microcrystal1ine mud. T h e

activating device consists of a tube, usually placed in the pipe preceding thin-

juice heaters, and f i e l d - g e n e r a t i n g circuitry. Thousands o f units of this kind

h a v e been s e t in operation in various industries during the last four decades.

As r e g a r d s t h e sugar industry, it seems t h a t this method does n o t give very

definite results, and t h e r e h a v e been v a r y i n g reports on i t s efficiency (refs.

3,16-19). However, i t cannot be e x c l u d e d t h a t some o f the unfavourable reports

have r e s u l t e d from m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , as t h e evaluation of the efficiency of

scale prevention is a surprisingly complex p r o b l e m . The a s s o c i a t e d difficulties

h a v e been d i s c u s s e d i n a recent article devoted to studies of scale formation

during raw j u i c e evaporation (ref. 20).

It should f i n a l l y be p o i n t e d out that s c a l e p r e v e n t i o n must also include

proper procedures f o r evaporator operation u n d e r abnormal conditions, like the

start-up with water replacing juice in the evaporator bodies, or the addition of

water to thin juice in emergency s i t u a t i o n s arising where the juice flow becomes

too small. In p r i n c i p l e , the water a d d e d s h o u l d be o f condensate or feed-water

quality. The use o f untreated w a t e r must be a v o i d e d e v e n d u r i n g very short

periods, because o f the risk of formation of very troublesome deposits.

Various p r o c e d u r e s have been a d v o c a t e d f o r cleaning evaporator tubes and

other incrusted heating surfaces. T h e commonest practice is to boil for several

hours with caustic soda s o l u t i o n , t h e n wash w i t h water and b o i l with dilute

118

hydrochloric acid. The d e t a i l s of the p r o c e d u r e must be d e f i n e d s o as t o avoid

the risk of c o r r o s i v e damage t o the equipment, and p a r t i c u l a r l y to the heating

tubes. In connection with t h i s requirement, other chemicals (inhibitors,

activators and p a s s i v a t o r s ) h a v e been d e v e l o p e d t o make it easier to control the

cleaning p r o c e s s . T h e t y p e and amount o f chemicals and t h e boiling t i m e may v a r y

from f a c t o r y to factory, d e p e n d i n g on t h e scale properties and t u b e material

used. A good a c c o u n t o f t h e problems associated w i t h the implementation of

chemical c l e a n i n g methods (in the P o l i s h sugar industry) c a n be f o u n d in the

literature (refs. 21-24). S p e c i a l i z e d chemical companies are p r e s e n t l y offering

extended i n d i v i d u a l cleaning and c o n s e r v a t i o n m e t h o d s , on t h e basis of scale

samples, scaled-tube sections, resin samples, etc.

Where c h e m i c a l cleaning has n o t proved e f f e c t i v e , mechanical or hydraulic

t u b e c l e a n e r s c a n be u s e d . Electrical d e s c a l e r s are w i d e l y known, c o n s i s t i n g of

an e l e c t r i c motor and a f l e x i b l e shaft terminating in a tool with serrated

rollers, which is driven at a high speed. One o r two p a s s a g e s o f the tool for

each tube are u s u a l l y sufficient to remove t h e scale.

3.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF CORRECT U T I L I Z A T I O N OF CONDENSATES AND VAPOURS

3.3.1 Condensates

The u t i l i z a t i o n of the energy of condensates takes place in the thermal

circuitry attached to the condensate tanks. Providing the drainage subsystem is

working correctly, the task o f most c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s is to act as flow

stabilizers and t o secure proper conditions for the condensate-flash p r o c e s s . As

the i n f l o w i n g condensate is expanding to the pressure maintained in the tank,

flash vapour, assumed t o be d r y s a t u r a t e d steam, is generated (see also Section

2.5). As a s e c o n d a r y e f f e c t , the gases d i s s o l v e d in the condensate are

1i berated.

The f l a s h process should conveniently be p e r f o r m e d in thin condensate layers

or streams. In a horizontal tank, this c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d by s u p p l y i n g the

condensate to the upper p a r t and p r e f e r a b l y to a special nozzle p l a c e d above the

liquid level, as shown i n Fig. 3.14(a). It s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t when

introducing the condensate below the liquid level, vapour generation may

initially be i n h i b i t e d by t h e hydraulic p r e s s u r e , and s u b s e q u e n t intensive

boiling in a large liquid v o l u m e may i n d u c e t a n k vibrations.

In F i g . 3 . 1 4 ( b ) , a scheme f o r a vertical tank designed to satisfy the

requirements of efficient condensate f l a s h is shown. H i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e condensate

is supplied from below v i a a n o z z l e to a sieve tray p l a c e d above the liquid

level. A possible supply of low-temperature condensate is directed to a nozzle

p l a c e d below the outlet nozzle. The tank is usually e q u i p p e d w i t h an automatic

level-control circuit.
 119

(α) (b)

jT I Χ nozzle
nozzle
sieve tray

baffle

h i
Γ

F i g . 3.14. Design p r i n c i p l e s o f condensate t a n k s : ( a ) h o r i z o n t a l t y p e ,

(b) v e r t i c a l t y p e ( c o u r t e s y Chemadex). 1 - expanding condensate, 2 - s u b c o o l e d
condensate, 3 - outflowing condensate, 4 - f l a s h vapour.

It s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e available energy o f the c o n d e n s a t e may either

be s u p p l i e d t o the evaporator in the flash vapour, or t r a n s f e r r e d to j u i c e or

o t h e r media in condensate-heated heaters. However, i f a part of the heating-

v a p o u r demand i s satisfied by t h e flash v a p o u r , and t h e condenser l o s s is

constant, then less water w i l l be e v a p o r a t e d f r o m j u i c e in the evaporator. In

the arrangement shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 3.15(a), about 1.4 kg f l a s h vapour

is obtained per 100 kg b e e t , this reducing water evaporation in the first and

second s t a g e s by a b o u t 2.8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . This figure c a n be c u t down b y applying

double-stage condensate e x p a n s i o n , which r e q u i r e s u s i n g two c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s as

shown i n Fig. 3.15(b). In the f i r s t tank, the condensate i s flashed to the

first-effect pressure, generating a b o u t 0.7 kg v a p o u r p e r 100 kg b e e t . Second-

stage f l a s h produces another 0.7 kg v a p o u r p e r 100 kg b e e t . As a r e s u l t , water

evaporation w i l l be r e d u c e d by 0.7 + 2-0.7 = 2.1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , i.e., 25% l e s s

than in the previous case.

The first stage o f the condensate f l a s h c h a i n p r e s e n t e d a b o v e c a n be replaced

by a h e a t e r to which t h i n j u i c e from another heater, h e a t e d by first-effect

vapour, is supplied. This solution, shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 3.15(c), reduces

water evaporation i n t h e e v a p o r a t o r b y o n l y 1.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Another possibility of replacing condensate f l a s h i n a t a n k by condensate

cooling in a heater can be f o u n d in connection with the last evaporator effect.

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , the last-effect c o n d e n s a t e t a n k can be o p e r a t e d a t a pressure

equal to that in the heating chamber (instead of that in the vapour chamber).
120

(α) (b)

126°C 116°C 126°C 116C

35 35

Τ " 136'C 125°C

_ Γ
136"C 125 C

I ^.J^r^L-S-
^ 3 : ^ © _ _ . 3.3:6 0
(c)

126°C 116'C
35

I 136°C 125-C

34.3
Ί
F i g . 3 . 1 5 . Schemes o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f f i r s t - e f f e c t c o n d e n s a t e i n a q u a d r u p l e -
effect evaporator: (a) single-stage f l a s h , (b) double-stage f l a s h , (c) t h i n
j u i c e h e a t i n g , f o l l o w e d b y s i n g l e - s t a g e f l a s h ( f l o w s i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) .

T h i s makes it possible to supply the condensate to a heater installed as the

next heating stage a f t e r the one h e a t e d b y t h e last-effect vapour. If applied

instead of a flash stage, this solution increases water evaporation in the

evaporator b y 1 . 8 - 2 . 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

If the principles of correct utilization of condensates are observed, then

the condensate subsystem c o n s i s t i n g of tanks, piping, fittings, controls and

measuring instruments look similar in d i f f e r e n t factories. Alternatively, the

essential c o m p o n e n t s can be c o m b i n e d i n t o a single p i e c e o f equipment known as

the compound t a n k . While the compartments of the compound t a n k c o r r e s p o n d t o the

individual tanks o f the conventional solution, less piping and f i t t i n g s c a n be

used. D e p e n d i n g on l o c a l conditions, it may a l s o be e a s i e r t o f i n d a place for

a single compound t a n k r a t h e r than m u l t i p l e individual tanks.

 121

3.3.2 Vapours

The r o l e o f t h e m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t evaporator station in the h e a t economy o f

sugar f a c t o r i e s has been d i s c u s s e d p r e l i m i n a r i l y in S e c t i o n 1.2.5. Its influence

on t h e n e t h e a t demand o f the sugar manufacturing process is b a s e d on the

modified Rillieux principle, that is, using the heat r e p e t i t i v e l y in the

consecutive evaporator e f f e c t s , and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e l i v e r i n g fractions of the

heat to the vapour r e c e i v e r s connected to each e f f e c t . As a r e s u l t , the

evaporation c o e f f i c i e n t , i.e. the ratio of t h e mass o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d t o the

mass o f heating steam consumed i n the f i r s t effect, may r e a c h 2 . 3 - 2 . 8 in a

quadruple-effect and 3 . 2 - 3 . 5 in a quintuple-effect, e v a p o r a t o r . The l a r g e r the

evaporation c o e f f i c i e n t , the l a r g e r c a n be t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the thermal system.

Numerous t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s and p r a c t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d studies h a v e been

devoted to the optimal distribution o f vapours from m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t evaporators

(refs. 25-33). Their results c a n be s u m m a r i z e d i n two r u l e s , t o be o b s e r v e d when

d e s i g n i n g a new t h e r m a l s y s t e m o r m o d e r n i z i n g an e x i s t i n g one:

(i) Each h e a t i n g operation s h o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g v a p o u r a t the lowest

possible temperature.

(ii) Vapour f l o w from the last evaporator effect to the condenser should

approach zero.

The t e m p e r a t u r e s o f vapours from the e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s are determined by

t h e number o f e f f e c t s , t h e d e s i g n o f e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s and t h e heating-surface

areas in the individual effects. Simultaneously, the parameters o f the sugar

manufacturing process determine t h e v a p o u r demand and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e required

for the heating operations. Consequently, i t is possible to a s s i g n , to each

heating operation, a specific evaporator effect from which heating vapour at

a suitable temperature can be w i t h d r a w n .

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s for using vapours from d i f f e r e n t evaporator effects in

a given heating o p e r a t i o n a r e l i m i t e d by t h e required final temperature of the

medium h e a t e d , and b y t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e difference (temperature pinch)

characteristic o f the heating apparatus. The r e l a t i o n s between t h e temperatures

are illustrated in F i g . 3.16. It c a n t h u s be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of

the utilization o f vapours depends, to a certain extent, on t h e heating

equipment a v a i l a b l e . A quantitative analysis of this relationship c a n be b a s e d

on t h e e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g t h e heat Q t r a n s f e r r e d in unit time between the

v a p o u r and t h e medium h e a t e d as

Q = kFAT (3.5)

where k i s the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient, F is the heating-surface area,

and Δ Τ i s t h e mean t e m p e r a t u r e difference between h e a t i n g v a p o u r and t h e medium

heated.
122

Τν vapour

Η- pinch
\_ <
D
2 required
Ο. final
temperature

0 100
Heating surface area p a s s e d ( % )

F i g . 3.16. Temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f j u i c e h e a t i n g . ΔΤ - mean t e m p e r a t u r e

d i f f e r e n c e , T ^ - actual vapour temperature, T ^ - lowest p o s s i b l e vapour
temperature.

F o r a g i v e n amount o f heat t r a n s f e r r e d , it may be p o s s i b l e to reduce the mean

temperature difference ( a n d t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e difference) only if the

product kF i s i n c r e a s e d . Consequently, the principle of selection o f vapour at

the lowest possible temperature implies t h a t the equipment characterized by

a small minimum t e m p e r a t u r e difference, which is equivalent to a large kF,

s h o u l d be p r e f e r r e d . However, l a r g e kF can o n l y be o b t a i n e d using high-intensity

heat t r a n s f e r , or large heating-surface a r e a s , or both - this inducing increased

heater cost. At given unit prices o f e n e r g y and h e a t - e x c h a n g i n g equipment, there

is a trade-off between t h e effectiveness of the energy u t i l i z a t i o n and the

investment cost of the heaters, and an optimum e x i s t s for the minimum

temperature difference. (Actually, it may be p o s s i b l e to treat this phenomenon

as a b a s i s o f e n e r g y - s y s t e m a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n , as shown i n Section 9.4.3.)

As r e g a r d s v a p o u r - h e a t e d j u i c e heaters, it is believed at present that the

e c o n o m i c v a l u e s o f t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e difference s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 5-10 K,

lower values corresponding to higher fuel prices. Typical heating operations

should thus be a c c o m p l i s h e d using vapours at temperatures not higher than 5-10 Κ

above t h e required final juice temperature. Even s m a l l e r temperature differences

may be a d o p t e d when h e a t i n g with low-temperature vapours (see Section 3.3.4).

The l a r g e s t component o f the heating-vapour demand i s associated with the

s u g a r b o i l i n g p r o c e s s . S u p p l y i n g t h e vacuum p a n s w i t h v a p o u r a t the lowest

p o s s i b l e temperature is decisive in optimizing the distribution of vapours from

the evaporator. For t h i s reason, let us t a k e a c l o s e r look at the heating

requirements of sugar boiling.

In the case o f b a t c h vacuum p a n s , t h e notion of t h e minimum temperature

difference must be a d a p t e d t o the discontinuous nature and o t h e r special

features of the boiling process. It is known t h a t t h e magma t e m p e r a t u r e may be

unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d in the strike volume, the distribution being dependent on

the pan d e s i g n a n d , p o s s i b l y , stirrer efficiency (refs. 34-36). For the sake of

 123

simplicity, let us assume t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e conditions i n t h e magma c a n be

a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d u s i n g t h e mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e . A t c o n s t a n t vacuum,

following changes o f the b o i l i n g - p o i n t e l e v a t i o n as t h e magma c o n c e n t r a t i o n is

increased, this temperature v a r i e s during the boiling c y c l e as shown

approximately in F i g . 3.17. F o r t h e same r e a s o n , the o v e r a l l heat transfer

coefficient at the heating s u r f a c e v a r i e s as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e same d i a g r a m .

Simultaneously, the condensation temperature in the heating chamber may v a r y (as

discussed in Section 3.1.2), becoming t e m p o r a r i l y lower than the temperature of

vapour from the a s s o c i a t e d e v a p o r a t o r effect.

oH76

20 UO 60 80 100
Time after seeding ( m i n )

F i g . 3 . 1 7 . Mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e d u r i n g w h i t e - s u g a r
b o i l i n g i n two d i f f e r e n t vacuum p a n s ( a f t e r r e f . 3 4 ) .

The r a n g e o f c h o i c e s o f v a p o u r t e m p e r a t u r e v a l u e s f o r pan h e a t i n g is limited

by t h e b o i l i n g time requirement which i s essential to both t h e s u g a r house

t h r o u g h p u t and p r o d u c t q u a l i t y . A t a g i v e n h e a t i n g - s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e amount of

h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d s h o u l d be l a r g e e n o u g h t o ensure that the s t r i k e can be

completed w i t h i n the required b o i l i n g time τ . In a d d i t i o n , the heat transferred

per u n i t t i m e s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o make c o r r e c t s t r i k e finishing

possible.

In order to simplify the formulation of the requirements, let us assume t h a t

changes o f t h e v a p o u r - c o n d e n s a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e are n e g l i g i b l y small. This allows

us t o restrict our a t t e n t i o n to the f o l l o w i n g parameters t h a t approximately

describe the temperature cycle (Fig. 3.18):

- t i m e - a v e r a g e d mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e T ^ ;

- h i g h e s t mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e T ^ ;

- vapour temperature T ^ .
124

Time (min)

Fig. 3.18. Temperature c y c l e accompanying the sugar b o i l i n g process.

The t e m p e r a t u r e cycle is accompanied by t h e heat t r a n s f e r cycle (Fig. 3.19),

w h i c h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g parameters illustrated in Fig. 3.20:

- time-averaged overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient k^;

a
- lowest overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient k^;
- h e a t demand p e r one s t r i k e Q^^.
Using the parameters listed above, it is possible to derive a simple

mathematical model o f the heat t r a n s f e r relationships in a boiling cycle. The

vapour temperature s h o u l d be c h o s e n t o satisfy the inequality

(3.6)

w h i c h can be r e w r i t t e n as

V(^V) ' ν
Τ < Τ (3.7)

a
D e n o t i n g t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e heat t r a n s f e r r e d per u n i t time by Q ^ , a n o t h e r

inequality can be c o n s t r u c t e d t o reflect the conditions of strike finishing as

< V\ - (3.8)

or
(3.9)

F i g . 3.19. O v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e d u r i n g white-
s u g a r b o i l i n g i n two d i f f e r e n t vacuum p a n s ( a f t e r r e f . 3 4 ) .
 125

Time

Fig. 3.20. Heat t r a n s f e r c y c l e accompanying the sugar b o i l i n g process.

The above f o r m u l a e a r e meant t o provide only a qualitative picture of the

thermal aspects of selection o f the vapour temperature. As i n d i c a t e d by (3.7)

and ( 3 . 9 ) , for a specific p r o d u c t and a g i v e n v a c u u m - p a n d e s i g n , t h e temperature

of the heating v a p o u r must be h i g h e r t h a n a certain threshold value. Most

c o n t e m p o r a r y pan d e s i g n s make i t possible to boil white sugar at a vapour

temperature 107-120°C, and l o w - g r a d e p r o d u c t s a t 102-110°C.

From t h e reasoning presented above, the c o n c l u s i o n c a n be d r a w n t h a t the

vapour temperature selection for vacuum-pan h e a t i n g is v e r y much i n f l u e n c e d by

the conditions o f the final part o f the strike-thickening phase. A c t u a l l y , the

utilization o f vapours from the evaporator c a n be i m p r o v e d i f vapour at a lower

temperature is supplied during most o f t h e boiling cycle, this being f o l l o w e d by

heating at a higher temperature when t h e final part o f the strike-thickening

phase i s approached. Although t h i s idea is certainly realizable and t h e r e have

been e x a m p l e s o f its practical application in b a t c h vacuum p a n s ( r e f . 37), one

has t o reckon w i t h side-effects consisting of additional fluctuations of

evaporator parameters a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e moment o f switching from low- to high-

temperature vapour (the fluctuations resulting, unavoidably, i n an e x t r a energy

loss). However, the potential g a i n s can e a s i l y be a t t a i n e d using continuous

vacuum p a n s . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and a p p l i c a t i o n s of continuous pans

is presented in Chapter 5.

Returning now t o the b a t c h vacuum p a n s , it c a n be s e e n i n Figs. 3.17 and 3.19

t h a t the h i g h e s t mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e tends to be h i g h e r , and t h e overall heat

transfer coefficients i s markedly lower, in the natural-circulation vacuum p a n s .

Both f a c t o r s act in the same d i r e c t i o n , making i t necessary to set the

difference b e t w e e n t h e t i m e - a v e r a g e d magma t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e vapour

temperature larger than in stirrer-equipped pans. It can t h u s be c o n c l u d e d that

the s t i r r e r - e q u i p p e d vacuum p a n s make i t possible to accept a lower heating-

vapour temperature, thus stimulating better utilization o f vapours from the

evaporator.
126

Concluding the d i s c u s s i o n o f the r u l e of heating with vapour at the lowest

possible temperature, let us o b s e r v e t h a t its application leads to shifting the

evaporator load towards low-temperature effects. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e

evaporation coefficient is i n c r e a s e d and t h e n e t h e a t demand o f t h e f a c t o r y may

be r e d u c e d . I n t h e literature, e x a m p l e s can be f o u n d o f successful applications

of this rule in modernization of evaporator stations (refs. 37,38).

The second r u l e formulated at the beginning of t h i s S e c t i o n , to maintain the

vapour flow to the condenser c l o s e to zero, means s i m p l y t h a t t h e v a p o u r must

n o t be w a s t e d . On t h e o t h e r hand, i t is necessary to e v a p o r a t e as much w a t e r in

t h e e v a p o r a t o r as n e e d e d t o a t t a i n a predetermined t h i c k - j u i c e concentration.

In a sugar f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l a r g e h e a t demand, s o much v a p o u r must be

withdrawn from the e v a p o r a t o r f o r heating purposes t h a t this constraint is easy

to s a t i s f y . If t h e h e a t demand has been d e c r e a s e d , h o w e v e r , t h e n t h e total

vapour withdrawal might be i n s u f f i c i e n t , and i n c r e a s e d v a p o u r f l o w to the

c o n d e n s e r w o u l d be t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y to keep t h e t h i c k - j u i c e concentration

constant. Such a s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as i n d i c a t i n g the n e c e s s i t y to

modify the actual evaporator configuration. Generally, three solutions c a n be

considered, either separately or in combination:

(1) replacing s e l e c t e d e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s by o t h e r s w i t h larger heating surfaces

and/or higher overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients;

(2) i n c r e a s i n g t h e number o f e v a p o r a t o r effects;

(3) introducing a vapour compression circuit.

The p r i n c i p l e of the f i r s t solution c a n be s e e n i n e q n . ( 3 . 5 ) , w h i c h has been

formulated for a heater b u t a p p l i e s as w e l l to an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y . F o r a

p r e d e t e r m i n e d amount o f heat to be t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m h e a t i n g vapour to j u i c e , an

increased overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient and/or enlarged heating-surface area

make i t possible to r e d u c e t h e mean t e m p e r a t u r e difference b e t w e e n v a p o u r and

juice. An a p p l i c a t i o n of this principle is illustrated in F i g . 3.21, w h i c h shows

vapour temperatures in a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r b e f o r e and after

modernization o f the 4 t h - e f f e c t b o d y . F o l l o w i n g a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e mean

temperature difference in the 4th effect, the temperatures of the 4 t h - and 5th-

effect v a p o u r s a r e i n c r e a s e d , making i t easier to utilize these vapours for

heating purposes. I t t h u s becomes p o s s i b l e t o supply 4th- and 5 t h - e f f e c t vapours

to certain receivers that h a v e p r e v i o u s l y been h e a t e d b y 3 r d - and 4th-effect

vapours, r e s p e c t i v e l y . As a r e s u l t , t h e n e t h e a t demand may be r e d u c e d .

An i n c r e a s e d number o f e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s is an o b v i o u s s o l u t i o n in sugar

f a c t o r i e s where t r i p l e - or quadruple-stage evaporators are used. At present,

most e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t factories r e l y on q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t evaporators. This

s h o u l d be s e e n as an e n t i r e family of evaporator solutions, each c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by a unique d i s t r i b u t i o n of heating v a p o u r s . Vacuum p a n s may be h e a t e d b y 2 n d - ,

 127

IAO

α 130

t 120
3
ξα 110
φ 100

90

1 2 3 A 5
E v a p o r a t o r effect No.

F i g . 3.21. T e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r . Dashed
l i n e s i n d i c a t e r e s u l t s o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f f o u r t h - e f f e c t body ( c o u r t e s y
Cukroprojekt).

3rd-, 4th-, o r even 5 t h - e f f e c t v a p o u r , o r two d i f f e r e n t v a p o u r s . The last

effect may w o r k as a c o n c e n t r a t o r , that is, with vapour withdrawal to the

condenser o n l y , o r v a p o u r may a l s o be w i t h d r a w n for heating purposes. Depending

on t h e d e s i g n o f t h e evaporator bodies, it may be n e c e s s a r y t o increase the

e x h a u s t - s t e a m p r e s s u r e above the level which is sufficient in quadruple-effect

evaporators.

Up t o now, s e x t u p l e - e f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s a r e seldom used i n typical white-sugar

factories. E x a m p l e s a r e known o f f a c t o r i e s where s e x t u p l e - s t a g e evaporator

stations h a v e been c o n v e r t e d b a c k t o quintuple-effect o n e s , t o make the

operation easier. Successful applications of sextuple-effect evaporators have

been r e p o r t e d f r o m P l a t t l i n g , F R G , and B u c y - l e - L o n g , F r a n c e ( r e f . 39). However,

these are not o r d i n a r y f a c t o r i e s , as t h i c k - j u i c e storage is applied in

Plattling, and v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n i s employed i n the thermal system at Bucy-le-

Long.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n of a vapour-compression c i r c u i t i s mentioned a b o v e as a

third possibility to modify an e v a p o r a t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n . This technique is

discussed in greater detail in Section 3.4.

3.3.3 The r o l e o f vacuum s y s t e m s

The a t t a i n a b l e vacuum l e v e l defines the lowest temperature to which heat

flows can be d i r e c t e d w i t h i n a thermal system. For t h i s reason, the functioning

of the last evaporator effect and t h e sugar b o i l i n g u n d e r vacuum a r e very

important to the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of energy conversion processes taking place in

the thermal s y s t e m . The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s s u b j e c t was i n i t i a t e d in the

p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n by a n a l y s i n g the relationships characteristic of vacuum-pan

128

heating. The h i g h e r the vacuum, t h a t is, the lower the pressure in the

condenser, the lower can be t h e time-averaged mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e and thus

the lower can be t h e heating-vapour temperature, this contributing to improved

heat economy.

As r e g a r d s t h e last evaporator effect, the vacuum l e v e l determines the

p r e s s u r e and t h u s the j u i c e - b o i l i n g temperature. This, in turn, defines the

temperature span a v a i l a b l e for the multi-stage evaporation process (between the

exhaust-steam temperature in the first s t a g e and j u i c e temperature in the last),

and i n d i r e c t l y defines the temperatures of heating v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s from

the individual evaporator effects.

I n t h e vacuum s y s t e m o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y , vacuum i s produced in one o r more

condensers. The p r e s s u r e i n the condenser i s equal to the sum o f the water-

saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature o f the condensing vapour,

and t h e pressure of the noncondensable gases. However, a connection between the

c o n d e n s e r and an e q u i p m e n t unit o p e r a t e d u n d e r vacuum may i n c l u d e nozzles,

pipes, fittings, entrainment separators and, perhaps, heating chambers of

heaters. The f l o w of vapour through the connection is inevitably associated with

a pressure drop, so the available pressure is higher, i.e., the available vacuum

is lower than that in the condenser (actually, a part of this p r e s s u r e d r o p may

occur in the condenser i t s e l f ) . If, in addition, the noncondensables tend to

accumulate in the condenser, then t h e i r p r e s s u r e may c a u s e t h e total pressure

in the condenser to increase, this reducing the available vacuum e v e n further.

As a r e s u l t , the temperature in the equipment unit may be i n c r e a s e d and a higher

heating-vapour temperature may become n e c e s s a r y .

Obviously, a tendency towards increased temperatures of heating vapours would

have a d e t r i m e n t a l effect on t h e heat economy. It can be p r e v e n t e d , h o w e v e r , by

paying proper a t t e n t i o n to three factors characterizing t h e vacuum s y s t e m :

(i) A vapour-condensation temperature close to the inlet temperature of cooling

water entering the condenser;

(ii) Effective evacuation o f noncondensables from the condenser;

(iii) Sufficiently small p r e s s u r e d r o p s between t h e equipment operated under

vacuum and t h e condenser.

Minimization of the temperature difference between the condensing vapour and

the cooling water is an i m p o r t a n t requirement to be a c c o u n t e d f o r in condenser

design. A d i s c u s s i o n of the a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f v a r i o u s designs can

be f o u n d in the literature (refs. 3,40). Many f a c t o r i e s rely on s i m p l e , and

quite effective, counter-current shelf-type barometric c o n d e n s e r s . An o u t l i n e of

a design presently used i n Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s c a n be s e e n i n Fig. 3.22.

Another condenser d e s i g n , implemented recently in the S o v i e t sugar industry,

consists of two v e s s e l s c o n n e c t e d i n series ( F i g . 3.23). Vapour e n t e r i n g the

 129

cooling ρ—^ to vacuum

water Τ τ - ^ ^ pump

vapour

barometric
water

F i g . 3.22. O u t l i n e o f a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t s h e l f - t y p e barometric condenser

(courtesy DOS).

F i g . 3 . 2 3 . Scheme o f a b a r o m e t r i c c o n d e n s e r f e a t u r i n g a c o - c u r r e n t v e s s e l ( a )
and a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t v e s s e l ( b ) . 1 - v a p o u r i n l e t , 2 - c o o l i n g w a t e r i n l e t ,
3 - w a t e r o u t l e t , 4 - vacuum l i n e .
130

first vessel is subject to co-current cooling as w a t e r flows down t h e shelves.

The f i r s t portion o f water can be w i t h d r a w n from the upper p a r t o f the vessel.

Providing this water does n o t mix w i t h t h e main cooling-water stream, the upper

part o f the first v e s s e l c a n be t r e a t e d as an e n t r a i n m e n t separator. It is also

possible to utilize this part of the c o n d e n s e r as a d i r e c t - c o n t a c t heater; for

example, f r e s h water supplied to the extractor can be h e a t e d t h e r e . Co-current

cooling (using water f r o m t h e main cooling circuit) continues in the lower part

of the v e s s e l , this being f o l l o w e d by c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t cooling in the second

vessel. In comparison to vacuum s y s t e m s e m p l o y i n g simple counter-current

condensers, this design is claimed to reduce the cooling-water demand b y 25-30%

(ref. 41).

The e v a c u a t i o n o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s from t h e condenser i s effected using vacuum

pumps, u s u a l l y o f t h e w a t e r - r i n g type. In addition to the general condenser

design, the location and d i m e n s i o n o f t h e gas-withdrawal nozzle is important, as

it may o r may n o t e n s u r e t h a t the gas e v a c u a t i o n is sufficient and t h e gas

temperature is as l o w as p o s s i b l e . (The lower t h i s temperature, the smaller is

the energy e x p e n d i t u r e in t h e vacuum pump drive.)

As r e g a r d s t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p s a l o n g the vapour paths between equipment units

and t h e c o n d e n s e r , some s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s may a r i s e d e p e n d i n g on t h e scheme of

t h e vacuum i n s t a l l a t i o n . In the case o f individual condensers, i t is essential

to choose channel dimensions in accordance with maximum v a p o u r - f l o w v a l u e s (for

example, vapour channels attached to a vacuum pan s h o u l d be d i m e n s i o n e d f o r the

vapour flow expected during the syrup-thickening phase o f the boiling cycle). If

a central condenser i s employed, then a d e l i c a t e problem a r i s e s o f flow

distribution in parallel sections of t h e vacuum piping.

Large diameters of nozzles, v a l v e s and p i p e s induce a tendency towards

selecting too small dimensions, this resulting in too large pressure drops.

Traditionally, calculations o f t h e vacuum p i p i n g h a v e been b a s e d on the

recommended v a l u e s o f f l o w velocities inserted into incompressible-flow formulae

expressing the pressure drop (ref. 3). It can be p r o v e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t neglect

of the vapour c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y may c a u s e a s y s t e m a t i c error of about 10% o f the

calculated pressure drop (ref. 42). An e x a m p l e o f calculations o f the vacuum

piping using compressible-flow formulae c a n be f o u n d in the literature

(ref. 43).

It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d as a

complete presentation o f the requirements relating to efficient vacuum s y s t e m s .

For example, s t a b i l i t y o f t h e vacuum l e v e l is very important to both the heat

economy and t h e reliability o f vacuum-pan o p e r a t i o n . The s t a b i l i t y requirements

to be a c c o u n t e d f o r in the condenser design are reviewed in the literature

(ref. 44).
 131

3.3.4 Utilization of low-pressure vapours

I n S e c t i o n 1.2, utilization of low-temperature h e a t and c e r t a i n problems

associated with the equipment used f o r this purpose were preliminarily

discussed. In t h i s a r e a , the utilization o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i s of particular

importance. This p r o b l e m has much i n common w i t h the utilization of last-effect

vapour from the evaporator.

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of heating with vacuum-pan v a p o u r s are l i m i t e d by t h e i r low

temperature, 55-65°C. A p o p u l a r solution known f r o m less efficient thermal

systems i s to heat f r e s h water supplied to the extractor. This can be d o n e , for

example, in the inlet part o f the d o u b l e - v e s s e l condenser mentioned in the

preceding Section; i t has been r e p o r t e d t h a t w a t e r temperatures as h i g h as 1-2 Κ

below the vapour temperature c a n be a t t a i n e d (ref. 45). In h i g h l y efficient

thermal systems, however, the extractor should rather be s u p p l i e d w i t h excess

condensate, and o t h e r methods o f utilization o f v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s s h o u l d be

preferred.

A typical energy-efficient solution is to heat raw j u i c e in a heater of

a suitable design. It seems t h a t horizontally- or vertically-arranged tubular

h e a t e r s a r e most f r e q u e n t l y used, while applications of spiral heaters are also

known. Raw j u i c e c a n be h e a t e d t o the 50-55°C r e q u i r e d f o r hot p r e - l i m i n g , this

making i t possible to utilize 4-5 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r p e r 100 kg b e e t . T h e

2
heating surface area r e q u i r e d is typically o f the o r d e r 70-110 m per 100 t/d

processing c a p a b i l i t y . If the temperature in the pre-limer is lower, then pre-

limed j u i c e can be h e a t e d instead.

The l e a d i n g principle o f heating with vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i s to aim a t as high

a vapour-condensation temperature in the heater as p o s s i b l e . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

v a p o u r s from pans A a r e p r e f e r r e d to t h o s e f r o m Β and C p a n s . P r o p e r precautions

s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n against the influence of noncondensable gases consisting

mainly of air liberated from j u i c e and s y r u p s d u r i n g the thickening phase, air

entering t h e vacuum pans d u r i n g the intervals between the boiling cycles, and

air leaking into t h e vacuum s y s t e m . T h e v o l u m e o f noncondensables i s usually

about 1% o f t h e v a p o u r volume.

The i n f l u e n c e o f noncondensables i s eliminated if the heater is properly

connected to t h e vacuum s y s t e m . In F i g . 3.24, two d i f f e r e n t solutions a r e shown

schematically. In case ( a ) , the entire vapour flow f r o m t h e vacuum p a n s is

directed to the h e a t e r and t o the condenser, t h i s effectively preventing the

accumulation o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s . The h e a t e r d e s i g n must be a d a p t e d t o a very

l a r g e volume f l o w o f vapour, which r e q u i r e s a relatively large heater diameter

and s p a r s e l y p l a c e d t u b e s , s o as n o t t o exceed a vapour p r e s s u r e drop of

0.01-0.02 b a r . Two s u i t a b l e designs in which a v a p o u r - f l o w v e l o c i t y of up to

40-50 m/s has been assumed a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Figs. 3.25 (one v a p o u r -

 132

(α) (b)

3
3

Ν /

- 0
F i g . 3.24. H e a t e r arrangements s u i t e d t o h e a t i n g w i t h vacuum-pan v a p o u r s :
(a) heater supplied with the e n t i r e vapour f l o w , (b) heater s u p p l i e d with a part
o f the vapour f l o w . 1 - h e a t e r , 2 - foam c a t c h e r , 3 - c o n d e n s e r .

s i d e p a s s and f o u r juice-side p a s s e s ) and 3.26 ( t w o and t w e l v e p a s s e s ,

respectively). O t h e r d e s i g n s h a v e a l s o been p r e s e n t e d i n t h e literature (ref.

47). G e n e r a l l y , the heater dimensions are v e r y large and i t may be d i f f i c u l t to

f i n d a place i n an e x i s t i n g f a c t o r y where such a u n i t can be installed.

In case ( b ) , the heater is connected to a vapour l i n e parallel to the main

vapour manifold. The v a p o u r f l o w through the heater is typically 25-30% o f the

total flow, this making i t possible to reduce the dimensions of the unit. As the

diameters of t h e v a p o u r p i p e s can a l s o be r e d u c e d , i t becomes e a s i e r t o install

the heater i n a manner f a c i l i t a t i n g convenient access f o r repair and

maintenance. Vapour from the heater outlet is directed to t h e main v e s s e l of

a d o u b l e - v e s s e l main c o n d e n s e r (when a c o n d e n s i n g s y s t e m s i m i l a r to that

presented in S e c t i o n 3.3.3 is applied), or to an i n d i v i d u a l condenser. In this

case, t h e volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f noncondensables at the vapour o u t l e t may

a t t a i n 4-5%, decreasing the condensation temperature by a b o u t 1-1.5 K. It is

therefore recommended t o adapt the heater design to the following requirements

of efficient venting:

8 nn

— C7>

uice
vapour

F i g . 3 . 2 5 . Scheme o f a t u b u l a r h e a t e r h e a t e d w i t h v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r , h e a t i n g
s u r f a c e a r e a 125 m2. 1 - t u b e s , 2 - i n t e r m e d i a t e t u b e sheets, 3 - condensate-
separating b a f f l e , 4 - protective screens ( a f t e r r e f . 46).
 133

(α)

baffle

(b)
external wall

holes

F i g . 3 . 2 6 . Scheme o f a t u b u l a r h e a t e r h e a t e d w i t h v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r , h e a t i n g
s u r f a c e a r e a 250 m^ ( c o u r t e s y C h e m a d e x ) . ( a ) g e n e r a l l a y o u t , ( b ) d e t a i l o f t h e
b a f f l e , top view.

- vapour-flow velocity in the free-flow (i.e. disregarding the presence of

heating tubes) heater c r o s s - s e c t i o n area close to the vapour inlet should be

10-15 m/s, to prevent the diffusion of noncondensables;

- cold juice should enter the heating tubes in the vicinity of the vapour

outlet, to stimulate identical flow directions of both vapour and

noncondensables.

The a b o v e comments and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s apply also to the heaters supplied

w i t h vapours from the last evaporator effect. A discussion of a heater

arrangement for raw-juice heating using fifth-effect v a p o u r can be f o u n d in the

literature (ref.48).

A number o f alternative methods of utilization of low-temperature vapours

have a l s o been p r o p o s e d . In the S o v i e t sugar industry, direct-contact heaters

for raw-juice heating are in use ( F i g . 3 . 2 7 ) . While this equipment is simple and

easy to implement, the advantages o f its application are f a r from o b v i o u s ,

because the j u i c e becomes d i l u t e d with condensate, thus requiring increased

evaporation in the evaporator. In order to reduce the net h e a t demand, it is

necessary to adjust the distribution of the heating vapours p r i o r to the

implementation of a direct-contact heater (ref. 50).

A n o t h e r method o f utilization o f v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s e m p l o y s an intermediate

134

View A

F i g . 3 . 2 7 . Scheme o f a d i r e c t - c o n t a c t j u i c e h e a t e r h e a t e d w i t h v a c u u m - p a n
vapour. 1 - j u i c e i n l e t , 2 - j u i c e o u t l e t , 3 - vapour, 4 - noncondensables.

water circuit for heat t r a n s p o r t to air preheaters in the boilers or in the

drying stations (sugar d r y e r , low-temperature pulp dryer, etc.). A condenser-

heater ("hot c o n d e n s e r " ) w h i c h has been d e s i g n e d f o r such a p p l i c a t i o n s is shown

schematically in F i g . 3.28. At least one m a n u f a c t u r e r is now o f f e r i n g a complete

circuit which c o n s i s t s of a condenser-heater, water tank, pump, and a spiral

heat exchanger f o r raw-juice heating. It is claimed that this solution is more

economic than a conventional raw-juice heater s u p p l i e d w i t h vacuum-pan vapour.

I n a number o f F r e n c h and West German s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , vacuum-pan vapours

are u t i l i z e d in special evaporators for thickening juice or Β s y r u p . As

implementation of t h i s method is v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on t h e availability of

suitable equipment, it is d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5. It is worth noting that in the

factories w h e r e t h i s method is applied, the total area of the heating surfaces

of the equipment h e a t e d b y v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s may a t t a i n 380-400 m per 1000 t/d

processing capability.

3.4 VAPOUR COMPRESSION

3.4.1 Compression o f vapours from the evaporator

An i n t r o d u c t i o n to the application o f vapour compression techniques was

presented in Section 1.2.7. There is a vast literature devoted to the problems

of combining vapour compression c i r c u i t s w i t h v a r i o u s energy systems in the

 135

to vacuum
pump
1^
cooling
water 3 0 " c

cooling ^
water 35 C

φ ) vapour

condensate

water 39 C water 56 C

F i g . 3.28. Condenser tower for the c o n d e n s a t i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r (courtesy

Wiegand).

sugar industry (refs. 2,3,51-59). W o r t h recommending also is a brochure which

summarizes t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t in the field of applications of

mechanical vapour compressors in v a r i o u s process i n d u s t r i e s (ref. 60). In this

Section, we s h a l l concentrate on t h e two s o l u t i o n s most f r e q u e n t l y used i n sugar

factories, namely t h o s e e m p l o y i n g the compression o f vapours from the first and

the second e v a p o r a t o r effects.

It was i n d i c a t e d in S e c t i o n 1.2.7 that before the introduction of a vapour

compression c i r c u i t into a thermal system, it may be n e c e s s a r y t o rearrange the

details of the distribution o f vapours from the evaporator. L e t us c o n s i d e r the

example o f a r a t h e r inefficient thermal s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a relatively

large steam demand, namely 4 7 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , consisting of:

- heating steam a t the parameters corresponding to the turbine exhaust, supplied

to t h e e v a p o r a t o r and t h e sugar d r y e r , 46.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- live steam t h r o t t l e d to 7 bar, supplied to the centrifugals, 1.5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

The f a c t o r y c o n s i d e r e d employs a t r o u g h - t y p e extractor, supplied with fresh

water from o u t s i d e the factory, a classical juice-purification station, a

quadruple-effect evaporator in which the j u i c e is thickened from 15.5% DS t o

136

65% D S , and a t h r e e - b o i l i n g crystallization scheme. The e s s e n t i a l features of

the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme and t h e v a p o u r f l o w s are given in Table 3.3. Let

us n o t e t h a t the flow of last-effect vapour to the c o n d e n s e r can be r e g a r d e d as

sufficiently small, and u n l e s s t h e v a p o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n is c h a n g e d , no v a p o u r

stream is directly available for a possible vapour-compression circuit.

TABLE 3.3

Steam and v a p o u r s t r e a m s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n a

t h e r m a l s y s t e m c o n s u m i n g 4 7 . 9 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t .

Sources

Receivers Evaporator effects Others

Press-water heater 1 .95

Extractor 2.17 0 .21
Raw-juice heater condensate
H e a t e r s b e f o r e main l i m i n g 6 .80
Heater a f t e r 1st carbonatation 3.22
H e a t e r b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n 2.86
T h i n - j u i c e heaters 2.52 3.38
T h i c k - j u i c e heater 0.15
Melter 0.20
I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0.45
D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0.58
Remelt h e a t e r 0.20
Vacuum pans A 12.80
Β 3.40
C 1.31
Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g 1.50
Centrifugals 7 b a r steam 1.50
Sugar d r y e r e x h a u s t steam 0.50
Condenser 0.71
Evaporator total 2.52 32.22 8. .96 0.71

It can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3.3 t h a t the heat

economy can be i m p r o v e d b y i n t r o d u c i n g the utilization of fourth-effect vapour

and v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s . An a d d i t i o n a l improvement can be o b t a i n e d by supplying

the extractor with excess condensate, instead of fresh water supplied at a lower

initial temperature. L e t us assume t h a t these changes are introduced without any

modifications of the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s ; most n o t a b l y , the thick-juice

concentration remains at 65% D S .

Following the utilization of t h e vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n raw-juice heating and

other heat-economy improvements, the demand f o r heating vapours from the

evaporator is reduced. In order to keep t h e thick-juice concentration constant,

this can be c o m p e n s a t e d f o r by a r t i f i c i a l l y withdrawing a sufficiently large

vapour stream from the evaporator. L e t us assume t h a t this s t r e a m can be taken

from the first evaporator effect.

 137

The e s s e n t i a l features of the improved vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme, including

the flows of heating vapours from the e v a p o r a t o r and vacuum p a n s , a r e shown in

Table 3.4. As can be s e e n , a vapour stream o f 10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b i s w i t h d r a w n from

the first effect. T h i s v a p o u r can be c o m p r e s s e d t o the exhaust-steam pressure

and u t i l i z e d in the heating chamber o f the first effect, c u t t i n g down t h e demand

for e x h a u s t steam s u p p l i e d t o the evaporator.

TABLE 3.4

Steam and v a p o u r s t r e a m s (kg/100 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n the

m o d i f i e d thermal system.

Sources

Receivers Evaporator effects Others

Press-water heater 1. ,97

Extractor 0. .90 0.92
Raw-juice heater vacuum-pan v a p o u r
H e a t e r s b e f o r e main l i m i n g 2.85 3. ,36 condensate
Heater a f t e r 1st carbonatation 2.62
H e a t e r b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n 2,.50
T h i n - j u i c e heaters 2..24 2,.43 1.65
T h i c k - j u i c e heater 0.15
Melter 0,.20
I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0, .45
D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0,.58
Remelt h e a t e r 0.18
Vacuum pans A 12,.80
Β 3 .40
C 1 .31
Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g 1 .50
Centrifugals 7 b a r steam 1.50
Sugar d r y e r e x h a u s t s t e a m 0.50
Condenser 0,.09
T o be w i t h d r a w n 10,.00 (5 . 0 0 ) *

Evaporator total 12,.24 26 .07 8.37 5,.42

V applies to c o m p r e s s i o n o v e r two stages

Before discussing possible s o l u t i o n s for the vapour compression c i r c u i t , let

us assume t h e following values of the e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and distribution

processes in the factory:

- live steam p r e s s u r e 38 b a r and t e m p e r a t u r e 450°C;

- e x h a u s t steam t e m p e r a t u r e 135°C, f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour temperature 126°C (dry

saturated steam i n both cases, that is, pressures of 3.13 b a r and 2.39 bar,

respectively);

- power c o n s u m p t i o n in the f a c t o r y 3 kWh p e r 100 kg beet;

- steam r a t e of the turbo-generator 8 kg/kWh;

- on a v e r a g e , 37.4 % of the heating steam, i.e. 17.36 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , delivered

138

from the t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station.

L e t us a l s o o b s e r v e t h a t 62.6% o f t h e heating-steam flow delivered via the

turbine makes it p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a t e 3.63 kWh p e r 100 kg b e e t , so t h e factory

i s able to sell an e l e c t r i c i t y s u r p l u s o f t h e o r d e r o f 20% o f its own power

consumption.

3.4.2 Mechanical vs. jet-type compressors

To b e g i n w i t h , let us c o n s i d e r a c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t employing an

electrically-driven, s i n g l e - s t a g e mechanical c o m p r e s s o r . The v a p o u r compression

process is shown i n t h e M o l l i e r d i a g r a m in F i g . 3.29. Specific power consumption

(per 1 kg v a p o u r ) can be c a l c u l a t e d as

P3=(h,3-h^l)/{n,n^) (3.10)

w h e r e h^-j i s the enthalpy of f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour, h^^ i s the final vapour

enthalpy in the isentropic compression p r o c e s s , is the compression efficiency

and is the mechanical efficiency.

Assuming = 0.68, = 0.95 and u s i n g the parameter values l i s t e d in the

preceding Section (enthalpy values according to U. G r i g u l l (Ed.), Properties of

W a t e r and Steam i n S l - U n i t s , 2nd e d n . , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , Berlin-Heidelberg-New

York, 1 9 7 9 ) , we obtain

Pg = (2764.1 - 2 7 1 4 . 4 ) / ( 0 . 6 8 - 0 . 9 5 ) = 76.9 k J / k g = 0.0214 kWh/kg

2800

Oí

1^2750
JZ
o
·•-·
c
ÜJ

2700

6.95 7.00 7.05 7.10 715

Entropy (k^iRgK))

Fig. 3.29. Compression o f f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour in a mechanical compressor.

 139

The e n t h a l p y o f t h e compressed vapour is

h ^ ^ = h^^ + ( h ^ ^ - h ^ ^ ) / n ^ = 2714.4 + (2764.1 - 2 7 1 4 . 4 ) / 0 . 6 8 = 2787.5 kJ/kg

This corresponds to a temperature of 163.2°C, t h a t is, 28.2 Κ above the

saturation temperature. T h e c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r s h o u l d be d e s u p e r h e a t e d b y

condensate injection and t h e n d i r e c t e d to the heating chamber o f t h e first

evaporator effect. Assuming t h e condensate enthalpy corresponding to the liquid

saturated state at the exhaust-steam p r e s s u r e , t h a t is, h^ = 567.7 k J / k g , the

mass o f c o n d e n s a t e n e e d e d t o d e s u p e r h e a t 1 kg c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r c a n be

calculated as

= (h^c " • ^ ) (2·^^'

w h e r e h^ i s the enthalpy o f e x h a u s t steam (assumed t o be d r y s a t u r a t e d steam at

3.13 bar p r e s s u r e ) .

After inserting t h e e n t h a l p y v a l u e s , we obtain

m^ = ( 2 7 8 7 . 5 - 2726.6)/(2726.6 - 567.7) = 0.028 kg/kg

Using the results o f the above c a l c u l a t i o n s , we can s u m m a r i z e the

consequences o f introducing a vapour-compression c i r c u i t b a s e d on a m e c h a n i c a l

c o m p r e s s o r as follows.

(i) Heating steam demand i s r e d u c e d by 1 0 · ( 1 + 0.028) = 10.28 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , i.e.

b y a b o u t 21.5% o f the initial steam demand. T h i s makes it possible to cut down

the live steam f l o w through the throttling-desuperheating station to less than

41% o f its initial value.

(ii) Power demand i s i n c r e a s e d b y 1 0 - 0 . 0 2 1 4 = 0.214 kWh/100 kg b , i.e. by about

7% o f the initial value.

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t t h e power o u t p u t remains unaffected, this implying that

there is a change i n t h e power b a l a n c e , namely a r e d u c t i o n of the electricity

s u r p l u s w h i c h can be s o l d t o the external grid.

A different result is o b t a i n e d when t h e electric motor driving the compressor

is r e p l a c e d b y a steam t u r b i n e . A s s u m i n g a steam r a t e of about 12 kg/kWh which

is typical of small single-stage turbines, 2.56 kg l i v e steam p e r 100 kg b e e t is

needed t o d r i v e the c o m p r e s s o r , and t h e expanded steam from t h e t u r b i n e exhaust

c a n be m i x e d w i t h the compressed v a p o u r . In t h i s case, a reduction of the

heating-steam demand and a s i m u l t a n e o u s increase of the live-steam demand

result in a net saving of a b o u t 21.5% o f t h e initial s t e a m demand, w h i l e the

power o u t p u t and t h e power demand r e m a i n unchanged. I t is therefore well worth

considering a turbine-driven c o m p r e s s o r as an i n t e r e s t i n g alternative to an

electrically-driven one.

Recent examples o f the application of e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n compressors have

been d i s c u s s e d i n the literature (refs. 61-64). T u r b i n e - d r i v e n compressors are

known t o be a p p l i e d in Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s (where s e c o n d - e f f e c t vapour is

140

compressed, see S e c t i o n 3.4.3).

T h e v a p o u r - c o m p r e s s i o n p r o c e s s c a n a l s o be p e r f o r m e d using jet-type

compressors. Typically, multiple compressors are i n s t a l l e d in a single

compression circuit f o r reasons o f flow control ( s e e S e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 4 ) . An

idealized compression process i n a j e t - t y p e compressor s u p p l i e d w i t h live steam

is shown i n t h e M o l l i e r diagram i n F i g . 3.30. In order to calculate the steam

demand, f i n a l vapour e n t h a l p y , e t c . , the following indices characterizing the

i d e a l i z e d p r o c e s s must be known:

- compression r a t i o u (see Table 1.2),

3A00

3300

CT3200

>;3100
o
£
C
ÜJ
3000

2900

2800

2700

2600
6.95 7.00 7.05 710 7.15
Entropy ( k j / ( k g K))

Fig. 3.30. Compression o f f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour in a j e t - t y p e compressor.

 141

- efficiency of the live-steam nozzle ,

- efficiency o f the mixed-steam (i.e., compressed v a p o u r ) n o z z l e η^.

T h e l i v e - s t e a m demand can be d e t e r m i n e d as

= D/u (3.12)

where is the vapour flow.

Assuming u = 2.40, we o b t a i n for the compression c i r c u i t under consideration

D^ = 1 0 / 2 . 4 0 = 4 . 1 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

The e n t h a l p y o f the live steam, a f t e r expansion in the nozzle to the pressure

of first-effect v a p o u r , can be c a l c u l a t e d as

^ c = ^ " " Ns^^l (^-^^^

w h e r e h-j is the initial live-steam enthalpy, and h-j^ is the f i n a l steam enthalpy

in the isentropic expansion process.

Inserting e n t h a l p y v a l u e s and a s s u m i n g n-j = 0.90, we obtain

h ^ ^ = 3333.9 - (3333.9 - 2 6 7 3 . 8 ) · 0 . 9 0 = 2739.0 kJ/kg.

The e n t h a l p y b a l a n c e o f m i x i n g e x p a n d e d steam w i t h first-effect v a p o u r c a n be

written as

Dl^le ' ^ ^ ^ = C^l ^ \K (3.14)

where h^ i s the mixed-steam enthalpy.

T h e m i x e d - s t e a m e n t h a l p y can t h u s be c a l c u l a t e d as

h ^ = ( 4 . 1 7 - 2 7 3 9 . 8 + 1 0 - 2 7 1 4 . 4 ) / ( 4 . 1 7 + 10) = 2721.9 kJ/kg.

From a s e p a r a t e e n t r o p y b a l a n c e , we c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e e n t r o p y o f m i x e d steam as

s^ = 7.0852 k J / ( k g K ) , which corresponds to a slightly superheated s t a t e . The

e n t h a l p y o f m i x e d steam a f t e r compression in the nozzle to the exhaust-steam

p r e s s u r e c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as

V = ^ ^ ( ^ s - (3.15)

where h^^ i s the final steam e n t h a l p y in the isentropic compression process.

Inserting e n t h a l p y v a l u e s and a s s u m i n g = 0.87, we obtain

h ^ ^ = 2721.9 + ( 2 7 7 2 . 0 - 2 7 2 1 . 9 ) / 0 . 8 7 = 2779.4 kJ/kg.

T h i s corresponds to a temperature of 159.4°C, t h a t is, 24.4 Κ above the

saturation temperature. Assuming t h a t mixed steam i s desuperheated using

condensate injection, we can c a l c u l a t e t h e mass o f c o n d e n s a t e p e r 1 kg steam

from eqn. (3.11)

m^ = ( 2 7 7 9 . 4 - 2 7 2 6 . 6 ) / ( 2 7 2 6 . 6 - 567.7) = 0.024 kg/kg

The t o t a l flow o f s a t u r a t e d steam s u p p l i e d b y t h e v a p o u r - c o m p r e s s i o n circuit

is thus

^s ^ ^^1 ^v'^^ "^c' ^ ^ ^^^^^ ^-^24) = 14.52 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

We can now s u m m a r i z e t h e results of the introduction of jet-type compressors

142

to the vapour-compression c i r c u i t as f o l l o w s .

(i) T h e h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand i s r e d u c e d b y 1 4 . 5 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b u t t h e live-steam

demand i s i n c r e a s e d b y 4 . 1 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . T h e r e s u l t i n g n e t steam s a v i n g is

10.35 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , i.e., a b o u t 21.6% o f t h e i n i t i a l steam demand.

(ii) The l i v e - s t e a m f l o w through the throttling-desuperheating station can be

c u t down t o a b o u t 16% o f i t s initial v a l u e ; h o w e v e r , an e v e n l a r g e r live-steam

f l o w must be s u p p l i e d t o t h e c o m p r e s s o r s .

(iii) T h e power o u t p u t and t h e p o w e r demand r e m a i n unaffected by vapour

compression.

Recent examples o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of jet-type c o m p r e s s o r s c a n be f o u n d in

the literature (refs. 65,66). However, p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s may differ

substantially from those i n d i c a t e d i n t h e above c a l c u l a t i o n , as e x p l a i n e d i n t h e

next Section.

3 . 4 . 3 S e l e c t i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e compression technique

A comparison o f the v a l u e s o f e s s e n t i a l quantities c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the energy

balances r e s u l t i n g from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f the three solutions described in the

p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n i s shown i n T a b l e 3 . 5 . As c a n be s e e n , t h e steam s a v i n g s a r e

almost identical. The j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s and t h e t u r b i n e - d r i v e n mechanical

compressor o f f e r t h e a d v a n t a g e o f an u n c h a n g e d p o w e r b a l a n c e , w h i l e the

e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n mechanical c o m p r e s s o r i n c r e a s e s t h e p o w e r demand. It should

be p o i n t e d o u t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s conclusion holds only i f t h e steam saving

relative to the o r i g i n a l thermal system w i t h o u t v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n does n o t

exceed the l i v e - s t e a m f l o w originally d i r e c t e d to the throttling-desuperheating

station. In order t o demonstrate how d i f f e r e n t results c a n be o b t a i n e d under

different conditions, a n o t h e r example i s p r e s e n t e d b e l o w .

TABLE 3.5

Comparison o f energy balances r e s u l t i n g from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s v a p o u r -

c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y an i n i t i a l steam
demand o f 4 7 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

Compressor
Without
Quantity Dimension vapour electrically-• turbine- jet-
compression driven driven type

( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 47.90 37.62 37.62 37.55

(%) 100 78.5 78.5 78.4

(kWh/100 kg b ) 3.000 3.214 3.000 3.000

(%) 100 107 100 100

(kWh/100 kg b ) 3.630 3.630 3.630 3.630

(%) 100 100 100 100

(kWh/100 kg b ) 0.630 0.416 0.630 0.630

(%) 100 66 100 100
 143

L e t us assume t h a t the initial h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand o f the factory under

consideration is 36.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b and a l l the remaining parameters of the energy

c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n processes are the same as i n t h e f a c t o r y previously

considered. T h e a v e r a g e steam f l o w through the throttling-desuperheating station

is 7.36 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , i.e. 19.4% o f t h e t o t a l heating-steam flow. If we now

consider the a p p l i c a t i o n s of three vapour-compression c i r c u i t s analogous to

those p r e v i o u s l y s p e c i f i e d , then the resulting relative modifications of the

energy balance t u r n out to be e n t i r e l y different from those found i n the

previous case. As t h e reductions of the heating-steam flow exceed the live-steam

flow o r i g i n a l l y supplied to the t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station, the steam

flow through the t u r b i n e and t h e p o w e r o u t p u t d e c r e a s e as shown i n T a b l e 3.6.

These e f f e c t s a r e most p r o n o u n c e d i n t h e case o f j e t - t y p e compressors, causing

the sugar f a c t o r y to become h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t on e l e c t r i c i t y s u p p l i e s from the

external grid. When a p p l y i n g a mechanical c o m p r e s s o r , a small power s u r p l u s can

be e x p e c t e d i n the c a s e o f an e l e c t r i c drive, and a s m a l l power d e f i c i t in the

case o f a t u r b i n e drive.

TABLE 3.6

Comparison o f e n e r g y balances r e s u l t i n g from the a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s v a p o u r -

c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n i t i a l steam
demand o f 3 7 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

Compressor
Without
Quantity Dimension vapour electrically-• turbine- jet-
compression driven driven type

(kg/100 kg b ) 37.90 27.62 27.62 27.55

(%) 100 72.9 72.9 72.9

(kWh/100 kg b ) 3.000 3.214 3.000 3.000

(%) 100 100 100 100

(kWh/100 kg b ) 3.630 3.270 2.950 2.182

(%) 100 90 81 60

(kWh/100 kg b ) 0.630 0.056 -0.050 -0.818

(%) 100 9 -8 -130

It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t T a b l e s 3.5 and 3 . 6 just summarize t h e results of

the analyses concerned with two p a r t i c u l a r sugar f a c t o r i e s equipped with

particular compression c i r c u i t s . T h e s e d a t a c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d as sufficient

basis for general c o n c l u s i o n s . In r e a l - l i f e e n g i n e e r i n g problems it is essential

to account f o r the influence of the type of compression equipment on the

investment c o s t s , as w e l l as o t h e r factors of practical interest. D e p e n d i n g on

the initial steam-demand l e v e l , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s i m p o s e d on t h e compression

circuit can be d i f f e r e n t l y formulated in different factories. The d e s i g n of

a vapour compression c i r c u i t can t h u s be c o n s i d e r e d as a m u l t i - v a r i a b l e decision

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problem, i n which equipment t y p e and v a p o u r f l o w s can be o p t i m i z e d for the best

overall economic results.

In t h i s context, let us m e n t i o n the possibility of the application of vapour

compression over two e v a p o r a t i o n stages. There are important practical

considerations w h i c h can j u s t i f y such a s o l u t i o n . It is not unusual that the

concentration of organic gaseous substances in the first-effect vapour is so

h i g h t h a t when t h e vapour is c o m p r e s s e d and r e c i r c u l a t e d to first-effect

heating, the quality of first-effect c o n d e n s a t e becomes a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d . If

the parameters o f the c o n d e n s a t e do n o t satisfy the rquirements of feed-water

quality, then a problem is created with possible a d v e r s e c o n s e q u e n c e s , as

discussed in Section 3.1.2. It is therefore worth noting that the concentration

of organic gaseous substances in second-effect vapour is usually 3-4 times

smaller than that in first-effect vapour (ref. 65).

L e t us r e t u r n for a moment to Table 3.4, i n w h i c h t h e mass f l o w s of vapours

from the evaporator and vacuum p a n s i n the modified thermal system are

presented. If we assume t h a t instead of f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour, vapour is withdrawn

from the second e f f e c t to the compression c i r c u i t , then the r e q u i r e d mass flow

of t h a t v a p o u r can be c a l c u l a t e d from the constraint of constant thick-juice

concentration. The r e s u l t i n g flow value is shown i n T a b l e 3.4 in brackets; it is

only half of the equivalent flow of first-effect vapour. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , the

increases in the total vapour flow from both the first and s e c o n d evaporator

effects are smaller than the increase resulting from vapour compression o v e r one

evaporation stage. The o u t l e t concentration of juice in the first effect is

lower than in the other solution, t h i s making i t possible to maintain a larger

value o f the overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient in the first effect. It may

therefore be e a s i e r , w i t h respect to the required heating-surface area in the

first evaporator effect, to implement vapour compression over two s t a g e s . It can

be added t h a t t h i s solution is generally applied in Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s and

has a l s o been i n t r o d u c e d to the Greek sugar industry.

3.4.4 Control considerations r e l a t i n g to vapour compression

When s u p p l y i n g the compressed vapour from the first or second evaporator

effect to first-effect heating, one has t o reckon w i t h the risk of juice

carryover causing a temporary sugar presence in the first-effect condensate. In

order t o manage e m e r g e n c y s i t u a t i o n s effectively, it may be a d v i s a b l e to install

two e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s and two c o r r e s p o n d i n g condensate tanks in the first

effect. If the compressed-vapour stream is directed to the heating chamber of

one b o d y , and t h e o t h e r body i s heated w i t h pure exhaust steam, then the risk of

condensate p o l l u t i o n is limited to only a part of the condensate stream. An

example o f steam and v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s in a vapour compression circuit

 145

utilizing this idea is shown i n Fig. 3.31(a).

Another possibility for preventing juice droplets from being carried over to

first-effect condensate i s to withdraw the vapour stream to be c o m p r e s s e d , not

directly from the effect in which vapour i s produced but from the heating

chamber o f the next effect. T h i s makes i t p o s s i b l e t o wash t h e v a p o u r t o be

withdrawn with water condensing in the heating chamber. According to this

principle, the Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s employ t h e w i t h d r a w a l of second-effect

vapour v i a the heating chamber o f the third effect, as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

Fig. 3.31(b).

(b)

F i g . 3 . 3 1 . Schemes o f steam and v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s p r e v e n t i n g t h e p o l l u t i o n o f

f i r s t - e f f e c t c o n d e n s a t e by j u i c e c a r r y o v e r i n t h e compressed v a p o u r :
( a ) c o m p r e s s i o n o v e r one e v a p o r a t i o n s t a g e , ( b ) c o m p r e s s i o n o v e r two e v a p o r a t i o n
s t a g e s . 1-3 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 4 - c o m p r e s s o r , 5 - t u r b i n e , 6 - e x h a u s t
steam, 7 - l i v e steam, 8 - heating vapour to the n e x t e f f e c t , 9 -
noncondensables.

When i n t r o d u c i n g vapour compression to a thermal system, it is desirable to

eliminate, or at least to reduce, the use o f the throttling-desuperheating

station in controlling the system t h r o u g h p u t . As r e g a r d s c o m p r e s s i o n circuits

employing mechanical compressors, t h i s is simply a question of selecting one of

the f l o w - c o n t r o l techniques applicable to gas-pumping equipment (see Chapter 7).

The c o n t r o l technique s e l e c t e d may a f f e c t the energy losses occurring in the

thermal system under changing loads. There are examples o f application of the

most e f f i c i e n t variable-speed control (ref. 59), and t h e less efficient by-pass

control ( w h i c h happens t o be e m p l o y e d i n t h e scheme shown i n Fig. 3.31(a)).

The case o f j e t - t y p e compressors i s different, as t h e s e d e v i c e s are

essentially d e s i g n e d t o work a t definite vapour flows and t h e control margins

are v e r y narrow. If the flow d e v i a t e s from its nominal v a l u e , then the

efficiency of a compressor f a l l s off rapidly. I n o r d e r t o make i t possible to

vary the compression-circuit load without s e r i o u s l y reducing compression

146

efficiency, it is necessary to arrange j e t - t y p e compressors of different

throughputs in batteries, like the one shown i n F i g . 3.32. A popular solution

consists of using four compressors, t h e i r throughputs creating a geometric

series 1:2:4:8 (ref. 65). A control system takes care of t u r n i n g on c o m p r e s s o r

combinations with total throughputs greater than, but close to, the required

vapour-flow v a l u e s . Using t h i s principle, the average e f f i c i e n c y of the battery

at variable l o a d s may be r e d u c e d o n l y insignificantly. It may be a d d e d that

the shaping o f the compressor b a t t e r y becomes l e s s important when a stable

evaporator load is e n s u r e d . I n two D a n i s h s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , vapour compression

circuits are applied w i t h the batteries comprising four and f i v e jet-type

compressors, the throughputs o f which create the series 1:1.94:1.94:4.5 and

1:1.07:2.14:2.6:4.84, respectively.

F i g . 3 . 3 2 . Scheme o f a b a t t e r y o f j e t - t y p e compressors. 1 - live steam,

2 - v a p o u r , 3 - compressed v a p o u r .

3.4.5 Compression o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s

It follows from the preceding sections t h a t the application of a vapour

compression c i r c u i t in an e x i s t i n g thermal s y s t e m may n e c e s s i t a t e introducing

substantial changes i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s , as w e l l as

installing p o s s i b l e replacements for some o f the e x i s t i n g evaporator bodies.

Because o f lack of space i n the existing buildings, or f o r economic r e a s o n s ,

t h i s may sometimes be d i f f i c u l t to accept. In o r d e r to widen the choice of

possible solutions, the circuits c o m p r e s s i n g v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s h a v e been

d e v e l o p e d and i m p l e m e n t e d i n a few European s u g a r factories.

Actually, this i d e a had a l r e a d y been a p p l i e d four d e c a d e s ago i n the Swiss

 147

factory at Aarberg, using e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n mechanical compressors connected

to both the evaporation and v a c u u m - p a n s t a t i o n s (ref. 67). The e n t i r e stream of

vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i s c o m p r e s s e d f r o m 0.25 bar to 1.2 b a r p r e s s u r e and

recirculated to pan h e a t i n g . Multi-stage compressors a r e used f o r this purpose;

in order to minimize the power c o n s u m p t i o n , inter-stage vapour cooling by

condensate injection is e m p l o y e d . As a r e s u l t , 1 . 1 4 - 1 . 1 6 kg h e a t i n g vapour is

o b t a i n e d f r o m 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r a t a power consumption o f 0 . 1 2 - 0 . 1 3 kWh p e r

1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r . T h e power c o n s u m p t i o n of the single-stage compressors

installed in the evaporator area i s 0 . 0 1 3 - 0 . 0 1 8 kWh p e r 1 kg v a p o u r c o m p r e s s e d .

As m e n t i o n e d in S e c t i o n 1.5, however, the Aarberg s o l u t i o n was m o t i v a t e d by

a very special energy p o l i c y in which the availability of cheap hydroelectric

power p l a y e d a f u n d a m e n t a l role. Therefore, it can h a r d l y be r e g a r d e d as a model

energy system to be i m i t a t e d on a w i d e r basis. A modified version of the Aarberg

system i n connection with a factory in which the power i s generated both in

a s t e a m - c y c l e - b a s e d power h o u s e and i n a gas-turbine generating set has been

a n a l y s e d by B a l o h (ref. 68).

In the solutions w h i c h a r e now c o m e r c i a l l y operated in two F r e n c h factories

(a white-sugar factory and a r e f i n e r y ) , a part of t h e vacuum-pan v a p o u r s is

c o m p r e s s e d and r e c i r c u l a t e d to vacuum-pan h e a t i n g (refs. 39,69). L e t us note

that while the Aarberg f a c t o r y e m p l o y s b a t c h vacuum p a n s , t h e French

installations are b u i l t around continuous vacuum p a n s . T h e u n d e r l y i n g idea is to

r e d u c e t h e demand f o r heating vapours from the evaporator, t h u s making it

possible to cut down t h e heating-steam demand. It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d out that

a reduction of the withdrawal o f vapours from the e v a p o r a t o r has t o be

compensated f o r , s o as t o keep t h e thick-juice concentration constant. For this

reason, a rearrangement of the v a p o u r - d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme, o r t h e application of

another vapour compression c i r c u i t in the evaporator area, or a combination of

b o t h m e a s u r e s , may be n e e d e d . I f it is sufficient to rearrange the vapour

distribution only, then the necessary investments in t h e e v a p o r a t o r a r e a may be

l e s s e x t e n s i v e and e a s i e r t o perform than t h o s e n e c e s s i t a t e d by o t h e r vapour

compression techniques.

A disadvantage of solutions employing the c o m p r e s s i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s

is their l a r g e power c o n s u m p t i o n . If an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n compressor is

applied, then the h e a t s a v i n g can be a t t a i n e d at the cost of a power-consumption

i n c r e a s e P^. In a d d i t i o n , d e p e n d i n g on t h e initial level of the steam

consumption, the h e a t s a v i n g may be a c c o m p a n i e d b y a d e c r e a s e P ^ o f the power

output. As t h e live-steam demand i s reduced, less a i r will be consumed i n the

boilers and l e s s w a s t e h e a t w i l l be t r a n s p o r t e d in barometric water to the

cooling towers, this resulting in a power-demand d e c r e a s e P ^ . The relation

between t h e fuel s a v i n g and t h e power b a l a n c e c h a n g e Δ Ρ = P ^ + P ^ - P^ is

148

determined by t h e parameters of the c o m p r e s s i o n p r o c e s s , as w e l l as by the

turbine steam r a t e and b o i l e r efficiency.

When t h e steam f l o w through the turbine is r e d u c e d by G ^ , t h e resulting

decrease of the power o u t p u t is

P, = G / S (3.16)

where S i s the steam r a t e of the turbine.

The r e d u c t i o n o f the h e a t demand b y causes the fuel demand t o d e c r e a s e by

ßr = V(%Vb) (3.17)

where is the heating value of the fuel, is the steam-piping efficiency,

and is the boiler efficiency.

TABLE 3.7

E n e r g y - b a l a n c e m o d i f i c a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f vacuum-pan

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n ( u s i n g m e c h a n i c a l c o m p r e s s o r s ) i n two s u g a r f a c t o r i e s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i f f e r e n t t u r b i n e steam r a t e s and b o i l e r e f f i c i e n c i e s . E n t r i e s
4-12 a r e g i v e n p e r 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r c o m p r e s s e d .

No. Name Dimension Factory

I II

1 Steam r a t e , S kg/kWh 8.0 10.5

2 Boiler efficiency, 0.90 0.75
3 Steam-piping e f f i c i e n c y , η 0.98 0.95
4 R e d u c t i o n o f t h e steam ^
f l o w t h r o u g h the t u r b i n e , G^ kg 1.2 1.2
5 Reduction of t h e p o w e r o u t p u t , P^ kWh 0.150 0.114
6 R e d u c t i o n o f t h e p o w e r demand, P^ kWh 0.020 0.020
7 C o m p r e s s o r power demand, P^ kWh 0.179 0.179
8 Change o f t h e p o w e r b a l a n c e ,
Pc ^ P r - Pd kWh 0.309 0.273
9 Heat saving i n the evaporator kJ 2805 2805
10 Heat s a v i n g i n the t u r b i n e kJ 570 502
11 O v e r a l l heat s a v i n g , kJ 3375 3307
12 N o r m a l - f u e l s a v i n g , B^ kg 0.131 0.158

In Table 3.7, the calculated e n e r g y - b a l a n c e changes r e s u l t i n g from the

implementation of the c o m p r e s s i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n two s u g a r factories

equipped w i t h different boilers and t u r b i n e s are compared. O b v i o u s l y , an

e c o n o m i c g a i n c a n be a t t a i n e d only if the value o f the fuel saved exceeds the

value of the electric energy purchased from the external grid:

B ^ c ^ > APCg (3.18)

w h e r e c ^ and c ^ a r e t h e prices of fuel and p o w e r , respectively.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d out that t h i s is o n l y a necessary, but not a sufficient,

condition for the economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n , as

a s e r i o u s economic e v a l u a t i o n r e q u i r e s the investments costs to be t a k e n into

account.
 149

The above i n e q u a l i t y can be t r a n s f o r m e d to the following form

c^/Cg > ΔΡ/Β^ (3.19)

It can now be o b s e r v e d t h a t factories equipped with low-efficiency boilers and

turbines are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s m a l l e r values of the ratio ΔΡ/Β^, this implying

t h a t the inequality is easier to satisfy. This d o e s n o t mean, h o w e v e r , t h a t an

outdated power house c r e a t e s a b a s i s f o r the economic g a i n s from vacuum-pan

vapour compression. A c t u a l l y , it may happen t h a t the investments aimed at

increasing t h e power house e f f i c i e n c y will, economically, be more e f f e c t i v e than

those required f o r implementing a vapour-compression circuit.

Instead of an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n compressor, j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s can be

applied. Using l i v e steam a t 38 b a r and 450°C, 2 . 5 - 3 . 0 kg steam a r e n e e d e d to

c o m p r e s s 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r f r o m 0.25 to 1.2 bar. After injecting the

condensate to desuperheat the mixed steam, 4.1-4.7 kg s a t u r a t e d steam is

obtained per 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r .

A vapour compression c i r c u i t of this kind, operated in parallel with a

circuit i n which vapour from the second e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t is c o m p r e s s e d , has

been p r o p o s e d i n the literature (ref. 58). Considering j o i n t l y the flows of live

steam s u p p l i e d t o both compression c i r c u i t s , 5 . 5 - 7 . 0 kg l i v e steam p e r 1 kg

v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s h o u l d be s u p p l i e d t o j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s . The r e d u c t i o n of

the n e t h e a t demand i s equivalent to about 1.65 kg steam p e r 1 kg vacuum-pan

vapour compressed.

Due t o a relatively large live-steam demand, t h e field of potential

applications of this technique seems t o be l i m i t e d t o the modernization of

factories in which a s u b s t a n t i a l part of the heating-steam f l o w must be supplied

from the throttling-desuperheating station. Under such c o n d i t i o n , - l i v e steam can

be d i r e c t e d to the compressors w i t h o u t affecting the power o u t p u t of the power

house. On t h e other hand, i f the entire steam f l o w has o r i g i n a l l y been supplied

via the t u r b i n e , then using live steam i n a vapour-compression c i r c u i t results

in a reduction o f t h e power o u t p u t of a b o u t 0 . 4 - 0 . 5 kWh p e r 1 kg vacuum-pan

vapour compressed. T h i s seems t o be a c c e p t a b l e only if sufficiently cheap power

is available f r o m an e x t e r n a l electric grid.

Another disadvantage of j e t - t y p e compressors i s their limited flexibility

under v a r i a b l e - l o a d conditions. When u s e d i n connection with b a t c h vacuum p a n s ,

the compression c i r c u i t is expected to compensate f o r quick changes o f heating-

v a p o u r demand. T h i s requirement i s much e a s i e r t o satisfy when a p p l y i n g a

mechanical compressor. There are b e t t e r chances f o r a competitive position of

jet-type compressors in factories employing c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n s , especially

if the indices g i v e n a b o v e c o u l d be i m p r o v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g the compression

ratio. T h i s might be p o s s i b l e when r e p l a c i n g conventional single-nozzle devices

by t h e m u l t i p l e - n o z z l e , variable throat-area design ("stato-compressors")

150

according to a French patent. A discussion of the application of multiple-nozzle

compressors in a vapour compression circuit recirculating vapour from a

continuous vacuum pan can be f o u n d in the literature (ref. 70). For a device

utilizing live steam a t 24 b a r and 320°C and r a i s i n g the vapour pressure from

0.3 bar t o 1.2 bar, a compression ratio o f 0.70 has been r e p o r t e d (ref. 71).

This value is twice that attainable in a single-nozzle compressor.

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51 G. V e r n o i s , Die mechanische B r ü d e n v e r d i c h t u n g i n Zuckerfabriken,
Z u c k e r e r z e u g u n g , (11) (1962) 286-289.
52 S. Z a g r o d z k i , Porownanie u k l a d u w y p a r k i w i e l o d z i a l o w e j ζ ukladem w y p a r k i ζ
t e r m o s p r e z a n i e m , G a z . C u k r o w . , 78(6) (1970) 136-138.
152

53 S . M . Z a g r o d z k i J r . , E n e r g y s a v i n g s w i t h a f o u r - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r and
t u r b o c o m p r e s s o r . Sugar J . , 4 2 ( 9 ) (1980) 9-13.
54 A . F e n y e s , H ö s z i v a t t y u s b e p a r l a s a c u k o r g y a r b a n , C u k o r i p a r , 28(6) (1975)
222-227.
55 H. L ü h r s , E i n s a t z d e r t e r m i s c h e n oder mechanischen B r ü d e n v e r d i c h t u n g i n d e r
Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , V D I - B e r . , (383) (1980) 35-37.
56 C . H . I v e r s o n , Mechanical vapor-recompression - f a l l i n g f i l m e v a p o r a t i o n .
Sugar J . , 44(1) (1981) 15-20.
57 Κ. U r b a n i e c , S p r e z a n i e o p a r o w w g o s p o d a r c e c i e p l n e j c u k r o w n i , G a z . C u k r o w . ,
9 0 ( 9 ) (1982) 134-136.
58 K . E . Austmeyer, Brüdenkompression in der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . ,
108(8) (1983) 715-728.
59 J . B o z e c , E v o l u t i o n de l a consommation t h e r m i q u e dans Γ i n d u s t r i e s u c r i e r e ,
I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 100(7-8) (1983) 477-480.
60 Mechanische Brüdenkompression, V D I - G e s e l 1 s c h a f t E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , D ü s s e l d o r f ,
1987.
61 T . L u b i e n s k i , E r s t e S c h r i t t e i n d e r B r ü d e n k o m p r e s s i o n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(11)
( 1 9 8 0 ) 1087-1088.
62 H. W e i d n e r , D i e Brüdenkompression i n e i n e r R o h z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . ,
108(8) (1983) 736-742.
63 U . J a c o b s e n , Der e i n s t u f i g e R a d i a l k o m p r e s s o r , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983)
742-746.
64 M. B u r t i n and J . - C . G i o r g i , R e c o m p r e s s i o n de l a v a p e u r : l a s o l u t i o n
o r i g i n a l e de l a s u c r e r i e de G u i g n i c o u r t , S u c r . F r . , 1 2 5 ( 8 2 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 117-121.
65 P. C h r i s t o d o u l o u , B e t r i e b s e r f a h r u n g e n m i t dem E i n s a t z e i n e r Wärmepumpe i n
der V e r d a m p f S t a t i o n e i n e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(7) (1984) 628-634.
66 P.Hoffman, O p t i m a l i z a c e energetickeho h o s p o d a r s t v i cukrovaru L o v o s i c e ,
L i s t y C u k r . , 1 0 2 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 8 6 ) 155-161.
67 H . R . B r u n n e r , D i e T h e r m o k o m p r e s s i o n i n der Z u c k e r f a b r i k + R a f f i n e r i e Aarberg
AG, G e s c h i c h t e - E n t w i c k l u n g - A u s b l i c k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 729-736.
68 T . Baloh, Studie e i n e r Zuckerfabrik mit Brüdenkompression, Z u c k e r i n d . ,
109(4) (1984) 285-294.
69 J . - C . G i o r g i , La r e c o m p r e s s i o n de v a p e u r de c u i t e , i n : P r o c . 17th C I T S ,
C o p e n h a g e n , 1983, p p . 2 7 9 - 2 9 0 .
70 J . C u e l , E c o n o m i e s d ' e n e r g i e en r a f f i n e r i e p a r u t i l i z a t i o n et/ou
r e c o m p r e s s i o n de v a p e u r s i s s u e s d ' u n e c u i t e c o n t i n u e a s s o c i e e a de
m a l a x e u r s - c r i s t a l 1 i s e u r s Continus sous v i d e p r o f o n d , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e ,
103(7-8) (1986) 669-675.
71 C . Longue E p e e , L e c t u r e p r e s e n t e d a t the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Exhibition
SVEKLOVODSTVO, K i e v , May 1986.
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Chapter 4

ENERGY SAVINGS BY PROCESS M O D I F I C A T I O N S

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h i n g ways t o reduce the n e t h e a t demand, we

s e p a r a t e d m e a s u r e s aimed a t reducing the h e a t demand o f t h e individual processes

from those f a c i l i t a t i n g an i n c r e a s e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o o f the thermal

s y s t e m . When b e g i n n i n g a d i s c u s s i o n o f energy-saving process modifications, one

might perhaps e x p e c t t h a t o n l y measures b e l o n g i n g t o the former g r o u p w o u l d be

considered. Actually, t h e p r o b l e m i s more i n v o l v e d as t h e r e are examples of

processes that h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d f o r the s o l e p u r p o s e o f making thermal

s y s t e m i m p r o v e m e n t s p o s s i b l e . M o r e o v e r , a p r o c e s s may a f f e c t t h e e n e r g y demand

directly (owing to a direct relationship b e t w e e n e n e r g y demand and p r o c e s s

parameters) or indirectly (owing to the influence on t h e p a r a m e t e r s of other

processes). F i n a l l y , t h e power demand o f a p r o c e s s may a l s o become an important

issue.

It is sometimes d i f f i c u l t to tell whether a c e r t a i n e n e r g y s a v i n g c a n be

attributed to a p r o c e s s improvement o r t o developments i n equipment o r control

systems. T h i s Chapter p r e s e n t s a r e v i e w o f problems in which r e - t h i n k i n g of

process requirements plays a p a r t i c u l a r l y important role. Of course, t h i s is

just a c o n v e n t i o n ; t h e n e x t two c h a p t e r s a r e d e v o t e d t o complementary problems

w h e r e e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l s y s t e m s come i n t o the foreground.

The p r e s e n t a u t h o r is aware o f t h e f a c t that it is not easy to cover a broad

problem f i e l d i n w h i c h new d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e s t e a d i l y t a k i n g p l a c e . It is hoped,

however, that identification o f t h e main d i r e c t i o n s of effort can have a lasting

value. In t h i s context, certain publications or publication series deserve to be

noted, as t h e y p r o v i d e d i n v a l u a b l e h e l p in the studies of worldwide trends

(refs. 1-3). In the f o l l o w i n g , the subject is split into four parts:

- juice purification;

- sugar crystallization;

- unconventional processes;

- pulp dehydration.

It might be a r g u e d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f p r e s e n t i n g p r o c e s s e s as means to

r e d u c e e n e r g y demand i s taking things too f a r ; after all, the sugar i n d u s t r y is

not a f i e l d of energy-saving c o n t e s t s . It should therefore be p o i n t e d o u t that

the p r i o r i t i e s of different aspects of f a c t o r y operation h a v e been d i s c u s s e d in

Chapter 1. Even i f the p r e s e n t C h a p t e r may be f o u n d p r o v o c a t i v e , i t is hoped

that it can s t i m u l a t e useful ideas which w i l l eventually find their way into

practice.
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4.2 JUICE PURIFICATION

4.2.1 I n f l u e n c e on t h e e n e r g y demand

Beet sugar f a c t o r i e s all over t h e w o r l d e m p l o y t h e method o f p u r i f i c a t i o n of

raw j u i c e b a s e d on l i m e and c a r b o n d i o x i d e a d d i t i o n s . T h e aim o f juice

purification is to remove n o n s u g a r s as f a r as p o s s i b l e , in order to produce

clear thin juice with high p u r i t y and s t a b i l i t y preventing quality changes

d u r i n g e v a p o r a t i o n . Due t o v a r y i n g beet composition and d i f f e r e n t methods of

harvesting, transport, s t o r a g e and e x t r a c t i o n , many v e r s i o n s o f the juice

purification method a r e i n u s e . T h e v e r s i o n s may d i f f e r with respect to the

distribution of lime between i n d i v i d u a l p r o c e s s s t a g e s , t h e amount o f recycled

juice or s l u d g e , the temperatures and r e s i d e n c e t i m e s characterizing various

process stages.

In a reference v e r s i o n of the c l a s s i c a l juice purification method, the total

requirement o f CaO amounts t o 80-95% o f t h e content of nonsugars in raw j u i c e .

10-12% g o e s t o the pre-1imer, 5-7% t o the j u i c e prior to second carbonatation

and t h e remainder is added t o t h e main limer. The t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e 55-65°C in

the p r e - l i m i n g , 85°C i n t h e main l i m i n g and f i r s t carbonatation, and 94°C in

the second c a r b o n a t a t i o n (ref. 4).

T h e p a r a m e t e r s named a b o v e d e f i n e the thermal characteristics o f the juice

purification process. Its influence on t h e total e n e r g y demand i n sugar

manufacture i s more c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n j u s t directly contributing to the heat

demand. In the f i r s t place, thin juice quality determines the requirements on

the sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , thus a f f e c t i n g t h e e n e r g y demand i n t h e sugar

house ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 3 ) . Then, the temperature in pre-liming is decisive in

whether or or not it is p o s s i b l e to utilize low-temperature heat (vacuum-pan

vapours, last-effect vapour, condensate) in raw j u i c e heating. Actually, this

possibility d e p e n d s a l s o on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of raw j u i c e and o t h e r factors, so

one s h o u l d p e r h a p s i n v e s t i g a t e it by a n a l y s i n g a subsystem c o m p r i s i n g extraction

and j u i c e purification (ref. 5). For example, if large flows of hot j u i c e or

subsider sludge are r e c y c l e d to the pre-1imer from f i r s t or second

carbonatation, then l e s s heating of raw j u i c e is n e e d e d . T h i s must be

compensated f o r b y more h e a t d e l i v e r e d t o other stages of j u i c e heating, where

the temperatures are too high to allow the utilization of low-temperature heat.

It s h o u l d a l s o be o b s e r v e d t h a t l a r g e r e c y c l e s may r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e power

consumption in j u i c e pumping.

Concerning d i r e c t energy losses associated with juice purification,

a qualitative discussion of their r e d u c t i o n by p r o c e s s t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s has

been g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 3 . T h e main p a r t o f t h e s e l o s s e s , amounting under

certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o as much as 1/10 of the net h e a t demand o f the

factory, occurs in the c a r b o n a t a t i o n s . In the f o l l o w i n g , the e n e r g y - s a v i n g

 155

potential associated with the carbonatation process i s discussed.

4.2.2 Heat balance o f carbonatation

A typical arrangement o f t h e equipment a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the carbonatation

process i s shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 . Gas f r o m t h e l i m e k i l n , containing CO^, is de-

d u s t e d , w a s h e d and d e l i v e r e d t o a w a t e r - r i n g compressor. I t s pressure raised to

1 . 6 - 1 . 8 b a r and a t a t e m p e r a t u r e a b o u t 35°C, t h e g a s f l o w s t o t w o s e p a r a t e ,

atmospheric-pressure carbonatation tanks, where i t i s brought into contact with:

- in f i r s t carbonatation - juice after main liming, d e l i v e r e d a t about 85°C,

- i n second c a r b o n a t a t i o n - juice after first filtration, delivered at about

94°C.

In both c a r b o n a t a t i o n tanks, mass and h e a t e x c h a n g e t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e

juice and t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n g a s . As t h e g a s f l o w s from the bubbler t o the j u i c e

surface, i t s pressure f a l l s t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e and t h e temperature

increases, finally approaching the j u i c e temperature. T h e g a s a l s o becomes

saturated with vapour evaporated from j u i c e . I t s enthalpy raised considerably

above t h e i n l e t v a l u e , t h e spent gas i s d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e atmosphere, this

c a u s i n g an e n e r g y l o s s .

I water I

LIME KILN
J DE-DUSTER WASHER

5^
COMPRESSOR

limed juice_ clear juice_

CARBONATATION I CARBONATATION I I

F i g . 4 . 1 . Scheme o f t h e e q u i p m e n t a r r a n g e m e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the carbonatation

process.

The l o s s c a n be s t u d i e d u s i n g e q n . ( 2 . 6 ) . F o r t h e thermodynamic system

comprising a s i n g l e t a n k shown i n F i g . 4 . 2 , t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e is

•^ji^ji ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = Vj2^ V V ' E ( ' · ^ '

w h e r e G j ^ and G^-j a r e t h e mass f l o w s of juice and c a r b o n a t a t i o n gas ( u n d e r s t o o d

as d r y g a s ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t i n l e t ; G^^ a n d G ^ ^ a r e t h e mass f l o w s o f t h e same

media a t o u t l e t ; h^^ and h ^ ^ a r e t h e e n t h a l p i e s of juice at inlet and o u t l e t ;

hg^ and h ^ ^ a r e t h e e n t h a l p i e s of carbonatation g a s ( p e r 1 kg d r y g a s ) a t inlet

and outlet; Qp i s t h e h e a t o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n reaction, and i s the heat

d i s s i p a t e d t o the environment by r a d i a t i v e and c o n v e c t i v e heat exchange ( b o t h

Qp a n d are expressed per unit time).

The b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n c a n be r e w r i t t e n to r e f l e c t the fact that the energy lost

156

Gas Gg2 Gas Ggi

J u i c e in
Juice out
Gji.hji
Gj2 '^\2

F i g . 4.2. C a r b o n a t a t i o n t a n k as a thermodynamic system. For explanation of the

symbols, see t e x t .

by d i s c h a r g i n g s p e n t gas and by h e a t exchange w i t h the environment has actually

been r e m o v e d f r o m t h e juice

Vg2 - ^gl^l ^ = ^•i^'ji - «j2^2 ^ \ (4.2)

The heat l o s s can t h u s be e x p r e s s e d e i t h e r as

\ - %2\2 - ^Λ^ " (4.3)

or as

QL = Gj^h-T - Gj2hj2 ^ Q R (4.4)

Now, let us o b s e r v e t h a t the heat o f reaction c a n n o t be n e g l e c t e d in energy

balances. If we assume t h a t it is generated at 70 k J / k m o l (ref. 6) and t h a t the

amount o f CaO i n v o l v e d i n both carbonatations is 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h e n we arrive

at the value = 2500 k J / 1 0 0 kg b , this being equivalent to a steam amount

about 1.1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

The a b o v e e x p r e s s i o n s e n a b l e us t o evaluate the magnitude of the combined

heat l o s s from the carbonatations. In the reference version of the process

mentioned in the preceding Section, at 40% C O ^ c o n t e n t , one n e e d s approximately

3.4 k g / l O O kg b o f kiln gas i n first carbonatation and 0 . 7 kg/lOO kg b i n second

carbonatation. Even a t t h e most a d v a n t a g e o u s p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , the combined

loss c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o be l o w e r than 5000 k J / 1 0 0 kg b , or a steam equivalent

 157

o f about 2.2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . G e n e r a l l y , assuming t h a t as much g a s i s delivered to

t h e p r o c e s s as n e e d e d t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e a c t i v e CaO i n t h e j u i c e , the energy loss

d e p e n d s on t h e f o l l o w i n g factors:

- CaO r a t e ;

- juice temperature;

- CO^ c o n t e n t in incoming kiln gas;

- CO2 utilization.

At low i n i t i a l CO2 c o n t e n t , s a y 30% and a t l i m i t e d CO2 u t i l i z a t i o n , the combined

carbonatation h e a t l o s s can r e a c h 10 000-12 000 kJ/100 kg b , o r a steam

e q u i v a l e n t o f 4 . 4 - 5 . 3 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . I n modern b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r i e s characterized

b y steam demand o f t h e o r d e r o f 30 kg s t e a m p e r 100 kg b e e t , the carbonatation

h e a t l o s s t h u s becomes one o f t h e largest identifiable components o f t h e net

h e a t demand.

A number o f s o l u t i o n s h a v e been p r o p o s e d t o reduce the carbonatation heat

loss b y c u t t i n g down g a s f l o w and o u t l e t enthalpy. Witte and S c h i w e c k ( r e f . 6)

d e s c r i b e a s y s t e m b a s e d on r e c y c l i n g s p e n t g a s f r o m s e c o n d t o first

carbonatation. The f l o w of k i l n gas t o first carbonatation c a n be r e d u c e d b y

10%; t h e resulting steam s a v i n g has been e s t i m a t e d at 0.5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , that is,

up t o 1/5 o f the carbonatation l o s s . T h e same r e f e r e n c e r e p o r t s results of

experiments with a r a w - j u i c e h e a t e r heated by s p e n t c a r b o n a t a t i o n g a s . No

estimate o f the a t t a i n a b l e energy saving is given; the s a v i n g w o u l d p r o b a b l y be

d e t e r m i n e d b y an e c o n o m i c t r a d e - o f f b e t w e e n t h e v a l u e o f e n e r g y s a v e d and the

heater cost.

Another s o l u t i o n b a s e d on a s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h has b e e n r e p o r t e d b y a B e l g i a n

team ( r e f . 7). Spent gas from second c a r b o n a t a t i o n is brought into direct

contact with water; the r e c u p e r a t e d heat absorbed by t h e w a t e r is then used to

preheat a i r delivered to the boilers or to t h e sugar d r y e r . The implementation

in a sugar f a c t o r y resulted i n an e s t i m a t e d energy saving o f the order o f 1 kg

steam p e r 100 kg b e e t . Similar results h a v e been r e p o r t e d f r o m F r e n c h s u g a r

f a c t o r i e s where w a t e r is heated by s p e n t gases from both c a r b o n a t a t i o n s in a

special c o n d e n s e r , t o w h i c h an e x h a u s t f a n f o r g a s pumping is connected ( r e f . 8).

In F i g . 4.3, the essence o f the solutions r e v i e w e d above i s presented in

a s i m p l i f i e d S a n k e y d i a g r a m . T h e y c a n be c l a s s i f i e d as h e a t recuperation

techniques not affecting the p r i n c i p l e o f the carbonatation process.

4.2.3 Modifications of carbonatation

C a r b o n a t a t i o n h e a t l o s s c a n a l s o be r e d u c e d b y c h a n g i n g p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s

i n a way f a c i l i t a t i n g a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e Mg2hg2 " '^gl'^gl

(4.3). More s p e c i f i c a l l y , it is possible to reduce the gas e n t h a l p y i n c r e a s e , as

well as t o improve CO^ u t i l i z a t i o n , t h u s c u t t i n g down t h e g a s f l o w . Two

158

hIA1
2
o
heat
transferred \ carbonatation
from j u i c e
to g a s ) <
? c
a> a,
)
s% loss

/—
energy of
/
1
kiln gas energy recycled
to the process

Fig. 4.3. Energy-flow p r i n c i p l e of systems reducing the c a r b o n a t a t i o n heat loss

by r e c u p e r a t i o n .

t e c h n i q u e s c a n be u s e d f o r this purpose ( r e f . 9):

- heating and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n o f the k i l n gas p r i o r to carbonatation;

- carbonatation at increased pressure.

The p r i n c i p l e on w h i c h b o t h methods a r e b a s e d c a n be e x p l a i n e d i n a g r a p h

showing c a r b o n a t a t i o n gas e n t h a l p y ( p e r 1 kg o f d r y g a s ) as a f u n c t i o n of

temperature and p r e s s u r e ( F i g . 4 . 4 ) . The g r a p h has been c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g the

relationship between e n t h a l p y p e r 1 kg d r y g a s and m o i s t u r e content an

temperature, and t h e relationship between m o i s t u r e content, total p r e s s u r e and

1 2
Pressure ( b a r )

Fig. 4.4. Enthalpy of carbonatation g a s v s . p r e s s u r e and temperature.

 159

partial pressure of steam

X = (mg/mg)Pg/(p - Pg) (4.5)

where X i s the moisture content in k g / k g d r y g a s , m^ i s the molar weight of

s t e a m , m^ i s the a v e r a g e m o l a r w e i g h t o f g a s , p^ i s the p a r t i a l pressure of

s t e a m , and ρ i s the t o t a l pressure.

In the g r a p h , e x a m p l e s a r e shown o f the enthalpy increase of carbonatation

gas i n t h e conventional p r o c e s s ( c a s e A ) and o f g a s w h i c h has been preliminarily

heated to 70°C w i t h accompanying h u m i d i f i c a t i o n , at 1.3 bar o u t l e t pressure

(case B ) . The e n t h a l p y increase in case A i s 1830 k J / k g d r y g a s , and i n case Β

960 kJ/kg dry gas. Taking into account t h a t case Β would a l s o involve a

reduction o f the gas f l o w due t o better CO^ u t i l i z a t i o n , the combined h e a t loss

can i n t h i s e x e m p l a r y c a s e be a b o u t 50% o f that in the conventional process.

The f i r s t idea i s gas h e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n at the expense o f waste heat

from o t h e r s e c t i o n s of the sugar manufacture. Waste h e a t c a n be a v a i l a b l e in hot

condensate e x t r a c t e d d i r e c t l y from the evaporation station ( a t 95-100°C) o r in

the c o n d e n s a t e w h i c h has a l r e a d y p a s s e d j u i c e heaters (about 75°C). Mass and

heat exchange t a k i n g p l a c e in the carbonatation tank between the heated,

humidified k i l n g a s and t h e j u i c e then results in l e s s e v a p o r a t i o n from the

juice and s m a l l e r juice temperature drop. C o n s e q u e n t l y , even though the

temperature and h u m i d i t y o f the s p e n t gas a r e identical to those in the

conventional p r o c e s s , the heat loss is reduced by about 1/3, i.e. at least

0.8 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t . An i m p r o v e m e n t o f CO^ u t i l i z a t i o n o f the order

10-15% can a l s o be e x p e c t e d . T h i s method c a n be c l a s s i f i e d as a p r o c e s s

modification, and i t s working principle is shown i n a S a n k e y d i a g r a m in

Fig. 4.5(a).

As r e g a r d s t h e configuration o f the equipment, this method r e q u i r e s a d d i n g to

(B)
5
o I/)

CD ^
cr
<

COMPRESSOR

Ι Λ additional

Ι­ i pumping power

F i g . 4.5. E n e r g y - f l o w p r i n c i p l e s o f the modified c a r b o n a t a t i o n s : (a) w i t h gas

h e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n , (b) at increased pressure. 1 - energy of k i l n gas,
2 - heat t r a n s f e r r e d from j u i c e to g a s , 3 - e n e r g y o f spent g a s .
160

the carbonatation tank a scrubber f i l l e d w i t h Raschig r i n g s o r some o t h e r type

of packing. There, gas f l o w i n g in an u p w a r d d i r e c t i o n is h e a t e d and humidified

b y c o n d e n s a t e d i s p e r s e d on t h e packing surface.

T h e s e c o n d method implies that t h e p r o c e s s c a n n o t be p e r f o r m e d in a

conventional atmospheric-pressure carbonatation tank; instead, a pressure vessel

s h o u l d be a p p l i e d and t h e g a s pump s h o u l d be o p e r a t e d a t i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e . The

thermodynamic consequence o f increased pressure is that the partial pressure of

saturated steam i n t h e s p e n t gas remains constant (it d e p e n d s on juice

temperature o n l y ) , so t h e final moisture content per 1 kg d r y g a s i s reduced.

This results in reduced f i n a l e n t h a l p y p e r 1 kg d r y g a s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , juice

e v a p o r a t i o n and j u i c e temperature d r o p c a u s e d b y mass and h e a t e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n

the j u i c e and t h e g a s a r e s m a l l e r than in the atmospheric-pressure process.

The w o r k i n g principle of carbonatation at increased pressure is illustrated

in Fig. 4.5(b). A t a gas p r e s s u r e above the j u i c e surface in the tank about

1.7 bar, the o v e r a l l h e a t l o s s c a n be r e d u c e d b y n e a r l y 1 / 2 , i.e. at least

1.2 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t . This effect c a n be m a g n i f i e d if the gas is

p r e h e a t e d and h u m i d i f i e d before it enters the carbonatation tanks.

Advantageous thermal effects of increased carbonatation p r e s s u r e h a v e been

verified in laboratory-scale experiments (ref.10). Concerning the combined

effect of i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e and g a s h e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n , some initial

results indicate that it may be r e a l i s t i c to e x p e c t an i m p r o v e m e n t i n CO^

utilization by a f a c t o r of 1.2, i.e. in first carbonatation, f r o m a b o u t 70% t o

84%. T h i s w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to a reduction o f the carbonatation heat l o s s by 2/3,

i.e. at least 1.6 kg steam p e r 100 kg beet.

Although the thermal effects c a n be r e g a r d e d as e x p e r i m e n t a l l y verified, the

application potential of carbonatation at increased pressure is not obvious, as

it d e p e n d s on e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s . In p a r a l l e l to the gain resulting from fuel

savings, one h a s t o c o n s i d e r on t h e cost side:

- increased investment c o s t s o f g a s c o m p r e s s o r s and c a r b o n a t a t i o n tanks;

- i n c r e a s e d power consumption i n gas c o m p r e s s o r s .

Consequently, the overall economic r e s u l t is v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on s e a s o n

length, fuel price, power c o s t and c a p i t a l cost (ref. 11).

4.3 SUGAR C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N

4.3.1 Scope o f t h e problems

T h e e n e r g y demand o f t h e s u g a r house u s u a l l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o 50-70% o f t h e net

h e a t demand and 14-20% o f t h e total p o w e r demand o f a w h i t e - s u g a r factory. In

a factory c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d e f i n i t e l e v e l s o f equipment quality and p r o c e s s

automation, the exact f i g u r e s d e p e n d on t h e layout and p a r a m e t e r s o f the sugar

crystallization process. ( L e t us r e c a l l that i n t h e p r e s e n t b o o k , we a r e mainly

 161

interested in three-boiling crystallization.)

Taking into account that a large part o f the f a c t o r y ' s h e a t demand is

concerned, a problem might be p o s e d o f a r r a n g i n g the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s so

as t o m i n i m i z e t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e . O n l y s i m p l i f i e d problem

formulations c a n be a t t e m p t e d and o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e solutions sought, however,

because t h e r e i s a multitude o f process constraints associated with sugar output

and s u g a r q u a l i t y . Actually, one m i g h t even note that the crystallization

process i s v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on t h e q u a l i t y of juices entering the sugar

house. T h i s would imply that in order to arrange the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n process

optimally, the e n t i r e factory s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , s u c h an

a p p r o a c h w o u l d n o t be v e r y p r a c t i c a l if o n e had t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e e n e r g y

economy.

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m becomes e v e n more c o m p l e x i f we a l l o w for

possible modifications o f the equipment, mainly vacuum p a n s , a s w e l l as

modifications o f the automatic control systems. F o r t h e sake o f s i m p l i c i t y of

presentation, these questions are considered s e p a r a t e l y i n C h a p t e r s 5 and 6. It

s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s be a d m i t t e d that s a v i n g energy by r a t i o n a l i z i n g the sugar

crystallization process implies the necessity o f touching t h e most intricate

problems o f sugar technology.

Three important energy-saving concepts are discussed in the present Section:

- the Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme;

- cooling crystallization;

- crystal footing techniques.

4.3.2 Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme

The e s s e n t i a l idea o f the Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme i s t o e n s u r e that

the q u a l i t y o f Β product i s h i g h enough t o mix i t with A product, and t o treat

the mixture as w h i t e sugar. This r e d u c e s t h e combined m a s s e c u i t e circulation

considerably, bringing about a r e d u c t i o n o f the t o t a l heat expenditure in sugar

boiling. As a f i r s t approximation, t h e h e a t s a v i n g c a n be e s t i m a t e d as t h e h e a t

r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e t h e amount o f w a t e r theoretically needed t o d i s s o l v e

Β s u g a r , p l u s t h e amount o f wash w a t e r n e e d e d when c e n t r i f u g i n g this s u g a r as

A s u g a r . When compared t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l three-boiling scheme i n w h i c h thick

juice a t 72% DS i s u s e d t o d i s s o l v e Β s u g a r , t h e s t e a m s a v i n g i s o f the order of

9-13% o f t h e w h i t e sugar output, or - using values c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Danish

factories - about 1 . 2 - 1 . 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . I f the conventional scheme e m p l o y s

dissolving Β sugar i n water, t h e n t h e s a v i n g amounts t o 12-14% o f t h e w h i t e

sugar o u t p u t , o r about 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t .

T h e s u g a r h o u s e scheme a p p l i e d i n DOS s u g a r f a c t o r i e s a n d t h e scheme o f s u g a r

flow through crystallization s t a g e s a r e shown i n F i g . 4 . 6 . T h e main quality

 162

Fig. 4 . 6 . Sugar house (a) and flow of sugar ( b ) according to the

Danish crystallization scheme. VPB, VPC - vacuum pans Β and C;
CB, CC - centrifugals Β and C (courtesy DDS).
 163

requirement concerned with Β sugar i s its low c o l o u r . It is known t h a t in a

number o f c o u n t r i e s , the attempts to implement t h e D a n i s h scheme f a i l e d because

this requirement c o u l d n o t be s a t i s f i e d reliably. This is understandable, as the

conditions for a reliable operation o f the D a n i s h scheme - intended mainly to

prevent colour build-up - h a v e been s p e c i f i e d as f o l l o w s (ref.12).

(i) In the j u i c e purification, colouring matter exhibiting special affinity to

s u g a r s h o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d . This r e q u i r e s the polymerization of phenolic

compounds s o t h a t t h e y can be r e m o v e d w i t h the s l u d g e , as w e l l as destroying

invert sugar. In p r a c t i c a l terms, an a d e q u a t e l y long j u i c e retention time should

be e n s u r e d a t an a l k a l i n i t y level e x c e e d i n g 0 . 4 - 0 . 5 g C a O / l O O ml (which

c o r r e s p o n d s t o main liming).

(ii) F i r s t f i l t r a t i o n must be e f f e c t i v e enough t o keep t h e sludge content in

the f i l t r a t e b e l o w 20 ppm.

(iii) Sulphitation of thin juice s h o u l d e n s u r e a pH v a l u e o f a b o u t 8 . 7 at 20°C.

(iv) In the s u g a r h o u s e , pH v a l u e s s h o u l d be k e p t lower than 8.5-9.0.

(v) No u n n e c e s s a r y r e c y c l e s o f n o n s u g a r s and c o l o u r i n g matter s h o u l d be

tolerated in the sugar house.

(vi) High c r y s t a l quality s h o u l d be e n s u r e d i n boiling of C sugar.

(vii) High-precision centrifuging of massecuites is required.

Practical experience proves that conditions ( i v ) - ( v i i ) c a n be r e l i a b l y met

only if the s u g a r house o p e r a t i o n is very well s t a b i l i z e d with respect to the

quality of boiling and t h e temperatures of massecuites before centrifuging. In

simple terms, it c a n be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme is

practicable only in well equipped, highly automated, carefully maintained and

skilfully operated sugar f a c t o r i e s , and a s u f f i c i e n t l y high beet q u a l i t y seems

to be a p r e r e q u i s i t e . The q u a l i t y requirements s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t o apply to

beets at the entrance to the slicing station, that is, with the consequences o f

beet d e t e r i o r a t i o n during transport and s t o r a g e t a k e n into account. Among the

quality parameters concerned, the amino-N c o n t e n t seems t o be o f considerable

importance. I n Denmark, it is kept b e l o w 100 mg Ν p e r 100 g s u g a r as practical

experience has shown t h a t higher a m i n o - N c o n t e n t s make it difficult to obtain

a sufficiently high p u r i t y of thick juice (ref. 13).

4.3.3 Cooling crystallization

The c o o l i n g crystallization is not a new i d e a , as i t is generally applied in

C massecuite crystallization and i t has a l s o been p r a c t i s e d in the

crystallization of high-purity massecuites in the cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y . While the

evaporating crystallization employs the evaporation of water for the

supersaturation control, the cooling crystallization relies on a r e d u c t i o n of

the solubility of sucrose in water with decreasing temperature. This phenomenon

164

is illustrated in a diagram in F i g . 4.7 (after ref. 14). It has been estimated

that for high-purity massecuites, a temperature d e c r e a s e o f 2 Κ makes it

possible to increase the crystal yield b y 1% ( r e f . 15).

4.0 Γ

3.5μ

-ο L.
D φ
3.ομ
O o

2.5k
CO

2.0L-^
AO 50 60 70 80
Temperature (**C)

Fig. 4.7. S o l u b i l i t y of sucrose in water as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature (after

ref. 14).

The m a s s e c u i t e can be c o o l e d i n an a t m o s p h e r i c - p r e s s u r e water-cooled

crystal 1izer. An e q u i p m e n t configuration making i t possible to combine

evaporating crystallization and " p u r e - c o o l i n g " crystallization into one

crystallization stage is schematically shown i n F i g . 4.8 (after ref. 16). The

massecuite is d i s c h a r g e d f r o m vacuum p a n s t o conventional mixers, from which it

is directed to cooling c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s w h e r e an a d e q u a t e r e t e n t i o n time - up to

4-5 h for A , and 6-7 h for Β massecuite - must be e n s u r e d . As t h e m a s s e c u i t e is

VACUUM PANS

—Í— vapour to
massecuite
the condenser
i
MIXERS

syrup
cooling
water
COOLING
CONCENTRATOR
CRYSTALLIZERS
syrup to the next^
crystallization stage

CENTRIFUGALS HEATER

syrup

sugar

F i g . 4 . 8 . Scheme o f a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s t a g e e m p l o y i n g evaporating
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n and " p u r e - c o o l i n g " c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n .
 165

c o o l e d down f r o m t h e initial temperature of 70°C t o about 40-50°C, the crystal

content c a n be s u b s t a n i t a l l y increased, its attainable final v a l u e depending on

the DS c o n t e n t o f the recirculated syrup. F o r a c r y s t a l 1 i z e r d e s i g n known as

a cooling-crystallization tower t e s t e d in the sugar i n d u s t r y in FRG, the

attainable relative increase o f the crystal content is shown a s a f u n c t i o n of

final massecuite temperature and s y r u p DS c o n t e n t in F i g . 4.9. However, the

potential for improvement of crystal yield indicated in this diagram t u r n s out

to be d i f f i c u l t to a c h i e v e owing t o the problems of maintaining a sufficiently

intensive heat t r a n s f e r between the m a s s e c u i t e and t h e cooling surfaces.

0.50 Γ
ω
ω
S 0.A0
ϋ
c

t 0-30

-L 0.20
o

<^ 0.10

0 -L
70 60 50 40 30
F i n d massecuite temperature {°C)

F i g . 4.9. Relative increase of the c r y s t a l content in the c o o l i n g -

c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n tower v s . f i n a l massecuite t e m p e r a t u r e and DS c o n t e n t of
r e c i r c u l a t e d syrup ( a f t e r r e f . 17).

A n o t h e r method o f cooling crystallization, invented in France, employs a

vacuum c r y s t a l 1 i z e r in which massecuite is boiling as i t expands to a pressure

as l o w as a b o u t 0.09 bar. The c r y s t a l 1 i z e r is formed as a h o r i z o n t a l cylindrical

vessel equipped w i t h a ribbon stirrer, and t h e required retention time is about

1 h. A p o s s i b l e equipment configuration is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 4.10. The

flow of recirculated s y r u p (80-82% DS) i s about h a l f o f the total syrup flow.

Practical values o f the relative crystal-yield increase are about 0.25-0.30

(i.e., the crystal content o f the massecuite is i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 1.25-

1.30).

As t h e cooling crystallization makes it possible to increase the crystal

yield in a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n stage without additional heat e x p e n d i t u r e , it c a n be

used t o reduce the h e a t demand o f t h e sugar house. The a t t a i n a b l e s a v i n g s depend

on t h e c o o l i n g method a p p l i e d and t h e layout of the crystallization scheme.

Taking a conventional three-boiling scheme w i t h t h i c k - j u i c e concentration of

75% DS as a b a s i s f o r comparisons, it c a n be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e same w h i t e - s u g a r

166

CONTINUOUS
80°C VACUUM PAN

massecuite

O.IAbar VACUUM
68-70°C CRYSTALLIZER1
to the next
crystallization
0.09 bar VACUUM stage
55-60°C CRYSTALLIZER 2

BO-eS^'C

CENTRIFUGALS HEATER

syrup

sugar

F i g . 4 . 1 0 . Scheme o f a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s t a g e e m p l o y i n g e v a p o r a t i n g
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n and c o o l i n g c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n u n d e r vacuum ( a f t e r r e f . 18).

output can be o b t a i n e d u s i n g t w o - b o i l i n g schemes f e a t u r i n g combined e v a p o r a t i o n -

and c o o l i n g - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f the white sugar. In the case o f "pure-cooling"
crystallization, assuming a c r y s t a l - y i e l d increase about 0.32, the theoretical
h e a t demand ( c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e required evaporation) o f t h e s u g a r house is
r e d u c e d b y 48%. If vacuum c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i s e m p l o y e d and t h e c r y s t a l yield in
white-sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i n c r e a s e s by 0.33, the resulting reduction of the
theoretical h e a t demand i s n e a r l y 53% ( r e f . 16).

The e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l of cooling crystallization has y e t t o be

investigated. Up t o now, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h i s a r e a has been s t i m u l a t e d mainly
by t h e industry's interest in improving sugar q u a l i t y . The u n d e r l y i n g idea i s to
take advantage o f both the n e g l i g i b l e colour increase characteristic of the
cooling crystallization, and t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e amount o f s y r u p s a c c o m p a n y i n g
the c r y s t a l - y i e l d i n c r e a s e . The l a t t e r factor makes i t possible to reduce syrup
recirculation in the crystallization scheme, t h i s resulting in reduced c o l o u r
build-up. In a d d i t i o n , new p o s s i b i l i t i e s to control the crystal growth are
created, this making i t possible to control final crystal s i z e and granulometric
distribution. H o w e v e r , when a t t e m p t i n g t o design a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n process
aiming to r e d u c e t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e , one w o u l d h a v e t o consider
crystal-quality c o n s t r a i n t s w h i c h h a v e n o t been f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d so far
(ref. 19).

4.3.4 Crystal footing techniques

The c o n c e p t o f c r y s t a l f o o t i n g o p e r a t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e essential

aim o f improving crystal quality and e s p e c i a l l y t o make t h e granulometric
distribution more u n i f o r m . The u n d e r l y i n g idea i s to rationalize the initial
 167

phase o f the sugar b o i l i n g p r o c e s s as d i s c u s s e d i n Section 1.3.5. Instead of

performing it in every strike i n e v e r y vacuum p a n , t h e initial syrup thickening

and c r y s t a l formation is concentrated in a specialized unit. T h e s e e d magma

obtained there is subsequently delivered to vacuum p a n s w h e r e t h e boiling can be

started directly from the crystal growth phase.

A crystal footing technique c a n be i n t r o d u c e d into crystallization schemes in

a v a r i e t y o f w a y s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e kind of footing unit and t h e scheme in

question. A s i m p l e method c o n s i s t s o f p r e p a r i n g the s e e d magma e v e r y s e c o n d

strike i n a s e l e c t e d b a t c h vacuum pan t o about 2/3 of its volume, pumping a half

of t h e magma t o another pan and s u b s e q u e n t l y b o i l i n g sugar in b o t h pans in

parallel. Practical experience proves that it may r e d u c e t h e average boiling

t i m e b y a b o u t 20%. Fewer s y r u p - t h i c k e n i n g phases performed in the entire vacuum-

pan s t a t i o n reduce the station's h e a t demand b y a f e w percent.

A n o t h e r method c o n s i s t s o f preparing the s e e d magma as a m i x t u r e of syrups

and c r y s t a l l i n e Β and C s u g a r s i n a special mixer. When d e l i v e r i n g t h e magma to

vacuum p a n s A , t h e boiling o f A s u g a r can be s t a r t e d from the crystal growth

phase. E x p e r i m e n t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d the possibility of reducing the average

boiling t i m e b y a b o u t 25% and c u t t i n g down t h e h e a t demand b y 5% ( r e f . 20).

A method w h i c h r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n in the late 1970s i s t o mix green

s y r u p A and n o n - a f f i n e d C sugar to s e e d magma s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d i n vacuum p a n s

B. It has been p r o v e d n o t t o bring any s i g n i f i c a n t e n e r g y s a v i n g s . The heat

demand can be e f f e c t i v e l y reduced, however, i f this procedure is applied to

a part o f the C - s u g a r stream o n l y and, in addition, part o f the Β sugar i s mixed

with wash s y r u p A t o s e e d magma u s e d i n vacuum p a n s A ( F i g . 4 . 1 1 ) . Such a

"double-footing" technique shows an e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l of the order o f up

to 3 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t (refs. 21,22).

The b e s t c o n t r o l of crystal quality c a n be a t t a i n e d when a p p l y i n g a special

footing unit i n which both c o o l i n g - and e v a p o r a t i n g - c r y s t a l 1 i z a t i o n , used at

different stages o f the working c y c l e , a r e employed t o produce the s e e d magma.

The equipment configuration can be e i t h e r a combination of a separate

crystallizer and a vacuum p a n , o r a s i n g l e piece schematically shown i n Fig.

4.12 (refs. 23,24). If completed w i t h thick-juice conditioning making it

possible to control thick-juice parameters accurately at the entrance to the

sugar house, the crystal footing technique provides a very effective tool for

mastering sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n at high t h i c k - j u i c e concentrations.

A prerequisite for its successful application is that the sugar house is

equipped with stirred vacuum p a n s o f suitable d e s i g n and w i t h effective

automatic boiling controls; these questions are discussed mainly in Chapters 5

and 6. In c o n c l u s i o n , the importance of the crystal footing techniques to the

e n e r g y economy d o e s n o t lie in some d i r e c t energy-saving effects but rather in

168

thin juice thick juice

4
Β remelt

MELTER Β
Β s e e d magma

FOOTING
UNIT Β
ULLI
STAGE A
i
C seed magma C remelt
STAGE Β
FOOTING
"—Β sugar- MELTER C
UNIT C

STAGE C W<hrixi-^
• C sugar•

white sugar molasses

Fig. 4,11. Simplified scheme o f t h r e e - b o i l i n g white-sugar crystallization using

"double f o o t i n g " .

its potential to utilize effectively the influence o f increased thick-juice

concentration on t h e h e a t demand i n t h e s u g a r h o u s e ( s e e S e c t i o n 1.3.5).

(a) slurry

cooling
®
condenser
water

thick juice
HXl-
remelt

syrup

I
steam

Γ-CXl· r—t><l—'^"5<^
ISOLUTION * * CONDITIONED
MIXER MIXER
TANK I R E M E L T * TANK

to vacuum pans ^

to vacuum
y supersaturation about 1.05 pans

* y 7/.-75V0DS 5Γ
m

F i g . 4 . 1 2 . F o o t i n g u n i t s employing both e v a p o r a t i n g - and c o o l i n g - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

t o p r o d u c e s e e d magma: ( a ) w i t h a vacuum p a n a n d a w a t e r - c o o l e d s t i r r e d v e s s e l
( a f t e r r e f . 2 3 ) , ( b ) w i t h a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d vacuum p a n / c r y s t a l 1 i z e r a n d
vacuum-controlled cooling (after r e f . 24).
 169

4.4 UNCONVENTIONAL ENERGY-SAVING PROCESSES I N SUGAR MANUFACTURE

4.4.1 Underlying concepts

The sugar manufacturing process employing extraction, juice purification with

l i m e and c a r b o n d i o x i d e , juice thickening by e v a p o r a t i o n and finally,

crystallization, is apparently associated with a certain minimum e n e r g y

e x p e n d i t u r e w h i c h c a n n o t be f u r t h e r r e d u c e d . A s s u m i n g an o p t i m a l configuration

of the thermal s y s t e m , an e s t i m a t e o f t h e minimum i n p u t of primary energy about

2.3 kg normal fuel per 100 kg b e e t has been g i v e n in Danish sources ( r e f . 25).

Even though t h i s v a l u e can s t i l l be d i s c u s s e d , p r a c t i c a l experience proves that

extremely low heat demand i n conventional sugar manufacture c a n o n l y be attained

at the expense o f inconvenient process modifications, these in turn requiring

modified equipment and c o n t r o l s y s t e m s , as w e l l as i n c r e a s e d c o m p l e x i t y of the

thermal system. It seems t h a t there is no o t h e r way i n w h i c h t h e constraints

inherent i n the conventional sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s c a n be satisfied.

A number of alternative p r o c e s s e s m i g h t p o s s i b l y be e m p l o y e d in sugar

manufacture to remove o r c h a n g e t h e constraints i m p o s e d on e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and

utilization techniques. T h i s m i g h t open e n t i r e l y new p o s s i b i l i t i e s for energy

demand reductions.

To b e g i n w i t h , the initial phase o f sugar manufacturing consists in fact of

juice separation; this c a n be done b y m e t h o d s other than extraction. Next, juice

purification can be p e r f o r m e d , at least partly, without l i m e and C O ^ .

Evaporation is not the o n l y method s u i t e d to juice thickening; similarly,

evaporating-crystal1ization c a n be a i d e d o r e v e n r e p l a c e d b y o t h e r methods of

separation of crystalline sugar. C o n s e q u e n t l y , one c a n i m a g i n e a sugar factory

without extractors, limers, carbonatation tanks, evaporators and vacuum p a n s .

For the time b e i n g , such a v i s i o n b o r d e r s on s c i e n c e f i c t i o n , so no a t t e m p t will

be made t o analyse it as a w h o l e . If one l o o k s at the components, however, then

the application prospects turn out to be more r e a l i s t i c . In the following, short

reviews of t h e most p r o m i s i n g concepts are given.

4.4.2 Juice separation

As an a l t e r n a t i v e to extraction, juice separation from rasped or s l i c e d beet

brei c a n be c o n s i d e r e d . T h i s method was w i d e l y used i n the 19th century and

u l t i m a t e l y abandoned because t h e recovery of s u c r o s e was n o t sufficiently

complete. It is now b e i n g studied, however, w i t h some s u b s t a n t i a l modifications.

One p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n is to apply low-temperature, counter-current washing of

beet brei (ref. 26). The p r i n c i p l e of the p r o c e s s and i t s essential parameters

are given in F i g . 4.13(a) and t h e retention time o f the brei c a n be e s t i m a t e d at

10 m i n u t e s . The key problem is to destroy cell membranes effectively so that

s u g a r can be w a s h e d o u t a t low t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s may r e q u i r e double-stage

170

(α)
disintegrated beet filtration
tissue 23VoDS acid aid preservative water

press
juice
^^ASH-" --WASH-' "-WASH--'
PRESS
-STAGE U .^STAGE2. .^STAGE 3 .
brei3 Ί

r a w juice 16.4% D S * p r e s s e d brei 3 5 % DS

(b) powdered
lime 0.6 w a t e r 12.5 powdered lime

1 Γ
raw juice
disintegrated ^ TANK PRESS 1 PRESS 2
beet tissue 100 80°C 35 bar 70 bar

•
p r e s s e d brei A O V o D S

F i g . 4 . 1 3 . Schemes o f j u i c e s e p a r a t i o n f r o m b e e t b r e i : ( a ) t r i p l e - s t a g e c o u n t e r -
c u r r e n t w a s h i n g and p r e s s i n g o f b r e i , ( b ) d o u b l e - s t a g e p r e s s i n g . Mass f l o w s
g i v e n i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b . * / i n c l u d i n g 2% f i b r e s u b s t a n c e .

disintegration o f the beet t i s s u e : first in a disk m i l l , then in a homogenizer

or a beater m i l l . S u c r o s e r e c o v e r y can be e s t i m a t e d as 0.97 m u l t i p l i e d by the

efficiency of disintegration of cell membranes. An e f f i c i e n c y o f 0.95 can easily

be o b t a i n e d , resulting thus in sucrose r e c o v e r y about 0.92. At 16% s u g a r in

beets, 13.8% s u g a r i n raw j u i c e can be obtained.

The advantages o f the process are:

- high p u r i t y of separated juice;

- no h e a t expenditure;

- high value of concentrated brei as a n i m a l feed.

The most s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e is the relatively h i g h p o w e r demand o f the

disintegration equipment: 0.44 kWh/100 kg b has been r e p o r t e d f r o m a prototype

installation. N e v e r t h e l e s s , economic c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s against conventional

extraction has a l r e a d y been c l a i m e d at small processing capabilities up to

1200 t/d.

Another s o l u t i o n employs d o u b l e - s t a g e p r e s s i n g o f beet brei at elevated

temperature (ref. 27). The p r o c e s s i s schematically shown i n Fig. 4.13(b); the

retention time o f the b r e i c a n be e s t i m a t e d at 20 m i n u t e s . Double-stage pressing

offers t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f v e r y h i g h s u c r o s e r e c o v e r y and v e r y h i g h c o n t e n t of

dry substance in the pressed b r e i . A t 16% s u g a r i n beets, 15.5% s u g a r i n raw

juice seems t o be a r e a l i s t i c figure. As t h i s p r o c e s s has been t e s t e d on

 171

a laboratory scale only, further research is needed b e f o r e any e v a l u a t i o n c a n be

given of its technical and e c o n o m i c feasibility.

4.4.3 Juice purification and thickening

Juice purification is a process e s s e n t i a l l y aimed a t r e m o v i n g n o n s u g a r s , and

juice thickening one aimed a t removing excess water from sugar s o l u t i o n s . These

functions can be p e r f o r m e d e m p l o y i n g membrane f i l t r a t i o n processes ( r e f s . 28-30)

known as u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n and h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n ; the latter technique is also

called r e v e r s e o s m o s i s . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of both processes are given in

Table 4.1. Ultrafiltration concentrates high-molecular substance c o l l o i d s and

suspended p a r t i c l e s , while hyperfi 1tration concentrates low-molecular substances

and s e p a r a t e s t h e solvent. The a p p r o x i m a t e limit between t h e two p r o c e s s e s is

a molecular weight of 500-1000.

TABLE 4.1

Main f e a t u r e s of ultrafiltration and h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s .

Ultrafiltration Hyperfi 1tration

Minimum s i z e o f p a r t i c l e s s e p a r a t e d ( m i c r o n s ) 10-200 1-10

Examples o f s u b s t a n c e s n o t s e p a r a t e d water, ethanol, water, ethanol,
lactic acid. lactic acid
sugars, s a l t s .
lower organic
compounds

Pressure range ( b a r ) 1-10 20-100

A p p l i c a t i o n s outside sugar industry separation of water
proteins desalination

T h e membranes, usually 100-400 m i c r o n s thick, are manufactured from polymeric

materials c a s t on a p o l y e s t e r o r p o l y p r o p y l e n e s u p p o r t . The d i f f e r e n c e between

ultrafiltration and h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n membranes lies in their structures. The size

of t h e membrane is l i m i t e d by i t s strength. T h e membranes a r e m o u n t e d in modules

providing also necessary flow channels; tubular, spiral-wound, plate-and-frame

and h o l l o w - f i b r e designs are used. The modules c a n be c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r and

equipped with pumps, v a l v e s , tanks, automatic controls, etc., to create a

membrane f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 4.14 (ref. 30).

An u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n unit c a n be i n c o r p o r a t e d in sugar manufacture as juice

purification equipment, according to a scheme shown i n F i g . 4.15 (ref. 30).

While the p u r i t y of ultrafiltered juice c a n be as h i g h as t h a t of thin juice

leaving conventional purification stations, invert sugar i s however not

eliminated, this giving rise to excessive colour formation. Therefore, further

treatment with 0.05 kg l i m e p e r 100 kg b e e t , o r b y i o n e x c h a n g e , may be

necessary.

The a d v a n t a g e s o f ultrafiltration are l i m e s a v i n g and e l i m i n a t i o n of

172

sugar
solution

permeate

water
concentrate

Fig. 4.14. Scheme o f a membrane f i l t r a t i o n system ( a f t e r ref. 30).

water

raw juice ULTRAFILTRATION

] SCREENING — ^ P R E - T R E A T M E N T —
80°C

permeate

thin juice CLARIFICATION

SULPHITATION LIMING
OR FILTRATION

sludge concentrate

Fig. 4.15. Juice purification scheme i n c l u d i n g an u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n unit (after

ref. 30).

carbonatation heat losses. I f achieved during a factory extension, this can make

investment in the lime k i l n unnecessary. Cost estimates b a s e d on pilot-scale

trials c a n be f o u n d i n the literature (ref. 31).

A hyperfiltration unit c a n be u s e d t o remove w a t e r f r o m j u i c e , thus reducing

t h e e v a p o r a t o r l o a d . Two p o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s in a sugar manufacturing line are

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 4.16 (ref. 32). At the present state of development

of hyperfi 1tration membranes, 30-35% DS seems t o be t h e upper l i m i t of

practicable juice concentrations. This corresponds to an a t t a i n a b l e steam saving

of t h e o r d e r o f 2.7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . Power c o n s u m p t i o n i n j u i c e pumping, however,

may be as h i g h as 0.8 kWh/100 kg b . Cost estimates o b t a i n e d by e x t r a p o l a t i n g the

f i g u r e s from p i l o t - s c a l e tests are given in the literature (ref. 31).

The p r o b l e m w i t h t h e membrane f i l t r a t i o n systems p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e is that

module s i z e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y small, this increasing the investment costs of

large-capacity units. T h e c o s t o f membranes i s also high. Nevertheless, i f the

fuel cost is high, it may be j u s t i f i e d to c o n s i d e r e n e r g y - s a v i n g membrane

filtration s y s t e m s as s e r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s to extensions o f the conventional

equipment. F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n membrane t e c h n o l o g y c a n be e x p e c t e d to
 173

improve the c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f such s o l u t i o n s ; in the first place, this seems to

apply to hyperfi 1tration ( r e v e r s e osmosis) units.

cossettes row juice HYPERFILTRATION concentrate

EXTRACTION LIMING
VERSION 1

permeate CARBONATATION
pulp
1
Ε
FILTRATION
permeate

thick juice
EVAPORATION "1 concentrate
t
HYPERFILTRATION
SULPHITATION
VERSION 2

sludge

F i g . 4.16. P o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s o f h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n units i n a scheme o f a sugar

manufacturing process ( a f t e r r e f . 32).

4.4.4 Sugar crystallization

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s for a radical change i n s u g a r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n methods

d e p e n d v e r y much on t h e results that c a n be o b t a i n e d in the preceding sections

of the sugar manufacturing line. If h i g h enough t h i c k - j u i c e purity c o u l d be

assumed, t h e n t h e c o m p l i c a t e d m u l t i - s t a g e crystallization c o u l d be r e p l a c e d , for

example, by s p r a y d r y i n g . Implications on t h e e n e r g y s i d e , as w e l l as the

consequences f o r investment c o s t s , w o u l d be e n o r m o u s .

Staying within the frames d e f i n e d by t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f development of

juice s e p a r a t i o n and p u r i f i c a t i o n , multi-stage crystallization seems t o be the

only feasible solution. C o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be o b t a i n e d , however, if

the evaporating c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n is r e p l a c e d b y some l e s s e n e r g y - i n t e n s i v e

method. A d o p t i n g the idea used, for example, in certain European p a t e n t s

concerned w i t h molasses d e s u g a r i z a t i o n , the a p p l i c a t i o n of freeze

crystallization has been p r o p o s e d ( r e f s . 33,34). Its principle requires a

refrigerant substance to be a d d e d t o the sucrose s o l u t i o n . As t h e refrigerant

absorbs heat from the solution, the water crystallizes. Eventually, this brings

about the s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n o f the solution and t h e formation of sugar c r y s t a l s .

In the next s t e p , sugar i s separated from ice c r y s t a l s that are subsequently

washed w i t h water. Sugar c r y s t a l s a r e washed w i t h syrup, drained, filtered and

centrifuged.

T h i s method i s s o new t o the sugar i n d u s t r y t h a t a lot o f work is needed t o

clarify its application potential. On t h e energy s i d e , the choice of the

refrigerant and t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e refrigeration circuit seem t o be d e c i s i v e in

determining the attainable savings.

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4.5 PULP DEHYDRATION

4.5.1 Lines of development

It is characteristic of historical developments in the sugar i n d u s t r y that

e n e r g y usage i n the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s has been t r e a t e d more s e r i o u s l y

than t h a t in d r y i n g the p u l p . Following the energy c r i s e s of the 1970s, it was

realized that while the energy systems o f sugar manufacture are r a t h e r elaborate

and s t e a d i l y improving, relatively primitive pulp-drying s y s t e m s can be

responsible for as much as 1/3 of the primary-energy input in a s u g a r factory.

This stimulated much r e s e a r c h and numerous p r a c t i c a l actions which gradually

began t o give practical results. In c e r t a i n countries, the energy savings in

p u l p d r y i n g h a v e been q u i t e spectacular, as can be s e e n i n F i g . 4.17. The

p r o g r e s s was a c h i e v e d o w i n g t o combined developments i n p r o c e s s e s , equipment

and c o n t r o l systems. In the present a u t h o r ' s opinion, however, r e - t h i n k i n g of

process requirements played a p a r t i c u l a r l y important role.

1978 1980 1982 1984

F i g . 4 . 1 7 . S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n p u l p d r y i n g i n FRG and
S w e d e n , 1977-1985. T h e v a l u e s g i v e n f o r b o t h c o u n t r i e s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y
comparable because o f the d i f f e r e n c e s i n molasses dosage.

It s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n that the e s s e n t i a l problem w i t h the wet pulp is

how t o utilize it. T h e most w i d e l y a c c e p t e d s o l u t i o n consists of pressing,

d r y i n g and p e l l e t i n g the pulp so t h a t it c a n be e a s i l y s t o r e d , t r a n s p o r t e d and

s o l d as a n i m a l feed a d d i t i v e . T h e r e a r e numerous o t h e r p r o p o s a l s , h o w e v e r , that

a l s o d e s e r v e s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n . D e p e n d i n g on e c o n o m i c and v a r i o u s local

(e.g., environmental) conditions in a p a r t i c u l a r factory, the b e s t c h o i c e may

vary.

An i n t e r e s t i n g possibility is to avoid t r e a t i n g the p u l p as a b y - p r o d u c t and

to utilize it with t h e aim o f improving the f a c t o r y ' s energy balance. This can

be done b y c o n v e r t i n g t h e p r e s s e d p u l p t o b i o g a s i n an a n a e r o b i c fermentation

process. It has been d e m o n s t r a t e d in l a b o r a t o r y - s c a l e e x p e r i m e n t s , and partly

confirmed in a p i l o t plant, that 90% o f t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r present in pulp can

 175

be c o n v e r t e d t o m e t h a n e , the rest being a waste w h i c h needs t o be d i s p o s e d o f

(ref. 2,35). Biogas generated from the e n t i r e amount o f p u l p c a n be s u p p l i e d to

the b o i l e r s . Alternatively, a part of the p u l p may be c o n v e r t e d t o methane,

which i s s u b s e q u e n t l y b u r n e d i n a d r y e r f u r n a c e , making i t possible to dry the

remaining part. The economic p o t e n t i a l of biogas p r o d u c t i o n from the pulp has

yet to be d e m o n s t r a t e d in a f u l l - s c a l e industrial application.

A solution widely practised is to sell the pressed pulp d i r e c t l y , as fodder.

If transport and s t o r a g e a r e p r o v i d e d b y t h e customers, the advantages are

great. It c a n be s e e n f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f numerous c o u n t r i e s , however, that

the o v e r a l l costs o f the e n t i r e distribution and s t o r a g e s y s t e m - serving a

p r o d u c t w h i c h c o n t a i n s a b o u t 80% w a t e r - may be h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e o f savings

obtained in the factory. Therefore, this s o l u t i o n may be d i f f i c u l t to

substantiate in w e l l - b a l a n c e d economies. Needless to say, i t also requires long-

term marketing.

Another p o s s i b i l i t y consists of storing the pressed pulp in the factory area.

This r e q u i r e s the a p p l i c a t i o n of a suitable preservation procedure ensuring pulp

fermentation aimed a t lactic acid formation (refs. 37,37). The s i m p l e s t method

is to e n s i l e the pulp immediately after pressing, that is, a t 45-50°C. A c o r r e c t

fermentation is attained if the e n s i l e d pulp is cooled at a daily rate of

0 . 5 - 1 . 0 K. No c h e m i c a l a d d i t i v e s are r e q u i r e d , but the a d d i t i o n o f m o l a s s e s has

been shown t o increase l a c t i c acid formation. Alternatively, cooled pulp c a n be

ensiled, p o s s i b l y w i t h chemical preservatives or i n a 85:15 mixture with beet

fragments. Successful industrial applications of pulp e n s i l a g e are known.

R e t u r n i n g now t o the pulp d e h y d r a t i o n method, r e f e r e n c e c a n be made to

Sections 1.2.8 and 1 . 2 . 9 where the importance of energy-saving process

modifications was s t r e s s e d . I n F i g . 4 . 1 8 ( a ) , the influence of the f i n a l DS

c o n t e n t on t h e specific e n e r g y demand i n m e c h a n i c a l and t h e r m a l dehydration is

s h o w n . T h e e n e r g y demand p e r u n i t mass o f w a t e r removed by mechanical pressing

is very low a t l o w DS c o n t e n t , but it increases rapidly a t DS c o n t e n t s above

a certain limit. Concerning thermal drying, its s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand is

relatively constant over a w i d e r a n g e o f DS c o n t e n t s . The i n t e r s e c t i o n point

between t h e a p p l i c a t i o n ranges o f both methods, however, i s determined by

overall economic r e s u l t s rather than by e n e r g y i s s u e s o n l y . It turns out that

with i n c r e a s i n g DS c o n t e n t , the investment c o s t s o f p r e s s e s i n c r e a s e more

r a p i d l y than the specific e n e r g y demand, s h i f t i n g the intersection point towards

l o w e r DS v a l u e s .

Numerous s t u d i e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n ranges o f b o t h d e h y d r a t i o n m e t h o d s h a v e been

published (ref. 38-43). A graph d e p i c t i n g the relationship b e t w e e n p r e s s i n g and

thermal drying is shown i n Fig. 4.18(b). As c a n be s e e n , a t 8% DS i n exhausted

cossettes, i n c r e a s i n g t h e DS c o n t e n t o f p r e s s e d p u l p f r o m 22% t o 30% r e s u l t s in

176

(α)

g I
III·""
Illllllllllllálll"""'thermal

ϊ
Ο Φ

I
mechanical

^1
J
0 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80

Final DS content in p u l p ( % ) DS content in p u l p ( % )

F i g . 4 . 1 8 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e c h a n i c a l and t h e r m a l p u l p d e h y d r a t i o n :
( a ) s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand v s . f i n a l DS c o n t e n t , ( b ) w a t e r amount i n p u l p vs.
DS c o n t e n t ( a f t e r r e f . 5 1 ) .

an i n c r e a s e o f w a t e r amount removed b y t h e r m a l d e h y d r a t i o n o f about 1/7.

Simultaneously, t h e w a t e r amount removed b y t h e r m a l dehydration is r e d u c e d by

about 1/3.

In the f o l l o w i n g , three energy-saving techniques related to pulp dehydration

technology are d i s c u s s e d :

- pressing at increased f i n a l DS c o n t e n t o f t h e pulp;

- low-temperature drying;

- steam drying.

4.5.2 P r e s s i n g t o h i g h DS c o n t e n t
A mechanical press o f contemporary design u t i l i z e s t h e combined e f f e c t of
p r e s s u r e and r e t e n t i o n t i m e on t h e f i n a l DS c o n t e n t of the p u l p . This phenomenon
has been e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d f o r different p r e s s d e s i g n s ; sample r e s u l t s are
shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 9 (ref.44). The nominal retention time, corresponding to the
nominal c a p a c i t y o f the p r e s s , determines its d i m e n s i o n s and t h u s t h e investment
cost. When t h e rotational v e l o c i t y o f the rotor is reduced, longer retention
t i m e i s e n s u r e d and a h i g h e r DS c o n t e n t can be a t t a i n e d ; this implies, however,
t h a t the c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n decreases. Therefore, real progress is achieved
only if the press design i s i m p r o v e d t o g i v e a h i g h DS c o n t e n t in the most
economical operating conditions.
Up t o now, t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r e s s m a n u f a c t u r e r s introduced only limited
changes t o t h e i r products (refs. 4 4 , 4 5 ) . Among t h e new d e s i g n s , a F r e n c h
solution a t t a i n i n g 50% DS was s u c c e s s f u l l y t e s t e d , b o t h on p i l o t and industrial
scales (ref. 42). The c o n c e p t o f p u l p c e n t r i f u g i n g also deserves to be n o t e d .
 177

10 20 30 40 50 60
Retention time (min)

F i g . 4.19. Attainable DS c o n t e n t of pressed pulp v s . retention time and

pressure.

It is a well known phenomenon t h a t t h e results of pressing are to some extent

d e p e n d e n t on t h e properties o f the wet p u l p , most n o t a b l y on t h e condition of

pectins. If the pectins a r e decomposed d u r i n g extraction, pressing becomes

difficult. For t h i s reason, too high temperatures and t o o long pulp retention

times in the extractor s h o u l d be a v o i d e d , as w e l l as p u l p r e c y c l e s . Moreover,

advantageous e f f e c t s can be a c h i e v e d b y c o n t r o l l e d infection by l a c t i c acid

bacteria, giving l o w pH o f t h e p u l p and g o o d p r e s s i n g . As t h i s a l s o causes the

sugar losses in the e x t r a c t i o n to i n c r e a s e , the feasibility o f t h e method is not

obvious. A r e f e r e n c e can be made t o full-scale experiments i n two Austrian

factories, where m i c r o b i a l infection in tower e x t r a c t o r s was c o n t r o l l e d through

continuous f o r m a l i n dosing v i a h i g h - p r e c i s i o n metering systems (ref. 46). In one

case, the results were c l e a r l y positive; in the other factory, the value of

sugar lost annihilated the effect of energy saving. It can a l s o be mentioned

that there h a v e been e x a m p l e s o f improving wet pulp p r o p e r t i e s by dosing

sulphuric acid to press water (pH v a l u e about 4).

In recent y e a r s , mainly on an e m p i r i c a l basis, the addition of pressing aids

has become w i d e s p r e a d (refs. 44,47). Calcium s a l t s - Ca(HS02)2, CaCl2, CaSO^ -

a r e t h e most p o p u l a r because o f their low c o s t . The a i d s a r e added i n solution

or s l u r r y to the extraction feed water or to the pulp at the e x t r a c t o r outlet.

Tests of liming of fresh c o s s e t t e s h a v e a l s o been p e r f o r m e d (ref. 48). Different

ratios of aid/beets are used, but 500 g p e r 1 t beet is about the upper limit.

More s y s t e m a t i c studies of the effect of pressing aids, published recently,

determine an u p p e r limit of the loading of calcium salts at 4 milligram

equivalents per 100 g b e e t (ref. 49). The i n c r e a s e in the dry substance content

of the pressed pulp is 3-4%. It has a l s o been e s t a b l i s h e d that the aids

containing trivalent ions, e.g. k^^{SO^)^, may r a i s e the p u l p DS c o n t e n t even

further.
 178

T h e amounts o f s a l t s used as p r e s s i n g a i d s a r e so small that t h e y seem t o

disappear in the j u i c e purification process, although s l i g h t l y increased sugar

loss i n m o l a s s e s c a n be e x p e c t e d e s p e c i a l l y when u s i n g C a C l ^ (ref. 50). The

conditions c h a n g e when m o l a s s e s i s added t o the p u l p . It is known t h a t its

osmotic e f f e c t on p u l p p a r t i c l e s r a i s e s t h e amount o f w a t e r t h a t c a n be r e m o v e d

from the p u l p . A f t e r a d d i n g a s much m o l a s s e s a s 3-4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , however, the

sugar content i n t h e p r e s s f i l t r a t e may become so h i g h t h a t it c a n n o t be

recycled to the e x t r a c t o r (particularly if the molasses i s added i n t h e second

pressing, s e e b e l o w ) . One p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n is to thicken the f i l t r a t e in

a special e v a p o r a t o r and t o recycle it to the presses ( r e f . 38).

The improvements in press d e s i g n , pulp conditioning in the e x t r a c t o r and

application o f p r e s s i n g a i d s c a n be c o m b i n e d w i t h double-stage pressing. It was

initially tested without pressing aids, g i v i n g a DS i n c r e a s e o f up t o 10% a b o v e

that attained i n the f i r s t s t a g e . U s i n g p r e s s i n g a i d s , 35-40% DS i n t h e p u l p can

be a t t a i n e d , b u t an e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d level seems t o be somewhat lower.

4.5.3 Low-temperature drying

It was m e n t i o n e d in S e c t i o n 1.2.8 t h a t owing t o the process layout and

parameters, the energy u t i l i z a t i o n in conventional thermal drying is poor.

Assuming t h a t high-temperature g a s e s s h o u l d be f e d t o the d r y e r , burning of fuel

c a n n o t be a v o i d e d and o n l y a p a r t o f t h e e n e r g y demand c a n be satisfied

utilizing boiler flue gases. T h e r e f o r e , a proposal has been made t o introduce

a drying process with the initial gas t e m p e r a t u r e low enough t o utilize waste

heat from the sugar manufacturing process. Called low-temperature drying, this

p r o c e s s has p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y f e a s i b l e i n a few a p p l i c a t i o n s . As t h e cost

of the n e c e s s a r y equipment is very h i g h , however, i t c a n n o t be s e e n as the

ultimate energy-saving solution but rather as a n o t h e r new s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t t o be

utilized in e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t factories.

The streams o f waste heat t h a t can be c o n s i d e r e d f o r utilization are

available in the f o l l o w i n g media:

- barometric water;

- vacuum pan v a p o u r ;

- c o n d e n s a t e (ammonia w a t e r ) ;

- spent carbonatation gas;

- vapours from lime slaking;

- flue gas from boilers;

- p o s s i b l y , s p e n t gas from h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e pulp drying.

Heating of a i r has been e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d i n a number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s (refs.

51-54). The a t t a i n a b l e temperature is o f the order o f 50-70°C. The e x a c t v a l u e

selected, as w e l l as o t h e r process parameters - including air humidity at the

 179

dryer outlet - d e t e r m i n e t h e e n e r g y demand p e r 1 kg w a t e r removed from t h e pulp,

as a p p r o x i m a t e l y shown i n t h e d i a g r a m o f F i g . 4.20. When c o m p a r e d t o high-

temperature d r y i n g , say at 500°C a i r temperature at the d r y e r i n l e t , 40-80% more

e n e r g y p e r 1 kg w a t e r i s needed i n low-temperature drying (at air humidity

c h a n g i n g f r o m 50% t o 90%). In order to minimize t h e s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand, the

outlet temperature s h o u l d be l o w and o u t l e t humidity high, this implying that it

is very d i f f i c u l t to dry the pulp to a h i g h DS c o n t e n t . Consequently, low-

temperature d r y i n g i s most s u i t a b l e as a f i r s t stage preceding high-temperature

drying, where the f i n a l DS c o n t e n t can be a t t a i n e d . It has been p r o v e d t h a t such

a s o l u t i o n c a n s a v e more e n e r g y t h a n a p a r a l l e l combination o f both types of

drying (ref. 51).

— — air t e m p e r a t u r e at d r y e r inlet
— a i r humidity at d r y e r outlet

5500 Γ

20 AO 60 80 100 120

Air temperature at d r y e r outlet {°C)

F i g . 4 . 2 0 . S p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand i n l o w - and m e d i u m - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y i n g as
a f u n c t i o n o f p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s ( a f t e r K . K r ö l l , T r o c k n u n g s t e c h n i k , 2nd e d n . ,
S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n , 1978).

A possible design for a low-temperature d r y e r o f the t r a v e l l i n g - s c r e e n type

is shown schematically in F i g . 4.21 (the dryer consists of multiple cells like

t h e one shown i n cross-section). It is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s p e c i f i c p o w e r demand

a b o u t 50 kWh p e r 1 t w a t e r r e m o v e d , t h e a i r f a n s b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r most of

it and t h e c o n v e y o r and s c r e e n d r i v e s f o r the rest. The parameters o f a l o w -

temperature d r y e r operated in a sugar f a c t o r y in FRG a r e l i s t e d in Table 4.2.

O t h e r d e s i g n s h a v e been d e s c r i b e d i n t h e literature (refs. 55-57).

As t h e introduction of l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y i n g has a d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s e f f e c t on
180

pulp in

A A-A air out

4-

7 - - - r - - z - z - . - ^

iL pulp
\ / _ o uout
i

Ai
F i g . 4 . 2 1 . Scheme o f a l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y e r (after ref. 53). 1 - air heater,
2 - a i r f a n , 3 - a i r d i s t r i b u t o r and s c r e e n .

TABLE 4.2
Parameters o f a low-temperature dryer (after ref. 51).

VäTüe
Total p e r 1 t w a t e r removed a t
Quantity
value evaporating capacity ( t / h )

25 30

T h e r m a l c a p a c i t y (kW) ρ 34600 1384 1153

H e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a i n a i r h e a t e r s (m ) 43370 1735 1446
Air flow ( t / h ) 2830 113 94
Power demand, i n c l u d i n g w a s t e - h e a t
r e c o v e r y e q u i p m e n t (kW) ^ 1500 60 50
Average a i r temperature a t heater o u t l e t ( C) 50
Average pulp r e t e n t i o n time (min) 25
D i m e n s i o n s (m) ^ 36X16X19
T o t a l s c r e e n a r e a (m ) 600
Total weight ( t ) 1600

t h e power b a l a n c e o f t h e f a c t o r y , a p r o p o s a l was made t o create an additional

thermal c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e , w i t h t h e aim of
i n c r e a s i n g t h e steam demand o f t h e evaporation station, without increasing the
primary-energy input to the f a c t o r y . In t h i s w a y , t h e steam f l o w t h r o u g h the
turbine can be i n c r e a s e d and a d d i t i o n a l power g e n e r a t e d . A s s u m i n g t h a t the
additional connection consists of supplying t h i r d - e f f e c t vapour to an air
heater, an a i r temperature a b o u t 90°C can be a t t a i n e d ; this solution is known as
medium-temperature d r y i n g . As can be s e e n i n F i g . 4.20, its specific energy
demand d o e s n o t d i f f e r significantly from t h a t o f low-temperature drying. The
air f l o w and s c r e e n s u r f a c e i n t h e d r y e r can be c o s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d , h o w e v e r ,
this resulting in r e d u c e d power demand and i n v e s t m e n t c o s t s . U s i n g medium-
 181

temperature drying followed by c o n v e n t i o n a l drying with boiler flue gas, the

total p u l p amount can be d r i e d u s i n g o n l y w a s t e and l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e heat from

other factory sections. A suitable l a y o u t o f the energy system i s shown

schematically in F i g . 4.22 (after ref. 58).

p r e s s e d pulp
90Ϊ
3rd-effect ^ I
vapour

steam

fuel
flue gas 205°C
dried pulp

F i g . 4 . 2 2 . E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t f o r d o u b l e - s t a g e p u l p d r y i n g u s i n g w a s t e and
l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e h e a t f r o m b o i l e r s and s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e ( a f t e r r e f . 5 8 ) .
1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s , 4 - medium-temperature
dryer, 5 - conventional dryer.

4.5.4 Steam drying

In the search f o r alternatives to conventional thermal dehydration, steam

d r y i n g has r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n in recent years. In addition to the obvious

p r o p e r t y o f making i t easy to integrate the h e a t economy i n sugar manufacture

and p u l p d r y i n g , this method c a n a l s o improve the q u a l i t y of the pulp, as i t is

dried i n the absence o f a i r and t h u s w i t h o u t the risk o f o x i d a t i o n . Among four

industrial-scale steam d r y e r s p r e s e n t l y i n o p e r a t i o n (refs. 13,59-61), the

Swedish u n i t produces h i g h - q u a l i t y d r i e d pulp which is subsequently transformed

to a food a d d i t i v e (ref. 62) and t h e remaining o n e s seem t o be u s e d m a i n l y for

the purpose o f improving e n e r g y economy.

T h e t h e r m o d y n a m i c mechanism o f steam d r y i n g is somewhat d i f f e r e n t from that

of conventional d r y i n g . The d r i v i n g force o f t h e mass e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n a p u l p

particle and t h e heating agent i s the d i f f e r e n c e between the steam temperature

and t h e s a t u r a t i o n temperature at the pressure maintained in t h e d r y e r . As the

temperature of the p a r t i c l e entering the d r y e r is lower than the steam

temperature, the p a r t i c l e may i n i t i a l l y absorb water by c o n d e n s a t i o n .

Evaporation begins a f t e r the saturation temperature has been a t t a i n e d at the

particle s u r f a c e , and t h e s a t u r a t i o n zone i s g r a d u a l l y extended to the centre of

the p a r t i c l e . Only in the l a y e r s from which water has been r e m o v e d can the

particle temperature differ significantly from the saturation v a l u e , which is

unlikely to happen i n a w e l l designed d r y e r . In t h i s way o v e r h e a t i n g o f t h e pulp

182

can be a v o i d e d , w i t h a positive effect on t h e q u a l i t y of the f i n a l product.

A diagram o f pulp temperature changes d u r i n g steam d r y i n g is shown i n Fig. 4.23.

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Water content ( k g / k g D S )

Fig. 4.23. Changes o f a v e r a g e p u l p t e m p e r a t u r e and w a t e r c o n t e n t d u r i n g steam

drying (after ref. 38).

T h e steam t e m p e r a t u r e s reported are in the r a n g e 132-189^0. The w o r k i n g

p r i n c i p l e s o f t w o d r y e r d e s i g n s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 4.24. It seems

t h a t the s o l u t i o n s have y e t t o be o p t i m i z e d w i t h respect to their economic

feasibility.

The d r y e r a p p l i e d in a sugar f a c t o r y in FRG i s of the t r a v e l l i n g - s c r e e n type

(Fig. 4.24(a), after ref. 61). The dimensions g i v e n a p p l y t o a unit r a t e d 20 t/h

evaporated water. The d r y e r c o n s i s t s o f n i n e c e l l s like t h e one shown i n cross-

section. The s a t u r a t i o n temperature of the r e c i r c u l a t e d vapour i s 132°C. Due t o

the presence o f circulation fans, its specific p o w e r demand i s similar to that

of a low-temperature dryer, that is, a b o u t 50 kWh/1 t water. As t h e d r y e r is

vapour
(a)
pulp in

40 m

pulp out

condensate vapour

F i g . 4 . 2 4 . w o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f steam d r y e r s :
(b) f l u i d i z e d bed. 1 - heater, 2 - screens, 3 - f a n , 4
^7!^|5",^^;Π;α.
tluiaizeo
 183

heated by e x h a u s t steam, its presence in an e n e r g y s y s t e m f a c i l i t a t e s increased

power g e n e r a t i o n . If combined w i t h a l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y e r used i n the initial

process stage, t h i s d e s i g n makes i t possible to dry the e n t i r e pulp amount

without direct expenditure of primary energy. A suitable energy-system layout is

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 4.25(a).

Qir p r e s s e d pulp
(a)
I

flue g a s
U
steam
waste partly
heat dried pulp

vapour

fuel

dried pulp

(b) steam

fuel
-Θ

vapour

steam ^ I ^ 1

pressed p u l p dried pulp

F i g . 4.25. Energy system l a y o u t s f o r steam-drying o f the p u l p : ( a ) d o u b l e - s t a g e

d r y i n g , steam d r y e r h e a t e d w i t h e x h a u s t s t e a m ( a f t e r r e f . 3 8 ) , ( b ) s t e a m d r y e r
h e a t e d w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e steam ( a f t e r r e f s . 1 3 , 6 3 ) . 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e ,
3 - s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , 4 - l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y e r , 5 - steam d r y e r ,
6 - waste-heat recovery subsystem, 7 - vapour washer.

A Danish design employing the c e l l u l a r f l u i d i z e d - b e d technique is shown in

Fig. 4.24(b) (after refs. 13,63). The f l u i d i z e d bed c o n s i s t s o f m u l t i p l e cells

arranged in a c i r c l e surrounding the tubular heater situated in the centre of

a vertical vessel. In a prototype a p p l i c a t i o n , the dryer i s rated 6 t/h

evaporated water. It is h e a t e d b y steam a t 12 b a r and 220°C f r o m a b o i l e r which

happens t o be a v a i l a b l e in the f a c t o r y in question; t h i s steam does not

184

contribute to power g e n e r a t i o n . The vapour p r e s s u r e is maintained at 3.5 bar and

the temperature is 162°C a b o v e t h e fluidized bed and 189°C a t the heater outlet.

The r e c i r c u l a t e d vapour flow is 35-40 t i m e s l a r g e r than the water evaporation.

As v a p o u r e n e r g y i s directed to the evaporator station, the heat consumption in

sugar manufacture c a n be r e d u c e d . A p o s s i b l e energy-system layout is shown

schematically in Fig. 4.25(b).

C o n s i d e r a b l e heat s a v i n g s can be i m a g i n e d in sugar f a c t o r i e s employing steam-

drying of the pulp and v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n . For example, it is proposed to

superheat vapour withdrawn from the second e v a p o r a t o r effect and subsequently

c o m p r e s s e d , and t o deliver it to a steam d r y e r (ref. 64). T h i s w o u l d make it

possible to integrate e n e r g y economy i n sugar manufacture and p u l p drying in

various types of energy systems, including those employing gas turbines.

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33 P . J . W r o b e l and J . A . H e i s t , S u g a r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n f r o m b e e t j u i c e s and
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E n e r g i e b e d a r f und S t a u b e m i s s i o n v o n S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g s a n l a g e n u n t e r B e r ü c k ­
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42 M. Demaux, P r e s s a g e e t s e c h a g e d e s p u l p e s de b e t t e r a v e s . F a c t e u r s de
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Betrachtungen zur W i r t s c h a f t l i c h k e i t , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(9) (1983) 861-868,
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"Improvement o f the Beet S u g a r P r o d u c t i o n " , W a r s z a w a , May 1987.
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Chapter 5

EQUIPMENT DESIGN FOR E F F I C I E N T ENERGY UTILIZATION

5.1 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEMS

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t s o f e n e r g y - s a v i n g p r o c e s s e s and e q u i p m e n t a r e mutually

dependent. While the process requirements influence equipment d e s i g n , i t is the

attainable equipment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which are o f t e n decisive in constraining

the parameters o f a p r o c e s s . T h i s applies to large s e c t i o n s o f the sugar

manufacturing process in which i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n numerous interconnected

equipment u n i t s are taking place (juice purification, sugar crystallization,

etc.), as w e l l as t o unit operations performed in specialized equipment

(extraction, heating, etc.).

By i n t r o d u c i n g s e l e c t i v e d e s i g n changes o r a p p l y i n g e n t i r e l y new e q u i p m e n t

designs, it becomes p o s s i b l e t o c u t down t h e p o w e r demand and t h e total heat

demand o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y . In a d d i t i o n , improved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the

equipment u n i t s o f which a thermal system i s composed may c o n t r i b u t e to an

improved e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o and t h u s r e d u c e d n e t h e a t demand. C o n s i d e r a b l e

progress has been a c h i e v e d i n t h e s e a r e a s i n recent years. In the present

Chapter, design trends are reviewed r e l a t i n g to the following equipment:

- extractors,

- evaporators,

- heat exchangers,

- vacuum p a n s ,

- centrifugals.

5.2 EXTRACTORS

The e s s e n t i a l function o f an e x t r a c t o r c a n be d e s c r i b e d a s counter-current

leaching of cossettes. Initial thermal breakdown o r d e n a t u r a t i o n of cell

membranes i s r e q u i r e d t o make s u c r o s e e x t r a c t i o n possible. Denaturation begins

at 50-60°C and becomes a l m o s t instantaneous at temperatures a b o v e 90°C. For this

reason, it i s necessary to s u p p l y heat to the e x t r a c t o r , which i s thus also

a component o f t h e t h e r m a l system.

As t h e d r i v i n g force of sucrose extraction is the d i f f e r e n c e of concentration

b e t w e e n t h e c o s s e t t e s and t h e e x t r a c t i n g juice, the concentration of the juice

can never exceed t h a t in the e x t r a c t e d m a t e r i a l . Taking into account that the

cossettes contain a b o u t 95% c e l l juice, the j u i c e draft can n e v e r be l o w e r than

95%; t o attain this theoretical limit, an i d e a l extractor of infinite length

w o u l d be r e q u i r e d . In r e a l i t y , in order to increase the d r i v i n g force and

reduce equipment s i z e , excess water is fed to the extractor, this causing

188

increased j u i c e draft. The p r a c t i c a l range o f j u i c e drafts is 105-140%.

From t h e t r e n d t o w a r d e n e r g y s a v i n g , two b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s to which

extractor d e s i g n e r s must r e s p o n d follow:

- production of c o l d raw j u i c e , which allows the recovery of low-temperature

heat which would otherwise be w a s t e d ;

- the p o s s i b i l i t y of operating the extractor at low j u i c e draft, which results

in a reduction o f the amount o f w a t e r to be e v a p o r a t e d .

Using a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n with respect to t h e way t h e c o s s e t t e s are transported

w i t h i n the extractor, four d e s i g n s a r e t h e most w i d e l y u s e d t o d a y : tower type,

scroll (or trough) t y p e , m o v i n g bed ( o r b e l t ) t y p e and drum t y p e . Their working

principles a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 5.1. As c a n be s e e n , the production

of c o l d raw j u i c e has been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the trough-type (DOS) e x t r a c t o r

only. In t h i s d e s i g n , heat is transferred to the extraction mixture from vapour

condensing in heating jackets attached to the trough. It seems t h a t a t large

capacities, however, the heating jackets are not e f f e c t i v e enough t o ensure

a c o r r e c t temperature distribution in the e x t r a c t i o n mixture, s o 3000 t / d is the

practical limit o f the capacity of trough-type extractors today.

There is no c o n s t r a i n t of this kind r e l a t i n g to the other extractor types.

(a)
h 5 (b)
Μ

(
Μ e
\-

7^ Γ 6

F i g . 5.1. Working p r i n c i p l e s o f e x t r a c t o r s : ( a ) t o w e r , ( b ) moving b e d ,

( c ) t r o u g h , ( d ) drum. Μ - h e a t e x c h a n g e r c o s s e t t e s - j u i c e ( m i x e r ) , Η - j u i c e
h e a t e r . 1 - c o s s e t t e s , 2 - f r e s h w a t e r , 3 - p r e s s w a t e r , 4 - raw j u i c e , 5 -
exhausted c o s s e t t e s , 6 - steam, 7 - r e c i r c u l a t e d j u i c e , 8 - e x t r a c t i o n m i x t u r e .
 189

because heat is supplied v i a separate heat exchangers to the j u i c e recirculated

at the rate of up t o 300%. Originally invented to deliver h o t raw j u i c e , these

d e s i g n s must be m o d i f i e d by adding a heat exchanger (mixer) in which j u i c e is

cooled, in counter-flow, by incoming c o s s e t t e s . The m i x e r can be i n s t a l l e d as a

separate u n i t , but i n new d r u m - t y p e designs, i t can a l s o be structurally

integrated with the extractor proper. The a d d i t i o n of a mixer results in

increased investment c o s t s , w h i c h can a p p a r e n t l y be o f f - s e t by c o s t reductions

associated with energy savings.

The a p p l i c a t i o n of mixers in new e x t r a c t i o n stations c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as

standard practice n o w a d a y s , and m i x e r s a r e a l s o added t o the e x i s t i n g extractors

(ref. 1). One c a s e has been r e p o r t e d o f a trough-type apparatus (formerly used

as an e x t r a c t o r ) a p p l i e d as a m i x e r linked to a drum-type extractor (ref. 2).

The a t t a i n a b l e juice temperature is usually 11-15 Κ above t h e cossettes

temperature. D e p e n d i n g on t h e extractor t y p e and l o c a l conditions, steam s a v i n g s

o f the o r d e r o f 0.5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b h a v e been r e p o r t e d (ref. 3); this figure should

be t r e a t e d cautiously, as i t d e p e n d s on t h e accompanying c o r r e c t i o n s of the

thermal s y s t e m as w e l l . As p o i n t e d o u t by G e n i e ( r e f . 4), however, i t makes

little sense to i n v e s t t o o much i n a m i x e r subsystem because the thermal returns

diminish if a certain mixer size is exceeded and, in addition, sucrose losses

i n c r e a s e as a r e s u l t of increased bacterial activity on a c c o u n t o f low

temperatures and l o n g retention times.

Lowering o f the j u i c e draft has a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n Section 1.3.4.

Being always a premise for reduced energy consumption, it becomes a l m o s t a

necessity i n modern s u g a r f a c t o r i e s in which heat consumption has been d e c r e a s e d

to a certain l e v e l . The a s s o c i a t e d d e c r e a s e i n t h e demand f o r heating vapours

may l e a d t o the impossibility of full utilization o f vapours from the

evaporation p r o c e s s , unless vapour compression i s applied. Lowering o f the juice

d r a f t w o u l d be much more c o n v e n i e n t , but it raises extractor design problems

which s t i l l remain to be s o l v e d . A better understanding of the design

requirements has been a c h i e v e d i n recent years, owing t o advances i n the theory

of the extraction process ( r e f s . 5-8).

Each e x t r a c t o r can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a number o f mass t r a n s f e r units, which

can be d e f i n e d as t h e number o f steps in a perfect batch e x t r a c t o r t h a t would be

required to produce the same j u i c e from the same c o s s e t t e s w i t h t h e same l o s s of

sugar in exhausted cossettes ( f o r mathematical formulae, see r e f . 6). Practical

v a l u e s range from 8 to 16; the higher the figure the better is the extractor,

and t h e lower the j u i c e draft that c a n be m a i n t a i n e d at a given sugar l o s s . For

the drum-type d e s i g n , the requirements h a v e been s u m m a r i z e d b y G e n i e ( r e f . 4) in

a graph ( F i g . 5 . 2 ) . As c a n be s e e n , a reduction in j u i c e draft requires a

structural change i n e x t r a c t o r design; i.e., an i n c r e a s e d number o f transfer

190

101 e v a p o r a t e d
w a t e r less per
100 kg beets

I L
10 15 20
No. of t r a n s f e r units

F i g . 5 . 2 . R e d u c t i o n o f j u i c e d r a f t v s . number o f t r a n s f e r u n i t s o f e x t r a c t o r for
0.2% s u c r o s e l o s s on b e e t s and 18% DS i n p r e s s e d p u l p ( a f t e r r e f . 4 ) .

units. Similar relationships exist for other extractor types, this stimulating

a l s o numerous m o d e r n i z a t i o n s of existing units. When i n c r e a s i n g the height of

a tower or the length of a trough, other improvements are i n t r o d u c e d as well,

particularly easily controlled drives, improved m i x i n g / t r a n s p o r t i n g elements,

more e f f e c t i v e heat-supply subsystems, e t c . (refs. 1,9-11).

5.3 EVAPORATORS

5.3.1 Conventional applications

It was p o i n t e d out in S e c t i o n 3.3.2 that a high heat t r a n s f e r intensity

s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as an i m p o r t a n t feature of the evaporators. At low e n e r g y

cost, intensive heat t r a n s f e r h a s been t r e a t e d as a means t o reduce heating

s u r f a c e a r e a s and t h u s investment c o s t s . The t r e n d towards e n e r g y s a v i n g s

initiated changes i n the a t t i t u d e of designers. In a m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t evaporator

station, a high p r i o r i t y is g i v e n nowadays t o m a i n t a i n i n g vapour temperatures

facilitating utilization of low-grade heat from the final effects. As a

consequence, temperature differences between v a p o u r s i n consecutive effects may

be s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e recommended i n t h e p a s t , even a t the expense o f larger

heating surface areas.

The trade-off between h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a and t e m p e r a t u r e difference has

been s t u d i e d b y numerous a u t h o r s (refs. 12-15). A l t h o u g h no u n i v e r s a l design

prescriptions h a v e been f o r m u l a t e d , this work n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t r i b u t e s to better

understanding of the relationships i n v o l v e d . L e t us c o n s i d e r an approximate

formula g i v e n by Baloh (ref. 15) for the optimal temperature difference Δ Τ ^ ^ ^ in

an e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t in which the j u i c e temperature (absolute value) is Τ

(5.1)

where c , i s the annual cost of 1 m heating surface area, c is the energy cost,
a β
T^ is the environment temperature, k is the overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient,

and τ is the duration of the o p e r a t i n g season.

 191

As can be s e e n , the temperature difference in an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y s h o u l d be

reduced at high energy c o s t , highly intensive heat t r a n s f e r and p r o l o n g e d

seasons. It s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d , h o w e v e r , when t h e e v a p o r a t o r c o s t increases

relative to t h e e n e r g y c o s t , o r when t h e capital cost is increased.

Another important feature o f the evaporators is the j u i c e retention t i m e and

its distribution. At juice temperatures a b o v e 105°C, t h e retention time

determines t h e amount o f h y d r o l i z e d s u c r o s e and decomposed i n v e r t sugar, this

affecting colour formation in the j u i c e . As p o i n t e d o u t in Section 4.3, a high

juice colour, necessitating a large massecuite c i r c u l a t i o n , may indirectly

i n c r e a s e t h e e n e r g y demand o f t h e sugar h o u s e . The problem o f colour formation

in the evaporator s t a t i o n has been s t u d i e d in recent years ( r e f . 16) and the

associated requirement on e v a p o r a t o r d e s i g n i s fairly clear: t h e mean juice

retention t i m e s h o u l d be as s h o r t as p o s s i b l e , and t h e retention time spectrum

s h o u l d be c o n c e n t r a t e d c l o s e t o t h e mean v a l u e .

From t h e v a r i e t y o f requirements mentioned above, i t is necessary to evaluate

the e x i s t i n g evaporator designs c r i t i c a l l y . At least three disadvantageous

p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p o p u l a r R o b e r t - t y p e e v a p o r a t o r c a n be identified:

- a part o f the a v a i l a b l e temperature difference becomes l o s t because o f the

hydrostatic head;

- the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient decreases r a p i d l y with increasing juice

concentration; in the last evaporator e f f e c t , its v a l u e may be 5-6 times smaller

than t h a t in the f i r s t effect;

- mean j u i c e retention time i s of the order of several minutes; in addition,

owing t o n a t u r a l circulation in a r e l a t i v e l y large liquid volume, the spectrum

of retention times is rather wide.

For t h i s reason other evaporator types, p a r t i c u l a r l y thin-film types, have

received attention in recent years. Among numerous d e s i g n s t h a t a r e reviewed

elsewhere (ref. 17), t h e f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r s seem t o be b e s t s u i t e d t o the

requirements. Three v e r s i o n s o f the tubular f a l l i n g - f i l m d e s i g n a r e shown

schematically in F i g . 5.3 (where a sketch o f a Robert-type unit is also given

for comparison). Thin j u i c e i s s p r e a d on t h e v e r t i c a l t u b e b u n d l e b y means of

a distributor device, and f l o w s as a f i l m on t h e inner tube wall from top to

bottom. The t u b e s used i n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y a r e 6-12 m long. In order to

prevent v i b r a t i o n s , the tubes are led through b a f f l e s placed about 2 m a p a r t . As

a result o f heating the chest with e x h a u s t steam o r v a p o u r , v a p o u r i s generated

from the j u i c e . Having l e f t the tube bundle, the concentrated j u i c e falls into

t h e e v a p o r a t o r b a s e and t h e v a p o u r f l o w s through a separator to the outlet

nozzle.

The f u n c t i o n i n g of the j u i c e distribution device is of critical importance to

the e f f i c i e n c y and r e l i a b i l i t y of the f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r . If wetting of

 O)
192

^
1
}

-mi-ir
.ττ-ττ^\
^

0 0

IL 11
Fig. 5 . 3 . Falling-film evaporators (courtesy Wiegand) and a Robert-type evaporator, ( a ) falling-film unit with adjacent
centrifugal separator, ( b ) with integrated separator at the base, ( c ) with external vapour ducts and integrated separator
at the top. 1 - juice inlet, 2 - recirculated juice to the distributor, 3 - juice outlet, 4 - heating-steam inlet,
5 - condensate outlet, 6 - vapour outlet.
 193

a tube wall becomes i n s u f f i c i e n t , there is a risk that the liquid film will tear

apart, this resulting in scale formation on t h e t u b e w a l l . It is therefore

essential that this d e v i c e works w i t h o u t c l o g g i n g , ensuring also uniform juice

distribution on t h e t u b e - s h e e t s u r f a c e . T h e w o r k i n g principles of four patented

distributor d e s i g n s a r e shown i n Fig. 5.4.

(a) (b)

1
v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

A A / V A A A A A A A A A

F i g . 5.4. J u i c e d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s employed i n f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r s : ( a )
and ( b ) c i r c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t s , ( c ) b a r s and t u b e i n s e r t s u n d e r m u l t i p l e n o z z l e s ,
( d ) b a f f l e s under a s p r i n k l e r .

In order to avoid i n s u f f i c i e n t tube wetting at reduced l o a d , a recirculation

pump can be a t t a c h e d t o t h e e v a p o r a t o r . U s i n g r e c i r c u l a t i o n , safe operation can
be a c h i e v e d a t l o a d s as l o w as a b o u t 40% o f t h e n o m i n a l value.
An e s t i m a t e o f the a t t a i n a b l e overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient of the
f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r as a f u n c t i o n of juice concentration is shown in
Fig. 5.5 (after ref. 18), with an a n a l o g o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p characteristic of the
R o b e r t - t y p e d e s i g n . As can be s e e n , w h i l e there i s no n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e in
in the f i r s t evaporator e f f e c t , the value o f k at j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s 35-70% DS
in a f a l l i n g - f i l m unit can be up t o 100% a b o v e t h a t in a Robert-type evaporator.
For t h i s reason, replacements o f Robert-type u n i t s by f a l l i n g - f i l m o n e s i n final
194

- 3500

S 3000
/fallinc film
o 2500h-
\
\
fj^ 2000 \

-
ge 1000
Rot

-
5
o
20 30 AO 50 60 70
Mean juice concentration ( % DS)

F i g . 5.5. O v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients of R o b e r t and falling-film

evaporators ( a f t e r r e f . 18).

evaporator effects h a v e been u n d e r t a k e n i n numerous factories.

T h e mean j u i c e retention time in a falling-film unit is typically about

1.5 min. Taking special measures, it c a n be c u t down t o l e s s than 30 s ( r e f . 19),

this requiring proper precautions in the field of automatic control and safety

devices. As, in addition, the spectrum o f retention times is quite narrow,

f a l l i n g - f i l m units match v e r y w e l l the requirements of application in the

initial evaporator effects. It has a l s o been r e p o r t e d t h a t at low juice

concentrations, only negligible s c a l i n g may o c c u r i n a falling-film evaporator

even though s c a l e f o r m a t i o n was a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m in a Robert-type unit

previously used.

In the f i r s t evaporator e f f e c t , the problem o f entrainment separation becomes

critical because o f the risk that juice carryover will lead to the presence of

sugar in the second-effect condensate. It seems t h a t the development of

different entrainment s e p a r a t o r s has a d v a n c e d s o f a r t h a t t h e y can be safely

applied within their r e s p e c t i v e ranges o f operation (refs. 20-23). Centrifugal

s e p a r a t o r s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r e l a t i v e l y large vapour v e l o c i t y , 10-40 m/s,

and a p r e s s u r e d r o p o f 10-100 mm H ^ O . T h e p o p u l a r "zigzag" and curvilinear

baffles a r e most e f f e c t i v e at vapour v e l o c i t i e s 3-12 m/s, with resulting

p r e s s u r e d r o p s 12-25 mm H ^ O . F i n a l l y , mesh p a d s can be u s e d a t 1 . 5 - 1 0 m/s and

12-50 mm H2O. W h i l e t h e c e n t r i f u g a l separators cannot stop v e r y f i n e juice

droplets smaller than 10 m i c r o n s , t h e mesh p a d s a r e e f f e c t i v e down t o a droplet

diameter of 5 microns. The l a t t e r design is however prone t o partial clogging

by d r y s u b s t a n c e s o f the j u i c e , this resulting in the performance deteriorating

with time. In order to prevent deposit build-up, periodical washing w i t h water

may be r e q u i r e d . A d e t a i l of a f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporator with entrainment

separation augmented b y a mesh pad i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 5.6.

 195

^condensate

MESH PAD

F i g . 5.6. I n t e g r a t e d entrainment separator equipped w i t h a mesh pad a t the base

of a f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporator.

5.3,2 Unconventional applications

It was m e n t i o n e d in S e c t i o n 1.2.5 that substantial reductions of the total

h e a t demand i n sugar manufacture may c a u s e t h e overall v a p o u r demand i n the

evaporator to become s m a l l e r than the amount o f w a t e r to be e v a p o r a t e d from

juice. A possible solution to this problem is to combine c o n v e n t i o n a l multi­

stage evaporation with one o r two e v a p o r a t i o n s t a g e s h e a t e d by waste h e a t ; low-

temperature vapours obtained in the additional e v a p o r a t o r s c a n be d i r e c t e d to

the condenser. It s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s is an a l t e r n a t i v e to a vapour

compression c i r c u i t i n w h i c h an e q u i v a l e n t amount o f first- or second-effect

vapour is recirculated. Compared w i t h vapour compression, i t has t h e advantage

of not a f f e c t i n g the power b a l a n c e o f the factory.

Two d i f f e r e n t concepts of unconventional evaporation h a v e been i m p l e m e n t e d in

practice recently.

(i) Thickening of j u i c e between c o n v e n t i o n a l evaporation stages or after the

last evaporator e f f e c t , u s i n g vacuum-pan v a p o u r s (refs. 24-26).

(ii) Pre-evaporation of thin juice prior to the conventional multi-stage

evaporation process, using o u t l e t gases from pulp drying (ref. 27).

Another p r o p o s a l , s t i l l in the design stage, consists of pre-evaporating a part

of the t h i n j u i c e flow in a double-effect e v a p o r a t o r h e a t e d by v a c u u m - p a n

vapours (ref. 28).

It is characteristic of all these concepts t h a t in order to utilize the low-

grade heat, the j u i c e temperature in the e v a p o r a t o r s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y low.

The j u i c e is therefore c o o l e d down p r i o r to entering the special evaporator and

warmed up a f t e r leaving it.

196

I n case ( i ) , at 0.12 bar e v a p o r a t i o n p r e s s u r e and 54 C n o m i n a l juice

temperature, there is a problem t h a t the j u i c e may become s u p e r s a t u r a t e d at

undesirable parameter fluctuations. For t h i s reason, i f the assumed thick-juice

concentration e x c e e d s 72-73% D S , t h e n the special evaporator i s more safely

utilized prior to the last evaporator effect, as shown i n Fig. 5.7(a). At lower

concentrations, it can be a t t a c h e d to the evaporator outlet. Fig. 5.7(b). The

problem w i t h the special evaporator is that the pressures of the heating vapour

and t h e vapour generated from j u i c e are v e r y low. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , l a r g e cross-

sections of the flow channels are required and h i g h v a p o u r v e l o c i t i e s are

difficult to avoid in certain evaporator parts.

F i g . 5 . 7 . J u i c e e v a p o r a t i o n u s i n g vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
c o n v e n t i o n a l f o u r - s t a g e e v a p o r a t i o n : ( a ) b e t w e e n s t a g e s 3 and 4 , ( b ) a f t e r
s t a g e 4. 1 - s p e c i a l e v a p o r a t o r , 2 - heat e x c h a n g e r , 3 - steam, 4 - vacuum-pan
vapour, 5 - thin j u i c e , 6 - thick j u i c e .

To the knowledge o f the present author, all the evaporators heated by vacuum-

pan v a p o u r s a r e o f the f a l l i n g - f i l m type. At least one m a n u f a c t u r e r is known to

offer a design not very d i f f e r e n t from those shown i n Fig. 5.3; it should be

connected to a separate condenser (ref. 26). A competing solution consists of

an e v a p o r a t o r , c o n d e n s e r and j u i c e tank integrated in a tower-like unit shown

schematically in Fig. 5.8 (after ref. 24). T h e mass and h e a t balance data given

in the figure correspond to a sugar f a c t o r y with a processing capability of

7200 t / d . As can be s e e n , the special e v a p o r a t o r makes it possible to evaporate

8.3 kg w a t e r per 100 kg b e e t u s i n g o n l y secondary heat w i t h o u t contributing to

process heating.
 197

EVAPORATOR

vacuum pan v a p o u r
60°C. 7.7 kg/100 kg b_
^ ^ c o o l i n g w a t e r 28°C

juice
53%DS
1 β barometric water 38^C^

THICK JUICE TANK

F i g . 5 . 8 . F a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r h e a t e d b y v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r and f e a t u r i n g an
i n t e g r a t e d c o n d e n s e r and t h i c k - j u i c e t a n k ( a f t e r r e f . 2 4 ) .

The solution under (ii) is known f r o m a p r o t o t y p e a p p l i c a t i o n in a 6000 t/d

sugar f a c t o r y (ref. 27). Actually, it was s t i m u l a t e d by t h e n e c e s s i t y of

cleaning the o u t l e t gases from the pulp d r y e r . Due t o very stringent

environmental requirements, double-stage cleaning (cyclones followed by a

w a s h e r ) was a d o p t e d . T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of c l e a n gas a t 68°C made i t possible to

include a gas-heated evaporator in the new i n s t a l l a t i o n . As t h e v a p o u r p r e s e n t

i n the gas condenses i n the heating chamber, the unit can be e x p e c t e d to

function as an a d d i t i o n a l gas-cleaning stage in which the finest dust particles

are separated while SO^ and NO^ d i s s o l v e i n water.

The flow of thin juice d e l i v e r e d to pre-evaporation is 110 t / h , i.e., about

1/3 o f the t o t a l thin juice flow. The i n f l o w i n g juice at 15.6% DS i s c o o l e d down

to 60°C and e x p a n d e d t o 44°C i n the e v a p o r a t o r s ; the outflowing juice at

21.5% DS i s warmed up t o 90°C. Two f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporators without juice

circulation were i n s t a l l e d for this application. Each u n i t has a h e a t i n g surface

2
of 1750 m consisting o f t u b e s 51 mm o u t e r diameter and 8 m l o n g . The t u b e s are

p e r i o d i c a l l y w a s h e d on t h e gas s i d e , using hot water introduced at the upper

t u b e s h e e t and f l o w i n g in a f i l m on t h e o u t e r tube walls.

198

To complete this r e v i e w , another unusual evaporator application c a n be

m e n t i o n e d . T h e medium t h i c k e n e d i s green syrup Β leaving a Quentin u n i t . In

order t o make t h e ion exchange p r o c e s s p o s s i b l e , the s y r u p i s diluted to 64% DS

before entering this unit, w h i c h r e q u i r e s a d d i n g up t o 2.9 kg w a t e r p e r 100 kg

beet. As t h e d i l u t e d syrup is returned to the crystallization subsystem, this

w a t e r must be e v a p o r a t e d . I f it is done i n C vacuum p a n s , t h e n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g

i n c r e a s e o f t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e c a n be e x p e c t e d . Alternatively,

e x c e s s w a t e r can be e v a p o r a t e d u s i n g w a s t e heat.

With i t s temperature reduced to 50°C, s i m i l a r l y to the case d i s c u s s e d above,

the syrup i s d e l i v e r e d to an e v a p o r a t o r h e a t e d b y v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s . A f a l l i n g -

film unit (without syrup r e c i r c u l a t i o n ) equipped w i t h its own c o n d e n s e r h a s b e e n

selected for this application. T h e main p o i n t s o f t h e d e s i g n a n a l y s i s and a

summary o f o p e r a t i o n a l results c a n be f o u n d i n t h e literature (ref. 28). This

solution h a s much i n common w i t h t h e e v a p o r a t o r shown i n Fig. 5.8.

5.4 HEAT EXCHANGERS

T h e r e a r e no r e v o l u t i o n a r y new d e s i g n s i n t h e j u i c e heater field, but the

requirements discussed in S e c t i o n 3.3.2 n e c e s s i t a t e a more c a r e f u l approach to

the e x i s t i n g v a r i e t y o f c h o i c e s . From t h e p o i n t of view of energy utilization,

three factors s h o u l d be t a k e n into account:

- the thermal r e s i s t a n c e of the heating surface, particularly under real

operating conditions, associated w i t h the risk of scale build-up;

- the p o s s i b i l i t y o f m a i n t a i n i n g an e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d relationship between

the heat t r a n s f e r intensity and t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p i n t h e liquid heated;

- the p o s s i b i l i t y of obtaining pure c o u n t e r - f l o w , which i s especially important

in the case o f recuperation of low-temperature heat.

T h r e e w i d e l y used j u i c e h e a t e r d e s i g n s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 5.9.

The f a c t o r s mentioned above a r e d e c i s i v e i n q u a l i f y i n g the p l a t e heat exchanger

as t h e d e s i g n w h i c h can be a d a p t e d most e a s i l y t o different operating

conditions. In addition to very high o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients, plate

heat exchangers g i v e the user a real chance o f easy maintenance, as t h e y are

offered today with:

- v a r i o u s channel geometries providing f o r self-cleaning effects, and thus

suited to particle-containing liquids;

- plate materials suited to various corrosion requirements;

- packing materials w h i c h make i t possible to operate plate heat exchangers

safely at temperatures up t o 260°C.

In early applications in the sugar i n d u s t r y , the classical version of the

plate h e a t e x c h a n g e r was d o m i n a n t . As i t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v e r y small plate

spacing (sometimes l e s s than 1 mm), s c a l e b u i l d - u p not o n l y causes a reduction

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(α) (b)
1^

Ε
(c)

F i g . 5 . 9 . Schemes o f j u i c e h e a t e r s : (a) tubular, (b) plate, (c) s p i r a l .

1 - inflowing j u i c e , 2 - outflowing j u i c e , 3 - heating vapour, 4 - condensate,
5 - spent vapour.

o f the heat t r a n s f e r intensity, but also a r a p i d increase o f the pressure drop

on t h e j u i c e s i d e . T h i s excludes the use o f classical plate heaters if there is

a risk o f heavy s c a l i n g , as on raw j u i c e and p a r t i c u l a r l y in the temperature

range o f p r o t e i n deposit (below 70°C).

In recent y e a r s , a new g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a t e h e a t e r s has been i n t r o d u c e d t o the

market. The m o d i f i e d design is less s e n s i t i v e to scale build-up. A side-effect

o f the changed f l o w - c h a n n e l geometry, however, i s t h a t the o v e r a l l heat transfer

coefficient is smaller than in the classical v e r s i o n . A summary o f operational

results o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e new p l a t e h e a t e r s u s e d on raw j u i c e c a n be f o u n d in

the literature (ref. 30).

There are s t i l l certain applications i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y where o t h e r heat

e x c h a n g e r d e s i g n s can p r o f i t a b l y be u s e d . E x a m p l e s c a n be c i t e d of sugar

factories equipped w i t h v a r i o u s types o f j u i c e heaters optimally selected for

the requirements characteristic of every heating s t a g e . T a b l e 5.1 gives a

summary o f t h e d a t a on t u b u l a r , spiral and p l a t e heaters installed i n a 6600 t/d

West E u r o p e a n f a c t o r y . It is interesting to note, however, t h a t in the Danish

sugar industry, only tubular h e a t e r s a r e u s e d and t h e plate units h a v e been

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TABLE 5.1

Juice heaters of d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s i n a 6600 t / d sugar factory.

Heating surface
Location Heating medium Heater type
area (m^)

Raw j u i c e 5th v a p o u r tubular 250X2

II II
condensate spiral 38X2
II
Pre-limed juice vacuum-pan v a p o u r 150X2
II II II
condensate 69X2
II II
4th vapour tubular 150X2
Clear juice 3rd vapour plate 83*
II II II
Thin juice 345*
II II II
2nd v a p o u r 210*
II II II
1st vapour 83+116
II II II
e x h a u s t steam 64+89

single unit ( o t h e r heaters are i n s t a l l e d two i n parallel)

found too d i f f i c u l t to vent (ref. 31).

Another j u i c e heater design which deserves to be m e n t i o n e d is the segmented

tubular heater introduced in the S o v i e t sugar i n d u s t r y (refs. 32-34). It is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by j u i c e v e l o c i t y a b o u t 3 m/s o r e v e n h i g h e r , this reducing scale

build-up. As can be s e e n i n F i g . 5.10, the j u i c e flow path is streamlined to

ensure a low p r e s s u r e l o s s . A p p a r e n t l y , the conditions for the flow of the

heating vapour are f a r from optimum, and t h e use o f v a p o u r e j e c t o r s for

improvement o f the heat t r a n s f e r has been r e p o r t e d (ref. 33).

heating vapour

Top view
J u i c e out

3
condensate

Fig. 5.10. Scheme o f a s e g m e n t e d t u b u l a r heater.

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In heat exchanger a p p l i c a t i o n s other than j u i c e heating between extraction

and e v a p o r a t i o n , the trends are s i m i l a r . Although the tubular design is stil

v e r y much i n u s e , t h e demand f o r exchangers ensuring a high heat transfer

intensity is increasing. For example, in the unconventional evaporation circuits

discussed in the preceding S e c t i o n , it is essential that the temperature of

juice returned to the processing l i n e is as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o the initial

temperature. As a r u l e , plate heat exchangers are s e l e c t e d f o r this application.

Still another useful feature o f the plate heat exchangers i s their compactness,

w h i c h makes them e a s y t o install in a limited space, t h i s being a characteristic

requirement of factory modernizations or extensions.

5.5 VACUUM PANS

5.5.1 Batch-type units

The thermal a s p e c t s o f vacuum-pan d e s i g n were p r e l i m i n a r i l y discussed in

Section 3.3.2. It can be n o t e d t h a t a large overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

and a l a r g e heating surface area are c e r t a i n l y desirable features of the batch-

type u n i t s . Taking i n t o account the essential role o f the boiling process in

sugar manufacture, however, other requirements s h o u l d p e r h a p s be g i v e n e v e n

higher priority. Most o f a l l , the vacuum pan s h o u l d e n s u r e a r e a s o n a b l y short

boiling time, high c r y s t a l yield and h i g h crystal quality. Actually, these

factors can a l s o be l i n k e d to the e n e r g y demand:

- increased crystal yield results in reduced massecuite circulation;

- improved c r y s t a l quality contributes to better conditions for centrifuging;

i.e., lower water consumption in centrifugals and t h u s a r e d u c e d amount of

syrups.

On t h e b a s i s o f advances o f the theory of crystallization and accumulated

experience, the inadequacies of b a t c h vacuum p a n s a r e now r e l a t i v e l y well

understood. The h e a t i n g surface area i s typically too large during the first

stage o f the boiling cycle (cf. Section 1.3.5). A high water evaporation rate

resulting from bubble b o i l i n g causes the occurrence o f zones of too high

supersaturation, where c r y s t a l conglomerates are created or secondary nucleation

takes place. In the regions close to the heating s u r f a c e , where the temperature

is higher, the solution may be u n d e r s a t u r a t e d , causing the crystals to dissolve.

As t h e local processes are impossible to control, the granulometric distribution

of crystals is adversely affected.

During the last stage of the boiling cycle, the heating surface area is

usually too small. The e v a p o r a t i o n rate is insufficient to maintain the desired

concentration gradient in the solution at the surfaces of crystals.

The s i t u a t i o n can be i m p r o v e d if an e f f i c i e n t stirrer is installed in the

vacuum p a n . D u r i n g s o l u t i o n thickening and c r y s t a l formation, intensive mixing

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reduces the dangers o f local over- and u n d e r - s a t u r a t i o n . In the highly viscous

massecuite obtained during the last stage o f the boiling, the stirrer helps to

increase the circulation, this increasing the overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

and i n t e n s i f y i n g the evaporation. Positive effects can a l s o be o b t a i n e d by

c h a n g i n g t h e way t h e vacuum pan i s utilized in the sugar b o i l i n g process, that

is, by employing the crystal footing technique, introducing controlled vacuum

changes, etc. (refs. 35,36); t h e s e methods h a v e been r e v i e w e d i n S e c t i o n 4.3.

(a) (b) (c)

F i g . 5 . 1 1 . E x a m p l e s o f s t i r r e r a r r a n g e m e n t s i n b a t c h vacuum p a n s : ( a ) s t i r r e r
w i t h i n c a l a n d r i a , inward c i r c u l a t i o n , ( b ) s t i r r e r above c a l a n d r i a , outward
c i r c u l a t i o n , ( c ) s t i r r e r below c a l a n d r i a , outward c i r c u l a t i o n ( a f t e r r e f . 3 6 ) .

It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t a t present, the requirements o f the crystal growth

stage o f the boiling c y c l e are not f u l l y known. W h i l e research in this area

continues, the present state of k n o w l e d g e on t h e d e s i g n o f modern vacuum p a n s

c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as follows.

(i) Among v a r i o u s t y p e s o f p a n s shown i n Fig. 5.11, the calandria designs with

ample d o w n t a k e s and f l a t or streamlined bottoms are p r e f e r r e d to other solutions

(refs. 36,37).

(ii) The h y d r o d y n a m i c s o f m a s s e c u i t e circulation seem t o be w e l l understood.

The o p t i m i z a t i o n of length and d i a m e t e r of heating t u b e s and t h e diameter of

the downtake has been s t u d i e d (refs. 38,39).

(iii) It has t a k e n a long time to arrive at a satisfactory design of stirrer

propellers and a p r o p e r a r r a n g e m e n t of nozzles relative to the stirrer and the

heating surface ( F i g . 5.12). The speed o f p r o p e l l e r rotation is carefully

selected, to ensure increased heat t r a n s f e r during the last stage of the boiling

cycle, while also keeping the p o w e r demand a t as l o w a l e v e l as p o s s i b l e (refs.

36,40).

The a d v a n t a g e s o f f o r c e d c i r c u l a t i o n a r e so e v i d e n t t h a t it has become

popular to install s p e c i a l l y designed s t i r r e r s in old, natural-circulation

vacuum p a n s . It has been p r o v e d b y m e a s u r e m e n t s made i n a vacuum pan installed

in Β strike t h a t such a s t i r r e r can i n c r e a s e t h e heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

during the final stage o f boiling ( a t magma c o n c e n t r a t i o n 90-93% DS) b y

100-400%, and s h o r t e n t h e boiling t i m e b y 1/3 (ref. 1).

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F i g . 5 . 1 2 . D e v e l o p m e n t o f f o r c e d - c i r c u l a t i o n vacuum p a n s : ( a ) d e s i g n p r o p o s a l
f r o m 1896, ( b ) d e s i g n f r o m 1949, ( c ) scheme o f a vacuum pan f o r a f t e r p r o d u c t
b o i l i n g ( a f t e r r e f . 40). 1 - j u i c e i n l e t , 2 - vapour o u t l e t , 3 - massecuite
o u t l e t , 4 - h e a t i n g chamber, ( 5 ) s t i r r e r .

As p r a c t i c a l experience proves, i f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d mechanical design of a

b a t c h vacuum pan i s combined w i t h e f f e c t i v e automatic boiling controls, then

the results c a n be r e a l l y satisfactory. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the sugar technologists

a r e now a w a r e o f the f a c t that in batch pans, nothing more t h a n a trade-off

between c o n f l i c t i n g requirements of different stages of boiling c a n be attained.

Substantially improved response t o the process requirements c a n o n l y be e n s u r e d

i n c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n s .

5.5.2 Continuous units

It has l o n g been known t h a t t h e r e is an e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l in continuous

vacuum p a n s . One o f t h e reasons i s their inherent ability to eliminate the

fluctuations o f the heating v a p o u r demand. T h e r e s u l t i n g stable l o a d on the

evaporator station makes i t possible to stabilize thick-juice concentration and

to avoid condenser losses e f f e c t i v e l y , with r e d u c e d n e t h e a t demand as a result.

A direct energy saving i s also obtained because steaming after every

discontinuous boiling cycle is no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y . T h e a d v a n c e s i n batch

v a c u u m - p a n d e s i g n and h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t control s y s t e m s , h o w e v e r , made i t more

difficult for c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n s t o compete. During the 1970s, v a r i o u s types

of c o n t i n u o u s pans were t r i e d : groups o f interconnected batch pans, horizontal

single- or multiple-compartment units, crystallization tower, etc. (refs. 38,

41-44). There were r e p o r t s t h a t satisfactory operation of certain d e s i g n s had

been o b t a i n e d , but mainly on l o w - g r a d e s t r i k e s . Even though t h e number of

c o n t i n u o u s p a n s was s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g , t h e r e were a l s o r e p o r t s that some o f them

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were taken out of operation because o f unsatisfactory results (ref. 45). Two

problems proved t o be most d i f f i c u l t to solve:

- the period for which continuous operation c o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d was rather

short, because o f incrustations within the unit, e s p e c i a l l y on high-purity

massecuites;

- the granulometric distribution of c r y s t a l s was w i d e r than that attainable in

well o p e r a t e d , modern b a t c h pans.

As p o i n t e d out by A u s t m e y e r and F r a n k e n f e l d (ref. 46), in practice no

c o n t i n u o u s vacuum pan c o u l d be s u c c e s s f u l l y i m p l e m e n t e d without crystal footing.

It seems now, h o w e v e r , t h a t accumulated experience is beginning to bring

positive results. Several units of a well known h o r i z o n t a l multiple-compartment

design (80 pans d e l i v e r e d o r o r d e r e d up t o 1986) a r e now o p e r a t e d w i t h crystal

footing (ref.25). A unit r a t e d 31 t / h Β massecuite, with heating surface area of

540 m^, is supplied with 12.5 t/h s e e d magma. Similar apparatus rated at

17.5 t/h C massecuite, with a heating surface area o f 754 m , i s supplied with

6.1 t/h s e e d magma. B o t h u n i t s are heated w i t h vapour at 100°C, o f w h i c h a part

is injected directly into t h e magma w i t h the aim o f improving circulation.

A summary o f operational results can be f o u n d in the literature (ref. 47). As

the flow of s e e d magma l a r g e r t h a n 30% o f t h e vacuum pan o u t p u t is a clear

disadvantage, research is u n d e r way t o reduce t h i s figure. There are reports

that by m o d i f y i n g pan d e s i g n and c o n t r o l principles, operation with less than

5% s e e d magma w i l l be p o s s i b l e (ref. 48).

From t h e d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e mentioned a b o v e , a new v e r s i o n o f a horizontal

continuous pan e v o l v e d i n South A f r i c a (ref. 49). On t h e basis of positive

Φ 6.75m

F i g . 5 . 1 3 , Scheme o f a c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n , o f L a n g r e n e y t y p e ( a f t e r r e f . 52).

1 - standard l i q u o r , 2 - s e e d magma, 3 - m a s s e c u i t e , 4 - h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s ,
5 - stirrer.
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results obtained in the cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y , it has r e c e n t l y been i n t r o d u c e d to

a European beet sugar f a c t o r y (ref. 50).

Another horizontal single-compartment d e s i g n was m o d i f i e d by a d o p t i n g a

circular shape o f v e s s e l w i t h a s t i r r e d outlet section, as shown i n Fig. 5.13

(refs. 51,52). The dimensions given in the figure apply to a unit rated at

17 t / h C massecuite, with heating surface area o f 620 m^. It is normally

F i g . 5 . 1 4 . Scheme o f a c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n , o f BMA t y p e ( a f t e r r e f . 54)

1 - f e e d l i q u o r , 2 - s e e d magma, 3 - m a s s e c u i t e , 4 - v a p o u r , 5 - h e a t i n g
s u r f a c e s , 6 - s t i r r e r s , 7 - steam.
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operated with c r y s t a l footing. Numerous a p p l i c a t i o n s of this unit are known in

the cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y ; it is a l s o used i n C s t r i k e in a French beet sugar

factory (ref. 51).

The t o w e r d e s i g n has r e c e n t l y been a d o p t e d b y a n o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r , and the

results seem t o be b e t t e r this time. The u n i t c o n s i s t s o f a cascade o f several

crystallization chambers, where the massecuite f l o w s from the top towards the

bottom under g r a v i t y , a s shown i n Fig. 5.14 (refs. 36,53,54). The d i m e n s i o n s

given in the figure apply to a unit rated a t 45 t / h A massecuite, with a heating

surface area o f 1590 m^. T h e s e e d and t h e feed s o l u t i o n are fed continuously

i n t o the first chamber; part of the feed s o l u t i o n is also fed to chambers 2

to 4. Each c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n chamber is adapted to the operational requirements

of the relevant part o f the b o i l i n g cycle in terms o f volume, heating surface,

stirrer characteristics, etc. For example, the stirrers used i n the upper

chambers a r e h i g h - s p e e d a g i t a t o r s , while those in the lower chambers a r e low-

speed t u r b i n e stirrers augmenting m a s s e c u i t e c i r c u l a t i o n . Incrustations forming

in certain chambers can be r e m o v e d i n d i v i d u a l l y without fully interrupting

operation o f the unit. The tower is heated w i t h vapour at 90°C and a h i g h heat

transfer intensity is maintained by c o n t r o l l i n g the massecuite levels in the

individual chambers.

The crystallization towers are operated s u c c e s s f u l l y in A s t r i k e in a few

factories in FRG. A r e d u c t i o n of s t e a m demand b y a b o u t 5% has been r e p o r t e d from

one factory. Although corrections and i m p r o v e m e n t s are s t i l l being introduced

into this design,the operational results are s a t i s f a c t o r y (refs. 55,56). The

flow of s e e d magma i s k e p t b e l o w 20% o f t h e pan output.

5.6 CENTRIFUGALS

5.6.1 Introduction

The d i r e c t influence of centrifugals on t h e energy consumption in a factory

is associated with electricity-consuming driving motors. E v e n more important,

however, is the indirect influence associated w i t h the q u a l i t y of centrifuged

s u g a r and w i t h t h e e f f i c i e n c y of syrup separation, because these f a c t o r s affect

t h e mass f l o w s and t h u s t h e overall energy consumption in the sugar house. In

the contemporary sugar i n d u s t r y , b o t h b a t c h and c o n t i n u o u s centrifugals are in

use. Modern d e s i g n s o f b o t h m a c h i n e s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 5.15. Each

of them has i t s a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s ; t h i s applies to energy problems

as w e l l as t o other aspects of sugar c e n t r i f u g i n g (ref. 57).

5.6.2 Batch machines

The development o f batch centrifugals has f o r many y e a r s been characterized

by a t r e n d towards b i g g e r baskets, i.e. increased capacity. This is the cause

of the problem w i t h large-capacity irregularly running electrical drives

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F i g . 5 . 1 5 . Schemes o f c e n t r i f u g a l s : ( a ) b a t c h m a c h i n e , ( b ) c o n t i n u o u s m a c h i n e .
1 - d r i v i n g motor, 2 - basket, 3 - massecuite i n l e t , 4 - sugar o u t l e t , 5 -
s y r u p - c o l l e c t i n g c a s i n g , 6 - s u g a r - c o l l e c t i n g c a s i n g , 7 - wash n o z z l e s .

mentioned in Section 1.4.3. During the 1970s and 1 9 8 0 s , much e f f o r t was s p e n t on

the development o f d r i v e s t h a t can work e f f i c i e n t l y at the speed changes

characteristic o f the centrifuging cycle.

Many f o r m s of electrical drive h a v e been a p p l i e d to the batch machines. In

the 1970s, pole-change asynchronous a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t motors became very

popular. The p r i n c i p l e of speed c o n t r o l can be s e e n i n t h e equation expressing

the number o f revolutions o f an a s y n c h r o n o u s m o t o r (in rpm)

η = (60f/p)(l - s) (5.2)

where f is the stator frequency, ρ is the number o f poles, and s i s the motor

slip.

The s l i p c a n be d e f i n e d as

s = (n^ - n)/n^ (5.3)

w h e r e n^ i s the s y n c h r o n o u s number o f revolutions.

208

Standard s i n g l e - s p e e d asynchronous motors connected to a fixed-frequency source

have a l a r g e s l i p during running-up, this being the cause o f e n e r g y l o s s e s . In

pole-change motors, multiple windings with different numbers o f poles are

installed. By s w i t c h i n g f r o m one w i n d i n g to another, step-changes of the number

of revolutions can be o b t a i n e d . In t h i s way, average s l i p and a s s o c i a t e d e n e r g y

losses during r u n n i n g - u p c a n be r e d u c e d . By r e d u c i n g four to five different

speeds r a t h e r than a single-speed motor, l o s s e s can be r e d u c e d b y 75-80%. In

addition, electrical regenerative braking can be u t i l i z e d for partial recovery

of the kinetic e n e r g y o f t h e mass b e i n g centrifuged.

Advances i n semiconductor t e c h n o l o g y made i t possible for direct current

drives to become h i g h l y competitive in recent years. The c o m p l i c a t e d and costly

W a r d - L e o n a r d s y s t e m s h a v e been r e p l a c e d b y s i m p l e and r o b u s t thyristor-

controlled drives (ref. 58). As t h e d.c. motor is n o t d e p e n d e n t on current

frequency, there a r e no s l i p losses during r u n n i n g - u p and b r a k i n g . More

efficient e n e r g y r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s can a l s o be a p p l i e d in d.c. drives. For

this reason, the d . c . motor uses l e s s energy than a . c . motors w i t h pole-change.

Another solution b a s e d on t h e application of semiconductor devices is the

frequency converter a.c. drive (refs. 59,60). The speed c o n t r o l principle

consists of v a r y i n g the stator frequency; it is also necessary to vary the

voltage proportionately to the f r e q u e n c y . The f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r c o n v e r t s the

constant alternating quantities of t h e mains into variable values suitable for

the speed s e t t i n g s of the motor. This enables the speed o f the motor to be

infinitely variable. If a converter with a direct current intermediate circuit

is used, t h e n e n e r g y r e c o v e r y when b r a k i n g is possible without any additional

effort: the motor is simply operating as a g e n e r a t o r and f e e d i n g energy back

into the mains. The mains side o f the c o n v e r t e r c a n a l s o be e q u i p p e d w i t h an

oscillation circuit which compensates the b a s i c amount o f t h e control reactive

power, thus e n s u r i n g a h i g h power factor.

The a v e r a g e efficiency of the frequency converter a.c. drive is comparable

with that of the d . c . drive. T h e power d i a g r a m s o f b o t h d r i v e s in a centrifuging

c y c l e a r e compared i n F i g . 5.16 (after refs. 58-60).

Modern c e n t r i f u g a l d r i v e s are supplied with complete controls for the

technological flow of operations. Electronic circuits tend to dominate, and

microprocessor applications are increasingly frequent. For the c y c l i c sequence,

a memory p r o g r a m m a b l e control is utilized. I n many c a s e s , not o n l y is the whole

c y c l e automatic but groups o f machines are a l s o a u t o m a t i c a l l y linked, for smooth

battery operation.

The b a t c h s u g a r c e n t r i f u g a l is nearly 150 y e a r s o l d . It c a n now be c o n s i d e r e d

a v e r y t h o r o u g h l y developed machine, and f u r t h e r progress consists of the

refinement of details. Among t h e details which are r e l a t e d to energy problems.

 209

filling speeding up centrifuging braking discharging

F i g . 5.16. Power-time diagrams o f batch c e n t r i f u g a l d r i v e s : ( a ) f r e q u e n c y

c o n v e r t e r a . c . d r i v e , ( b ) d . c . d r i v e ( a f t e r r e f s . 5 8 - 6 0 ) . Shaded a r e a s i n d i c a t e
energy recovered during braking.

wash s y s t e m s s h o u l d be named. As a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d in Section 1.3.4, the

optimization o f w a t e r wash i s important to the energy consumption in the sugar

h o u s e . Modern wash s y s t e m s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be f l e x i b l e e n o u g h t o make it

possible to optimize t h e s p r a y g e o m e t r y , as w e l l as t h e t i m i n g and d u r a t i o n of

the wash. Examples o f c o n s i d e r a b l e improvements in massecuite circulation

o b t a i n e d b y wash o p t i m i z a t i o n c a n be f o u n d i n the literature (ref. 61).

5.6.3 C o n t i n u o u s machines

With r e s p e c t to p o w e r demand, c o n t i n u o u s c e n t r i f u g a l s are c l e a r l y preferable

to b a t c h t y p e s . The d r i v e is u s u a l l y from a s t a n d a r d a . c . motor. The motor is

small compared w i t h that o f a batch machine, since the high accelerating/

decelerating l o a d s a r e no l o n g e r present.

The d o m i n a t i n g continuous-action design p r i n c i p l e is that of a v e r t i c a l - a x i s ,

c o n e - b a s k e t machine. The performance o f the contemporary continuous centrifugal

in low-grade s t a t i o n s is usually equivalent to that of the batch machine. In

the c e n t r i f u g i n g of h i g h - p u r i t y massecuites, however, the continuous centrifugal

is generally inferior to t h e b a t c h one ( r e f . 62). In c e r t a i n applications,

continuous centrifuging is followed by a f i n i s h i n g crystal treatment in batch

machines.

T h e main d i s a d v a n t a g e o f continuous centrifuging is the crystal damage

resulting from c o l l i s i o n s of c r y s t a l s , ejected at a high speed, with the sugar-

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collecting casing. This has a d i r e c t detrimental effect on t h e granulometric

distribution of crystals; indirectly, increased massecuite circulation in the

sugar h o u s e can be a r e s u l t . Following years of r e s e a r c h w o r k on t h i s problem

(refs. 25,63), at least one m a n u f a c t u r e r is now o f f e r i n g a d e v i c e w h i c h c a n be

installed in c o n t i n u o u s machines t o reduce c r y s t a l damage. Formed as a w h e e l

p l a c e d between t h e b a s k e t and t h e casing, it is rotated at a speed lower than

t h a t o f the basket (ref. 64).

Another problem is t h a t t h e wash a c t s d i f f e r e n t l y in a continuous machine,

so t h e wash c o n t r o l c a n n o t be q u i t e so f i n e as w i t h a well designed batch

machine. The s i t u a t i o n i m p r o v e s as w o r k on t h e refinement o f wash s y s t e m s and

other details continues. Taking into account t h a t the c o n t i n u o u s machine is 50

y e a r s younger than the batch one, it seems t h a t its energy-saving potential has

n o t y e t been f u l l y utilized.

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36 K . E . A u s t m e y e r , A n a l y s i s o f s u g a r b o i l i n g and i t s t e c h n i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .
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47 H. H e r o l d , K o n s t r u k t i o n und A r b e i t s w e i s e d e r k o n t i n u i e r l i c h e n Kochapparate
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48 A n o n y m o u s , S e e d i n g a c o n t i n u o u s vacuum pan w i t h l e s s t h a n 10% magma,
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52 A n o n y m o u s , Le c r i s t a l 1 i s e u r c o n t i n u ( L i c . L a n g r e n e y ) a l a S u c r e r i e de M a r i e ,
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 213

Chapter 6

AUTOMATIC CONTROL FOR E F F I C I E N T ENERGY UTILIZATION

6.1 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEMS

Automatic process control is indispensable to the contemporary sugar

industry. When i m p l e m e n t i n g optimized processes or putting improved equipment

into o p e r a t i o n , the automatic control often plays a leading role in ensuring

t h a t the intentions of a technologist o r an e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n e r become a reality.

To a l a r g e e x t e n t , this is also true in the case o f improvements introduced into

t h e e n e r g y economy.

This Chapter presents a review of the applications of automatic control that

are particularly useful in optimizing e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n in the

sugar f a c t o r y . Actually, the f u n c t i o n i n g of automatic controls c a n be r e l a t e d to

t h e e n e r g y economy i n a v a r i e t y of ways. To begin w i t h , e x a m p l e s c a n be named o f

automatic circuits controlling energy processes d i r e c t l y , s u c h as combustion

control in a b o i l e r or in a pulp drying furnace (ref. 1). This type of control

application will n o t be d i s c u s s e d h e r e , h o w e v e r , as i t is not s p e c i f i c to the

sugar industry.

Another group o f automatic control circuits serves the purpose o f stabilizing

p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , w h i c h has some i n f l u e n c e on t h e e n e r g y demand o f the

processes affected. This c a n be e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e automatic control of milk-of-

l i m e d e n s i t y and m i l k - o f - l i m e flow to the j u i c e purification station. Here, the

settings are always arranged to ensure the CaO d o s e s r e q u i r e d b y t h e juice

purification p r o c e s s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e amount o f e x c e s s w a t e r introduced in

milk-of-lime to t h e p r o c e s s v a r i e s d e p e n d i n g on t h e q u a l i t y of the automatic

control, with v a r y i n g h e a t demand i n t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s as a r e s u l t . In

principle, automatic controls of this kind need n o t be d i s c u s s e d i n greater

detail, as t h e energy-related requirements on t h e i r operation are rather

obvious. One p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n i s the flow control, especially in applications

concerned w i t h large f l u i d streams. In t h i s case, the working principle of the

control module may d i r e c t l y influence t h e p o w e r demand o f f l u i d pumping under

changing flows.

Certain control s y s t e m s c a n be r e l a t e d to the e n e r g y economy b e c a u s e t h e y

affect possible fluctuations o f steam and v a p o u r f l o w s in the thermal system.

Such f l u c t u a t i o n s can i n d u c e e x t r a h e a t losses characteristic of transient

states of the e v a p o r a t o r , with a detrimental effect on the time-averaged

effectiveness ratio o f the thermal s y s t e m . L e t us n o t e t h a t t h e r e are examples

of automatic c o n t r o l s mainly s e r v i n g the purpose o f stabilization of flows of

process media, like the system o f coordination of flows in the juice

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purification station, or the system o f coordination o f batch equipment operation

in the sugar house. A p p l i c a t i o n s o f such systems r e s u l t in stable h e a t demand in

respective s e c t i o n s of the sugar manufacturing process, leading to regularized

evaporator operation.

Particularly important applications of automatic control are concerned w i t h

processes in which the requirements of sugar manufacture are linked together

with those of e n e r g y economy. It was p o i n t e d o u t in the preceding chapters that

the requirements belonging to t h e s e two g r o u p s o f t e n conflict. T h e way s u c h

conflicts a r e r e s o l v e d may d e p e n d , t o a large extent, on t h e control system

applied. The a s s o c i a t e d m u l t i v a r i a b l e , multi-objective control problems are

often very difficult to solve, however. T h i s stimulates the use o f computer

technology, which i s particularly well suited to complex c o n t r o l tasks.

It c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e a b o v e i n t r o d u c t i o n that various aspects of

automatic control and v a r i o u s c o n t r o l applications may a f f e c t the e f f i c i e n c y of

energy u t i l i z a t i o n in a sugar f a c t o r y . In the subsequent S e c t i o n s , s i x different

problem areas are d i s c u s s e d :

- development o f computer-based c o n t r o l systems;

- flow control using v a r i a b l e speed d r i v e s ;

- extraction control;

- evaporation control;

- sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n control;

- pulp drying control.

6.2 COMPUTER-BASED CONTROL SYSTEMS

It is characteristic of conventional control technology that the approach to

applications consists of identifying necessary control functions and selecting

suitable control m o d u l e s w h i c h add up t o a system. In the case o f a complex

control task, a multitude of control modules o r a s p e c i a l i z e d c o n t r o l l e r m u s t be

applied. For t h i s r e a s o n , s u c h t a s k s may be v e r y c o s t l y t o automate.

The advent of d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r s made i t possible to change t h e conventional

approach. Instead of perfecting the s y s t e m by a d d i n g , each t i m e , modules for

additional functions, a s i n g l e module - t h a t is, the central processor of the

computer - can be u t i l i z e d for information processing. All the necessary

operations, including computations, are c a r r i e d out s e q u e n t i a l l y according to

a p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d program. The speed o f t h e computer is u s u a l l y h i g h enough to

follow t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s i g n a l s coming f r o m t h e installation being controlled.

T h e r e a r e numerous e x a m p l e s o f c o m p u t e r - o r m i c r o p r o c e s s o r - b a s e d s y s t e m s

effectively replacing conventional loops c o n t r o l l i n g combustion in boilers and

pulp drying furnaces, d e l i v e r y of materials to lime k i l n s , milk-of-lime flow to

juice purification, operation of filter stations, coordination of flows in the

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manufacturing line between e x t r a c t i o n and e v a p o r a t i o n , e t c . {refs. 2-9).

Significant energy savings r e s u l t i n g from improved c o n t r o l h a v e been r e p o r t e d in

some c a s e s ( r e f s . 2,3,8).

Owing t o the development o f h a r d w a r e and s o f t w a r e , the computer is no l o n g e r

solely a d a t a p r o c e s s i n g m a c h i n e b u t a l s o an e n g i n e e r i n g t o o l capable of

controlling complex i n s t a l l a t i o n s , as w e l l as c o l l e c t i n g data f o r direct

management o f t h e p r o c e s s o r f o r transmission to other computers. This

stimulates not o n l y the replacement o f conventional control l o o p s by computer-

controlled equipment, but also the development o f data a c q u i s i t i o n , transmission

and p r o c e s s i n g systems t h a t could not e x i s t without c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y . Two

possible principles of architecture of complex computer-based c o n t r o l systems

are shown i n F i g . 6.1. The f u n c t i o n s of s u c h s y s t e m s c a n be t a i l o r e d to the

needs o f individual stations, p r o c e s s s e c t i o n s o r e v e n an e n t i r e factory and c a n

include automatic process control as w e l l as d a t a m o n i t o r i n g , p r o c e s s i n g and

recording, handling of alarms, etc.

(Q) (b)

PROCESS PROCESS

F i g . 6 . 1 . Schemes o f c o m p l e x c o m p u t e r - b a s e d c o n t r o l s y s t e m s : ( a ) h i e r a r c h i c a l
system, ( b ) d i s t r i b u t e d system. 1 - s u p e r v i s o r y computer, 2 - dual p r o c e s s
c o n t r o l computer, 3 - disk s t o r a g e , 4 - c o n t r o l l o o p s , 5 - l o c a l c o n t r o l
computers, 6 - local area networks i n c l u d i n g m u l t i p l e c o n t r o l l o o p s , 7 - i n p u t /
o u t p u t i n t e r f a c e , 8 - data b u s , 9 - data communication l i n k .

The importance of computer t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n o f sugar

factories has been d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e ( r e f s . 10-19). C o n c e r n i n g e n e r g y economy,

new possibilities of improved energy u t i l i z a t i o n are d e r i v e d from the following

features o f computer-based c o n t r o l systems:

- integration of control of individual stations, with interactions b e t w e e n them

taken into account;

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- integration o f management and u t i l i z a t i o n o f data o r i g i n a t i n g from v a r i o u s

sources, such as t h e laboratory, automatic measuring instruments, counters,

factory records, etc.

It is felt t h a t t h e s e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s h a v e n o t y e t been f u l l y realized.

Examples o f t h e i r utilization are mentioned in the s u b s e q u e n t S e c t i o n s and in

Chapter 7.

6.3 FLOW CONTROL USING VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES

6.3.1 Introduction

It has a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 1.4.3 t h a t t h e d r i v e s o f pumps, fans

and compressors are t y p i c a l l y responsible for a b o u t 60% o f t h e electrical energy

consumed i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y . Among t h e largest power c o n s u m e r s , t h e following

m a c h i n e s c a n be named:

- boiler f e e d pumps;

- b e e t pumps;

- main j u i c e pumps i n t h e j u i c e purification station;

- waste-water pumps;

- forcing f a n s and e x h a u s t f a n s in the boiler house;

- mechanical vapour compressors;

- air fans in low-temperature pulp d r y e r s .

As t h e p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y of the f a c t o r y or the throughputs of the individual

stations vary, the flows o f m e d i a d e l i v e r e d b y pumps and f a n s a r e v a r i e d too.

This is e n s u r e d by a u t o m a t i c modules which a d j u s t the flows to the required

values. With the f l o w control methods w i d e l y a p p l i e d , t h e most economical

o p e r a t i o n o f the system comprising the machine, its d r i v e and t h e control module

is achieved at t h e maximum f l o w . At reduced f l o w , energy d i s s i p a t i o n takes place

in the s y s t e m and t h e d r i v e consumes more p o w e r t h a n r e a l l y n e c e s s a r y .

Using v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l , t h e p o w e r consumed b y t h e d r i v e o f a pump o r

a f a n can be m i n i m i z e d for any f l o w v a l u e . The a t t a i n a b l e s a v i n g d e p e n d s on the

control method r e p l a c e d ; t y p i c a l l y , it is o f t h e o r d e r o f 20-40% o f the

electrical e n e r g y consumed b y t h e d r i v e d u r i n g the e n t i r e operation.

6.3.2 Pump d r i v e s

The t a s k o f t h e pump a t a given liquid flow is to generate a pressure high

enough t o overcome the p r e s u r e l o s s i n t h e h y d r a u l i c system t o which the liquid

is d e l i v e r e d . The p r e s s u r e l o s s is an a p p r o x i m a t e l y q u a d r a t i c function of the

flow, while t h e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d b y a r o t o d y n a m i c pump a t a constant rate of

r e v o l u t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e f l o w , according to t h e pump characteristics.

Consequently, the pressure e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n an u n c o n t r o l l e d pump and the

hydraulic system i s obtained at a d e f i n i t e f l o w v a l u e , as shown i n Fig. 6.2.

When the r e q u i r e d f l o w d e v i a t e s from the e q u i l i b r i u m value, it is necessary to

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Flow ( k g / s )

F i g . 6 . 2 . Pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( 1 ) and p r e s s u r e l o s s i n a h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m ( 2 ) .
Hs - s t a t i c h e a d , - dynamic h e a d , Η - e f f e c t i v e h e a d , G - e q u i l i b r i u m f l o w .
Dashed l i n e s i n d i c a t e pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f r e v o l u t i o n .

overcome t h e mismatch between t h e characteristics o f the pump and t h a t o f the

hydraulic system.

Using a by-pass c o n t r o l , a difference is c r e a t e d between the flow of liquid

p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e pump and t h e f l o w o f the liquid d e l i v e r e d to the system.

T h e pump i s operated at a flow larger than really n e e d e d , and t h e excess liquid

is recirculated to the suction nozzle. This is accompanied by e n e r g y dissipation

in the b y - p a s s v a l v e . T h e power consumed b y t h e pump d r i v e can be e x p r e s s e d as

= ( G ^ + G ^ ) g H / n b = N^,^ + (6.1)

where G^ i s t h e mass f l o w of liquid d e l i v e r e d to the hydraulic system, G^ i s the

mass f l o w of recirculated liquid, g is the acceleration of gravity, Η is the

effective pump h e a d , x]^ i s the pump e f f i c i e n c y , is the p o w e r consumed to

deliver the flow of liquid really n e e d e d , and is the power l o s t by liquid

recirculation.

A method w h i c h is by f a r t h e most p o p u l a r in the sugar i n d u s t r y consists of

flow control by t h r o t t l i n g . Using a t h r o t t l i n g valve installed between the

discharge n o z z l e o f the pump and t h e hydraulic system, the d y n a m i c head c a n be

c h a n g e d and t h u s a d i f f e r e n c e can be c r e a t e d b e t w e e n t h e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d by

t h e pump and t h e pressure at the system i n l e t . T h e pump i s operated at an

effective head l a r g e r than really needed, which is accompanied by e n e r g y

dissipation in the throttling v a l v e . T h e p o w e r consumed b y t h e pump d r i v e c a n be

e x p r e s s e d as

\ = G^g(H + H ^ / n ^ = N^^ + (6.2)

where is the effective head l o s t by t h r o t t l i n g , is the pump efficiency,

N^^ i s the power consumed t o d e l i v e r mass f l o w G^ at effective head H , and N-j is

t h e power l o s t by t h r o t t l i n g . It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t is different f r o m τ]^

because the pump i s operated at another region of its characteristics.

Typically, the e f f i c i e n c y of a rotodynamic pump o p e r a t e d a t constant speed

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d e c r e a s e s when m o v i n g away f r o m t h e n o m i n a l operating conditions, this

contributing to the energy d i s s i p a t i o n induced by t h e throttling control.

The e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n effects characteristic of the flow control methods

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e c a n be e l i m i n a t e d by u s i n g a v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l . Its

principle c a n be s e e n i n F i g . 6.2, w h e r e pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s corresponding to

different speeds are indicated by dashed l i n e s . By v a r y i n g t h e revolution rate

of t h e pump i m p e l l e r , the e f f e c t i v e pump head c a n be n e a r l y ideally adjusted to

the characteristics of the hydraulic system. Consequently, the pump drive

consumes o n l y as much power as r e a l l y needed t o deliver the required flow of the

liquid. Another advantage o f a v a r i a b l e revolution speed i s t h a t the efficiency

of the pump d e v i a t e s o n l y n e g l i g i b l y from i t s maximum v a l u e . A c o m p a r i s o n of

power c o n s u m p t i o n f o r variable speed c o n t r o l and t h r o t t l i n g c o n t r o l is shown in

Fig. 6.3.

100

- 80
c
o
I 60
3
§ AO

20

0 20 AO 60 80 100
Flow ( 7 · )

F i g . 6 . 3 . Power consumed b y a pump d r i v e a t v a r i a b l e flow. 1 - control by

t h r o t t l i n g , 2 - v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l .

In a s p e c i f i c application, the e n e r g y s a v i n g w h i c h can be a t t a i n e d by using

variable speed c o n t r o l d e p e n d s on t h e load c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the pump. T h e

feasibility of t h e method i s a matter o f e c o n o m i c s , as t h e value o f energy saved

s h o u l d be w e i g h e d a g a i n s t t h e increased investment cost o f the drive (ref. 20).

6.3.3 Fan d r i v e s

The f l o w o f gas d e l i v e r e d by a f a n c a n a l s o be v a r i e d b y u s i n g a by-pass or

throttling control according to the principles discussed in the preceding

Section; one p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e is that t h e t h r o t t l i n g v a l v e c a n be installed

in the suction line o f the f a n . Another control method u s e d i n connection with

large-capacity fans operated at constant speed employs the positioning of inlet

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guide vanes f o r a variable peripheral component o f the gas v e l o c i t y at inlet.

According to E u l e r ' s pump and t u r b i n e equation, the theoretical head can be

e x p r e s s e d as

(6.3)
"2"2u l^lu^

where u i s the v e l o c i t y of transportation at t h e mean r o t o r diameter, c^ is

the peripheral component o f the gas v e l o c i t y , and t h e s u b s c r i p t s denote 1 -

inlet and 2 - o u t l e t ; g is the a c c e l e r a t i o n of gravity.

As can be s e e n , the t h e o r e t i c a l head - and t h u s the effective head t o o - varies

as c^^ i s v a r i e d . When t h e angle of inclination o f the inlet guide vanes is

changed, the gas f l o w entering the fan rotor is a l s o changed. T h i s control

method i s more e c o n o m i c a l than c o n t r o l by t h r o t t l i n g , particularly at flows

smaller than 70-75% o f t h e maximum value.

Similarly to the c a s e o f t h e pump, h o w e v e r , i t is variable speed control

w h i c h e n s u r e s t h e most e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t fan operation. A comparison o f power

consumption curves representing three different control methods is shown in

Fig. 6.4. Obviously, the f e a s i b i l i t y of variable speed c o n t r o l in a specific fan

application d e p e n d s on e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s (ref. 20).

20 40 60 80 100
Flow ( " / « )

F i g . 6 . 4 . Power consumed b y a f a n d r i v e a t v a r i a b l e f l o w . 1 - c o n t r o l b y
t h r o t t l i n g , 2 - p o s i t i o n i n g of i n l e t guide vanes, 3 - v a r i a b l e speed.

6.4 EXTRACTION CONTROL

The dynamic r e s p o n s e o f t h e extraction process performed in contemporary

continuous e x t r a c t o r s is very slow. Using conventional control circuits, the

time span between s e t - p o i n t adjustment and a t t a i n m e n t o f a d e s i r e d r e s u l t is of

the order of several hours. Mainly for this r e a s o n , a human o p e r a t o r is often

unable to control the extraction process very e f f e c t i v e l y , although good results

can certainly be a c h i e v e d b y e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s o n n e l . If a disturbance, s u c h as

too large a juice draft, is detected, then several h o u r s may be n e e d e d t o bring

the situation back t o normal. In the meantime, the factory must be operated
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u n d e r abnormal conditions inducing an e x c e s s i v e h e a t consumption.

Effective extraction control c a n be e n s u r e d i f the conventional controllers

a r e r e p l a c e d by a c o m p u t e r - b a s e d c o n t r o l s y s t e m . T h i s makes i t possible to

monitor t h e t r e n d s o f p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d and t o employ c o n t r o l algorithms

preventing undesirable situations. The s t a b i l i z a t i o n of extraction parameters

facilitates efficient e n e r g y usage i n t h e e n t i r e sugar manufacturing process.

If a disturbance o c c u r s , the computer is able to r e s t o r e the d e s i r e d parameter

r e g i m e more q u i c k l y t h a n a human operator.

Various extractor types mentioned i n S e c t i o n 5.2 require different approaches

to their control. The e s s e n t i a l features of control systems used i n connection

with tower, drum and m o v i n g - b e d e x t r a c t o r s h a v e been p r e s e n t e d i n t h e literature

(refs. 14,21,22). Control o f the trough e x t r a c t o r is particularly simple, and

c a n be s u m m a r i z e d h e r e f o r illustration p u r p o s e s . An o u t l i n e of a trough

extractor, with indications o f t h e m e a s u r e d and c o n t r o l l e d parameters, is given

in F i g . 6.5. The i n p u t s a r e as f o l l o w s (ref. 6):

- levels in beet silo;

- b e l t w e i g h e r on b e l t for cossettes;

- cossettes level at j u i c e end;

- 4 bubble-tube l e v e l s at intermediate points in the trough;

- fresh-water flow;

- press-water flow;

- level in press-water tank.

The e s s e n t i a l task o f the c o n t r o l system i s to keep t h e level of the cossettes

Press water and

fresh water flow control

Speed control
of slicing machines

Speed control of h e l i c e s ^

^ Θ— Temperature control
Juice flow control

F i g . 6.5. Working p r i n c i p l e o f the automatic c o n t r o l o f a t r o u g h e x t r a c t o r

( a f t e r r e f . 6 ) . P o i n t s o f measurements: C - r a t e o f d e l i v e r y o f c o s s e t t e s ,
L 0 - L 6 - l e v e l s , T 0 - T 5 - t e m p e r a t u r e s , F l and F2 - f l o w s .
 221

in the e x t r a c t o r satisfactory under a l l conditions. In a d d i t i o n , the computer

takes care o f the temperature control, as w e l l as o f t h e start-up and s h u t - d o w n

procedures, including starting and s t o p p i n g of all motors, o p e n i n g and closing

of main v a p o u r v a l v e , etc.

The c o m p u t e r c a n a l s o be c h a r g e d w i t h draft optimization. This problem

originates from the fact that the d r a f t and t h e sugar loss in exhausted

cossettes are interrelated. The i n f l u e n c e of the d r a f t on e n e r g y demand c a n be

c a l c u l a t e d from the e v a p o r a t o r heat b a l a n c e . The sugar c o n c e n t r a t i o n in

e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s can be e x p r e s s e d u s i n g S i l i n ' s formula

b^ = ( ( a - l)b^/(a exp(((a - 1)/a)(ATLx/y)) - 1) (6.4)

where a i s the j u i c e d r a f t , b^ i s the sugar concentration in the incoming

cossettes, A is a characteristic constant, Τ is the absolute temperature, L is

the length of 100 g c o s s e t t e s , τ is the extraction time, and μ i s the juice

viscosity.

For given prices of s u g a r and f u e l , it thus becomes p o s s i b l e t o express the

value of sugar l o s t i n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s , and t h e v a l u e o f t h e n e c e s s a r y

energy input, as f u n c t i o n s o f the j u i c e draft. T h i s makes i t possible to

determine the optimal draft value.

A more r e l i a b l e determination of the s u g a r l o s s c a n be a c h i e v e d u s i n g on-line

measurements o f the sugar content o f the press water. E x a m p l e s a r e a l s o known of

the a p p l i c a t i o n s of industrial refractometers with automatic juice sampling for

o n - l i n e measurements o f t h e j u i c e concentration. Furthermore, the optimization

model can be e x t e n d e d t o incorporate the consequences o f the e x t r a c t i o n of

nonsugars, by p r e d i c t i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e e x t r a c t e d s u g a r between white

s u g a r and m o l a s s e s . In t h i s case, the optimal draft d e p e n d s a l s o on t h e price of

molasses.

Summaries o f o p e r a t i o n a l results obtained with computer-based extraction

control can be f o u n d i n t h e literature (refs. 21,23). The r e p o r t e d r e d u c t i o n s of

the j u i c e draft are of the order of 1-2%.

6.5 EVAPORATION CONTROL

It follows from the characteristics o f the thermal s y s t e m t h a t two a s p e c t s of

automatic evaporation control are p a r t i c u l a r l y important to the e n e r g y economy,

namely e f f e c t i v e stabilization of the concentration of thick juice, and

effective stabilization o f vapour pressures in the individual evaporator

effects. As p o i n t e d o u t b y Z a g r o d z k i t h r e e d e c a d e s ago ( r e f . 24), pressure

stabilization in the e f f e c t from which vapour i s withdrawn f o r vacuum-pan

heating is a decisive factor in ensuring stable evaporator operation.

Other control requirements are linked to the characteristic features of the

multiple-effect evaporator s t a t i o n . It is essential to ensure economical

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Operation o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l e f f e c t s , that i s , t o maintain optimal conditions f o r

heat t r a n s f e r and t o m i n i m i z e sucrose decay. Concerning the process dynamics,

flexible adaptation of the evaporating capacity o f the entire station to

changes i n t h e f l o w of thin juice entering the evaporator i s primarily required.

When p e r f o r m i n g the necessary functions, the automatic control system should

be a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e disturbances resulting from f l u c t u a t i o n s of the following

quantities:

- thin juice flow and c o n c e n t r a t i o n ;

- juice levels in the evaporator bodies;

- heating v a p o u r demand ( e s p e c i a l l y v a p o u r w i t h d r a w n f o r v a c u u m - p a n h e a t i n g ) .

To t h e g e n e r a l requirements listed a b o v e , v a r i o u s e x t e n s i o n s c a n be a d d e d

d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f e v a p o r a t o r e m p l o y e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e R o b e r t t y p e a n d

f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporators are preferably feed-controlled, while the climbing-film

e v a p o r a t o r must be p r o v i d e d w i t h a h y d r a u l i c seal at the outlet, this implying

discharge c o n t r o l . M o r e o v e r , owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in juice volumes

contained, t h e dynamic r e s p o n s e o f t h e t h i n - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r s i s s e v e r a l times

faster than t h a t o f the Robert e v a p o r a t o r s .

The m u l t i t u d e o f r e q u i r e m e n t s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g v a r i o u s e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n s can

be met o n l y b y a p p l y i n g v a r i o u s c o n t r o l systems. T y p i c a l s o l u t i o n s are reviewed

elsewhere (refs. 25-27). T h e p r o c e s s e s t o be c o n t r o l l e d are very complex,

however, as t h e y c o n s i s t o f i n t e r r e l a t e d r a p i d phenomena o f h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d

relatively s l o w phenomena o f mass t r a n s f e r . For this r e a s o n , i t may be d i f f i c u l t

to attain satisfactory results with typical control s y s t e m s , and t h e v a r i a t i o n s

found i n p r a c t i c e seem t o be i n f i n i t e . This c a n be e x e m p l i f i e d by automatic

control o f the concentration of thick j u i c e . Four d i f f e r e n t solutions a r e shown

schematically i n F i g . 6 . 6 . T h e systems u n d e r ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) a r e t o o primitive

to perform s a t i s f a c t o r i l y under a l l conditions. Better results c a n be o b t a i n e d

with the fourth system, i n which t h e f l o w o f vapour from t h e l a s t evaporator

effect i s m e a s u r e d and compared w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s

o f measurements o f j u i c e fow and c o n c e n t r a t i o n before the l a s t effect. This

principle c a n be a l s o m o d i f i e d by i n t r o d u c i n g a correction of the required

v a p o u r f l o w d e p e n d i n g on t h i c k - j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n measured.

It may be a d d e d t h a t e v e n more c o m p l e x s y s t e m s o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n of thick-

juice concentration are encountered in p r a c t i c e . At required concentration

v a l u e s a p p r o a c h i n g 75% D S , due w e i g h t s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e s a f e t y requirement

concerned with the risk of thick juice becoming s u p e r s a t u r a t e d . A s t h e s t a t e of

saturation d e p e n d s on j u i c e temperature, additional m e a s u r e m e n t s become

n e c e s s a r y and e x t e n d e d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g must be i n c l u d e d in the control

algorithm.

A l t h o u g h good r e s u l t s c a n be o b t a i n e d u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l evaporator control.

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(α)

to condenser

η
-β­
ίο) to condenser

F i g . 6.6. P o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s o f the automatic c o n t r o l o f t h i c k - j u i c e

concentration: (a) t h i c k - j u i c e r e c i r c u l a t i o n , (b) t h i n - j u i c e by-pass,
( c ) v a r i a b l e pressure in the l a s t evaporator e f f e c t , (d) v a r i a b l e vapour f l o w
from next to the l a s t e f f e c t to the condenser. D, F - m e a s u r e m e n t s o f d e n s i t y
and f l o w , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; R, C - r e g i s t r a t i o n and c o n t r o l , r e s p e c t i v e l y ;
U F , FFRC - e l e m e n t s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f r e q u i r e d f l o w v a l u e
and t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n a c t u a l and r e q u i r e d f l o w v a l u e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
224

t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e can be s e e n as an i n d i c a t i o n of the f a c t that effective

control algorithms must be q u i t e complicated, and t h e i r implementation using

conventional control t e c h n o l o g y may be r a t h e r costly. For t h i s reason, computer-

based e v a p o r a t o r c o n t r o l is now g a i n i n g popularity (refs. 1,3,14,22). A solution

recently implemented in a s e x t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r c a n be c i t e d as an e x a m p l e

(ref. 28). The f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d by t h e computer program are l o g i c a l l y divided

into three modules.

(i) Pressure c o n t r o l .

(ii) Suppression of f l u c t u a t i o n s of juice concentration.

(iii) Stabilization of thick-juice concentration at a predetermined level.

The l o c a t i o n s o f t h e c o n t r o l v a l v e s i n t h e e v a p o r a t o r scheme and t h e p o i n t s of

measurement o f t h e e s s e n t i a l v a r i a b l e s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 6.7.

Module (i) is responsible for adjustments o f the p o s i t i o n o f the by-pass valve

between f i r s t - and f o u r t h - e f f e c t v a p o u r , as w e l l as o f t h e p o s i t i o n s of the

v a l v e s on v a p o u r l i n e s connected to t h e c o n d e n s e r . Module ( i i ) adjusts the

position o f the v a l v e c o n t r o l l i n g thin-juice flow to the inlet of the fourth

effect. T h e t h i r d module c o n t r o l s t h e by-pass flow of fourth- to sixth-effect

v a p o u r and t h e f l o w o f sixth-effect vapour to the condenser. I f the

concentration of thick juice tends to be t o o l o w , t h e b y - p a s s v a l v e c l o s e s and

the vapour flow to the condenser i s i n c r e a s e d . In the opposite case, the by-pass

flow is increased, this being e q u i v a l e n t to "negative condensation" of sixth-

effect vapour.

In t o t a l , the system u t i l i z e s 28 a n a l o g i n p u t s ( f l o w s , p r e s s u r e s and

concentrations), 6 binary inputs (state of activation of control functions) and

6 analog outputs (variables controlled).

to
^^condenser

1 2 3 U 5 6

thin thick
juice
juice
lb

F i g . 6.7. Working p r i n c i p l e o f the automatic c o n t r o l o f a s e x t u p l e - e f f e c t

e v a p o r a t o r ( a f t e r r e f . 2 8 ) . P o i n t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t : a - d - f l o w s , e and f -
concentrations, g-j - pressures.
 225

6.6 SUGAR C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N CONTROL

6.6.1 Introduction

The use o f a u t o m a t i c control in the s u g a r h o u s e was i n i t i a l l y stimulated by

the requirements of sugar q u a l i t y , requiring reproducible results of the

crystallization p r o c e s s . Rising energy c o s t s exposed the significance of control

methods f o r i n c r e a s i n g the e f f i c i e n c y of energy u t i l i z a t i o n . The following

factors associated w i t h the q u a l i t y of process control are particularly

important:

- effective stabilization of process parameters;

- exact d i s t r i b u t i o n o f mass f l o w s in the crystallization scheme;

- smooth w i t h d r a w a l of heating vapours from the evaporator station;

- energy-efficient sugar b o i l i n g i n vacuum p a n s .

Practical e x p e r i e n c e p r o v e d t h a t good r e s u l t s c a n be a t t a i n e d if a two-level

approach t o the control of the s u g a r house i s a d o p t e d . The lower level includes

the controllers o f the individual equipment units, while the upper l e v e l is

created to ensure the coordination of interrelated processes. Another practical

conclusion is t h a t the complexity of control algorithms justifies the use of

computer-based c o n t r o l systems.

A prerequisite for the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s u g a r house c o n t r o l is the

stabilization of process inputs. In contemporary sugar f a c t o r i e s operated at

thick-juice c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a p p r o a c h i n g 75% D S , t h e stabilization of parameters

of the t h i c k j u i c e and s y r u p s becomes c r i t i c a l . In order to ensure reproducible

results of feed intakes to t h e vacuum p a n s and t o r e d u c e t h e amount o f water

drawn f o r control purposes, the risk of undesirable crystal f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be

eliminated. As t h e s t a t e of saturation d e p e n d s a l s o on s o l u t i o n temperature,

this is no l o n g e r o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f controlling the concentration.

The thick-juice parameters can be s t a b i l i z e d in a conditioner shown

schematically in F i g . 6.8. The j u i c e l e a v i n g the evaporator i s expanded i n a

vessel installed before the thick-juice tank. The r e q u i r e d j u i c e temperature is

maintained by c o n t r o l l i n g the p r e s s u r e . The v e s s e l is also level-control led. If

the s e l f - e v a p o r a t i o n o f t h i c k j u i c e increases the concentration above the

r e q u i r e d v a l u e , then the o u t l e t stream i s diluted with thin juice.

6.6.2 Sugar boiling

The essential part of the h e a t consumed i n the b a t c h vacuum pan i s needed t o

evaporate water from sugar s o l u t i o n . In the first phase o f t h e b o i l i n g cycle,

the initially drawn s o l u t i o n is thickened in order to a t t a i n the required

supersaturation. In the remaining phases, water in sugar s o l u t i o n s or, in some

instances, pure water is drawn t o t h e vacuum pan f o r control p u r p o s e s . Water

intakes immediately after seeding are required to stabilize the supersaturation.

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to condenser

to sugar
house

F i g . 6 . 8 . Scheme o f a u t o m a t i c t h i c k - j u i c e c o n d i t i o n i n g . 1 - c o n d i t i o n i n g v e s s e l ,
2 - t h i c k - j u i c e t a n k . P, L , D - p r e s s u r e , l e v e l and d e n s i t y , r e s p e c t i v e l y ;
I , C - i n d i c a t i o n and c o n t r o l , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Later on, crystal growth i s associated with t h e need t o draw w a t e r maintaining

t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n e v a p o r a t i o n and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n . F i n a l l y , w a t e r may be d r a w n

in order to keep t h e strike before it is discharged.

The i m p o r t a n c e o f an a u t o m a t i c boiling control to efficient energy

utilization lies in e l i m i n a t i n g the influence of indeterministic factors -

associated with the interventions o f a human o p e r a t o r - on t h e amount o f water

drawn and t h u s on e n e r g y s p e n t d u r i n g the b o i l i n g cycle. The e s s e n t i a l functions

of contemporary automatic controls can be s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s (refs. 29-35).

(i) Continuous measuring o f the s y r u p and m a s s e c u i t e l e v e l s f o r automatic

charging, automatic thickening and a u t o m a t i c c h a n g e o f f e e d s u p p l y , vacuum and

heating vapour supply.

(ii) Continuous control o f s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n , u s u a l l y by measuring t h e dielectric

value or c o n d u c t i v i t y o f the massecuite.

(iii) Continuous control of t h e vacuum l e v e l in the pan.

(iv) Continuous control o f the heating vapour supply during the whole cycle.

(v) Continuous control o f the massecuite temperature.

(vi) C o n t i n u o u s measuring o f t h e power consumption o f t h e stirrer, this allowing

final thickening to t h e optimum m a s s e c u i t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e f o r e d i s c h a r g e .

In a computer-based c o n t r o l system, the computer a l s o t a k e s care of all valve

operations during starting and s t o p p i n g o f the vacuum-pan cycle.

The f u n c t i o n s under (iii) and ( i v ) are p a r t i c u l a r l y useful in minimizing heat

consumption. At the beginning o f the c r y s t a l growth phase, i t is desirable to

increase the temperature o f the sugar s o l u t i o n ; this c a n be done b y increasing

the pressure in the pan. In t h i s way, the crystallization can be i n c r e a s e d

without spending a d d i t i o n a l energy to intensify e v a p o r a t i o n . L a t e r o n , when the

crystal g r o w t h becomes l i m i t e d b y t h e e v a p o r a t i o n , t h e p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be
 227

reduced, this resulting in reduced s o l u t i o n temperature and t h u s increased heat

flux at the heating s u r f a c e . An a d d i t i o n a l energy-saving effect is also

obtained, namely e x t r a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n due t o reduced s o l u b i l i t y of sucrose

(i.e., without heat e x p e n d i t u r e ) . The p r i n c i p l e of program-controlled

temperature changes d u r i n g the boiling cycle is shown i n Fig. 6.9(a). When

performing the temperature r e d u c t i o n , the control algorithm should avoid

excessive temperature gradients, with the associated r i s k of false grain

formation.

(a) (b)

lower limit

Time Time

F i g . 6.9. P r i n c i p l e s o f p r o g r a m - c o n t r o l l e d changes o f important v a r i a b l e s during

the automatic b o i l i n g c y c l e : (a) temperature, (b) heating-vapour f l o w .
1 - e v a p o r a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l l y d r a w n s o l u t i o n , 2 - s e e d i n g and c r y s t a l
f o r m a t i o n , 3 - c r y s t a l g r o w t h , 4 - time i n t e r v a l o f f l o w c o n t r o l using
optimization algorithm.

The c o n t r o l of heating v a p o u r s u p p l y makes i t possible to avoid unnecessary

water intakes accompanying the advanced c r y s t a l growth phase. During t h i s part

of the b o i l i n g cycle, the control algorithm adjusts the set-point value of the

v a p o u r f l o w d e p e n d i n g on t h e d r y s u b s t a n c e c o n t e n t o f the solution d r a w n and the

r a t e at which the massecuite level is r a i s e d . The p r i n c i p l e of program-

controlled changes o f the vapour f l o w is shown i n Fig. 6.9(b).

The f u n c t i o n s under (i) and ( i i i ) c a n be u t i l i z e d to v a r y the d u r a t i o n of the

boiling cycle, according to the requirements d e f i n e d by t h e upper-level control.

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , it is possible to r a i s e the massecuite level at a

predetermined r a t e , thus a f f e c t i n g t h e time needed t o r e a c h t h e maximum. In

addition, the s e t - p o i n t v a l u e o f t h e vacuum l e v e l and t h e moment when i t s change

is i n i t i a t e d c a n be a d j u s t e d in order to influence the rate of crystal growth.

The c o m p l e x i t y o f c o m p u t e r - b a s e d b o i l i n g controls c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d by the

p a r a m e t e r s o f one o f t h e systems a v a i l a b l e on t h e m a r k e t (ref. 36). It uses 8

a n a l o g and 32 d i g i t a l inputs, as w e l l as 4 a n a l o g and 16 d i g i t a l outputs.

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Communication w i t h the user i s possible via display, printer, k e y b o a r d and u s e r -

defined push-buttons. The s y s t e m i s also equipped w i t h a data communication

channel, which permits data t r a n s m i s s i o n to and f r o m t h e upper c o n t r o l level.

6.6.3 Coordination of s u g a r house operations

The r e p r o d u c i b l e results o f automated sugar b o i l i n g make it possible to

undertake the task of coordinating the processes of multi-stage crystallization

to achieve the best overall results. The c o n c e p t o f the quality of results,

however, is far f r o m o b v i o u s . L e t us f o r m u l a t e two h y p o t h e t i c a l objectives of

coordination:

- maximizing white sugar output per 100 kg b e e t p r o c e s s e d ;

- maximizing s u g a r house t h r o u g h p u t , expressed in amount o f thick juice

processed in unit time.

On t h e basis o f these o b j e c t i v e s , two d i f f e r e n t control strategies c a n be

defined; it is also possible to combine them i n t o one compromise strategy (ref.

37). A n a l o g o u s l y , one can i m a g i n e the minimization o f the e n e r g y demand being

a c c e p t e d as one o f t h e control objectives, and s e a r c h i n g f o r energy savings

being included in the control strategy.

I n any c o n t r o l strategy, a c c o u n t s h o u l d be t a k e n o f numerous constraints

related to the interaction of continuous and b a t c h e q u i p m e n t , storage volumes

available, limitations of heating vapour s u p p l y , etc. Practical experience

proves that v i o l a t i o n s of these c o n s t r a i n t s are the primary cause o f the

disturbances occurring in manually operated c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n subsystems.

At the present state o f development o f coordination control, attention is

c o n c e n t r a t e d on a v o i d i n g disturbances i n mass and e n e r g y f l o w s w i t h i n the sugar

house. A contributing factor is t h a t the e x i s t i n g crystallization s u b s y s t e m s and

their environment are often not p a r t i c u l a r l y suited to automatic sugar house

operation. This results in a multitude of special constraints to be a c c o u n t e d

for in the control algorithms. T y p i c a l examples a r e : limited capacity of the

vacuum s y s t e m , t o o s m a l l storage tanks, limited range o f operation of the

evaporator control, etc. For t h i s reason, the general objectives of coordination

in the e s t a b l i s h e d systems are less important than the control functions aimed

at satisfying the constraints, like scheduling of operation of b a t c h vacuum p a n s

and c e n t r i f u g a l s , preventing tank o v e r f l o w , etc. (refs. 38-41). These functions

consist mainly of s u p e r v i s i n g the levels in syrup tanks and m a s s e c u i t e mixers

and a d j u s t i n g the working c y c l e s o f the batch equipment. In t h i s manner,

a regularization o f s u g a r house o p e r a t i o n c a n be obtained.

The r e s u l t s obtained with the coordination systems are c l e a r l y positive.

The a t t a i n a b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d by r e d u c t i o n o f the amount of

w a t e r drawn t o b a t c h vacuum pans i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y in FRG ( r e f . 42). After

implementing the coordination system, water intakes to vacuum pans C w e r e

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reduced from the initial level o f a b o u t 30 kg p e r 1 t magma t o zero. In A

strike, water intakes were n e a r l y h a l v e d from about 12 t o 7 kg p e r 1 t magma.

It is felt that further improvements a r e needed i n t h e methods of

coordination of s u g a r house o p e r a t i o n . The e x i s t i n g coordination s y s t e m s do not

fully utilize the technological potential of integrated control of individual

stations and i n t e g r a t e d management o f d a t a on t h e details of the sugar

crystallization process.

6.7 PULP DRYING CONTROL

The g o a l of the pulp drying process is to dry the incoming pressed pulp to

a definite moisture content. T y p i c a l l y , the final moisture content of the dried

pulp should not be l o w e r t h a n 5-6%; in the subsequent p e l l e t i n g , it is

eventually i n c r e a s e d t o 9-11%. T h e s e v a l u e s a r e d e s i r a b l e w i t h r e s p e c t both to

e n e r g y economy and t h e keeping quality of the dried pulp.

The t a s k of the automatic control system i s to keep t h e final moisture

content o f the d r i e d pulp at a predetermined level. It s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e to

eliminate disturbances resulting mainly from f l u c t u a t i o n s of the rate of

delivery of pressed pulp, the moisture content of pressed pulp, and t h e quality

of pressed pulp. The r e v i e w o f control problems p r e s e n t e d below i s limited to

the problems characteristic o f drum-type d r y e r s heated by combustion gases.

Control o f the combustion process i s e x c l u d e d from the r e v i e w as i t is not

specific to the sugar industry.

T h e r e a r e two main reasons f o r the d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered in pulp drying

control:

- a c c u r a t e measurements of the moisture content of the pulp are d i f f i c u l t to

make;

- the process i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l a r g e ratio of gas f l o w to pressed pulp

flow; its v a l u e d e p e n d s on t h e details of the p r o c e s s , and i s o f the order 2-4

in high-temperature dryers (lower values being characteristic of dryers

featuring gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n or utilization of boiler flue gas).

Because o f t h e first p r o b l e m , most a u t o m a t i c control systems p r e s e n t l y in use

r e l y on measurement o f t h e exit gas t e m p e r a t u r e , indirectly representing the

final moisture content o f the dried pulp. D e p e n d i n g on t h e actual value

measured, the system a d j u s t s the energy input to the dryer furnace. Possible

corrections of settings are introduced according to the results of the

laboratory analyses of d r i e d pulp samples. The w o r k i n g principle of the dryer

control affects t h e way t h e dryer operators act. In order to avoid the risk of

too high f i n a l moisture content, they tend to o v e r d r y the pulp, with too large

an e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n as a result.

The g a s / p u l p r a t i o , along with a large specific volume o f the gas, r e s u l t s in

a considerable difference between t h e retention time o f the g a s and t h a t of

230

the pulp in the d r y e r drum. W h i l e t h e time needed f o r the pulp to reach the

dryer outlet is o f the o r d e r o f one h o u r , the retention time o f t h e g a s may be

several seconds. For t h i s reason, i f a disturbance o c c u r s and t h e heat balance

of the d r y e r changes, the exit gas t e m p e r a t u r e is changed w i t h i n seconds, but

15-20 minutes a r e needed b e f o r e t h e final moisture content o f the dried pulp

is changed. T h i s time lag is the underlying cause o f the difficulties associated

with controlling transient processes in the dryer. For example, in pulp drying

stations equipped w i t h t w o o r more d r y e r s w o r k i n g in p a r a l l e l , one o f them is

destined to absorb the swings in the p r o c e s s . When e x p e c t i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s of the

parameters, the operator usually tries to catch the worst c o n d i t i o n . A typical

result is t h a t the e x i t gas t e m p e r a t u r e tends to be t o o h i g h , and t h e energy

consumption larger than r e a l l y necessary.

Various systems o f automatic pulp drying control h a v e been p r o p o s e d to

overcome t h e t y p i c a l difficulties mentioned above ( r e f s . 43,44). Considerable

improvements h a v e been a t t a i n e d b y u s i n g new methods o f measurement o f the

moisture content of the pulp (refs. 22,45). As t h e control functions are

e x t e n d e d and c o n t r o l algorithms become i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x , however, the

conventional s y s t e m s become c o m p l i c a t e d and c o s t l y . A contributing factor is

t h a t the energy-saving extensions of the pulp drying process, l i k e utilization

of boiler flue gas o r gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n , require the addition of extra control

loops to the basic system.

A l t h o u g h an e x p e r i e n c e d d r y e r o p e r a t o r can a t t a i n v e r y g o o d r e s u l t s using

a conventional control s y s t e m and new d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e s t i l l possible in this

field (ref. 46), the f u t u r e is certainly in computer-based s y s t e m s . The

advantages o f computer application h a v e been c l e a r l y demonstrated in a sugar

factory in FRG, where computer t e c h n o l o g y was i n t r o d u c e d as a l o g i c a l step in

dried pulp

F i g . 6 . 1 0 . P o i n t s o f measurement o f main v a r i a b l e s i n t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l o f
a p u l p d r y e r : 1 - combustion gas t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 - temperature i n the drum,
3 - o u t l e t temperature, 4 - f i n a l moisture content, 5 - fuel flow, 6 - a i r flow,
7 - feeder c a p a c i t y , 8 - i n i t i a l moisture content. F - f u r n a c e , D -drum,
A - afterdryer.
 231

improving the e x i s t i n g pulp drying controls (ref. 47). The mathematical model of

t h e p r o c e s s d y n a m i c s was i d e n t i f i e d on t h e b a s i s o f measurements recorded in the

actual pulp drying station, using a method c o m p r i s i n g correlation analysis and

estimation o f model parameters. A sketch of a dryer, with indication of input

and o u t p u t v a r i a b l e s of the model, is shown i n Fig. 6.10.

The computer controls three d r y e r s working in parallel. It was e s t i m a t e d that

the implementation of this system r e s u l t e d in a fuel saving of a b o u t 2.5%. It is

noteworthy that t h i s s a v i n g was o b t a i n e d relative to dryer operation supervised

by experienced operators using w e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g conventional controls. Similar

results are r e p o r t e d from o t h e r cases o f a p p l i c a t i o n of computer-based dryer

controls.

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17 P. M o s e l ( e t a l . ) , P r o z e s s a u t o m a t i s i e r u n g und D a t e n - M a n a g e m e n t m i t dem n e u e n
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19 P. P e t e r s , A u t o m a t i s i e r u n g s - und P r o z e s s d a t e n e r f a s s u n g s a n i agen i n
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232

20 J . Merkl, Energieeinsparung mit drehzahlrege!baren Drehstromantrieben in der

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d e r E x t r a k t i o n , Z u c k e r , 27(10) (1974) 528-541.
22 P.W. v a n d e r P o e l , N . H . M . de V i s s e r and C . C . B l e y e n b e r g , D e v e l o p m e n t s i n
c o m p u t e r and o n - l i n e c o n t r o l i n t h e b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r y . S u g a r T e c h . R e v . ,
9 ( 1 ) (1982) 1-58.
23 G . W i n d a l , B. P o r t a l e s and D. M a e s , Le p o i n t s u r Γ a u t o m a t i s a t i o n des
d i f f u s e u r s Continus p a r l e p r o c e d e I R I S , S u c r . F r . , 1 2 6 ( 9 3 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 1 4 5 - 1 4 9 .
24 S. Z a g r o d z k i , 0 zasadach samoczynnej r e g u l a c j i s t a c j i w y p a r n e j ,
G a z . C u k r o w . , 6 0 ( 4 ) (1958) 105-108.
25 W. Grasmann and 0 . P a r i s e k , Messen und R e g e l n d e s D u r c h f l u s s e s und d e r
D i c h t e v o n D i c k s a f t und D ü n n s a f t , Z u c k e r , ( 1 9 6 9 ) 4 3 2 - 4 3 8 .
26 Die Regelung der V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n i n der Z u c k e r f a b r i k , T e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n
f r o m S i e m e n s , F ü r t h , 1975.
27 T . W . B a k e r , E v a p o r a t i o n and h e a t i n g , i n : G . T . Meade and J . C . Chen ( E d s . ) ,
Cane S u g a r H a n d b o o k , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1977, p p . 1 8 5 - 2 3 5 .
28 J . C . G i o r g i , P. G i r a u d and A . D e l e u r e n c e , G e s t i o n a u t o m a t i q u e de l ' a t e l i e r
d ' e v a p o r a t i o n , S u c r . F r . , 126(93) (1985) 123-128.
29 H . - F . K o r n , D i e P r a x i s d e s k o n t r o l l i e r t e n und a u t o m a t i s i e r t e n Kochens,
Z u c k e r , 19(13) (1966) 337-349.
30 R . J . B a s s and J . D o n o v a n , M i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l o f s u g a r b o i l i n g ,
S u c r . B e i g e , 9 5 ( 8 ) (1976) 421-433.
31 G . W i n d a l and A . D e l e u r e n c e , R e s u l t a t s i n d u s t r i é i s de l a c o n d u i t e d e s c u i t e s
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32 P.W. v a n d e r P o e l ( e t a l . ) , A u t o m a t i s i e r u n g d e r K o c h s t a t i o n d e r C S M - Z u c k e r -
f a b r i k B r e d a , Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(2) (1982) 113-117.
33 P.W. v a n d e r P o e l ( e t a l . ) , E n e r g i e e i n s p a r u n g e n b e i d e r V e r d a m p f u n g s ­
kristallisation, Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(10) (1983) 934-939.
34 D. H o k s , A u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d s u g a r b o i l i n g s y s t e m . S u g a r J . ,
46(7) (1983) 8-9.
35 S . C . H . M c C a r e y and F . F e a r n s i d e , A s p e c t s o f a u t o m a t i c s u g a r b o i l i n g a t
Newark f a c t o r y . I n t . S u g a r J . , P a r t I 8 7 ( 1 0 4 3 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 0 8 - 2 1 3 ,
P a r t I I 87(1044) (1985) 223-227.
36 G . R . M o l l e r , A a n i s h m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l l e r f o r t h e pan f l o o r .
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37 D. P i o t r o w s i c i and K. U r b a n i e c , O p t i m a l c o n t r o l o f batch-continuous
c r y s t a l ! f z a t i on o f s u g a r . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 7 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress
C H I S A r ^ B l , P r a g u e , S e p t e m b e r 1981.
38 G . W i n d a l , A u t o m a t i s a t i o n p a r m i c r o - o r d i n a t e u r d e s c u i t e s 2eme e t 3eme j e t
de l a S u c r e r i e de T o u r y , S u c r . F r . , 9 4 ( 3 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 1 2 9 - 1 3 5 .
39 G . W i n d a l and A . D e l e u r e n c e , G e s t i ó n a s s i s t e e du c h a n t i e r de p r e m i e r jet,
S u c r . F r . , 9 6 ( 3 ) (1979) 123-126.
40 G . W i n d a l and A . D e l e u r e n c e , A p p l i c a t i o n a l a c r i s t a l 1 i s a t i o n du p r o c e d e
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41 Β. H a r r i s o n and J . R u z i c k a , S u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l and d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n for
p r o c e s s . Sugar J . , 48(1) (1985) 5-9.
42 W. A s s e n m a c h e r , Η . M e r e n s k y and K. W ö h r l e , A u t o m a t i s c h e S t e u e r u n g e i n e r
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43 F. Baunack, T r o c k n u n g , i n : F. S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s ,
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44 H . A . P a s c h o l d , D i e R e g e l u n g v o n a d i a b a t i s c h e n und nicht-adiabatischen
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45 H. Kemter, Regelung von S c h n i t z e l t r o m m e l t r o c k n e r n , Z u c k e r , 30(1 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 7 - 1 0 .
46 H . P . G i l d e r s l e e v e , Beet p u l p d r y i n g c o n t r o l . Sugar J . , 44(5) (1981) 15-18.
47 P. M o s e l ( e t a l . ) , F ü h r u n g e i n e r T r o m m e l t r o c k n e r a n l a g e f ü r P r e s s s c h n i t z e l
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Chapter 7

MONITORING OF THE HEAT CONSUMPTION

7.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

7.1.1 Scope o f t h e problems

The r e q u i r e m e n t s of h e a t economy i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y are, on t h e one h a n d , to

ensure a continuous heat s u p p l y to all s e c t i o n s o f t h e p r o c e s s and t o maintain

proper operating conditions for the f a c t o r y equipment, as t h e s e a r e the

prerequisites for smooth f a c t o r y operation, and on t h e o t h e r hand, to minimize

heat consumption in the p r o c e s s . A l l these tasks c a n n o t be f u l f i l l e d without

monitoring heat consumption i n individual equipment units and p r o c e s s stations,

o v e r s e e i n g equipment o p e r a t i o n , identifying causes f o r heat l o s s e s and

determining the p o s s i b i l i t i e s for improvements in h e a t economy.

It is traditionally understood that the problem area under consideration

includes:

- fuel and f u e l storage;

- fuel c o m b u s t i o n and steam g e n e r a t i o n in boilers;

- electricity g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e power h o u s e ;

- steam and v a p o u r u t i l i z a t i o n for process purposes.

Along w i t h satisfying the specific needs o f the sugar i n d u s t r y , it is

necessary i n most c o u n t r i e s t o m o n i t o r factory operation according to general

regulations concerning the o p e r a t i o n o f e n e r g y - s u p p l y equipment. The regulations

usually require keeping o p e r a t i n g r e c o r d s and p e r i o d i c a l l y evaluating them from

the p o i n t of view of energy u t i l i z a t i o n . This applies in p a r t i c u l a r to such

equipment as:

- steam and w a t e r boilers;

- turbines;

- l a r g e heat r e c e i v e r s (heat e x c h a n g e r s , d r y e r s , etc.);

- controlling and m e a s u r i n g equipment.

It can be s t a t e d that, unlike design problems, monitoring problems associated

with t h e h e a t economy i n sugar f a c t o r i e s are not very well covered in the

literature. In t h i s Chapter, the basic factors needed t o m o n i t o r and e v a l u a t e

h e a t economy c o r r e c t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y under actual operating conditions are

brought together.

As o n l y t h e most important topics c a n be d i s c u s s e d h e r e , t h e h i g h e s t priority

is attributed to problems d i r e c t l y associated with e n e r g y s a v i n g s . The problems

of controlling specific aspects o f the operation o f individual m a c h i n e s and

equipment u n i t s a r e r e g a r d e d as b e i n g b e y o n d t h e scope o f t h i s Chapter.

It has been assumed t h r o u g h o u t t h i s Chapter t h a t the sugar f a c t o r y under

234

consideration is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y an a v e r a g e l e v e l of process instrumentation.

T h e a d v a n c e d m e a s u r i n g and a u t o m a t i c monitoring systems used i n some modern

plants are largely ignored here.

7.1.2 Theoretical background

In the publications devoted s o l e l y to the e n e r g y economy ( r e f s . 1-4), and

also in the special chapters in well known b o o k s on b e e t s u g a r t e c h n o l o g y (refs.

5-9), monitoring o f the heat consumption is treated only marginally. The

information gathered in t h e s e s o u r c e s may p r o v e i n s u f f i c i e n t as a b a s i s for

practical engineering analyses associated with this problem. It may t h e n become

necessary to r e l y on g e n e r a l theoretical relationships, particularly in such

fields as t h o s e listed below.

(i) The f i r s t law o f thermodynamics, as a b a s i s f o r determining the energy

balances of thermal p r o c e s s e s and f l o w s in stations, equipment or equipment

parts. This important matter has been d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r detail in Section

2.1. F o r an e x t e n s i v e t h e o r e t i c a l treatment refs. 10 and 11, or other literature

on a p p l i e d t h e r m o d y n a m i c s , may be c o n s u l t e d .

(ii) The thermodynamics of water and s t e a m , w h i c h a r e t h e b a s i c media in the

thermal p r o c e s s e s . The books mentioned above a l s o include chapters devoted to

this topic. T a b l e s o f thermodynamic functions are given in refs. 12, 13 and

other sources, while for numerical approximations for calculator- or computer-

aided c a l c u l a t i o n s . A p p e n d i x 1 may be c o n s u l t e d .

(iii) Combustion. T h i s process i s particularly worth attention, because i t may

give rise to considerable energy l o s s e s ; l i t e r a t u r e as a b o v e .

(iv) Heat t r a n s f e r , as a g r o u p o f phenomena c o n t r i b u t i n g to t h e mechanism of

most h e a t losses. In addition to the above l i t e r a t u r e , refs. 14 and 15 can be

recommended.

(v) The f o u n d a t i o n s of industrial measurement, as a b a s i s f o r the data gathering

and d a t a interpretation on w h i c h h e a t - e c o n o m y m o n i t o r i n g must r e l y . For

technical details and f o r information on e r r o r analysis, refs. 15-18 may be

consulted.

It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t p r o p e r a n a l y s i s and e f f e c t i v e s o l v i n g o f the problems

associated with the utilization of steam and v a p o u r f o r process purposes often

require deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the sugar manufacturing process.

An e s s e n t i a l process in heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g is to identify the heat

balances o f the objects under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i.e. equipment units, process

stations, o r even the e n t i r e factory. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a heat balance

consists of establishing the boundary o f a thermodynamic system, determining the

mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g the b o u n d a r y , and r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e of

each s t r e a m . In p r a c t i c e , it r e q u i r e s t h a t measurements o f the appropriate

 235

parameters are taken. Not a l l parameters need t o be k n o w n , h o w e v e r , as the

theoretical balance d e s c r i p t i o n e n a b l e s one t o c o n s t r u c t a system o f equations.

The m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d s u p p l y as many p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s as r e q u i r e d for

determining the remaining ones from t h e equations.

When p e r f o r m i n g the measurements, it is necessary to observe the conformity

of the s t a t e o f the thermodynamic system c o n s i d e r e d w i t h the c o n d i t i o n s for

which the t h e o r e t i c a l balance d e s c r i p t i o n has been f o r m u l a t e d . In particular,

when u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a e originating from eqns. (2.3) or (2.6), steady-state

c o n d i t i o n s must be m a i n t a i n e d throughout the t e s t period. If fluctuations of the

p a r a m e t e r s c a n n o t be a v o i d e d , t h e test p e r i o d s h o u l d be l o n g e n o u g h t o ensure

the v a l i d i t y o f mean v a l u e s (the recommendations c o n c e r n i n g t e s t durations for

individual stations are given below).

In an e x i s t i n g factory, the p r e r e q u i s i t e for measurements l e a d i n g to a

correct heat balance i s that the s y s t e m be e q u i p p e d w i t h g o o d m e a s u r i n g

equipment. C l e a r l y , e r r o n e o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s may l e a d t o a false balance and

finally t o wrong c o n c l u s i o n s . It is thus recommended t h a t more measuring

instruments be i n s t a l l e d than are t h e o r e t i c a l l y needed f o r solution of the

system o f b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s . Measurement d a t a can t h e n be c h e c k e d b y comparing

balance r e s u l t s obtained in different ways.

7.1.3 Example

When i n v e s t i g a t i n g the energy balance o f the sugar house, i t is necessary to

overcome d i f f i c u l t i e s due t o t h e p e r i o d i c o p e r a t i o n o f t h e vacuum p a n s and

centrifugals. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a b a t c h vacuum pan

noncondensable
gases
AUXILIARY BOUNDARIES | "

cooling , A - b 1
water ' / r , ^ - " '

leaks

I ' heat losses

' sugar
molasses
4 -
SUGAR H O U S E EQUIPMENT condensate

J
~" SYSTEM" BOUNDARY ~ "

Fig. 7.1. Energy balance o f the sugar house.

 236

s h o u l d be a n a l y s e d f o r the entire boiling cycle, with the aid of balance

relationships b a s e d on e q n s . (2.1) and ( 2 . 4 ) . For s t a b i l i z e d s u g a r house output,

however, the b a l a n c e can r e l y on t h e relationships concerning steady-state

conditions, i.e. eqns. (2.3) and ( 2 . 6 ) . The system boundary is p l a c e d as shown

in Fig. 7.1, w h e r e an a u x i l i a r y boundary f o r the condenser balance is also

indicated. The measurements necessary for establishing the balances should be

performed o v e r an a d e q u a t e time, so t h a t reliable mean v a l u e s can be calculated

for steam and c o n d e n s a t e f l o w s , barometric water temperature, etc. I n an overall

energy balance f o r the s u g a r h o u s e , one c a n n e g l e c t relatively small energy

streams s u c h as c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n h e a t and w o r k p e r f o r m e d by d r i v i n g motors

(especially in mixers, centrifugals and p u m p s ) . A n o t h e r convenient assumption is

that t h e mass l o s s e s c a u s e d b y u n c o n t r o l l a b l e leaks (leaking seals, evaporation

f r o m open t a n k s , etc.) are treated jointly as mass s t r e a m G ^ ^ . T h e e n e r g y losses

in leaks, h o w e v e r , may c o n v e n t i o n a l l y be a d d e d t o those resulting from heat

transfer to the environment, and t r e a t e d jointly as h e a t Q . A s s u m i n g t h a t all

the remaining quantities shown i n Fig. 7.1 h a v e been d e f i n e d from the

measurements, the equations o f mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s can be w r i t t e n as

•^sl " %2 " %3 " ^4 " <^s5 = ^ 1 ^ ^2 * ^ 3 + ^4 + ^5

%A^ ^ S2^2 ^ ^s3^3 ^ «^54^4 ^ ^ 5 ^ 5 =

= ^^^^ * \z\z' ^ 3 ^ 3 ^ ^4^4 - ^

Hence t h e total leak stream and t o t a l uncontrollable heat loss are

^5 = »^sl ^ hz * " '^s4 ^ - (^1 ^ ^2 * ^3 * ^4^

Q - G^^h^T + G^2^2 ^ ^ 3 ^ 3 " ^4^4 -

- (Sl^l * S2^2 '^S3hs3 ^ 4 ^ 4 + Ss^S^

Typical balance data and r e s u l t s are given in Table 7.1.

TABLE 7.1

Mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e of the sugar house, c a l c u l a t e d for 100 kg beet.

G t h G-h
S t r e a m name
(kg/100 kg b) (°C) (kJ/kg) ( k J / 1 0 0 kg b)

k Inlet
1 Thick juice 28.6 103.3 306 8752
2 Thin juice 2.4 95 371 890
3 Water 9.4 80 335 3149
4 Vapours 26.4 2754 72706
5 Cooling water 360.0 20 84 30240

j Outlet
1 Sugar 14.0 20 23 322
2 Molasses 3.6 20 105 378
3 Condensate 25.2 95 398 10030
4 Barometric water 382.0 55 230 87860
5 Leaks 2.0 Heat losses 17147
 237

7.1.4 Monitoring and r e d u c t i o n o f t h e heat consumption

The h e a t economy i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y c a n be t r e a t e d as a s y s t e m k e p t in

operation by a f u e l s u p p l y . As t h i s system i s relatively complicated, its

functioning can be e v a l u a t e d o n l y on t h e basis of recorded values of certain

parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s e l e c t e d thermal processes. I t has been s u g g e s t e d

a b o v e t h a t t h e d a t a on s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n c a n be a p p l i e d t o identify heat losses

and their possible reduction. Monitoring results t h u s e n a b l e one t o point out

where, and i n w h a t m a n n e r , the e x i s t i n g installation c a n be i m p r o v e d and w h a t

effects can be e x p e c t e d .

Experience proves that if no s y s t e m a t i c m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e h e a t economy has

been c a r r i e d o u t p r e v i o u s l y , i n i t i a t i n g s u c h a c t i o n may i m m e d i a t e l y yield

advantageous r e s u l t s . An i n v e n t o r y and d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the existing thermal

system, even w i t h o u t h e a t b a l a n c e s , e n a b l e s one t o d i s c o v e r the abnormalities

which are not v i s i b l e in the f u n c t i o n i n g of individual equipment units and

stations, like errors in condensate l i n e s causing incomplete utilization of

c o n d e n s a t e e n e r g y , and e r r o r s in vapour l i n e s causing small uncontrollable

vapour flows between e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s . The most important c o n c l u s i o n on w a y s

to r e d u c e h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n can o f c o u r s e be d r a w n f r o m t h e heat balances of

individual stations and o f t h e e n t i r e factory. It is another matter, however,

i n w h a t manner t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d in practice. In p r i n c i p l e , the

i m p r o v e m e n t s a r e a l w a y s aimed a t reducing heat consumption per u n i t amount of

raw m a t e r i a l , or unit amount o f s u g a r . The e s s e n t i a l aim, however, i s to reduce

manufacturing c o s t s . The economic f a c t o r s should f i n a l l y decide whether the

potential reduction of heat consumption is utilized or not.

It s h o u l d a l s o be remembered t h a t o n l y in exceptional c a s e s can t h e measures

r e d u c i n g h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n be r e g a r d e d as " p u r e " h e a t economy c o r r e c t i o n s . As

a rule, corrective actions are concerned w i t h the factors affecting both process

and h e a t e c o n o m y . As an e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r t h e concentration of thick juice,

a p a r a m e t e r whose i m p o r t a n c e to the heat consumption in sugar manufacture has

been d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 5 . A n y c o r r e c t i o n o f this parameter, however, is

unthinkable without prior a n a l y s i s o f p o s s i b l e consequences i n sugar y i e l d and

sugar quality.

7.2 Q U A L I T Y OF WATER AND STEAM

7.2.1 Scope o f t h e q u a l i t y inspection

In order to maintain proper operating conditions for boilers and turbines,

it is necessary to i n s p e c t the q u a l i t y o f w a t e r and steam i n t h e t h e r m a l systems

of sugar f a c t o r i e s systematically and, i f required, to take c o r r e c t i v e action.

T h e aim o f t h e inspection is to establish, by measurement o r laboratory

analysis, t h e amounts o f impurities in:

- feed water supplied to the boiler;

 238

- boiler water and s t e a m ;

- condensate, p a r t i c u l a r l y from the evaporation station.

The parameters o f make-up w a t e r are also important, and t h u s the quality

inspection includes analyses of raw w a t e r and o f w a t e r at the individual stages

o f the purification process.

With respect to their physical properties, the impurities c a n be classified

as:

- mechanical impurities, with particle s i z e s a b o v e 0.1 micron, appearing as

suspended matter or sediment;

- colloidal impurities, with particles b e t w e e n 1 nm and 0.1 micron, creating

suspensoids;

- molecular impurities, with particles b e l o w 1 nm a p p e a r i n g in solutions.

With r e s p e c t to the chemical properties, the cumulative concentrations of

certain groups o f compounds a r e important (examples: hardness, a l k a l i n i t y ) , but

so a l s o t h e individual concentrations of some s p e c i f i c elements and compounds

(examples: oxygen, SiO^).

Owing t o the extremely high q u a l i t y requirements of water and steam that

result from the advanced p o w e r - g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s used i n large-scale

electricity generation, the problem o f quality inspection and c o n t r o l has

evolved into an e n t i r e branch o f engineering science ( r e f . 19). Only a small

part of it is really applicable to thermal systems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sugar

technology.

The d e t a i l s and p r i n c i p l e s of quality inspection of water and steam may vary

in d i f f e r e n t sugar f a c t o r i e s , in accordance with installation or equipment

types, local conditions or local regulations. As a r u l e , the chief technologist

and c h i e f power e n g i n e e r j o i n t l y bear the responsibility for inspection

principles; sometimes, the agreement o f the equipment manufacturer is required.

7.2.2 Condensate

T h e aim o f t h e inspection of condensate from the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n is to

e s t a b l i s h whether or not it is suitable as a f e e d - w a t e r component t h a t c a n be

returned to the b o i l e r house. (The q u a l i t y of direct feed water for the boilers

is inspected separately.) Attention s h o u l d be f o c u s e d on m o l e c u l a r impurities

and p a r t i c u l a r l y on s u g a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , w h i c h may i n d i c a t e leaking tubes in

the evaporator or the presence of j u i c e droplets in vapours from the first

effect.

The p r e s e n c e o f s u g a r makes it practically impossible to direct condensate

to the boiler, as t h i s might cause f o u l i n g o f the heating s u r f a c e and other

dangerous e f f e c t s . As h i g h c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e may i n d u c e t h e decomposition

of s u c r o s e w h i c h t h e n becomes u n d e t e c t a b l e , operators a r e recommended t o rely on

 239

the determination o f oxygen consumption, which is a measure o f the concentration

of o r g a n i c compounds. A c c o r d i n g l y , a n a l y s e s i n condensate q u a l i t y inspection

typically deal w i t h p H , s u g a r p r e s e n c e and o x y g e n consumption.

As f a r as t h e c o n d e n s a t e b y - p a s s i n g t h e boilers is concerned, the inspection

i a aimed a t detection of s u g a r as an i n d i c a t i o n of improper operation of

equipment (juice droplets or j u i c e foam in v a p o u r s ) , or leaking tubes. Routine

i n s p e c t i o n may r e l y on s a m p l e s t a k e n from condensate tanks. Once t h e presence

of sugar in a t a n k has been d e t e c t e d , however, i t may become n e c e s s a r y t o obtain

condensate samples from the o u t l e t pipes connected to the individual equipment

units.

An i m p o r t a n t factor to be a c c o u n t e d f o r in ensuring the efficiency of

condensate q u a l i t y inspection is the frequency of analyses. Detection of sugar

in condensate from the first and s e c o n d e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s s h o u l d be performed

continuously. If there a r e no a u t o m a t i c a n a l y s e r s , t h i s means t h a t t h e tests are

repeated over a cycle of several minutes at a position in the v i c i n i t y of the

evaporator. Accurate laboratory tests for sugar, together with oxygen

consumption measurements, are r e q u i r e d at least every 2 hours. Other condensate

a n a l y s e s may be p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e same f r e q u e n c y , as i n the case o f feed-water

inspection. An e x a m p l e o f a c o m p l e t e set of condensate a n a l y s e s , a c c e p t e d by the

boiler manufacturer for a specific sugar f a c t o r y , is given in Table 7.2.

TABLE 7.2

Example o f a s e t o f condensate a n a l y s e s .

Quantity Dimension Tests^per^8-hour

pH 4
Total hardness mval/litre 1
Oxygen consumption mg K M n O ¿ ^ / l i t r e 4
Alkalinity mval/litre 2
Sugar p r e s e n c e 4*

*/
number o f laboratory tests aimed a t v e r i f i c a t i o n of routine tests

7.2.3 Feed w a t e r and make-up water

Feed w a t e r supplied to the boilers consists of evaporator condensate to which

make-up w a t e r is a d d e d . T h e demand f o r make-up w a t e r is u s u a l l y o n l y a few

p e r c e n t on b e e t s . G e n e r a l l y , q u a l i t y requirements concerning feed water depend

on t h e boiler t y p e and steam p r e s s u r e . I n some c o u n t r i e s , standards or other

regulations h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d in this field. Q u a l i t y recommendations issued

i n B e l g i u m can be f o u n d in the literature (ref. 20). Below, the requirements

formulated in Polish regulations (ref. 21) are reviewed.

T h e f e e d w a t e r m u s t be c o l o u r l e s s and f r e e from mechanical impurities. A pH

240

above 7 i s r e q u i r e d and t h e oxygen consumption s h o u l d be as l o w as p o s s i b l e ,

preferably b e l o w 5-10 mg K M n O ^ / l i t r e . T h e w a t e r h a r d n e s s s h o u l d be as l o w as

possible, but its allowable upper l i m i t d e p e n d s on t h e boiler type, steam

p r e s s u r e and t h e heat f l u x at the heating surface (for example, in the case of

water-tube radiant boilers a t 40 b a r o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e , feed water with a

hardness o f up t o 0.01 mval/litre can be a c c e p t e d ) . T h e o x y g e n c o n t e n t s h o u l d be

as s m a l l as p o s s i b l e , n o t e x c e e d i n g 0 . 0 2 - 0 . 0 3 m g / l i t r e for modern b o i l e r s . The

CO^ c o n t e n t - with which the danger o f corrosive action is a s s o c i a t e d - must not

e x c e e d 20 mg/litre.

D e p e n d i n g on t h e boiler pressure, different levels of alkalinity and o f the

content of silicon dioxide, p h o s p h a t e s and i r o n compounds can be a c c e p t e d . T h e

concentration of oil-type impurities c a n n o t e x c e e d a l i m i t w h i c h has been

defined at 10 m g / l i t r e for older boilers with large water v o l u m e and a t 0.5-1.0

mg/litre for modern b o i l e r s o p e r a t e d a t 40 b a r steam p r e s s u r e .

T h e same r e g u l a t i o n defines the set of obligatory feed-water a n a l y s e s . For

t h e most w i d e l y u s e d b o i l e r types, it is necessary to determine:

- pH;

- oxygen consumption;

- hardness;

- d i s s o l v e d oxygen content;

- mechanical impurities;

- alkalinity;

- SiO^ concentration;

- CO^ c o n c e n t r a t i o n ;

- oil-type impurities;

- water appearance.

For o l d e r boilers operated at a p r e s s u r e b e l o w 16 b a r , o n l y the first 5

a n a l y s e s on t h e list and, a d d i t i o n a l l y , the determination of temporary hardness,

are o b l i g a t o r y . An i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n of the regulations stipulates that for

modern b o i l e r s not mentioned in the general s e c t i o n , the requirements formulated

by t h e boiler's manufacturer are decisive.

Water-quality inspection in the water-treatment installations may be aimed at

controlling the final result of the treatment, together with the results of unit

operations s u c h as c o a g u l a t i o n , filtration, d e c a r b o n i z a t i o n , and softening.

The d e t a i l e d inspection scheme s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o local conditions, which

means t o the properties of the raw w a t e r , the treatment process structure and

requirements i m p o s e d on f e e d - w a t e r parameters. In the case o f ion exchange

treatment, control o f the ion-exchanger a c t i v i t y must be included.

Concerning the frequency of analyses, the requirements formulated by the

boiler manufacturer are binding on o p e r a t o r s . U s u a l l y , a complete set of

 241

a n a l y s e s s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d t h r e e times a day, i.e. once p e r 8 - h o u r working

shift. Local c o n d i t i o n s may make i t necessary to perform c e r t a i n a n a l y s e s more

frequently, while o t h e r s may e v e n be o m i t t e d . In the c a s e o f new b o i l e r s ,

however, s u c h c h a n g e s must be a c c e p t e d b y t h e manufacturer.

An e x a m p l e o f a c o m p l e t e set of water analyses in the d i f f e r e n t stages of

a treatment p r o c e s s , and f e e d - w a t e r a n a l y s e s a c c e p t e d by t h e boiler manufacturer,

is shown i n T a b l e 7.3.

7.2.4 B o i l e r w a t e r and steam

Steam g e n e r a t i o n in boilers is inherently associated with the increasing

concentration of impurities in the boiler water. This, in turn, creates the

danger o f d i s t u r b a n c e s i n b o i l e r operation.

Mechanical impurities of organic o r i g i n tend to increase boiler foaming; if

combined w i t h m i n e r a l impurities, t h e y cause the formation of a dangerous kind

of boiler s c a l e . Mechanical impurities of mineral o r i g i n might become

transformed into sludge or hard b o i l e r scale. Colloidal impurities a l s o cause

foaming and s l u d g e f o r m a t i o n ; colloidal silicon dioxide is particularly

dangerous, as i t becomes t r a n s f o r m e d into boiler s c a l e which is very difficult

to remove. O i l or lubricant present in boiler water becomes s i n t e r e d on the

heating s u r f a c e s , making h e a t t r a n s f e r more d i f f i c u l t ; eventually, this may lead

to burning o f the b o i l e r tubes. Similar effects are i n d u c e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f

organic molecular impurities ( e . g . s u c r o s e ) , while mineral molecular impurities

cause s c a l e f o r m a t i o n or corrosion.

Quality inspection of boiler water is aimed a t determining whether or not the

concentration of impurities exceeds the allowable limit. The inspection

requirements can be f o r m u l a t e d by t h e boiler manufacturer o r by boiler

inspection authorities. The g e n e r a l principle is that the concentration of

impurities must be s m a l l enough t o ensure:

- elimination of corrosion processes;

- limitation of boiler s c a l e and s l u d g e formation;

- maintaining t h e p r o p e r steam p u r i t y , while heat losses resulting from the

boiler blowdown a r e k e p t reasonably small.

According to Polish regulations, quality inspection of the boiler water

s h o u l d c o m p r i s e , f o r most b o i l e r s , particulate and d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r , alkalinity,

S i O ^ c o n t e n t and P ^ O ^ c o n t e n t . For older boilers, it is enough t o determine

particulate and d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r , and alkalinity.

In order to obtain a t e m p o r a r y pH i n c r e a s e and t o counteract sludge

precipitation, p h o s p h a t e may be a d d e d t o boiler water. However, effective

control of the concentration of impurities relies on b o i l e r blowdown. With the

results of analyses of b o i l e r water and make-up w a t e r , it is possible to

predetermine the n e c e s s a r y blowdown r a t e in order to maintain a constant desired

 242

TABLE 7.3
Example of a set of analyses for make-up water and feed water (radiant boilers, 40 bar steam pressure).
Upper number - tests per 8-hour shift, lower numbers - allowable values.

_ Water
After After
Quantity With Filtered "^^^^""^ ^^^^"^ Feed
coagulant »-T>T^erea g^^hange desorption exchange
H+ Na+

1 in 24 h 8.5-11.0 O O 7.0-9.5 7.0-9.5

Oxygen consumption , 4„ o/, u 1

(mg KMnO^/litre) 1 24 h 5.0-10.0

Total hardness i o/i u —! 1

(mval/litre) 1 m 24 h Q 05 0.05-0.10
Oxygen content 1
(mg/litre) 0.02-0.03

PpOc content 1
(mg/litre) 1.0-3.0

Fe content τ. . 1 in 24 h J ^
(mg/litre) 1 in 24 h ^^^^ Q 5 Q Q5 0.03-0.05
Oil content irregular
(mg/litre) 0.05-1.00
 243

concentration in the b o i l e r water (for details, see r e f . 22). It s h o u l d be

e m p h a s i z e d t h a t e x c e s s i v e blowdown means a l o s s o f e n e r g y and s h o u l d therefore

be a v o i d e d .

Steam l e a v i n g t h e b o i l e r contains impurities originating from the boiler

water, particularly if foaming o c c u r s . Such i m p u r i t i e s - especially silicon

d i o x i d e and i r o n compounds - a r e d a n g e r o u s , as t h e y f a l l into the turbine and

there form d e p o s i t s which a f f e c t the durability of the turbine elements and

disturb their function ( e . g . hinder t h e movement o f v a l v e p a r t s ) . Control of

steam p u r i t y s h o u l d be b y c o n t r o l o f the impurity content of the boiler water.

The l i m i t of impurity concentration in s t e a m , as w e l l a s t h e method o f its

inspection, s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d by c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h the boiler and turbine

manufacturers, and f i n a l l y verified in practical operation. Typically, steam

quality monitoring should include:

- SiO^ concentration;

- overall Fe c o n c e n t r a t i o n ;

- electrical conductivity of the condensate at 20°C.

The f r e q u e n c y o f a n a l y s e s o f boiler water and steam s h o u l d f o l l o w the

requirements o f the boiler manufacturer: typically, the required frequency is

twice daily. Practical experience proves, however, t h a t f o r efficient quality

control, the b a s i c parameters of boiler water ( p H and e l e c t r i c a l conductivity)

must be d e t e r m i n e d more frequently.

An e x a m p l e o f a set of boiler water and s t e a m a n a l y s e s , a c c e p t e d b y the

boiler manufacturer for a specific sugar f a c t o r y , is given in Table 7.4.

TABLE 7.4

Example o f a s e t o f boiler water and s t e a m a n a l y s e s .

Allowable Tests per

Quantity Dimension
values 8-hour shift

pH 7 4
Electrical conductivity yS/cm 50-5000 1-2
Boiler
Alkalinity "p" mval/1itre 0.1-6.0 1
water
P2O5 c o n t e n t mg/1itre 3-10 2
SÍO2 c o n t e n t mg/1itre c a 25 irregular

Fe c o n t e n t mg/1itre max. 0.02 1

Steam
SÍO2 c o n t e n t mg/1itre max. 0.02 1

7.2.5 Sampling o f w a t e r and steam

Water samples a r e c o l l e c t e d and p r e s e r v e d i n g l a s s b o t t l e s w h i c h a r e washed

i n advance w i t h soap o r soda s o l u t i o n , then tap water and f i n a l l y with distilled

water. Similarly washed g l a s s p l u g s , o r corks boiled in d i s t i l l e d water, are

used. T h e method o f sampling water s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o t h e type o f water source

and t o the a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e d (ref.23). For example, raw w a t e r f r o m a pump o r

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a pipeline should flow for about 10 m i n u t e s before a sample is collected; if

the analysis is concerned w i t h the content of d i s s o l v e d g a s , sample aeration

must be a v o i d e d .

C o n d e n s a t e and b o i l e r water a r e sampled a c c o r d i n g to s t a n d a r d methods (ref.

24) and s a m p l i n g equipment can a l s o be s t a n d a r d i z e d (ref.25). Condensate samples

can be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h special gauge c o c k s i n s t a l l e d in relevant pipelines, or

through drain cocks t h a t are p a r t s of water-level indicators. The latter

possibility is particularly important if the condensate pressure i s lower than

the atmospheric pressure; otherwise, drain cocks o r a i r - e s c a p e cocks at the

steam t r a p s can be used.

Feed-water and b o i l e r - w a t e r s a m p l e s must be c o o l e d . U s u a l l y , s i m p l e coil-

type, w a t e r - c o o l e d heat exchangers are installed in connection w i t h the relevant

test cocks. It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d out that s u c h c o o l e r s may be s u b j e c t to

hydraulic tests, together w i t h the entire boiler.

Sample c o o l i n g is also necessary in the case o f steam s a m p l i n g ; steam is

collected in condensate form ( r e f . 26). Like feed-water and boiler-water

sampling, c o n d e n s a t e f l o w must be a l l o w e d p r i o r to sample c o l l e c t i o n , so that

any i m p u r i t i e s initially present in the p i p e and i n the c o o l e r a r e washed away.

7.2.6 Determination of physical properties

From t h e p o i n t of view of suitability for h e a t economy s y s t e m s , only

physical properties of water related to the concentration of impurities are

important.

The appearance o f w a t e r is e v a l u a t e d by t r a n s p a r e n c y and t u r b i d i t y tests.

Such t e s t s are g e n e r a l l y standardized (ref. 27).

The measure o f concentration of non-volatile impurities in water is the dry

matter content, i.e. the amount o f d r y m a t t e r remaining after 1 litre of water

has been e v a p o r a t e d ; i t s weight is determined after drying at 105°C. Test

procedures are also standardized (ref. 28).

The t o t a l salt content in water c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n d i r e c t l y by the water

density. F o r r a p i d measurements of density, aerometers calibrated in kg/litre

or d e g r e e s Baume ( ° B é ) can be used.

The c o n t e n t of salts, a c i d s and b a s e s can be e x p r e s s e d b y t h e specific

electrical conductivity of the water. As t h i s d e p e n d s on t e m p e r a t u r e , it is

measured a t 20°C. In the c a s e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s made a t different temperatures,

conductivity v a l u e s s h o u l d be c o r r e c t e d a c c o r d i n g to standardized formulae. As

conductivity measurements c a n e a s i l y be r e c o r d e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y , they are widely

applied in water and steam q u a l i t y inspection. Measuring procedures are

standardized (ref. 29).

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7.2.7 Total h a r d n e s s and t e m p o r a r y hardness

Hardness is a measure o f t h e tendency of water to produce d e p o s i t s and to

form b o i l e r scale. Hardness i s c a u s e d by c a l c i u m and magnesium s a l t s that appear

as b i c a r b o n a t e s , Ca(HC02)2 ^Qi^^O^'^Z' salts of inorganic acids; that

is, sulphates, chlorides and n i t r a t e s (CaSO^, MgCl^, Cdi(HÖ^)^) and o t h e r s . Water

h a r d n e s s can be e x p r e s s e d i n d e g r e e s , o r g r a m - e q u i v a l e n t s or milligram-

equivalents per u n i t volume. In several European c o u n t r i e s , the s o - c a l l e d German

degree o f h a r d n e s s has been a p p l i e d ; it corresponds to 10 g CaO i n 1 m*^ o f

water, or 10 mg CaO i n 1 litre.

The t o t a l hardness o f water can be d e t e r m i n e d using the versenate method,

that is, by t i t r a t i n g the water sample w i t h sodium v e r s e n a t e (ref. 30).

Total h a r d n e s s can be r e g a r d e d as t h e sum o f temporary h a r d n e s s , caused by

c a l c i u m and magnesium b i c a r b o n a t e s , and p e r m a n e n t h a r d n e s s , c a u s e d by other

c a l c i u m and magnesium s a l t s . T e m p o r a r y h a r d n e s s can be d e t e r m i n e d by titrating

water with hydrochloric acid.

7.2.8 Oxygen consumption and s u g a r content

Oxygen consumption and a r e l a t e d quantity, the chemical o x y g e n demand, are

conventional measures o f t h e concentration of organic impurities and some other

easily oxidizable inorganic compounds.

The o x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n can be d e t e r m i n e d by t i t r a t i n g w a t e r w i t h potassium

permanganate solution. It is expressed in the milligrams of KMnO^ u s e d to

oxidize the impurities in 1 litre of water. By c o n v e r t i n g this quantity into

t h e oxygen amount, we o b t a i n the chemical o x y g e n demand.

Tests of the presence of sucrose in water (2 m g / 1 i t r e o r more) can be

performed using the well known a l p h a - n a p h t o l method. With larger sugar

concentrations, classical analysis techniques known i n s u g a r t e c h n o l o g y can be

applied (ref. 31). Conductometric and o t h e r methods f o r continuous measurement,

particularly suitable for condensate q u a l i t y monitoring, are also in use.

7.2.9 Hydrogen ion c o n t e n t , alkalinity and o t h e r properties

T h e v a l u e o f pH i n aqueous s o l u t i o n s can be d e t e r m i n e d by colorimetric

a n a l y s i s o r by e l e c t r i c a l measurement. The l a t t e r method is t h e most widely

used; it c o n s i s t s o f measuring the electromotive force of the so-called

pH-metric cell, i.e. two e l e c t r o d e s immersed in the solution. It s h o u l d be

pointed out, however, t h a t the measuring error is highly d e p e n d e n t on the

electrode condition. T h e r e f o r e , pH m e t e r s s h o u l d be t e s t e d often by measuring

t h e pH v a l u e s o f two r e f e r e n c e solutions. For r e l i a b l e measurement, it is

necessary to eliminate the possibility of accidentally polluting water samples

with any i m p u r i t i e s . The t e m p e r a t u r e of the water tested s h o u l d be 20°C.

Alkalinity of water is caused by t h e presence of h y d r o x i d e s and s a l t s of

246

e l e m e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e p o t a s s i u m and c a l c i u m g r o u p s . It can be d e t e r m i n e d by

t i t r a t i n g water with hydrochloric acid.

Other chemical analyses important for water quality inspection are:

- oxygen ( u n d e r s t o o d as d i s s o l v e d f r e e oxygen) content;

- carbon d i o x i d e content;

- phosphate content;

- silicon dioxide content;

- oil ( u n d e r s t o o d as o i l - t y p e impurities) content;

- iron ( u n d e r s t o o d as t o t a l iron i n v a r i o u s compounds) content.

7.3 FUEL A N A L Y S I S

7.3.1 Sampling o f fuels

Fuels are evaluated using the results of laboratory tests p e r f o r m e d on an

averaged l a b o r a t o r y sample. Samples s h o u l d be t a k e n from the f u e l transports

during unloading, so t h a t n e c e s s a r y c l a i m s to the s u p p l i e r can be made, and a l s o

from the f u e l stream i n t r o d u c e d to the boiler furnace, so t h a t t h e actual

heating v a l u e c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e . The most important

properties of coal and o t h e r solid fuels are the percentages of combustible

matter, moisture and a s h . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of important coal types are

s t a n d a r d i z e d i n many c o u n t r i e s (ref. 32). In the case o f liquid fuels, such

p r o p e r t i e s as v i s c o s i t y , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f s u l p h u r and v a n a d i u m o x i d e , and

finally the percentage of water, are p a r t i c u l a r l y important. For details,

national s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d ( r e f . 33).

Correct sampling of fuel is a prerequisite for reliable determination of its

properties. The f o l l o w i n g concepts are applied in defining sampling p r o c e d u r e s :

- a parent lot is t h e amount o f a d e f i n i t e type of f u e l , not greater than

1000 tons;

- a primary sample i s a sample t a k e n f r o m one p l a c e in the parent lot, or a

single sample t a k e n from a f l o w i n g - f u e l stream;

- a g r o s s sample i s a sample c o n t a i n i n g all primary samples;

- an a v e r a g e d sample i s a part of t h e g r o s s sample d e s t i n e d f o r laboratory

analyses.

In the case o f coal or other solid fuels, it is d e s i r e d t h a t each p a r t i c l e in

the parent lot be g i v e n t h e same p r o b a b i l i t y o f being chosen f o r t h e s a m p l e as

every other particle, despite differences in p a r t i c l e size or shape. Primary

s a m p l e s s h o u l d p r e f e r a b l y be c o l l e c t e d f r o m a f u e l s t r e a m on a c o n v e y o r , with

the frequency adjusted to the s i z e o f the parent lot and t o the r e q u i r e d number

of samples. D i r e c t sampling from r a i l w a y cars, trucks or fuel piles is allowed

only if there is no p o s s i b i l i t y of sampling from c o n v e y o r s . The g r o s s sample is

formed by m i x i n g all p r i m a r y s a m p l e s ; c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n t h a t the samples are

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h a n d l e d s o as t o m i n i m i z e changes i n f u e l properties. For d e t a i l s , see the

appropriate standards (ref. 34).

In the case o f liquid fuels, it is important to apply the same method of

s a m p l i n g when c o l l e c t i n g the primary samples from w h i c h t h e a v e r a g e d sample will

be o b t a i n e d . Sampling o f f u e l s in storage tanks s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d in such

a way t h a t no p a r t i c u l a r layer of liquid is preferred; if a batch o f liquid is

run i n t o a tank, then the f i r s t sampling should occur not e a r l i e r t h a n two hours

later. Sampling from p i p e l i n e s may e i t h e r be done c o n t i n u o u s l y , proportionally

to the fuel flow, or p e r i o d i c a l l y at constant frequency; periods with constant

flow conditions are p r e f e r r e d .

The p r i m a r y sample volume i s d e f i n e d by t h e capacity of the sampling device,

and s h o u l d be f i x e d f o r a given fuel lot. T h e g r o s s sample v o l u m e s h o u l d be

l a r g e enough f o r the p r e p a r a t i o n o f an a v e r a g e d s a m p l e o f a t l e a s t 3 kg. In the

case o f a r b i t r a t i o n analyses performed in two o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t laboratories,

averaged samples o f up t o 9 kg may be r e q u i r e d . For d e t a i l s on s a m p l i n g of

liquid fuels, see r e f . 35.

7.3.2 Determination of coal properties

The m o i s t u r e content is certainly one o f t h e m o s t important properties of

solid fuels, as i t can a d v e r s e l y i n f l u e n c e boiler c a p a c i t y and efficiency.

A high moisture c o n t e n t makes f u e l ignition more d i f f i c u l t , while the heating

value decreases.

At low t e m p e r a t u r e s of flue gas a p p r o a c h i n g t h e boiler outlet, condensation

of vapours o r i g i n a t i n g from f u e l moisture in the p r e s e n c e o f S O ^ and S O ^ c a u s e s

corrosion of boiler parts. A t f r e e z i n g ambient temperatures, fuel moisture may

cause s e r i o u s problems in transportation and unloading.

I n chemical a n a l y s e s , the concepts o f free, i n h e r e n t and t o t a l moisture are

applied. Free moisture is the p a r t o f the water in s o l i d fuel that evaporates

while attaining equilibrium with the environment ( w a t e r removed by d r y i n g at

ambient t e m p e r a t u r e ) . Inherent moisture is the p a r t of the water t h a t remains in

the fuel after atmospheric d r y i n g ; it can be d e t e r m i n e d b y f i n d i n g t h e mass

decrement o f f u e l without free moisture, additionally dried at 105-llÜ°C.

Ash, i.e. mineral matter, decreases the heating value of fuel. A h i g h ash

c o n t e n t makes t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s more d i f f i c u l t , and r e d u c e s b o i l e r capacity

and e f f i c i e n c y . F l y ash i n f l u e g a s may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the fouling of

heating s u r f a c e s and e r o s i o n w e a r o f b o i l e r parts. In order to determine the ash

content, a coal sample o f 1-2 g mass i s burned in a l a b o r a t o r y oven at 815^C,

and t h e residue is additionally roasted.

Combustible matter in coal i n c l u d e s the elements t h a t take part in the

combustion p r o c e s s , i.e. c a r b o n , h y d r o g e n and s u l p h u r . Knowledge o f the content

of combustible e l e m e n t s may be e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t if there is no possibility

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of directly determining the combustion heat or heating value of the fuel, as

these q u a n t i t i e s can be a l t e r n a t i v e l y c a l c u l a t e d b y an i n d i r e c t method (see

Section 7.3.4). Sometimes i t may be i m p o r t a n t to determine the content of

combustible matter in boiler a s h , as t h i s would allow c a l c u l a t i o n of the energy

loss resulting from incomplete combustion.

For d e t a i l s of coal a n a l y s i s and s t a n d a r d s c o n c e r n i n g t h e laboratory

procedures, the literature s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d (ref. 36,37).

7.3.3 Properties of fuel oil

P e r h a p s t h e most important property of fuel oil is the v i s c o s i t y . Light fuel

oils o f v i s c o s i t y up t o 2°E (degrees Engler) at 20^C may be s u p p l i e d t o the

burners without prior heating. Heavy f u e l oils of h i g h v i s c o s i t y must be h e a t e d

either once, i.e. b e f o r e pumping, or twice, i.e. b e f o r e pumping and before

dispersing in b u r n e r s . The n e c e s s a r y t e m p e r a t u r e (up to 150°C) d e p e n d s on the

oil t y p e , and can be f o u n d i n d i a g r a m s o r nomographs ( r e f . 33).

Other essential parameters are the sulphur content and v a n a d i u m o x i d e

content. Sulphur i s important not only f o r environmental reasons; i t may be

responsible for low-temperature c o r r o s i o n in the o u t l e t parts o f the boiler.

V a n a d i u m o x i d e , V 2 0 ^ , may c a u s e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e corrosion of boiler parts.

7.3.4 H e a t o f c o m b u s t i o n and h e a t i n g value

The h e a t o f combustion, Q ^ , i s the amount o f e n e r g y r e l e a s e d p e r unit

quantity of fuel in compressed oxygen a t constant volume; it is additionally

assumed t h a t the fuel temperature b e f o r e c o m b u s t i o n and t h e temperature of the

combustion products is 20°C, and t h e w a t e r initially present in the f u e l , or

c r e a t e d by b u r n i n g o f h y d r o g e n , is finally condensed.

The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of heat o f combustion is one o f t h e most important

l a b o r a t o r y measurements needed f o r heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g , and t h u s particular

c a r e and a c c u r a c y i s r e q u i r e d . T h e s t a n d a r d method a p p l i c a b l e to solid and

liquid fuels is the bomb-calorimeter method. The a p p a r a t u s is required to meet

a standard s p e c i f i c a t i o n , and t h e p r o c e d u r e u s e d i s also standardized ( r e f . 37).

T h e bomb i s a small stainless-steel vessel i n which a small mass o f the fuel

(about 1 g) is held in a c r u c i b l e (Fig. 7.2). If the fuel is solid, it is

usually c r u s h e d and t h e n p r e s s e d i n t o the form o f a p e l l e t in a special press.

The p e l l e t is ignited by f u s i n g a piece of wire with which i t is in contact; the

pellet can a l s o be made w i t h the fuse wire passing through it.

The w i r e forms part o f an e l e c t r i c a l circuit w h i c h can be c o m p l e t e d b y a

firing button which i s situated in a position remote from t h e bomb. If a liquid

fuel is being t e s t e d , it is contained in a gelatine c a p s u l e and t h e f i r i n g may

be a s s i s t e d b y i n c l u d i n g in the crucible a little paraffin of known h e a t of

combustion. The c r u c i b l e c a r r y i n g the f u e l is located in the bomb, and t h e top

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o f the bomb i s screwed down. Oxygen i s then admitted s l o w l y u n t i l the pressure

is 20-35 b a r , d e p e n d i n g on t h e fuel t y p e . T h e bomb i s located in the calorimeter

and a m e a s u r e d q u a n t i t y of water is poured i n t o the calorimeter.

F i g . 7 . 2 . Scheme o f t h e bomb c a l o r i m e t e r . 1 - i n s u l a t i n g c o v e r , 2 - water,

3 - bomb, 4 - i n s u l a t i n g f e e t , 5 - f u e l s a m p l e i n a c r u c i b l e .

The c a l o r i m e t e r is c l o s e d , the external connections to the circuit a r e made,

and an a c c u r a t e t h e r m o m e t e r of the f i x e d - r a n g e or the Beckman t y p e is immersed

to a proper depth in the water. The w a t e r is stirred by a m o t o r - d r i v e n stirrer

and t e m p e r a t u r e o b s e r v a t i o n s are taken e v e r y minute. A t t h e end o f the fifth

minute, the charge i s fired and t e m p e r a t u r e readings are taken every 10 s e c o n d s

until the readings begin to fall; then, the frequency of r e a d i n g s can a g a i n be

reduced to every minute. The measured t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e , which should not exceed

2-3 K, is corrected for various losses according to the formulae given in the

respective s t a n d a r d s . The heat o f combustion o f the fuel tested is finally

c a l c u l a t e d from the heat balance e q u a t i o n , also given in the s t a n d a r d s , and the

measuring e r r o r can be estimated.

If, for a n y r e a s o n , t h e bomb c a l o r i m e t e r method c a n n o t be u s e d , but the

chemical constitution of the fuel is known, t h e n it is p o s s i b l e to calculate

the heat o f combustion using a p p r o p r i a t e formulae. For example, in the case o f

European coal t y p e s , the s o - c a l l e d Dulong's formula may be applied

= 341C + 1444{H - (0 + Ν - l)/8) + 93S (kJ/kg) (7.1)

where C , H, 0, N , and S a r e t h e percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

n i t r o g e n and s u l p h u r .

The a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e s o - c a l l e d i n d i r e c t methods f o r determination of the heat

of combustion is limited. At a carbon content of a b o u t 86%, and an o x y g e n

c o n t e n t b e l o w 7.5%, the accuracy o f the Dulong's formula is about ±2%.

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The h e a t i n g value o f the fuel is equal to the heat o f combustion minus the

latent heat o f the water coming f r o m t h e fuel during combustion. This

corresponds to the fact t h a t w a t e r vapour formed in furnaces is emitted in the

flue gas t o the atmosphere, and t h e latent heat is lost (contrary to a bomb

calorimeter measurement).

The h e a t i n g value of the f u e l , Q ^ , c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as a f u n c t i o n of the

combustion heat, Q ^ , the h y d r o g e n p e r c e n t a g e Η and t h e m o i s t u r e p e r c e n t a g e W.

Again, detailed formulae c a n be f o u n d i n t h e relevant standards. For example,

P o l i s h Standards state that for liquid fuels

= - 2 5 . 1 9 ( 9 H + W) (kJ/kg) (7.2)

and f o r solid fuels

= - 24.55(8.9H + W) (kJ/kg) (7.3)

It is noteworthy that in the case o f liquid fuels, empirical formulae are

available for calculation of the hydrogen content as a f u n c t i o n o f the heat of

combustion, while the hydrogen content in solid f u e l s must be experimentally

determined.

Indirect calculation o f the heating value using the formulae given in the

literature is also possible. For example, the following formula may be applied

to European coal types:

= 339(C - 0 . 7 5 ( 0 / 2 ) ) + 1193(H - 0 . 1 2 5 ( 0 / 2 ) ) + 105S - 25W. (kJ/kg) (7.4)

where is the percentage o f inherent moisture; other symbols as above.

7.3.5 Fuel storage inspection

Coal piles s h o u l d be v i s u a l l y inspected d a i l y during the first 3 months after

their d e l i v e r y and t w i c e a week t h e r e a f t e r . A fire hazard i s indicated by:

- spot-wise drying o f the pile surface after rainfall;

- e s c a p i n g steam c l o u d s ;

- d e p o s i t s o f a s h and s u l p h u r a p p e a r i n g on t h e pile surface;

- e s c a p i n g smoke o f characteristic odour.

A more p r e c i s e i n s p e c t i o n procedure r e q u i r e s t h a t the temperature of the coal

in the piles be m e a s u r e d . T h e s t a n d a r d measurement frequency is twice a week

during the first 2 months and o n c e e v e r y two weeks t h e r e a f t e r . A coal

temperature a b o v e 45°C s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as an i n d i c a t i o n of f i r e hazard. If

the temperature r i s e s above 60°C, t h e relevant fuel lot must immediately be

directed to the furnace.

According to Polish regulations, coal-storage yards with capacities larger

than 500 t o n s must be e q u i p p e d w i t h permanent temperature-measuring systems,

consisting of instruments spaced l e s s than 5 m apart. The s i m p l e s t instrument is

a mercury-in-glass thermometer placed inside a steel tube t h a t c a n be inserted

 251

in the fuel layer. Special s i g n a l l i n g thermometers o r remote measuring systems

can a l s o be a p p l i e d .

Fuel oil is held in storage tanks outside the boiler h o u s e , and an

intermediate tank w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f about 8 - h o u r s ' boiler supply is usually

installed in, or close t o , the b o i l e r h o u s e . As h e a v y o i l requires heating

before it c a n be pumped t o the b u r n e r s , temperature control in the tanks and

pipelines is e s s e n t i a l . A standard solution to this problem i s an automatically

controlled heating system complete w i t h remote-temperature measurements and

devices warning o f excess temperature.

7.4 BOILERS

7.4.1 Methods o f measurement

The b o i l e r s c a n be r e g a r d e d as a s p e c i a l part o f the thermal s y s t e m , where

c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y l o s s e s c a n o c c u r o r c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s can be

attained. Energy d e l i v e r e d in fuel c a n be e f f i c i e n t l y utilized if boilers are

maintained in proper condition. Boiler efficiency is one o f t h e important

indices to be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c h e c k e d and c a r e f u l l y w a t c h e d , b e c a u s e e v e n small

d e v i a t i o n s from i t s optimal value, if maintained for a l o n g p e r i o d , may c a u s e

considerable energy losses.

I n some c o u n t r i e s , g e n e r a l safety r e g u l a t i o n s may a p p l y t o the boilers

installed in sugar f a c t o r i e s . This can be e x e m p l i f i e d by the so-called

"Measurement l i s t for boiler o p e r a t i o n " . Table 7.5, which i s obligatory in

Poland ( r e f . 21). It s t a t e s what parameters s h o u l d be r e c o r d e d a t least every

hour, for routine checking o f b o i l e r operation.

A boiler scheme w i t h an i n d i c a t i o n o f parameters needed f o r the boiler energy

balance i s shown i n F i g . 7.3. The e s s e n t i a l problem o f b o i l e r checking is to

tg.pg.D Tsuperheated steam

ι Η JTT Κ
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ \ \ \ \ \ f e e d - w a t e r ^ ^ | j \ ^ p ^ . t ^ 21

Fig. 7 . 3 . Scheme o f a b o i l e r . M e a s u r i n g p o i n t s are indicated according to the

list o f measurements. T a b l e 7.5.
252

TABLE 7.5

Measurement l i s t for boiler operation, according to Polish regulations (ref. 21).

No. Parameter Boiler capacity 3^^^^^

1-5 t/h above 5 t/h

1 Feed-water pressure χ χ p^
2 Steam p r e s s u r e a t b o i l e r o u t l e t r χ p^
3 Steam p r e s s u r e i n b o i l e r drum χ χ
4 Feed-water temperature χ χ t^
5 Temperature a f t e r feed-water heater χ χ
6 Steam t e m p e r a t u r e a t b o i l e r o u t l e t χ χ
7 Blast air pressure χ χ
8 A i r pressure before a i r heater χ r
9 A i r pressure after a i r heater - r
10 F l u e gas temperature b e f o r e
feed-water heater r r
11 F l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e b e f o r e a i r h e a t e r - r
12 F l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e b e f o r e chimney χ χ
13 A i r temperature before a i r heater - r
14 A i r temperature a f t e r a i r heater - r
15 Draught i n f u r n a c e above s t o k e r r χ
16 Draught before feed-water heater r r
17 Draught a f t e r superheater r r
18 Draught before a i r heater - r
19 D r a u g h t b e f o r e chimney χ χ
20 CO2 c o n t e n t i n f l u e g a s b e f o r e c h i m n e y x* χ
21 Feed-water flow χ χ
22 Steam f l o w x** χ D
23 C o m b u s t i b l e m a t t e r i n ash r χ
24 Fuel f l o w χ χ Β
*7 **7
X = r e q u i r e d ; r = recommended; except hand-fired furnaces; only in
b o i l e r s equipped w i t h superheaters.

determine how much e n e r g y i s consumed i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a d e f i n i t e amount of

steam a t t h e r e q u i r e d p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e . Two i n d i c e s can be u s e d , the
boiler efficiency η and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n p e r 1 kg steam q .
η = D ( h ^ - h^)/(BQ^)-100% (7.5)

w h e r e D i s t h e mass o f steam g e n e r a t e d i n t h e b o i l e r , h^ i s t h e e n t h a l p y of

steam a t t h e b o i l e r outlet, h i s the enthalpy o f feed water, Β i s t h e mass of

w
fuel consumed i n t h e b o i l e r furnace, and i s the heating value of fuel.
The e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n p e r 1 kg steam can be c a l c u l a t e d as
q = BQ^/D (7.6)
In order to determine the above i n d i c e s , in addition to the heating value of
fuel, the f o l l o w i n g quantities must be f o u n d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s :
- t h e mass o f f u e l consumed;
- t h e mass o f steam g e n e r a t e d ;
- t h e steam p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e (for enthalpy determination);
- t h e mass o f f e e d w a t e r d e l i v e r e d t o t h e b o i l e r ( c h e c k on steam-flow
 253

measurement);

- the feed-water temperature (for enthalpy determination).

T h e amount o f solid fuel is weighed, preferably b y an a u t o m a t i c scale which

is calibrated daily. In the absence o f scales, a volumetric method can be used.

Fuel-oil consumption can be m e a s u r e d b y f l o w m e t e r s installed in the supply

pipeline. For accurate heat balances, it is recommended t h a t flow readings be

taken every f i v e minutes.

T h e amount o f steam i s m e a s u r e d b y f l o w m e t e r s and e v e n t u a l l y checked against

the indications of a water meter installed on t h e feed-water supply l i n e . If a

high-accuracy balance is required, it is recommended t h a t the soot blowers and

the boiler blowdown a r e t e m p o r a r i l y cut o f f ; if the blowdown c a n n o t be a v o i d e d ,

then a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s must be i n t r o d u c e d in the feed-water meter

indications.

Mean v a l u e s o f the water and steam p a r a m e t e r s can be e s t i m a t e d w i t h the aid

of temperature and p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f r o m t h e recording instruments. For accurate

energy balances, the parameters can be c a l c u l a t e d as mean v a l u e s o f instrument

readings taken every 15 minutes.

A routine boiler check c o n s i s t s o f observing the indications of the installed

measuring instruments and r e c o r d i n g the important readings at least every hour.

Information gathered in t h i s way g e n e r a l l y e n a b l e s us t o evaluate boiler

operation, especially fuel consumption, and t o establish how i t is influenced by

load f l u c t u a t i o n s resulting from o p e r a t i o n of the sugar factory.

Periodic c h e c k s s h o u l d be aimed a t analysing the energy balances of the

boiler units at least every 10 d a y s . Energy balance calculations s h o u l d be b a s e d

on t h e results o f measurements taken every 15 m i n u t e s during a 6-hour test

period (ref. 39). The p r e r e q u i s i t e for a reliable energy balance is stabilized

boiler operation during that time.

7.4.2 Combustion evaluation

The e s s e n t i a l requirements to be a c c o u n t e d f o r in combustion evaluation are

related to t h e phenomena o c c u r r i n g in the boiler furnace. The combustion process

includes fuel decomposition and o x i d a t i o n of combustible components, i.e.

carbon, sulphur and h y d r o g e n , i n t o carbon d i o x i d e , sulphur dioxide and water,

respectively. Two b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s for effective combustion are thus a

sufficiently high temperature and an a d e q u a t e o x y g e n supply.

Evaluation of the combustion process is b a s e d on f l u e - g a s analysis, aimed at

determining the content of carbon d i o x i d e , c a r b o n m o n o x i d e and o x y g e n . The

measured CO^ c o n t e n t e n a b l e s us t o evaluate the combustion p r o c e s s by comparison

w i t h the theoretical CO^ c o n t e n t calculated from s t o i c h o m e t r i c relationships. If

the real CO^ c o n t e n t is lower than the theoretical value, and t h e 0^ c o n t e n t is

high, this indicates an e x c e s s i v e a i r supply or a leaky boiler exhaust channel.

254

From s i m u l t a n e o u s furnace temperature and d r a u g h t m e a s u r e m e n t s , it is possible

to determine the reasons f o r the situation.

T h e CO c o n t e n t indicates incomplete combustion, resulting either from

inadequate air feed o r , in the case o f solid fuels, from too t h i c k a fuel layer

on t h e stoker.

The u l t i m a t e goal of combustion e v a l u a t i o n is to determine the energy losses

resulting from the c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s and t o take appropriate corrective

m e a s u r e s . T h e c h i m n e y l o s s d e p e n d s on t h e CO^ c o n t e n t and t h e flue-gas

temperature. This is the largest of the energy l o s s e s , normally amounting to

8-12% o f t h e e n e r g y d e l i v e r e d i n t h e f u e l . In older boiler types, it can e x c e e d

20%. T h e c h i m n e y l o s s can be c a l c u l a t e d from the Siegert formula

= a(t^ - t^ (%) (7.7)

0.10

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.05

0.04
16 18 20 22
CO2 c o n t e n t in f l u e g a s ( % )

Fig. 7.4. C o e f f i c i e n t α in the S i e g e r t formula (after ref. 40). Solid lines -

coal and l i g n i t e , d a s h e d l i n e s - wood.
 255

where α i s a coefficient d e p e n d i n g on t h e content, fuel t y p e and t h e fuel

moisture content ( t h e v a l u e o f α c a n be f o u n d i n Fig. 7.4), t^ is the flue-gas

temperature at the boiler outlet in and t ^ is the ambient temperature in °C.

F o r g a s - and o i l - f i r e d boilers, formulae expressing the chimney l o s s as a

function o f C O ^ and 0^ c o n t e n t in the f l u e g a s and t e m p e r a t u r e difference

t - t c a n be f o u n d i n t h e literature, and e v e n c a l c u l a t o r programs to

g 3

automate the calculations o f the c h i m n e y l o s s h a v e been p u b l i s h e d (ref. 41).

The i n c o m p l e t e combustion l o s s , S j , depends i n principle on t h e content of

combustible gases ( C O , hydrocarbons) in the f l u e gas. It amounts t o 0.5-1.5%

in boilers e q u i p p e d w i t h modern f u r n a c e s , and up t o 5% i n older boilers with

hand-fired f u r n a c e s . Due t o measurement d i f f i c u l t i e s , determination of the

incomplete combustion loss usually relies on t h e CO c o n t e n t o f t h e f l u e gas.

Fig. 7.5. We s e e t h a t 1% CO i n f l u e gas c o r r e s p o n d s t o an e n e r g y l o s s of

approximately 4-6%.

T h e a s h l o s s , S ^ , d e p e n d s on t h e combustible matter content in the ash. This

d e p e n d s m o s t l y on t h e f u e l t y p e and t h e f u r n a c e t y p e . The ash l o s s in oil-fired

CO c o n t e n t in flue g a s (%)
0.3 O.A 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5

10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6

Incomplete combustion loss (%)

Fig. 7.5. Incomplete combustion loss Sj (after ref. 40).

256

M a s s of a s h a s α p e r c e n t a g e of fuel m a s s ( % )
3 A 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Κ 15 16

Ash l o s s ( % )

Fig. 7 . 6 . Ash l o s s (after ref. 3 7 ) .

boilers does n o t e x c e e d 1 . 5 % , while in the case o f coal-fired boilers, it c a n be

0.5-4.0% in pul v e r i z e d - c o a l f u r n a c e s , 5-14% in stoker-fired boilers, and 6-18%

in hand-fired furnaces. T h e a s h l o s s c a n be e s t i m a t e d as a f u n c t i o n of the ash

mass and t h e combustible matter content C in the ash samples (Fig. 7.6).

The r a d i a t i o n heat loss, S ^ , is caused by thermal radiation from b o i l e r walls.

It d e p e n d s on b o i l e r capacity (Fig. 7 . 7 ) . T y p i c a l values are 0 . 5 % in large

boilers and up t o 10% in small boilers with insufficient thermal insulation.

3.2

θ2Λ \\
o
.1.6

^0.8
α:

8 10 ' lA '18 20 AO 60 80 100

12 16
Boiler capacity ( t / h )

F i g . 7 . 7 . Radiation loss S R ( a f t e r r e f . 4 0 ) . 1 - b o i l e r s equipped with air

h e a t e r s and f e e d - w a t e r h e a t e r s , 2 - b o i l e r s w i t h o u t h e a t e r s .
 257

7 . 4 . 3 Steam generation

A steam g e n e r a t i o n c h e c k s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d to three essential areas:

operational safety, the basic operating parameters and t h e correctness of the

steam g e n e r a t i o n process. Safety requirements concerning measuring and

signalling equipment, as w e l l as o v e r - p r e s s u r e p r o t e c t i o n , a r e g o v e r n e d by

safety regulations i n most countries and a r e o m i t t e d here.

As t o basic operating parameters, the deviations from t h e i r nominal values

cannot exceed the limits that are r e q u i r e d by o t h e r power-house equipment,

mainly the turbines and t h e steam t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station. The steam

p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e are automatically stabilized i n modern b o i l e r s , and

thus the task o f the operating personnel is l i m i t e d to checking the correctness

of the automatic control.

As t o the steam g e n e r a t i o n process, i t s h o u l d be remembered t h a t it consists

of the processes in three boiler parts: feed-water heater, boiler proper and

superheater. T h e s e p r o c e s s e s can be e v a l u a t e d on t h e basis o f the results of

measurements specified in Section 7 . 4 . 1 . Recording instruments should preferably

be u s e d ; otherwise, readings taken at least e v e r y h o u r s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d in

operation reports.

7.4.4 Energy balance o f the boiler

It is recommended t h a t e n e r g y b a l a n c e s be s e t up a t least every ten days

(test conditions are explained in Section 7 . 4 . 1 ) . In addition to parameter

values, the heating value of the fuel must a l s o be k n o w n . T h e mean v a l u e s o f the

parameters are a p p l i e d in the calculations.

The e n e r g y o f t h e fuel supplied to the boiler, Qp, i s transformed into steam

energy, Q ^ , and e n e r g y l o s s e s , Qj^.

Qp = Q 3 + QL (7.8)

The e n e r g y s u p p l i e d can be c a l c u l a t e d as

Qp = BQH (7.9)

where Β i s t h e mass o f f u e l supplied to the boiler, and Q ^ i s the heating value

of the fuel.

T h e e n e r g y consumed i n steam g e n e r a t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d from the formula

Qs = D ( h ^ - h^) (7.10)

where D i s t h e mass o f steam g e n e r a t e d , a c c o r d i n g to f l o w measurement at the

boiler outlet, h^ i s the enthalpy of steam (found in steam t a b l e s or diagrams,

for t h e m e a s u r e d p r e s s u r e p^ and t e m p e r a t u r e t^), and h is the enthalpy of the

s s w
feed water (found in tables for the measured t e m p e r a t u r e t^).

If Qp and Q ^ h a v e been c a l c u l a t e d , the boiler efficiency can a l s o be

calculated according to eqn. (7.5). The a c c u r a c y o f the efficiency v a l u e depends

258

mainly on m e a s u r i n g e r r o r s i n t h e measurements o f steam f l o w and f u e l mass. In

some i n s t a n c e s , b o i l e r efficiency c a n be c a l c u l a t e d more a c c u r a t e l y i f the heat

l o s s e s h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d (see Section 7 . 4 . 2 ) . The r e l e v a n t f o r m u l a is

η = 100 - ( S ^ + S j + S ^ + S^) (%) (7.11)

7.4.5 Example

A coal-fired boiler h a s b e e n t e s t e d and t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a summarize t h e test

results:

- coal c o n s u m p t i o n , Β = 5550 k g / h ;

- coal heating value, = 21440 k J / k g ;

- steam f l o w , D = 32900 k g / h ;

- steam e n t h a l p y , h^ = 3172 kJ/kg;

- feed-water enthalpy, h , = 488 kJ/kg.

w
The essential e n e r g y b a l a n c e components a r e thus:

- energy supplied to the boiler

Qp = 5550-21440 = 1 . 1 9 - 1 0 ^ k J / h ;
- e n e r g y consumed i n s t e a m g e n e r a t i o n
Q3 = 32900·(3172 - 488) = 0.88-10^ k J / h ;

- energy loss

Q L = Qp - Q 3 = 0 . 3 1 - 1 0 ^ k J / h .

It is now p o s s i b l e t o calculate the boiler efficiency

η = (0.88-10^/1.19·10^)·100 = 73.9%

and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n p e r 1 kg steam

q = 5550-21440/32900 = 3617 kJ/kg.

7.5 TURBO-GENERATORS

7.5.1 Method o f measurement

The essential problem o f turbo-generator checking is to determine the heat

consumption i n e l e c t r i c i t y generation. It is c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e x p r e s s e d as the

steam r a t e , S, t h a t is, t h e mass o f steam consumed i n t h e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r per

1 kWh o f e l e c t r i c a l energy produced:

S = M/E (kg/kWh) (7.12)

where Μ i s t h e mass o f steam s u p p l i e d t o the t u r b i n e within a certain time

period in kg, and Ε i s the e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y p r o d u c e d a t t h e same t i m e in kWh.

The same i n d e x can a l s o be c a l c u l a t e d as

S = D/N (kg/kWh) (7.13)

where D i s t h e mass f l o w o f steam i n k g / h , and Ν i s the e l e c t r i c a l effect of

the t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r in kW.
 259

The e s s e n t i a l information contained in the S v a l u e can a l t e r n a t i v e l y be

expressed using the concept o f the o v e r a l l efficiency o f the turbo-generator

(see Section 7 . 5 . 5 ) . In order to calculate both i n d i c e s , the following

measurements a r e necessary:

- steam a m o u n t , Μ ( k g ) o r s t e a m mass f l o w , D (kg/h);

- amount o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y , Ε (kWh) o r e l e c t r i c a l effect, Ν (kW);

- inlet pressure of s t e a m , p^ (bar);

- inlet temperature of steam, t^ (°C);

- outlet temperature o f s t e a m , t^ (°C) (required only for the calculation of

overall efficiency).

T h e way i n w h i c h t h e t e s t is p e r f o r m e d and t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e measurements

determine how t h e t e s t results can be i n t e r p r e t e d . A routine check i s b a s e d on

m e a s u r e m e n t s r e p e a t e d e v e r y 30 m i n u t e s ; turbine operation is determined b y steam

generation in the b o i l e r and b y t h e accompanying e l e c t r i c a l and t h e r m a l loads.

The r e s u l t i n g S value r e f l e c t s not only the turbo-generator q u a l i t y but also

t h e method o f its utilization under a c t u a l load conditions.

As t o the p e r i o d i c checking, t h i s is aimed a t testing turbine output and

efficiency under s t a b i l i z e d o p e r a t i n g conditions. The t u r b i n e s h o u l d be b r o u g h t

into thermal equilibrium in advance, before the test is initiated; the load

s h o u l d be s t a b i l i z e d and t h e n h e l d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g the e n t i r e test. It is

recommended t h a t t h e frequency of t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s be r e l a t e d to the d u r a t i o n of

the test. For example, the recommendation of ref. 42 i s that the test duration

c a n be 15 o r 60 m i n u t e s , and t h e recommended m e a s u r i n g f r e q u e n c y i s shown in

Table 7.6.

TABLE 7.6

Recommended f r e q u e n c y o f instrument readings in turbo-generator tests.

Measurement ^^"^ ^^P"

15 m i n u t e s 60 m i n u t e s

Electrical effect 1 min 1 min

Steam f l o w 1 min 1 min
T e m p e r a t u r e o f i n c o m i n g steam 1 min 5 min
P r e s s u r e o f incoming steam 1 min 5 min
T e m p e r a t u r e o f e x h a u s t steam 1 min 5 min
P r e s s u r e o f e x h a u s t steam 1 min 5 min
E l e c t r i c i t y meter i n d i c a t i o n s b e g i n n i n g and
Steam c o u n t e r i n d i c a t i o n s end o f t e s t

7.5.2 Steam c o n s u m p t i o n

The t r u e steam c o n s u m p t i o n , a q u a n t i t y on w h i c h t h e b a l a n c e and t h e routine

checking o f the t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r are based, c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m steam-counter

indications at t h e b e g i n n i n g and e n d o f t h e test. It is necessary to modify the

260

counter indications if t h e steam p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e d e v i a t e from the

nominal flow-meter v a l u e s at the time o f the t e s t . I n the case o f periodic

c h e c k s aimed a t t h o r o u g h t u r b i n e i n s p e c t i o n , t h e steam c o n s u m p t i o n v a l u e should

be a d d i t i o n a l l y corrected for p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e deviations, according to

the formula

D = - M^)f^/T (kg/h) (7.14)

where τ i s the t e s t duration i n h , M-j and are the modified counter

indications at the beginning and a t t h e end o f t h e t e s t in kg, and fj^ i s a

correction factor.

If t h e measurements a r e t a k e n f r o m a steam f l o w m e t e r and η modified flow

values D p D2, .., D ^ h a v e been r e c o r d e d , t h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g formula is used:

D = O^f, (7.15)

w h e r e D ^ i s t h e mean v a l u e o f t h e steam f l o w . If some m e a s u r e m e n t s f a l l beyond

t h e ±2.5% i n t e r v a l a r o u n d t h e mean v a l u e , t h i s is c a l c u l a t e d as

D = (d/n) Σ /DT)2 (7.16)

^ i=l ^

Otherwise, t h e mean a r i t h m e t i c v a l u e s h o u l d be t a k e n .

The c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , fj^, is calculated for a back-pressure turbine as the

product of three c o e f f i c i e n t s reflecting the d e v i a t i o n s of inlet pressure, inlet
temperature and o u t l e t p r e s s u r e from t h e i r nominal v a l u e s . T h e d a t a on t h e s e
coefficients s h o u l d be s u p p l i e d i n d i a g r a m o r t a b l e form by t h e turbine
manufacturer.

7.5.3 T u r b o - g e n e r a t o r power output

I n power o u t p u t m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e same g e n e r a l principle i s a p p l i e d as i n the

c a s e o f steam c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e b a l a n c e and r o u t i n e control of the turbo­

generator s h o u l d be b a s e d on a c t u a l output values, while in periodic control,

corrections for the d e v i a t i o n s o f operating parameters are n e c e s s a r y .

I n t h e c a s e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n f r o m an e l e c t r i c m e t e r , the turbo-generator

power o u t p u t is calculated as

Ν = (E2 - E ^ ) A f p / T (kW) (7.17)

where τ i s the t e s t duration in h, E^ and E2 a r e t h e e l e c t r i c m e t e r indications

a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and a t t h e end o f t e s t in kWh, A i s t h e e l e c t r i c m e t e r constant
and f p i s the c o r r e c t i o n factor.

If t h e r e a d i n g s a r e t a k e n f r o m a power o u t p u t m e t e r , then the following

formula is used:
Ν = N^fp (kW) (7.18)

where i s t h e mean a r i t h m e t i c v a l u e o f t h e power o u t p u t , i n kW.

The c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , f^, i s a g a i n c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f turbine

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characteristics, taking into account the parameter deviations from t h e i r nominal

values.

7.5.4 Turbo-generator energy balance

In the energy balance o f a t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r , all incoming and o u t g o i n g mass

and e n e r g y f l o w s s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d for:

- incoming steam;

- exhaust steam;

- electrical energy produced;

- heat d i s s i p a t e d to the environment.

T h e scheme o f a t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r with an i n d i c a t i o n of the s y s t e m b o u n d a r y and

energy streams is shown i n Fig. 7.8(a).

(a)
r heat loss
SYSTEM BOUNDARY

electrical
live steam effect
TURBINE
>
L

exhaust steam

F i g . 7.8. Energy c o n v e r s i o n p r i n c i p l e o f a t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r w i t h a b a c k - p r e s s u r e
t u r b i n e , ( a ) e n e r g y b a l a n c e s c h e m e , ( b ) steam e x p a n s i o n p r o c e s s shown i n t h e
M o l l i e r diagram.

Assuming t h a t the flows of incoming s t e a m and e x h a u s t s t e a m a r e e q u a l , it

follows from the first law o f thermodynamics that

Dh^ = Ν + Dk^ - Q (7.19)

where Q i s the heat loss, and h^ and h-j are the enthalpies of incoming steam and

exhaust steam, respectively.

7.5.5 T u r b i n e and t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r efficiency

The p r o c e s s t h a t is theoretically possible in a steam t u r b i n e consists of

transforming into mechanical work a p a r t of the steam e n e r g y , e q u a l to the

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isentropic e n t h a l p y drop w i t h the expansion from initial to final steam

pressure. This is shown i n t h e M o l l i e r diagram, Fig. 7.8(b). As t h e r e are always

friction l o s s e s and i n t e r n a l leaks associated with steam e x p a n s i o n i n the

turbine, the real process follows the pattern shown i n the diagram, while only

a part of the isentropic enthalpy drop is transformed into mechanical work.

The u t i l i z a t i o n of the isentropic enthalpy drop in a turbine can be e x p r e s s e d

by t h e so-called internal efficiency

^i = ( ^ - - ^2^ (^-20)

w h e r e h^ i s the t h e o r e t i c a l enthalpy value after isentropic expansion to the

final p r e s s u r e , and t h e remaining s y m b o l s a r e as a b o v e .

The v a l u e o f t h e internal efficiency is of primary importance if the combined

generation of h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y is c o n s i d e r e d . The h i g h e r the efficiency

value, the larger t h e amount o f e l e c t r i c a l energy that can be g e n e r a t e d f r o m the

same amount o f steam. If the periodic turbine inspections reveal that the

internal efficiency is d e c r e a s i n g , t h e n one may e x p e c t t h a t t h e control valves,

internal s e a l s or blade system r e q u i r e repair.

Actually, only a part o f the mechanical work o b t a i n e d in the turbine can be

transformed into electrical energy. Energy losses in the turbo-generator are

caused by f r i c t i o n in the b e a r i n g s and p o s s i b l y i n the transmission gear between

the turbine and g e n e r a t o r , energy consumption in auxiliary mechanisms, and heat

dissipation in the generator w i n d i n g . These l o s s e s are c o n v e n t i o n a l l y alowed

for, together with l o s s e s c a u s e d b y steam l e a k s through the turbine s e a l s and b y

heat d i s s i p a t i o n from the surface of the turbine cylinder.

The o v e r a l l utilization of the isentropic enthalpy drop in a turbo-generator

can be e x p r e s s e d by t h e overall efficiency

= n..3600/(S(h^ - h^)) (7.21)

It follows from eqns. (7.20) and ( 7 . 2 1 ) t h a t once the quantities discussed in

S e c t i o n s 7 . 5 . 1 - 7 . 5 . 4 h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d , it becomes p o s s i b l e t o calculate the

internal efficiency of the t u r b i n e and t h e overall efficiency o f the turbo­

generator. No s i m p l e method e x i s t s , however, f o r determination of the turbine

mechanical efficiency, η^, the transmission gear e f f i c i e n c y , η^^, and the

generator e f f i c i e n c y , η^. It can t h u s be u s e f u l to remember that

Vtg'^g = (^-22)

7.5.6 Example

A turbo-generator d r i v e n by a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e has been t e s t e d and the

following d a t a summarize t h e test results (mean v a l u e s ) :

- electrical effect, N^ = 6593 kW;

m
- steam f l o w , = 58830 k g / h ;
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- inlet p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e of s t e a m , p^ = 3 4 . 3 3 b a r , t^ = 433.2°C

( e n t h a l p y h^ = 3300 kJ/kg);

- outlet p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e of s t e a m , p-j = 3.52 bar, t^ = 193.3°C

( e n t h a l p y h^ = 2851 kJ/kg).

Correction factors, from diagrams s u p p l i e d by t h e turbine manufacturer, are

f^ = 1 - 0 . 9 9 7 - 0 . 9 9 = 0.987 = 1/f^.

The c o r r e c t e d values of the e l e c t r i c a l effect and steam f l o w are thus

Ν = 6 5 9 3 / 0 . 9 8 7 = 6679 kW,

D = 58830-0.987 = 58064 k g / h .

The steam r a t e is

S = 58064/6679 = 8 . 6 9 kg/kWh.

The theoretical enthalpy value after isentropic expansion to the outlet

pressure, f r o m steam t a b l e s , is h^ = 2732 k J / k g .

The internal turbine efficiency is

η. = (3300 - 2 8 5 1 ) / ( 3 3 0 0 - 2732) = 0 . 7 9 0 .

The overall turbo-generator efficiency is

= 0.790-3600/(8.69(3300 - 2851)) = 0.729.

7.6 PROCESS HEATING EQUIPMENT

7.6.1 Evaporator

Juice thickening in a multiple-effect e v a p o r a t o r d e p e n d s on h e a t transmission

from the heating steam t o the vapours. Cascade-type heating of consecutive

evaporator effects ensures multiple utilization of heat in the consecutive

e v a p o r a t i o n s t a g e s . Heat i s further utilized in sugar b o i l i n g , juice heating and

other process sections.

Proper functioning of the evaporator s t a t i o n is v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on the

functioning o f the individual evaporator effects and t h e i r auxiliary equipment.

The cascade-heating p r i n c i p l e works w e l l only if i n t e n s i v e heat t r a n s f e r is

e n s u r e d i n each effect.

In the case o f Robert-type e v a p o r a t o r s , the j u i c e level in the heating tubes

is of primary importance. According to some s o u r c e s ( r e f . 6), the optimal juice

level is 20-30% o f t u b e h e i g h t . The v a l u e s g i v e n i n o t h e r sources are 10-15%

higher (ref. 8). Even i f a difference of, s a y , 10% t u b e height has a limited

influence on t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r intensity, it s h o u l d be remembered t h a t marked

d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e s e v a l u e s w o u l d h a v e an u n f a v o u r a b l e e f f e c t on juice

thickening.

For the correct operation of f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporators, sufficient liquid

wetting o f the tube wall is necessary. Too small a juice flow is associated

with the risk that the f i l m w i l l tear apart, this resulting in local

s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n and i n c r u s t a t i o n s forming on t h e tube w a l l . Practical experience

proves that liquid wetting c a n be e v a l u a t e d u s i n g v o l u m e f l o w per u n i t length of

264

tube circumference at the o u t l e t . As a f i r s t approximation o f minimum w e t t i n g

for the evaporation o f sugar s o l u t i o n s , the value of 15 1 i t r e s / ( h - c m ) can be

used.

Heat t r a n s f e r can a l s o be h i n d e r e d by i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in steam c o n d e n s a t i o n on

the outer s u r f a c e s o f the heating tubes. This can be a v o i d e d i f noncondensables

are vented e f f e c t i v e l y , and i f the condensate drainage prevents the condensate

level from r i s i n g above t h e o u t l e t nozzles. Extreme care i s recommended h e r e , as

both l e a k i n g steam t r a p s and e x c e s s i v e v e n t i n g may c a u s e u n n e c e s s a r y v a p o u r

losses. For d e t a i l s , s e e c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e u n d e r S e c t i o n 3.2.1 and venting

under Section 3.2.2.

I n many s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , scale build-up on t h e internal surfaces of heating

t u b e s and t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g r e d u c t i o n o f t h e heat t r a n s f e r intensity may l e a d to

a situation where the t o t a l temperature decrease in the evaporator (from

heating-steam temperature to thick-juice temperature) becomes i n s u f f i c i e n t for

the required juice thickening. If the processing c a p a b i l i t y is held constant,

a l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i c k j u i c e must be a l l o w e d w h i c h , in turn, causes

i n c r e a s e d heat consumption in the s u g a r h o u s e and f i n a l l y in the e n t i r e sugar

factory. The s i t u a t i o n can be b r o u g h t back t o normal if the scale is removed.

Actually, earlier s c a l e removal is recommended, as i t allows elimination of non-

optimal heat u t i l i z a t i o n ; also, it is easier to remove t h e thinner scale layers.

The c h o i c e o f t h e moment a t w h i c h s c a l e r e m o v a l s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n can be

b a s e d on o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients in the evaporator

effects. This r e q u i r e s measuring the q u a n t i t i e s needed t o calculate the heat

transfer coefficients.

As p r e s e n t e d a b o v e , t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r check i s to determine the

course of the m u l t i - s t a g e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s , and p o s s i b l y t o introduce some

p r o c e s s c o r r e c t i o n s aimed a t r e d u c t i o n of the steam c o n s u m p t i o n . In a well

d e s i g n e d and p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d evaporator, it w o u l d be e n o u g h t o check the

temperature differences in the individual effects and t h e o v e r a l l concentration

increase. If, however, t e c h n i c a l characteristics and c o r r e c t n e s s o f operation

have t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g measurements a r e n e c e s s a r y :

- steam f l o w to the f i r s t effect, ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b);

- temperature and p r e s s u r e i n heating chambers o f individual effects, t p t^,

.., (°C); p^, p^, .., (bar);

- temperature and p r e s s u r e i n v a p o u r chambers o f individual effects, t p t^, ..,

(°C); p^, p^, .., (bar);

- thin-juice flow, G¿ ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b);

- thin-juice temperature, t^, and j u i c e temperature in the individual effects,

t l t¡, .., (°C);

- thin-juice concentration, b^, and j u i c e concentrations at consecutive outlets,

 265

bp b^, .., (% D S ) .

It is important to adapt the measuring t e c h n i q u e s to the peculiarities of

multi-stage evaporation, particularly in temperature determination. In the

following, it is assumed t h a t the thermometers in t h e v a p o u r chambers a r e placed

close to the top o f the heating tubes, thus indicating the temperatures of the

superheated vapours ( s a t u r a t i o n temperature + boiling point elevation).

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t reliability of the t e s t results can be a c h i e v e d

only if t h e measurements a r e p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g steady-state evaporator operation,

when p a r a m e t e r and j u i c e - l e v e l oscillations are limited. Extreme care is

recommended when c o l l e c t i n g juice samples f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n measurements. In

principle, test cocks f o r juice sampling s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h w a t e r coolers,

so t h a t the j u i c e can be c o o l e d t o a b o u t 20°C. D u r i n g t h e t e s t , the cocks are

o p e n e d so t h a t a s t e a d y j u i c e flow is ensured, and t h e samples a r e c o l l e c t e d in

vessels l a r g e enough t o ensure concentration averaging.

Sufficient sampling a c c u r a c y can be o b t a i n e d e v e n if the j u i c e samples have

n o t been c o o l e d . T h e n , however, the concentration values determined in the

laboratory s h o u l d be c o r r e c t e d f o r self-evaporation effects (these effects must

be taken into account in the samples o f t h i n j u i c e and j u i c e from the first and

second e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s ) . If the laboratory-estimated concentration value

is b*, then the true concentration is

b = b*/(l + Am) (% DS) (7.23)

w h e r e Am i s t h e mass o f w a t e r evaporated from 1 kg o f juice

Am = ( h - hJ/(2676 - h) (kg) (7.24)

a

where h i s the j u i c e enthalpy in the test cock o u t l e t , w h i c h c a n be calculated

as approximately

h = 4.19(1 - 0 . 5 2 b / 1 0 0 ) t (kJ/kg) (7.25)

and h is the enthalpy of the boiling juice at atmospheric pressure. For typical
a
juice concentrations, it can be c a l c u l a t e d as

thin juice h^ = 421 - 2.19b (kJ/kg)

juice after first effect h^ = 423 - 2 . 2 0 b (kJ/kg)

a
juice after second e f f e c t h = 430 - 2 . 2 3 b (kJ/kg).
a
Once t h e a b o v e q u a n t i t i e s h a v e been m e a s u r e d , i t becomes p o s s i b l e to

identify the course of the m u l t i - s t a g e evaporation process. From t h e dry matter

balance equation for the i-th evaporator effect

G¿bo = G J b . (7.26)

we can c a l c u l a t e the j u i c e flow

= G¿bQ/b. (kg/100 kg b ) (7.27)

Next, t h e mass o f e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r can be calculated

266

W. = G^_^ - (kg/100 kg b ) (7.28)

The e f f e c t i v e temperature difference in the i-th effect is

At. = - (7.29)

(This formula is valid only i f tV i s t h e v a p o u r t e m p e r a t u r e measured i n the

v a p o u r chamber c l o s e t o t h e j u i c e surface. If the temperature i s measured a t the

v a p o u r chamber o u t l e t , then the e f f e c t i v e d i f f e r e n c e must be r e d u c e d b y the

value of boling point elevation.)

Using the q u a n t i t i e s determined a c c o r d i n g t o the above f o r m u l a e , the overall

heat t r a n s f e r coefficient can be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a g r a p h g i v e n i n r e f . 2. It is

also p o s s i b l e to apply a simple iterative a l g o r i t h m w h i c h can c o n v e n i e n t l y be

computerized. The a l g o r i t h m uses the thermodynamic f u n c t i o n s h"(t) and h'(t),

i.e. e n t h a l p i e s o f d r y s a t u r a t e d steam and s a t u r a t e d w a t e r as f u n c t i o n s of

temperature, and h ' ^ ( t , b ) , i.e. juice e n t h a l p y as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature and

concentration. T h e amount o f h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d in unit time is

= (1 + e . ) ( W . ( h " ( t ^ ) - h'(tp) + G^(hJ(t^.pb..^) - hJ(tJ,b.))) (7.30)

where e / i s t h e heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t o f the i-th evaporator effect.

The o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient can be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e formula

k. = Q./(F.At.) (7.31)

In c o n c l u s i o n , l e t us s p e c i f y t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r evaporator checking.

A routine check s h o u l d c o n s i s t s o f r e c o r d i n g the j u i c e and v a p o u r temperatures

in the individual effects and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h i n and t h i c k j u i c e . T h e

r e c o r d i n g f r e q u e n c y s h o u l d be a t l e a s t every 0.5-1.0 hour.

I n p e r i o d i c c h e c k s , a more d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the evaporator,

including the determination o f heat t r a n s f e r coefficients, i s necessary. In

order to ensure the r e l i a b i l i t y of results, test durations of at l e a s t 4-6 hours

s h o u l d be a d o p t e d . I n the case o f heat t r a n s f e r o b s e r v a t i o n s , the t e s t s should

be p e r f o r m e d e v e r y 10 d a y s , and e v e n more f r e q u e n t l y when marked d r o p s i n heat

transfer coefficients h a v e been o b s e r v e d .

7.6.2 Example

I n a s u g a r f a c t o r y o p e r a t e d a t a c a p a c i t y o f 4000 t / d , a 4-hour t e s t of the

evaporator station has been p e r f o r m e d . T h e h e a t t r a n s f e r areas in four

2
consecutive evaporator effects a r e : 2100, 2400, 2100 and 1050 m . T h e mean

values of t h i n - j u i c e f l o w and t h i n - j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e Gjj = 124.9 kg/100 kg

beet, bg = 13.9% D S . O t h e r t e s t data are g i v e n i n the upper p a r t of Table 7.7.

Using eqns. ( 7 . 2 7 ) , (7.28) and ( 7 . 2 9 ) , juice flows, amounts o f water

e v a p o r a t e d and e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d , a s shown in

the centre o f Table 7.7.

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Finally, the graph given in ref. 2 c a n be u s e d . The r e s u l t i n g values of

overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients a r e shown i n the lower p a r t of Table 7.7.

TABLE 7.7

Example o f e v a p o r a t o r t e s t results.

E f f e c t No. 1 2 3 4

J u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t o u t l e t (% DS) 21 35 52 60
T e m p e r a t u r e i n h e a t i n g chamber ( ° C ) 134.0 127.4 119.7 110.0
T e m p e r a t u r e i n v a p o u r chamber (°C) 128.5 121.0 112.9 103.7

J u i c e f l o w ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 82.0 49.3 33.2 28.7

W a t e r e v a p o r a t i o n ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 43.0 32.7 16.1 4.5
E f f e c t i v e temperature d i f f e r e n c e (K) 5.5 6.4 6.8 6.3

Heat t r a n s f e r coefficient (Wimh)) 3.84 2.20 1.14 0.70

7.6.3 Extractor

The e s s e n t i a l extractor functions, i.e. proper exhaustion of cossettes and

obtaining high-purity raw j u i c e , a r e d e p e n d e n t on r a p i d heating of the inflowing

cossettes for denaturation of living cells, followed by e x t r a c t i o n at a

temperature level o f 70-74°C. The p a r t of the h e a t economy r e l a t e d to extraction

is aimed p r e c i s e l y a t that operation. The f o l l o w i n g discussion applies mostly to

the t r o u g h - t y p e (DOS) e x t r a c t o r s , but the general recommendations and comments

on m o n i t o r i n g principles and m e t h o d s are also v a l i d for other extractor types.

There are four heating jackets in trough-type extractors; two o f them are

u s u a l l y h e a t e d by s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r a t a temperature of 112-115°C, w h i l e the

other two a r e h e a t e d b y t h i r d - e f f e c t vapour at 103-105°C. Extractor monitoring

is aimed m a i n l y at checking whether the requirements of extraction temperature

and c o r r e c t n e s s o f heat supply are f u l f i l l e d . The p r e r e q u i s i t e for correct

extractor operation is efficient c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e and e f f i c i e n t venting of

heating jackets; the control problems in this area were d i s c u s s e d i n Sections

3.2.1 and 3 . 2 . 2 . Other thermal problems c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e extraction

process itself. For c o r r e c t interpretation of the check r e s u l t s , it is

recommended t h a t consideration be g i v e n t o heat t r a n s f e r in two p a r t s of the

extractor: A - cossettes heating zone; Β - extraction process zone (where the

temperatures of juice and c o s s e t t e s a r e e q u a l ) , as shown i n Fig. 7.9. G denotes

t h e mass f l o w in k g / l O O kg b , t is the temperature in °C, and C i s the specific

heat in kJ/(kgK). The s u b s c r i p t s denote: b, c o s s e t t e s ; pw, p r e s s w a t e r ; w, fresh

water; j , raw j u i c e ; p, pulp ( e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s ) ; m, j u i c e - c o s s e t t e s mixture

b e t w e e n z o n e s A and B.

Using the d e f i n i t i o n of the e f f i c i e n c y of heat exchange between j u i c e and

cossettes according to ref. 43

Ε = 100.G.C.(t^ - tj)/(G(^C^,(t^ - t(,)) (%) (7.32)

268

Gw CvA/t V

GpCptp

GjCjtj Β

Τ"

F i g . 7 . 9 . H e a t b a l a n c e scheme o f t h e t r o u g h e x t r a c t o r . A - front part, Β - rear

p a r t . F o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f s y m b o l s , see t e x t .

we can e x p r e s s t h e h e a t demand f o r cossettes heating as

= ((100 - E)/E)Gj^C^(t^ - t^) (kJ/100 kg b ) (7.33)

Taking into account that = 1 0 0 - G / a , where a i s the raw j u i c e draft i n %, the

relationships between e x t r a c t i o n parameters can be shown diagrammatically

(Fig. 7.10). It can e a s i l y be s e e n t h a t the thermal phenomena a r e highly

d e p e n d e n t on s u c h p r o c e s s f a c t o r s as:

- cossettes quality, as l o w e r q u a l i t y causes a decreased Ε v a l u e ;

50
80 h
α=120
α = 115
Ε = 70
AO
α=110
Ε =80
S 60
L_
Ζ)
Ε =90
Ε
c 30
D ο.
O Ε Ε = 100
Ε Φ
O Φ
^ AO ο
O
Οι 20
Χ
^ Ε=80/

E = go
20 h
10

5 10 15
Cossettes temperature (°C)

F i g . 7.10. R e l a t i o n s h i p between e x t r a c t i o n parameters in the f r o n t p a r t o f the

extractor ( a f t e r r e f . 43). a - j u i c e draft ( % ) , Ε - h e a t e x c h a n g e e f f i c i e n c y {%
 269

- d e - a e r a t i o n o f the j u i c e - c o s s e t t e s m i x t u r e , as i n s u f f i c i e n t de-aeration causes

Ε to decrease;

- juice draft, as i t s increase immediately causes i n c r e a s e d heat consumption in

the extractor;

- stabilization o f the j u i c e level at the outlet screen, as an i n c o r r e c t juice

level may a l s o r e d u c e t h e v a l u e o f E.

The d i a g r a m a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t correct extractor operation necessarily

involves variable juice temperature as a f u n c t i o n of the cossettes temperature.

If the cossettes temperature is low, a lower j u i c e temperature s h o u l d be

accepted, w i t h subsequent j u i c e heating in the heaters before the purification

station. The o p t i m a l temperature difference between j u i c e and c o s s e t t e s is

10-15 K.

In order to achieve a complete e v a l u a t i o n of the thermal conditions, the

extractor check s h o u l d i f p o s s i b l e c o n s i s t o f measuring a l l the quantities

included in the heat balance ( s e e F i g . 7.9 and t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f symbols). For

correct interpretation o f the test results, the following data are also

necessary:

- the cossettes length;

- the j u i c e draft;

- comments on c o s s e t t e s q u a l i t y , de-aeration of the j u i c e - c o s s e t t e s mixture and

the j u i c e level at the o u t l e t screen.

Known v a l u e s o f t h e i n w a r d and o u t w a r d mass f l o w s make i t possible to

calculate the theoretical h e a t demand ( w i t h o u t losses to the environment) from

the energy balance equation

For heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g p u r p o s e s , the real h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n w o u l d be

interesting, but the measuring equipment conventionally installed at the

extractors does n o t a l l o w f o r such a measurement. If additional equipment for

the determination of condensate f l o w is installed, then condensate flows (equal

to vapour f l o w s ) and G g , i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b , c a n be d e t e r m i n e d . Providing that

the vapour temperatures t^ and t g , and c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s t^^ and t ^ g , are

a l s o measured, i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o calculate the heat consumption in both

parts of the extractor

QA = S ^ ^ A " "^-^^^CA) ^9 b) (7.35)

Qß = G g ( h g - 4 . 1 9 t ^ g ) (kJ/100 kg b ) (7.36)

w h e r e h^ and hg a r e t h e e n t h a l p i e s of vapours in kJ/kg, at temperatures t^ and

tg, respectively.

D e p e n d i n g on t h e cossettes temperature, the vapour consumption in Part A is

1 . 5 - 2 . 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b. I n P a r t B, a v a p o u r f l o w of up t o 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b i s required
270

without press-water heating, o r somewhat l e s s if the press water is heated.

Temperature monitoring a t t h e e x t r a c t o r must be r o u t i n e l y performed during

the e n t i r e operations. A heat balance d e t e r m i n a t i o n , possibly including

c o n d e n s a t e - f l o w m e a s u r e m e n t s , may become n e c e s s a r y i f unusual problems occur in

extractor operation.

7.6.4 Juice heaters

The h e a t s u p p l y t o the j u i c e o r o t h e r media in the heaters is aimed at

a t t a i n i n g the temperature needed f o r such u n i t operations as liming,

carbonatation, filtration, etc. Attention s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d , however, not only

to the f u n c t i o n i n g o f each p a r t i c u l a r heater, but also to the operation of all

h e a t e r s v i e w e d as an i m p o r t a n t part of the h e a t e c o n o m y . From t h a t point of

view, h e a t economy m o n i t o r i n g should comprise checking the temperatures of the

media f o r their correspondence with process requirements, as w e l l as inspecting

the suitability of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of h e a t i n g media ( c o n d e n s a t e and v a p o u r s

f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r and vacuum p a n s ) . T h e e s s e n t i a l principle of heat-saving

media d i s t r i b u t i o n is to supply the heater with a medium a t a temperature high

enough t o heat the j u i c e , but not too h i g h . D e p e n d i n g on h e a t e r d e s i g n , heat

transfer a r e a and j u i c e velocity, the vapour temperature s h o u l d be n o t higher

t h a n 5-10 Κ above the final juice temperature (see a l s o S e c t i o n 3.3.2 on

utilization of vapours).

Regarding i n d i v i d u a l heaters, t h e y s h o u l d be t h o r o u g h l y inspected for their

functioning as h e a t r e c e i v e r s . I n t h e case o f vapour h e a t i n g , the condensate

level in the heating chamber i s particularly important (see also Section 3.2.1

on c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e ) . T h e c o n d e n s a t e l e v e l s h o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d t o rise

above t h e o u t l e t nozzles, as t h i s would reduce the e f f e c t i v e overall heat

transfer coefficient, making i t more d i f f i c u l t to attain the proper juice

temperature. Similar problems o c c u r i f heat t r a n s f e r is hampered b y the

accumulation o f noncondensables; the heater check s h o u l d t h u s include inspection

of the vents (see Section 3 . 2 . 2 ) . The heat t r a n s f e r intensity can a l s o be

r e d u c e d by s c a l e b u i l d - u p in the heating tubes; this is another problem to be

accounted f o r in the inspection.

I n o r d e r t o make c a l c u l a t i o n s of heat balance p o s s i b l e , the following

measurements a r e required:

- j u i c e mass f l o w , G (kg/100 kg b);

- juice inlet temperature, t^ (^C);

- juice outlet temperature, t^ (°C);

- juice c o n c e n t r a t i o n , b (% D S ) ;

- v a p o u r o r c o n d e n s a t e ( s e e b e l o w ) mass f l o w , G^ (kg/100 kg b);

- vapour temperature, t^, and c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e , t^ (°C) (or, in the case

 271

of condensate h e a t i n g , initial and f i n a l temperatures, t^-j, t^^ (°^)»

condensate l e v e l in the heating chamber s h o u l d be w a t c h e d a t the same time).

T h e measurements s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d during steady-state heater operation,

p o s s i b l y at the j u i c e flow corresponding to the nominal processing capability of

the factory. T h e recommended t e s t duration is at least 1-2 hours, with an

instrument-reading frequency of 5-10 minutes. After mean p a r a m e t e r values have

been c a l c u l a t e d , the heat t r a n s f e r intensity s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d f i r s t . If the

c o r r e c t value o f the vapour ( o r inlet condensate) temperature is accompanied by

an i n s u f f i c i e n t juice temperature increase (with proper condensate drainage and

venting), then s c a l i n g on t h e heating s u r f a c e s may be s u s p e c t e d .

At known j u i c e - m a s s flow, G, the heat consumed can be c a l c u l a t e d as

Q = GC(t2 - t^)(l + n) (kJ/100 kg b ) (7.37)

where the specific heat o f the j u i c e , C (kJ/(kgK)), can be f o u n d in tables or

calculated as a f u n c t i o n of the j u i c e concentration, b, and η i s the heat loss

coefficient.

On v a p o u r h e a t i n g , heat consumption on t h e v a p o u r s i d e can be d e t e r m i n e d only

if perfect operation of the steam t r a p s is ensured ( t h a t is, only if steam

leakage in the condensate stream is eliminated). The condensate f l o w can be

measured by a v o l u m e t r i c method, by c a t c h i n g the condensate in a special

container. The heat consumption can t h e n be c a l c u l a t e d as

Q = G^(h" - 4.19t^) (kJ/100 kg b ) (7.38)

where h" d e n o t e s v a p o u r e n t h a l p y in kJ/kg.

In the case o f condensate h e a t i n g , the corresponding formula is

Q = G^-4.19(t^^ - t^2) kg b ) (7.39)

As t o the frequency of heater check measurements, an i n s p e c t i o n of

temperatures b e f o r e most important unit operations s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d routinely

during the entire season. Any i r r e g u l a r i t i e s noticed in the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

heating media t o the individual h e a t e r s must immediately be c o r r e c t e d . Detailed

investigations of heater o p e r a t i o n may be r e q u i r e d if difficulties occur in the

heating o f process media.

7.6.5 B a t c h vacuum pans

Sugar b o i l i n g is a decisive operation for sugar y i e l d and s u g a r q u a l i t y . The

boiling time, combined w i t h installed pan v a p a c i t y , can be a l i m i t a t i o n to sugar

factory processing capability. In a d d i t i o n , the heat consumption for sugar

b o i l i n g may i n v o l v e 40-50% o f the total process-heat consumption. As a

consequence, investigations of heat consumption i n vacuum p a n s must be ser: as

one o f t h e most s e r i o u s t a s k s in heat-economy monitoring.

In p r a c t i c e , a h e a t economy c h e c k in the s u g a r h o u s e c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d from

272

a technological check. The reason i s that the heat consumption for sugar boiling

d e p e n d s on t h e amounts and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of thick juice and r e m e l t , as w e l l as

on t h e amount o f w a t e r introduced into the s u g a r house v i a such o p e r a t i o n s as

dilution of s y r u p s , w a s h i n g and i n t a k e s to vacuum p a n s .

The t o t a l consumption o f vapours f o r sugar b o i l i n g in a vacuum pan ( o r in

a g r o u p o f vacuum p a n s ) can be e x p r e s s e d as t h e sum

= + G^ (kg/100 kg b ) (7.40)

where G^ i s the vapour consumption for boiling sugar s o l u t i o n s , and G ^ i s the

vapour consumption for the evaporation of additional water from intakes. Both

quantities d e p e n d on t e c h n o l o g i c a l parameters according to the formulae (ref. 8)

G^ = u M ^ Í C g í t ^ - t^) + (1 - b^/b^)(h^ - h))/(h^ - h^) (kg/100 kg b ) (7.41)

G^ = W(h^ - h)/(h^ - h^) (kg/100 kg b ) (7.42)

where u i s the loss coefficient (1.1-1.2), is the total amount o f sugar

solutions supplied to t h e vacuum pan i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b , bj^ i s the final

concentration o f massecuite i n % DS, is t h e mean s p e c i f i c heat o f the

solutions in kJ/(kgK), t|^ is the boiling temperature in °C, t^ is the mean

initial temperature of the s o l u t i o n s in °C, h , is the enthalpy of the vacuum-pan

w
vapour, h is the enthalpy of water at temperature t^, h^ i s the enthalpy of the

heating v a p o u r , h^ i s the condensate enthalpy (all enthalpies in kJ/kg), and W

is the amount o f w a t e r from intakes, in k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

The a b o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s prove that t h e most important factor in obtaining

heat savings in sugar b o i l i n g is adherence to the technological guidelines. It

is particularly important to maintain high values in the concentrations of thick

juice, s y r u p s and r e m e l t . Should any o f the concentrations decrease, the

resulting decrease in b^ v a l u e w o u l d r e s u l t i n an i n c r e a s e d v a l u e o f vapour

c o n s u m p t i o n , G ^ . W a t e r i n t a k e s t o vacuum p a n s s h o u l d be r e d u c e d t o a minimum;
o t h e r w i s e , t h e f a c t o r G w o u l d c a u s e an u n n e c e s s a r y i n c r e a s e i n v a p o u r
w
consumption. On t h e other hand, the vacuum i n the pans i s also important, as

this is the essential factor in ensuring intensive heat t r a n s f e r , which is

necessary to maintain short boiling times without increasing energy expenditure.

As t o the individual vacuum p a n s , t h e i r operation as h e a t receivers should

be t h o r o u g h l y investigated. T h e most important points are:

- condensate drainage from the heating chamber;

- venting of the heating chamber;

- elimination of incrustations from the heat t r a n s f e r surface.

The measurements needed f o r monitoring purposes a r e :

- boiling temperature, tj^;

- v a p o u r p r e s s u r e , Pj^;

- heating-vapour temperature, t^;

 273

- condensate temperature, t^.

Values of the above parameters enable us, e v e n t u a l l y , to determine the enthalpy

values appearing in eqns. (7.39) and ( 7 . 4 0 ) . (It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d out that

performing t h e measurements entails overcoming specific obstacles related to

sugar boiling (ref. 16).) At the end o f the strike, the amount o f m a s s e c u i t e M^,

and t h e f i n a l concentration b|^, become k n o w n .

The measurements should comprise at least two s t r i k e s . The f r e q u e n c y of

instrument r e a d i n g s s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o the strike duration (at least 10-15

readings).

Using the estimated mean v a l u e o f t h e concentration of sugar solutions

supplied to t h e vacuum p a n , the amount o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d from the solutions

can be c a l c u l a t e d as

= M^(b./b^ - 1) (kg/100 kg b ) (7.43)

D i r e c t measurement o f the total vapour consumption is often impossible for

lack of f l o w meters at individual vacuum p a n s . Providing that condensate

d r a i n a g e and v e n t i n g do n o t cause vapour l e a k s , volumetric determination of the

condensate amount, equal to G ^ , can p o s s i b l y be u s e d . Condensate f l o w can also

be m e a s u r e d w i t h the aid of an i n d u c t i v e f l o w meter installed as shown

schematically in F i g . 7. 11. A condensate tank equipped w i t h a water-level

indicator and a s e p a r a t e s i g h t g l a s s make i t possible to check the integral of

the f l o w meter r e c o r d s , and t o check the conditions for correct measurement

( l a r g e movements o f the c o n d e n s a t e column must be a v o i d e d ) .

With p r o p e r vacuum-pan o p e r a t i o n , the vapour consumption during one strike

F i g . 7 . 1 1 . M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e f l o w f r o m t h e h e a t i n g chamber o f
a vacuum pan ( a f t e r r e f . 4 4 ) . 1 - vacuum p a n , 2 - c o n d e n s a t e t a n k w i t h a w a t e r -
level i n d i c a t o r , 3 - flow meter, 4 - s i g h t g l a s s , 5 - pressure-balancing pipe.
 274

should not exceed the value

G. = (1.02 to 1.15)W^ ( k g / l O O kg b ) (7.44)

L e

In r e f . 6, the upper l i m i t of 1.20Wg i s m e n t i o n e d , but t h i s seems t o be

inappropriate i n these days o f energy s h o r t a g e s .

A very useful addition to the monitoring t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e d above i s the

measurement o f t o t a l vapour consumption i n vacuum p a n s . T h i s requires

installation o f a f l o w m e t e r on t h e main p i p e l i n e supplying vapour to the pans.

Even t h o u g h t h i s method i s n o t e n t i r e l y a c c u r a t e when a p p l i e d t o saturated

steam, it g i v e s a much-needed p r a c t i c a l orientation. For r o u t i n e vacuum-pan

checks, actual f l o w v a l u e s and f l o w oscillations can be e s t i m a t e d , while in

periodic checks, the o v e r a l l level o f v a p o u r c o n s u m p t i o n and a b n o r m a l

c o n s u m p t i o n jumps can be e v a l u a t e d and a n a l y s e d . I n p r i n c i p l e , if the

configuration o f the supply pipes a l l o w s , v a p o u r - f l o w measurement equipment

c o u l d be i n s t a l l e d at each i n d i v i d u a l pan.

7.6.6 Other heat r e c e i v e r s

In addition to t h e main h e a t r e c e i v e r s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h e r e a r e numerous

small heat r e c e i v e r s in a sugar p l a n t : the sugar d r y e r , melter, heated storage

tanks (containing thick juice, remelt, syrups, molasses, e t c . ) , nozzle systems

for w a s h i n g and s t e a m i n g , and m o l a s s e s pumping s y s t e m . If used, cube s u g a r

p r o d u c t i o n and p u l p p e l l e t i n g also contribute to heat consumption.

As e a c h o f t h e individual heat r e c e i v e r s mentioned above i s responsible for

a v e r y small portion of the t o t a l heat consumption, they are u s u a l l y poorly

s u p e r v i s e d or even t r e a t e d m a r g i n a l l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y d e s e r v e more attention,

as t h e i r c o m b i n e d h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n may c o n s t i t u t e a considerable portion of the

total.

The e s s e n t i a l problem i n the monitoring o f small heat r e c e i v e r s i s the

detection of excessive - that is, out of a l l proportion to process

requirements - c o n s u m p t i o n o f steam o r v a p o u r s . E v e n i f the equipment is

properly maintained, this may happen b e c a u s e o f o p e r a t o r e r r o r s ; t y p i c a l cases

a r e s u g a r w a s h i n g and t h e s t e a m i n g - o u t o f vacuum p a n s .

Approximate v a l u e s o f thermal parameters and t h e consumption o f heating

media i n v a r i o u s u n i t s are g i v e n in T a b l e 7.8. The o p e r a t i o n o f the sugar d r y e r

r e q u i r e s t h a t some p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s are a d d i t i o n a l l y measured. I t is

recommended t h a t t h e m o i s t u r e content in sugar from c e n t r i f u g a l s be maintained

a t 0.5-1.5%, the a i r flow at 5-15 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , and t h e a i r temperature at

110-120°C.

Small h e a t r e c e i v e r s s h o u l d be e x a m i n e d a t the beginning o f the season, and

also following temporary shut-downs o r equipment repairs. In the case o f

e q u i p m e n t w h e r e h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n d e p e n d s on o p e r a t o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , additional
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TABLE 7.8

Heating o f v a r i o u s small heat r e c e i v e r s .

Consumption
Equipment Heating medium
( k g / 1 0 0 kg b )

Sugar dryer exhaust steam,

I s t - e f f e c t vapour b e l o w 1.0
Storage tanks (combined) 2nd-effect vapour b e l o w 1.5
Melter 2nd-effect vapour 0.2-0.3
Sugar washing s t e a m 5 b a r , 200°C 1.5-2.0
S t e a m i n g - o u t o f vacuum p a n s exhaust steam,
1st- or 2nd-effect vapour below 1.5
Pulp pelleting steam 5 b a r below 0.2

s p o t c h e c k s a r e recommended ( t h i s applies to sugar washing i n centrifugals and

to the steaming-out o f vacuum pans and p i p e l i n e s ) .

7.7 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

7.7.1 Throttling-desuperheating station

The t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station serves to reduce the steam p r e s s u r e and

decrease its temperature so t h a t certain definite values of both parameters are

attained. In thermal systems, such s t a t i o n s are applied to transform live steam

into l o w - p r e s s u r e steam, t o supplement the t u r b i n e - e x h a u s t steam, o r the

intermediate-pressure steam ( u s u a l l y a b o u t 5 b a r ) to be u s e d i n centrifugals.

The t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g process is shown i n the M o l l i e r diagram in

Fig. 7.12. The p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n consists of throttling the steam f l o w in a

reducing valve at constant enthalpy (segment A B ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e is decreased

by injecting water at state D in s u c h an amount (automatically controlled) that

after mixing it with steam a t state B, t h e final state of the mixture C is close

to saturation. In p r a c t i c e , steam a t the o u t l e t of the throttling-desuperheating

station may be s l i g h t l y superheated, that is, its t e m p e r a t u r e may be 30-40 Κ

above t h e s a t u r a t i o n temperature.

For the e n t i r e thermal system, the f u n c t i o n i n g o f the throttling-

desuperheating station that s u p p l i e s make-up s t e a m t o t h e e x h a u s t steam i s of

particular importance. T h e demand f o r e x h a u s t steam f l u c t u a t e s , following the

changes i n e v a p o r a t o r l o a d s . The t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station should

compensate f o r these f l u c t u a t i o n s , so t h a t constant pressure i s maintained at

the inlet to the heating chamber o f t h e f i r s t evaporator effect.

The check o f t h e t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station s h o u l d be aimed at

verification of the process parameters. In addition to t h e mean parameter

values, fluctuations of actual values are also important. During a t e s t of at

least 1-2 hours, the f o l l o w i n g instrument readings are required every 5 minutes:

- live steam p r e s s u r e and temperature;

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Entropy

F i g . 7.12. Working p r i n c i p l e o f the t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station.

SC - s a t u r a t i o n c u r v e , p^ - p r e s s u r e o f l i v e s t e a m , pg - p r e s s u r e o f make-up
s t e a m ; A - s t a t e o f steam a t i n l e t , Β - s t a t e o f steam a f t e r r e d u c i n g v a l v e ,
C - s t a t e o f steam a t o u t l e t , D - s t a t e o f w a t e r b e f o r e d e s u p e r h e a t e r .

- steam p r e s s u r e a f t e r the reducing valve;

- steam p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e after the desuperheater;

- p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e of water supplied to the desuperheater.

Fluctuations of steam p r e s s u r e can be e s t i m a t e d simply by i n c r e a s i n g the

frequency o f the instrument readings, for example t o every minute. Temperature

fluctuations can be e v a l u a t e d o n l y r o u g h l y , as t h e lag of industrial

thermometers is too large. The r e s u l t s s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t the following

guidelines:

- at t h e mean i n l e t - p r e s s u r e value, constrained within the r e g i o n ±5% a r o u n d the

nominal value, the t o l e r a n c e of t h e mean v a l u e o f t h e reduced pressure i s also

- v e r y good r e d u c e d - p r e s s u r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n means t h a t pressure fluctuations do

n o t e x c e e d ±2% o f its mean v a l u e . However, l a r g e r fluctuations can be a l l o w e d ,

provided that disturbances in the system o p e r a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y the turbine) are

avoided;

- the steam t e m p e r a t u r e after the desuperheating s h o u l d be h i g h e r than the

saturation temperature, because t h i s is the o n l y way t o eliminate the

uncontrollable presence of excess water. However, superheating should not

e x c e e d 40 K.

In order to interpret test results correctly, attention s h o u l d be g i v e n to

the operating conditions. There are at least three requirements for normal
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operation o f the throttling-desuperheating station; namely, load fluctuations

s h o u l d be no more i n t e n s i v e than under average o p e r a t i n g conditions, the boiler

l o a d s h o u l d be r e a s o n a b l y l o w e r t h a n its maximum c a p a c i t y , and t h e pressure of

water supplied to the d e s u p e r h e a t e r s h o u l d be a t l e a s t 4 bar h i g h e r than the

r e d u c e d steam p r e s s u r e .

It is recommended t h a t t h e t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station is checked at

the beginning o f the s e a s o n and t h e n p e r i o d i c a l l y e v e r y t e n d a y s o r two w e e k s .

7.7.2 Barometric condensers

The v a p o u r - c o n d e n s i n g s t a t i o n p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role, as i t influences such

important p r o c e s s e s as s u g a r b o i l i n g , while also interacting w i t h the thermal

system because i t absorbs large amounts of heat to be d i s s i p a t e d to the

environment. An i m p o r t a n t process requirement is that the condensers should

ensure the constant low p r e s s u r e ( h i g h vacuum) that is necessary to obtain low

b o i l i n g temperatures and r a p i d thickening of sugar s o l u t i o n s in the batch vacuum

pans. A thermal requirement is that the temperature of barometric water should

be as l o w as p o s s i b l e , b u t h i g h enough t o ensure rapid heat d i s s i p a t i o n in the

cooling towers. In double-stage condensing systems, it may be i m p o r t a n t to get

water from the first stage with a temperature sufficiently high to s e r v e as feed

water for the extraction process. Simultaneously, the operation of the vapour-

condensing s t a t i o n is d e p e n d e n t on e f f i c i e n t e v a c u a t i o n o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s by

vacuum pumps and a l s o on h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n from the cooling towers.

The e s s e n t i a l problem in condenser i n s p e c t i o n is to determine the cooling-

water consumption w h i l e collecting i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e condensation process. This

makes i t possible to check whether process requirements are s a t i s f i e d , and

whether the water consumption can be d e c r e a s e d . T h e recommended condenser-test

duration is 4-6 h o u r s . The f o l l o w i n g measurements s h o u l d be r e c o r d e d e v e r y 20-30

minutes:

- t h e vacuum i n the condenser at the vapour i n l e t nozzle level;

- t h e vacuum i n t h e upper p a r t of the condenser above the cooling water inlet;

- the temperature of the vapours s u p p l i e d to the condenser;

- t h e mass f l o w of cooling water;

- the temperature of the cooling water before the condenser;

- the temperature of the barometric water at the condenser o u t l e t (at both

outlets in a double-stage condensing station).

Test results s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d against the following guidelines:

- the d e s i r a b l e vacuum i n the condenser centre is a b o u t 0.8 bar (600 mm H g ) , as

against 0.88 bar (660 mm Hg) i n its upper part;

- the desirable temperature of the barometric water in a single-stage condenser

is 45-50°C;
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- in a double-stage condenser, the temperature of the barometric water should

be 60-65°C in the first s t a g e and 40-45°C in the second s t a g e ;

- the difference between t h e saturation temperature at actual condenser pressure

and t h e barometric water temperature should not e x c e e d 5 K.

Operating conditions at the time o f the test s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d f o r in the

evaluation of test results. The e f f i c i e n c y of t h e vacuum pumps and the

temperature of the cooling water are e s p e c i a l l y important, as w e l l as v a p o u r -

flow fluctuations, because a temporary flow i n c r e a s e may i n d u c e l o w e r e d vacuum.

U n d e r normal factory-operating conditions, possible d i f f i c u l t i e s in

maintaining appropriate v a c u u m , as w e l l as t o o large a difference between

saturation and b a r o m e t r i c - w a t e r temperatures, indicate that the condenser is

o v e r l o a d e d by e x c e s s i v e v a p o u r f l o w . In t h i s case, the flow velocity of the

vapours in the f r e e - f l o w c r o s s - s e c t i o n area of the c o n d e n s e r s h o u l d be verified.

The approximate value (neglecting heat losses to the environment) of the vapour

mass f l o w , G^, c a n be calculated from the e q u a t i o n s of c o n d e n s e r mass and

energy balances

+ = G^, (7.45)

w h e r e G. is the unknown mass f l o w of barometric water in k g / h , G, is the known

D W
mass f l o w of cooling water in kg/h, and h ^ , h ^ and hj^ a r e e n t h a l p i e s in kJ/kg,

w h i c h can be d e t e r m i n e d as f u n c t i o n s of known t e m p e r a t u r e s t^, t^ and t ^ . Upon

determination of t h e v a p o u r mass flow

^ = • - \ ^ (kg/h) (7.47)
the flow velocity can be c a l c u l a t e d as
w = G^vy((TTd2/4)-3600) (m/s) (7.48)
where v ^ i s the specific volume, i n m'^/kg, o f d r y s a t u r a t e d steam a t temperature

t^, and d i s the inner diameter of the condenser body, i n m. T h e f l o w velocity

should not exceed 50-60 m/s.

It is recommended t h a t the condensers are checked a t the beginning of the

season; after that, inspection s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n w h e n e v e r d e v i a t i o n s from

normal condenser operation occur.

7.7.3 Steam traps

As emphasized i n Section 3.2.1, one o f t h e essential requirements of proper

steam o r v a p o u r h e a t i n g is reliable condensate d r a i n a g e . This requirement can be

satisfied, providing t h a t the entire system i s p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d and maintained.

In p r a c t i c e , it is not unusual that design errors or makeshift modifications

c a u s e steam c o n s u m p t i o n in individual equipment units to i n c r e a s e by 25-50%

above t h e actual need. It s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d here t h a t the prerequisite for
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routine checking o f steam t r a p s is to eliminate such e r r o r s .

C h e c k i n g o f steam t r a p s is aimed a t detecting and e l i m i n a t i n g malfunctioning

traps. C o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e can be o b s e r v e d a t w a t e r - l e v e l gauges t h a t indicate

the condensate l e v e l in the heating chambers o f t h e relevant apparatus. Nozzle-

t y p e steam t r a p s are often equipped w i t h s i g h t - g l a s s e s t h a t make i t possible to

o b s e r v e steam l e a k s . When i r r e g u l a r i t i e s are detected, it may be n e c e s s a r y t o

refer to the measuring instruments in the thermal system; however, i f the

pressure drop across the t r a p does n o t d i f f e r much f r o m its nominal value, trap

damage can be s u s p e c t e d . A damaged t r a p must be r e p l a c e d w i t h o u t delay.

Steam t r a p operation can a l s o be i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g an u l t r a s o n i c sound

detector (ref. 45). A less reliable method e m p l o y s a s t e t h o s c o p e , o r e v e n a

metal rod touching the t r a p surface (an i n i t i a l trial s h o u l d be made t o ensure

that this method i s efficient).

7.7.4 Steam and v a p o u r pipelines

T h e e q u i p m e n t and m a c h i n e s in a thermal system are i n t e r c o n n e c t e d by

pipelines for transport of steam, vapour or w a t e r . Steam and v a p o u r pipelines

are p a r t i c u l a r l y important because o f their influence on t h e e n e r g y utilization.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t correct operation of a steam p i p e l i n e depends,

in the f i r s t p l a c e , on s a t i s f y i n g basic construction rules s u c h as pipe-

positioning with the s l o p e needed f o r condensate f l o w - o f f , applying necessary

d r a i n a g e and v e n t i n g , providing appropriate thermal insulation, installing by­

pass l i n e s , etc. These r u l e s are p a r t i c u l a r l y important for safe start-up and

shut-down, as w e l l as f o r the smooth r e p a i r and m a i n t e n a n c e o f individual

equipment u n i t s without affecting the operation of the entire system. It is not

unusual in p r a c t i c e , however, to find that these r u l e s are not completely

satisfied due t o design e r r o r s or makeshift modifications. It s h o u l d be

understood here t h a t the prerequisite for normal pipeline checking is to

eliminate errors of that kind.

Checking o f steam p i p e l i n e s is aimed at:

- steam-leakage detection and elimination;

- thermal-insulation i n s p e c t i o n and repair.

Steam-leakage d e t e c t i o n consists of finding leakages to the environment and

uncontrolled flows through f a u l t y d r a i n s o r v e n t s , as w e l l as f l o w s i n d u c e d by

leaking valves in by-pass or reserve l i n e s . T h i s may be a d i f f i c u l t task in

complex p i p i n g systems; i t c a n be made e a s i e r if thermometers and manometers are

installed in all the piping sections. It is sufficient to perform steam-leakage

checks a t the b e g i n n i n g o f the s e a s o n and a f t e r temporary shut-downs or

equipment repairs.

T h e aim o f t h e checks o f thermal insulation is to identify and eliminate

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unnecessary heat l o s s e s from the p i p e l i n e s u r f a c e . Wet o r damaged insulation

s e c t i o n s should immediately be r e p a i r e d . In cases o f wet i n s u l a t i o n , it is

enough t o eliminate the water inflow, as h e a t f l u x from the p i p e s u r f a c e will

cause subsequent d r y i n g . Insulation c h e c k i n g s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d a t the factory

start-up, and a f t e r equipment o r p i p i n g repairs. Attention s h o u l d be directed

to pipe sections close to fittings, h a n g e r s and c o m p e n s a t i o n p i e c e s .

7.7.5 Vents

The h e a t i n g chambers o f e q u i p m e n t h e a t e d by v a p o u r s , s u c h as e v a p o r a t o r s ,

juice h e a t e r s and p r i m a r i l y vacuum p a n s , s h o u l d be c o n t i n u o u s l y v e n t e d .

Noncondensable gases p r e s e n t i n condensing vapours tend to accumulate in the

lower regions of heating chambers. It is usually at these p o i n t s , and

particularly w h e r e t h e v a p o u r p a t h s e n d , t h a t v e n t i n g n o z z l e s s h o u l d be

installed (ref. 46); the n o z z l e s s h o u l d be c o n n e c t e d t o pipes equipped with

v a l v e s t h a t make i t possible to control the flow.

If venting does n o t p r e v e n t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f noncondensable gases, then

their increased partial p r e s s u r e causes the p a r t i a l pressure o f the steam to

decrease, which in turn decreases the condensation temperature. Insufficient

venting thus r e s u l t s in a decreased e f f e c t i v e temperature difference and less

intensive heat t r a n s f e r w h i c h means:

- decreased j u i c e evaporation in the e v a p o r a t o r s ;

- decreased f i n a l juice temperature in the heaters;

- longer boiling time in the b a t c h vacuum p a n s .

Venting always causes a c e r t a i n amount o f steam t o escape, together with the

noncondensable gases. It is thus important to reduce t h a t amount t o a minimum

and, if possible, to r e c o v e r heat from the escaping m i x t u r e . Most o f t e n , venting

pipes are connected at s e l e c t e d places in the thermal s y s t e m , as e x p l a i n e d in

Section 3.2.2.

When c o n t r o l l i n g the flow of a gas-vapour mixture, it is recommended t h a t the

valve s p i n d l e be t u r n e d n o t more t h a n 1/4 to 1/3 revolution at a time. It should

be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s kind of flow control is realizable only in the case o f

v e n t s opened t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e , as e x c e s s i v e v e n t i n g is indicated there by

visible steam outflow.

The a c c u r a t e c o n t r o l of venting that is particularly needed i n the

e v a p o r a t o r s would r e q u i r e installation o f p r e c i s i o n thermometers at the steam

n o z z l e before the heating chamber i n l e t and i n the heating chamber c l o s e to

the venting nozzle. Opening o f the control valve should r e s u l t in a temperature

difference o f about 1 K. As i t is practically i m p o s s i b l e t o measure such a small

temperature difference with adequate a c c u r a c y i t is recommended t h a t , instead of

two t h e r m o m e t e r s , a s p e c i a l measuring s y s t e m be u s e d i n c l u d i n g four resistance

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thermometers and an e l e c t r i c a l bridge equipped w i t h four resistors (ref. 47).

This is particularly useful in the s e c o n d and t h i r d evaporator effects where the

concentration o f noncondensables i s highest.

Checking o f v e n t i n g systems should p r i m a r i l y be c a r r i e d out at the beginning

of the season, after temporary s h u t - d o w n s and a f t e r equipment repairs. Also in

cases o f irregularities, indicated by t o o low f i n a l juice temperatures in the

heaters or too slow sugar b o i l i n g in the vacuum p a n s , a v e n t i n g c h e c k s h o u l d be

a standard routine.

7.8 PULP DRYER

7.8.1 Methods o f measurement

It is assumed t h r o u g h o u t this Section that the d r y e r under c o n s i d e r a t i o n is

a classical drum-type d r y e r heated by c o m b u s t i o n gases. Compared t o a thermal

system in sugar manufacture, a pulp d r y e r equipped w i t h its own f u r n a c e is

extremely p r i m i t i v e , as t h e heat is utilized o n l y once ( t h e same a p p l i e s to

dryers utilizing flue gases from b o i l e r s ) . Any h e a t loss in pulp drying is thus

irrecoverable, and t h a t i s why t h e drying p r o c e s s s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y monitored.

A drum-type pulp dryer is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 7.13, together with

a list of quantities that appear in t h e mass and h e a t balances.

p r e s s e d pulp e x h a u s t gas
t2.C02

B.QH

F i g . 7 . 1 3 . P o i n t s o f measurement i n pulp dryer check. 1 - furnace, 2 - feeder,

3 - a f t e r d r y e r . For the e x p l a n a t i o n o f s y m b o l s , see t e x t .

The e s s e n t i a l problem o f m o n i t o r i n g e n e r g y usage i n a pulp dryer is to

determine the heat consumption w h i l e drying a definite amount o f p u l p . The heat

consumption can c o n v e n t i o n a l l y be e x p r e s s e d b y two indices: the dryer

efficiency, η, and t h e heat consumption for the evaporation of 1 kg o f w a t e r , q.

The d r y e r e f f i c i e n c y can be d e f i n e d as
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where is the theoretical h e a t demand f o r evaporating water from the pulp in

kJ, Β is the fuel consumption in kg, and is the heating value of fuel in

kJ/kg.

The h e a t consumption for evaporation of 1 kg w a t e r can be c a l c u l a t e d from the

formula

q = BQ^/W (kJ/kg) (7.50)

where W i s t h e mass o f w a t e r evaporated in the dryer in kg.

In order to determine the above i n d i c e s , it is n e c e s s a r y t o measure the

following quantities:

- mass o f f u e l consumed, Β ( k g ) ;

- heating value of fuel, (kJ/kg);

- mass o f p r e s s e d p u l p , ( k g ) , o r mass o f dried pulp, G^ ( k g ) ;

- mass o f m o l a s s e s a d d e d b e f o r e t h e d r y e r , G ^ ( k g ) ;

- dry matter content in pressed pulp, s^ (%), in dried pulp, S2 ( % ) , and in

molasses, s^ (%);

- pressed pulp temperature before the dryer, t^^ (°C);

- gas t e m p e r a t u r e before the d r y e r drum, t^ (°C), and a t the dryer outlet,

(°C).

In order to attain satisfactory measuring accuracy, care i s required in taking

representative pulp samples f o r the determination o f dry matter content.

T e m p e r a t u r e measurements before the dryer outlet are also very important. The

flue gas t e m p e r a t u r e before the drum must n o t be m e a s u r e d a t the furnace outlet,

but i n s t e a d where the f l u e g a s has a l r e a d y been m i x e d w i t h secondary a i r (fed

for temperature adjustment p u r p o s e s ) and a l s o w i t h air leaking in through gaps

between t h e f u r n a c e and t h e d r u m , as w e l l as a r o u n d t h e pulp intake. Temperature

detectors should thus be i n s t a l l e d at the drum b e y o n d t h e pulp intake. As t o the

outlet temperature measurements, systematic e r r o r s due t o irregularities of the

temperature distribution in the drum o u t l e t must be a v o i d e d . T h e r i g h t place for

temperature measurement is the outlet nozzle of the exhaust fan.

A very useful addition to the above measurements is determination of the CO2

content in t h e gas a t the dryer outlet. Gas s a m p l e s s h o u l d be t a k e n from the

outlet n o z z l e o f the exhaust fan.

In the case o f a p e r i o d i c d r y e r check, it is recommended t h a t the system of

measuring u s e d makes it possible to determine the heat consumption indices and

also to identify the reasons f o r any i r r e g u l a r i t i e s detected. Particularly

useful a r e t h e measurements o f CO2 c o n t e n t in the gas b e f o r e t h e d r y e r drum and

at the d r y e r o u t l e t , as t h e d i f f e r e n c e in CO2 c o n t e n t shows w h e t h e r the drum is

properly sealed. In a d d i t i o n , if the o u t l e t CO2 c o n t e n t and t e m p e r a t u r e are

known, t h e n a p p r o x i m a t e values of heat consumption and g a s h u m i d i t y can be found

in the diagrams given in ref. 8 or other sources.

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R o u t i n e d r y e r m o n i t o r i n g s h o u l d be b a s e d on i n s t r u m e n t readings taken every

hour. T h e n t h e mean v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s (calculated over the e n t i r e test

period) reflect not o n l y the q u a l i t y o f the d r y e r - f u r n a c e system, but a l s o the

influence of disturbances in the operating conditions, s u c h as c h a n g i n g moisture

c o n t e n t o r mass f l o w o f t h e p r e s s e d p u l p .

In p e r i o d i c checks, the investigations a r e aimed a t the determination of

dryer efficiency. Reliable test results can o n l y be o b t a i n e d if the d r y e r load

i s s t a b i l i z e d and no s i g n i f i c a n t disturbances o c c u r . O t h e r w i s e , the thermal

c a p a c i t y o f t h e d r y e r may i n t r o d u c e a considerable heat-balance e r r o r . The test

duration s h o u l d be 8-12 h o u r s , w i t h parameter r e a d i n g s taken e v e r y 30 minutes

and p u l p s a m p l e s c o l l e c t e d e v e r y hour.

7.8.2 Mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a p u l p - d r y i n g plant

The mass b a l a n c e can be a n a l y s e d on t h e basis o f the equation describing the

dry matter stream

G^s^ = G2S2 (7.51)

P r o v i d e d t h a t the p u l p samples a r e r e a l l y representative, very accurate values

o f s^ and S2 can be o b t a i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y analyses. Thus, eqn. (7.51) makes

it possible to v e r i f y the indications o f t h e p r e s s e d - p u l p s c a l e s . T h e mass of

dried pulp l e a v i n g t h e d r y e r , G ^ , can be d e t e r m i n e d by d i r e c t i n g the d r i e d pulp

into a container. Once t h e b a t c h has been w e i g h e d , one can c a l c u l a t e G^ f r o m

eqn. (7.51).

T h e mass o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d i n t h e d r y e r can be c a l c u l a t e d as

W = G^(S2 - S ^ ) / S 2 + G^(S2 - s ^ ) / s 2 (kg) (7.52)

The t h e o r e t i c a l h e a t demand f o r w a t e r e v a p o r a t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d as

= W ( h ^ - h^) (kJ) (7.53)

w h e r e h^ i s t h e e n t h a l p y o f t h e v a p o u r s i n t h e gas a t the d r y e r o u t l e t in kJ/kg,

and h ^ i s t h e e n t h a l p y o f w a t e r in the pressed pulp in k J / k g . The e n t h a l p y h^
can be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m steam t a b l e s or diagrams. Actually, vapours in the outlet
gases are s u p e r h e a t e d ; the temperature is t^ and t h e p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be
u n d e r s t o o d as t h e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f H^O i n g a s . H o w e v e r , a satisfactory
approximation is obtained by a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e i s 1 bar (the resulting
error d o e s n o t e x c e e d 1%). The o t h e r enthalpy value is h^ = 4.19tp^ (kJ/kg).

7.8.3 Economical pulp d r y e r operation

In a reasonably well o p e r a t e d p u l p d r y e r w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l furnace, a

typical efficiency value is 0.75-0.85, while heat consumption per 1 kg
e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r d o e s n o t e x c e e d 3140-3560 kJ/kg.
I n a d r y e r h e a t e d by b o i l e r flue gas, the e f f i c i e n c y value conventionally
c a l c u l a t e d per t o t a l amount o f f u e l consumed i n the boiler is 0.10-0.15, and
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the heat consumption (calculated in the same w a y ) amounts t o 21500-28000 kJ/kg.

Keeping the thermal indices of a dryer at an a p p r o p r i a t e level requires good

understanding of the relationships that affect its heat balance, schematically

shown i n a s i m p l i f i e d Sankey diagram i n Fig. 7.14.

(i) The s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e heat consumption is related to the theoretical heat

demand, c a l c u l a t e d according to eqn. (7.53).

(ii) Pulp d r y i n g requires that the energy introduced into the drying g a s must

exceed the theoretical demand by t h e combined e n e r g y l o s s in the outlet gas,

plus the heat l o s s from the d r y e r drum.

(iii) In order to generate the right amount o f g a s a t the proper temprerature,

it is necessary to b u r n an amount o f fuel that corresponds to the above amount

of energy, plus combustion l o s s e s and h e a t l o s s from the furnace to the

envi ronment.

ω
l_
Cf Heat
theoretically
m
Cí
φ χ
> needed
•σ ώ
ω

Χ
QJ
o

Losses from Exhaust and

furnace radiation
losses

Fig. 7.14. Heat balance o f the pulp drying plant.

It follows from (i) that process tolerances s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d , and t h e final

dry matter content in dried pulp should not exceed the required value.

The need t o m i n i m i z e the exhaust l o s s is apparent in (ii); the outlet gas

temperature s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 9 0 - 1 1 5 ° C , and t h e gas f l o w s h o u l d be m i n i m a l . An

equivalent formulation of the latter requirement is to keep t h e gas temperature

before the d r y e r drum r a t h e r high, at 800-900°C.

Finally, (iii) implies that gas g e n e r a t i o n should proceed with excess air

b e l o w 100-150%; o t h e r w i s e , the gas t e m p e r a t u r e before the d r y e r drum w o u l d be

too low. In actual combustion conditions, the amount o f excess a i r is lower.

The r e m a i n i n g air (secondary a i r ) is introduced separately before the drum inlet

and u t i l i z e d for gas-temperature adjustment. Uncontrollable air leaks through

the gaps between t h e drum and t h e furnace, and a t the pulp intake, are clearly

disadvantageous, leading sometimes to an u n a c c e p t a b l y large temperature drop.

T h e l e a k s may a l s o c a u s e t e m p e r a t u r e distribution irregularities over the drum

 285

cross-section, hampering the pulp-drying process.

In keeping the entire air feed under c o n t r o l , C O ^ measurement in the gas at

the d r y e r o u t l e t is especially useful. Providing the chemical composition of the

fuel and t h e required excess a i r a r e known, it is possible to determine the

desirable volumetric composition of the flue gas b e f o r e the d r y e r drum. Taking

into account the fuel moisture and t h e w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d from the pulp, the

recommended content at the dryer outlet can a l s o be d e t e r m i n e d (and,

preferably, experimentally verified). The d r y e r o p e r a t o r s h o u l d keep t h e actual

content close to the recommended v a l u e , avoiding lower values t h a t indicate

t o o much e x c e s s air.

As a c o n c l u d i n g comment t o (iii), it s h o u l d be s t a t e d t h a t the furnace must

be m a i n t a i n e d in proper condition in order to keep c o m b u s t i o n l o s s e s and heat

dissipation at a minimum.

As a m a t t e r of fact, pulp-drying operation c o n s i s t s o f matching the

requirements on t h e effect of the drying p r o c e s s and t h e energy consumption.

The p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s g i v e n a b o v e make i t possible to a c h i e v e a compromise in

dryer capacity, close to its nominal level. C a p a c i t y changes r e q u i r e modifying

parameter v a l u e s , w h i c h c a u s e s , as a r u l e , increase of heat consumption. For

this reason, the first principle of pulp-dryer operation is to keep t h e capacity

constant; if possible, close to its nominal value.

7.8.4 Example

An o i l - f i r e d , drum-type p u l p d r y e r has been t e s t e d in a 12-hour test and the

following d a t a summarize t h e test results:

- mass o f fuel oil c o n s u m e d , Β = 14077 kg;

- oil heating value, = 40400 kJ/kg;

- mass o f pressed pulp, G-j = 223510 kg;

- mass o f m o l a s s e s added b e f o r e d r y e r , G ^ = 8975 kg;

- dry matter content in pressed pulp, s-j = 17%, in dried pulp, S2 = 90.8%, and

in molasses, s = 76.3%;

- pressed pulp temperature before dryer, t^-j = 20 C ;

- gas t e m p e r a t u r e before d r y e r drum, t-j = 803^0, and a t dryer outlet, t2 = 102°C.

The mass o f w a t e r evaporated in the dryer

W = 223510(90.7 - 17)/90.7 + 8975(90.7 - 76.3)/90.7 = 183042 kg

The v a p o u r e n t h a l p y at the dryer outlet, from steam tables

h^ = 2682 kJ/kg

The t h e o r e t i c a l heat demand

= 183042(2682 - 4 . 1 9 - 2 0 ) = 4.756-10^ kJ

The d r y e r efficiency

η = 4.756-10^/(14077-40400) = 0.836
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The h e a t consumption for evaporation of 1 kg w a t e r

q = ( 1 4 0 7 7 · 4 0 4 0 0 ) / 1 8 3 0 4 2 = 3106 kJ/kg

7.9 COMPUTER-AIDED MONITORING

It can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n s o f this Chapter that once methods

of identification of the heat b a l a n c e s needed t o supervise the heat economy

in a sugar f a c t o r y have been e s t a b l i s h e d , the monitoring p r o c e d u r e s c a n be

routinely a p p l i e d on a r e p e t i t i v e b a s i s . The p r a c t i c a l monitoring then consists

mainly o f data a c q u i s i t i o n , d a t a p r o c e s s i n g and r e p o r t generating, and can be

automated w i t h the aid of a digital computer. This applies, in the first place,

to the routine monitoring tasks (routine c h e c k s ) w h i c h a r e p e r f o r m e d most often,

so t h a t the initial effort needed t o prepare computerized t o o l s can be p a i d back

most quickly.

The importance of computer-aided monitoring to the e n e r g y economy l i e s in the

fact that, b y r e d u c i n g t h e amount o f repetitive and t e d i o u s w o r k a s s o c i a t e d with

the preperation of the heat balances, it creates the possibility of

systematic, detailed evaluation o f the energy processes. This applies not only

to the individual stations discussed in Sections 7.2-7.8, but also to the entire

thermal s y s t e m . On t h i s basis it becomes p o s s i b l e t o control and o p t i m i z e , in

respect of t h e e n e r g y economy o f t h e entire factory, the operating conditions at

t h e most d e c i s i v e p r o c e s s stations.

A general scheme o f t h e data flow on w h i c h c o m p u t e r - a i d e d m o n i t o r i n g of the

factory operation is b a s e d c a n be s e e n i n F i g . 7.15. The p r a c t i c a l applications

of the general idea are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d with respect to data acquisition

techniques, data-base s t r u c t u r e and v o l u m e , the data-base updating and s e a r c h

techniques used, u s e r programs a v a i l a b l e and d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n methods employed.

By a d o p t i n g this kind of structuring of data processing f u n c t i o n s , h o w e v e r , one

is able to apply widely circulated, well proven software components facilitating

DATA INPUT USER

TERMINALS TERMINALS

Software Updating User PRINTER

system programs programs

1
TT PLOTTER
MEASURING Data Data Search
acquisition
INSTRUMENTS programs base programs
1

F i g . 7.15. Scheme o f d a t a f l o w in computer-aided monitoring of the factory

operation.
 287

smooth i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y of the monitoring system.

Monitoring o f t h e e n e r g y economy can be t r e a t e d as one o f t h e functions of

an e x t e n s i v e m o n i t o r i n g system c o v e r i n g v a r i o u s aspects o f f a c t o r y operation, or

it can be p e r f o r m e d by a s p e c i a l i z e d s y s t e m . T h e d a t a management f o r monitoring

p u r p o s e s can be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h that required for computer-based automatic

control, o r can be t r e a t e d independently of the automatic control functions.

Among t h e m o n i t o r i n g p r o b l e m s w h i c h must be s o l v e d i n o r d e r t o r e c o g n i z e the

condition o f the energy processes, evaporator monitoring is of critical

importance. It determines the q u a l i t y of information on t h e most important

p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s , and i s decisive in creating possibilities

of c o r r e c t l y diagnosing the inadequacies of the e n e r g y economy.

The s i m p l e s t approach to evaporator monitoring is to use a p a r t of the data

on f a c t o r y operation, stored off-line in the c o m p u t e r memory f o r statistical

purposes, for determination of the trends in parameter v a l u e s and f o r periodic

mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s c a n be i d e n t i f i e d in

terms o f average v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s , typically c a l c u l a t e d once p e r day o r

once p e r s h i f t . An e x a m p l e o f a p p l i c a t i o n of this a p p r o a c h can be f o u n d in

ref. 45.

A more a d v a n c e d e v a p o r a t o r m o n i t o r i n g procedure is b a s e d on o n - l i n e recording

of the e s s e n t i a l p a r a m e t e r s , measured c o n t i n u o u s l y i n the individual effects,

and o f f - l i n e storing o f the d a t a on j u i c e concentrations periodically determined

by l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s e s . The c a l c u l a t i o n s o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s c a n o n l y be

performed using time-averaged values o f the parameters corresponding to the

periods between l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s e s . However, the recorded values of pressures,

temperatures and f l o w s can be d i s p l a y e d o r p r i n t e d , t h u s making i t possible to

perform d e t a i l e d analyses o f parameter changes d u r i n g factory operation.

Examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n of this type of monitoring p r o c e d u r e s h a v e been

mentioned in the literature (ref. 49).

A monitoring procedure offering almost continuous a v a i l a b i l i t y of complete

d a t a on t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s t o m e a s u r e c o n t i n u o u s l y , and t o record on­

line, all t h e parameters needed t o calculate t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s . This

d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t a l l the j u i c e concentration values characterizing

the state o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r have t o be a u t o m a t i c a l l y measured. It is possible to

identify certain details of t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e evaporator using

indirect m e a s u r e m e n t s , as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y an e x a m p l e r e p o r t e d i n ref. 50. The

amount o f heat t r a n s f e r r e d in the e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s can be d e t e r m i n e d using the

measurements o f condensate f l o w , and t h e condenser l o s s from the last effect can

be c a l c u l a t e d b y m e a s u r i n g t h e vapour flow to the condenser. I t is interesting

to note t h a t the special heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g system d e s c r i b e d in ref. 50

employs a data a c q u i s i t i o n unit handling 64 i n p u t s i g n a l s , and t h e data

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(including the calculations of t h e mass and h e a t balances) are p r o c e s s e d by two

hand-held programmable calculators.

It can be e x p e c t e d t h a t the development of computer technology and t h e rising

importance of e n e r g y economy w i l l result in widespread use o f computer-aided

monitoring of energy processes. Numerous m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m s of this kind are

presently being implemented i n various countries.

REFERENCES

S y m b o l s o f N a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d s u s e d b e l o w : ASTM - U S A , BS - G r e a t B r i t a i n , NF -
F r a n c e , D I N - F R G , COST - U S S R , PN - P o l a n d .

1 K. S c h i e b l , W ä r m e w i r t s c h a f t in der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Τ . S t e i n k o p f f V e r l a g ,
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5 P. H o n i g , P r i n c i p l e s o f S u g a r T e c h n o l o g y , E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r d a m , 1963.
6 F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e d e s Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968.
7 R.A. McGinnis ( E d . ) , Beet Sugar T e c h n o l o g y , Beet Sugar Dev. F o u n d . ,
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8 J . D o b r z y c k i ( E d . ) , P o r a d n i k I n z y n i e r a - C u k r o w n i c t w o , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1973.
9 D. U r b a n ( e t a l . ) , Z u c k e r h e r s t e l l u n g , F a c h b u c h v e r l a g , L e i p z i g , 1980.
10 F. B o s n j a k o v i c , T e c h n i s c h e Thermodynamik, T . S t e i n k o p f f V e r l a g , D r e s d e n ,
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11 T . D . E a s t o p and A . M c C o n k e y , A p p l i e d T h e r m o d y n a m i c s f o r Engineering
T e c h n o l o g i s t s , 3 r d e d n . , Longmans, London and New Y o r k , 1978.
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S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n - H e i d e l b e r g - N e w Y o r k , 1979.
13 M.P. V u k a l o v i c h , T e p l o f i z i c h e s k i e S v o i s t v a Vody i Vodyanogo P a r a ,
M a s h i n o s t r o e n i e , M o s k v a , 1967.
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15 J . C h u d z i n s k i ( e t a l . ) , P o r a d n i k T e r m o e n e r g e t y k a , 2nd e d n . , WNT, W a r s z a w a ,
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16 J . D o b r z y c k i , A u t o m a t y z a c j a w P r z e m y s l e C u k r o w n i c z y m , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1974.
17 J . S t a n e k ( E d . ) , Handbuch d e r M e s s t e c h n i k i n d e r Betriebskontrolle,
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19 R. F r e i e r , K e s s e l s p e i s e w a s s e r , K ü h l w a s s e r - T e c h n o l o g i e , B e t r i e b s a n a l y s e ,
W a l t e r de G r u y t e r , B e r l i n , 1963.
20 F . C o g e t and M. W i n k e l , Le t r a i t e m e n t d e s e a u x de c h a u f f e r i e s dans l e s
s u c r e r i e s , S u c r . B e i g e , 102 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 5-11.
21 R e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e P o l i s h M i n i s t r y o f M i n i n g and E n e r g y ( i n P o l i s h ) ,
M o n i t o r P o l s k i , (51) (1967).
22 R . H . L . Howe, B o i l e r - w a t e r c o n t r o l f o r e f f i c i e n t steam p r o d u c t i o n , in:
R. G r e e n e ( E d . ) , P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982,
p p . 185-188.
23 S a m p l i n g o f i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r , ASTM D 5 1 0 - 6 8 , BS 1 3 2 8 : 1 9 6 8 ; P N - 7 4 / C - 0 4 6 2 0 .
24 S a m p l i n g o f w a t e r f r o m b o i l e r s , ASTM 8 6 0 - 5 4 , BS 1 3 2 8 : 1 9 6 8 ; PN-74/C-04620.
25 E q u i p m e n t f o r s a m p l i n g i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r and s t e a m , ASTM 1 1 9 2 - 7 0 ;
PN-74/C-04620.
26 S a m p l i n g o f s t e a m , ASTM 1 0 6 6 - 6 9 ; BS 3285; PN-74/C-04621.
27 A p p e a r a n c e o f w a t e r , ASTM D 1 8 8 9 - 7 1 ; BS 2690: P a r t 9 ; NF Τ 9 0 - 0 0 2 / 5 0 ;
PN-79/C-04583.
 289

28 P a r t i c u l a t e and d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r i n w a t e r , ASTM D 1 8 8 8 - 6 7 ; NF Τ 9 0 - 0 2 9 / 7 0 ;
COST 1 8 1 6 4 - 7 2 ; P N - 7 8 / C - 0 4 5 4 1 .
29 E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f w a t e r , ASTM D 1 1 2 5 - 6 1 ; BS 2690: P a r t 9 ;
NF Τ 9 0 - 0 3 1 / 7 3 ; P N - 7 7 / C - 0 4 5 4 2 .
30 W a t e r h a r d n e s s , ASTM D 1 1 2 6 - 6 7 ; BS 1 4 2 7 : 1 9 6 2 ; NF Τ 9 0 - 0 0 3 / 5 8 ; P N - 7 1 / C - 0 4 5 5 4 .
31 F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , S u g a r A n a l y s i s - ICUMSA M e t h o d s , ICUMSA, P e t e r b o r o u g h ,
1979.
32 C o a l and o t h e r s o l i d f u e l s , NF Μ 1 0 - 0 0 2 ; GOST 1 9 2 9 2 - 7 3 ; P N - 8 2 / G - 9 7 0 0 1 .
33 F u e l o i l s , ASTM D 3 9 6 - 7 3 ; BS 2869; NF Μ 15-010 and 0 1 1 / 6 8 ; D I N 5 1 6 0 3 - 6 6 ;
GOST 1 0 5 8 5 - 6 3 ; P N - 7 5 / C - 9 6 0 2 4 .
34 S a m p l i n g o f c o a l , ASTM D 2 2 3 4 - 7 2 ; BS 1 0 1 7 : 1 9 7 7 ; NF Μ 0 1 - 0 0 1 ; D I N 51701;
GOST 16479-70; P N - 8 0 / G - 0 4 5 0 2 .
35 S a m p l i n g o f l i q u i d f u e l s , ASTM D 270; BS 3 1 9 5 : 1 9 5 9 ; NF Μ 0 7 - 0 0 1 / 6 0 ;
DIN 51570; GOST 2 5 1 7 - 6 0 ; P N - 6 6 / C - 0 4 0 0 0 .
36 A . A . A v d e e v a , B . S . B e l o s e l s k i i and M . N . K r a s n o v , K o n t r o l T o p l i v a ν E l e k t r o -
s t a n t s i y a k h , E n e r g i y a , M o s k v a , 1973.
37 H. K a r o l c z u k , R a c j o n a l n a G o s p o d a r k a Weglem E n e r g e t y c z n y m , WNT, W a r s z a w a ,
1978.
38 H e a t o f c o m b u s t i o n by bomb c a l o r i m e t e r . S o l i d f u e l s , BS 1016: P a r t 5;
DIN 51900; GOST 1 4 7 - 7 4 ; P N - 8 1 / G - 0 4 5 1 3 . L i q u i d f u e l s , ASTM D 2 4 0 - 6 4 ;
NF Μ 0 7 - 0 3 0 / 6 5 ; GOST 6 7 1 2 - 5 3 ; P N - 7 1 / C - 0 4 0 6 2 .
39 R e q u i r e m e n t s and a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s , steam b o i l e r s , I S O / T C - 6 4 P u b l i c a t i o n s
N o . 40-50 ( 1 9 5 7 - 5 9 ) ; D I N 1942; P N - 7 2 / M - 3 1 2 8 .
40 P. O r l o w s k i , K o t l y Parowe w E n e r g e t y c e P r z e m y s l o w e j , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1976.
41 T . A . S t o a , C a l c u l a t i n g b o i l e r e f f i c i e n c y and e c o n o m i c s , i n : R. G r e e n e ( E d . ) ,
P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982, p p . 2 4 5 - 2 5 0 .
42 R e q u i r e m e n t s and a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s , steam t u r b i n e s , l E C N o . 4 5 / 1 9 7 0 ;
PN-71/M-35520.
43 A . K u b a s i e w i c z and W. L e k a w s k i , P r z e b i e g w y m i a n y c i e p l a w e k s t r a k t o r z e
korytowym, Gaz. Cukrow., 83(3) (1975).
44 K . E . A u s t m e y e r , A n a l y s i s o f s u g a r b o i l i n g and i t s t e c h n i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .
I n t . S u g a r J . , 88 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , P a r t I ( 1 0 4 5 ) 3 - 7 , P a r t I I ( 1 0 4 6 ) 2 3 - 2 9 ,
P a r t I I I (1047) 50-55.
45 S . J . V a l l e r y , A r e y o u r steam t r a p s w a s t i n g e n e r g y ? , i n : R. G r e e n e ( E d . ) ,
P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982, p p . 1 7 0 - 1 8 4 .
46 D. V o i t and A . H u t s i n p i 1 l e r , A p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e v e n t i n g o f
n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 2 3 r d ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o ,
F e b r u a r y 1985.
47 S . Z a g r o d z k i and J . D o b r z y c k i , Removal o f i n c o n d e n s a b l e g a s e s f r o m
c a l a n d r i a s . I n t . S u g a r J . , 71 ( 1 9 6 9 ) 2 3 5 - 2 3 7 .
48 B . L . K a r r e n and M . K . F a v i e l l , A c o m p u t e r a p p r o a c h t o t e c h n i c a l r e c o r d s i n
t h e b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r y l a b o r a t o r y , S u c r . B e i g e , 9 9 ( 2 ) (1980) 63-80.
49 D. P i o t r o w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , Anwenderprogramme f ü r den P r o z e s s r e c h n e r ­
e i n s a t z i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(2) (1981) 135-138.
50 C h . M o l l e r and H . J a n s d o r f , H e a t economy and s u p e r v i s o r y c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l .
I n t . Sugar J . , 87(1034) (1985) 26-31.
290

Chapter 8

STEP-BY-STEP IMPROVEMENTS OF E X I S T I N G ENERGY SYSTEMS

8.1 THE S T E P - B Y - S T E P APPROACH

8.1.1 Introduction

From t h e technical standpoint, it is difficult t o make a c l e a r distinction

between s t e p - b y - s t e p improvements and an e x t e n s i v e m o d e r n i z a t i o n of a sugar

factory. Managers o f factories operated under d i f f e r e n t conditions would

probably interpret t h e s e two t e r m s differently, depending on t h e economic

resources which are a v a i l a b l e to them. It s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e most distinct

differences between s t e p - b y - s t e p improvements and a m o d e r n i z a t i o n can be found

in the methodology of implementation of changes d e c i d e d upon.

While the modernization of a factory consists of a package o f extensive

changes t o be i n t r o d u c e d at once, step-by-step improvements may i n v o l v e numerous

smaller undertakings spread over a longer time p e r i o d . On t h e basis of repeated

reviews of the factory's needs, the objectives are p e r i o d i c a l l y updated and

rationalization measures a r e s e l e c t e d from a l i m i t e d f i e l d of possible

solutions, the limitations being defined by t h e available economic resources.

Consequently, improvements in the e n e r g y - e c o n o m y a r e a can be d e c i d e d upon and

implemented only if they really a r e more u r g e n t than other actions also

considered desirable. High p r i o r i t y is usually assigned, however, to measures

which improve sugar y i e l d or product quality, operational safety and equipment

reliability, while also benefiting e n e r g y economy.

Within the general frame t h u s outlined, various courses of action may be

adopted in a specific factory in accordance w i t h the local conditions. Possible

rationalization measures in the area of e n e r g y economy i n sugar manufacture can

be s y s t e m a t i z e d b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between t h r e e ways t o reduce the energy demand,

(i) Bringing the energy-system operation into parity with its nominal

capabilities, by e l i m i n a t i n g u n n e c e s s a r y d e v i a t i o n s from the required course of

e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s and i m p r o v i n g malfunctioning s u b s y s t e m s and c o m p o n e n t s of the

e n e r g y s y s t e m . T y p i c a l m e a s u r e s a r e as follows:

- e l i m i n a t i n g steam and v a p o u r leaks in the condensate lines;

- e l i m i n a t i n g the c a u s e s o f abnormal parameter fluctuations;

- improving condensate drainage from steam- and v a p o u r - h e a t e d equipment;

- improving the withdrawal of noncondensables from the heating chambers of

evaporators and heaters;

- preventing the formation of scale;

- securing proper quality of the condensate r e t u r n e d from the evaporator to the

boilers;
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- securing proper functioning o f the measuring instruments which are essential

in monitoring energy conversion, d i s t r i b u t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n processes.

(ii) Reducing the t o t a l e n e r g y demand o f t h e sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s . Among

others, the f o l l o w i n g m e a s u r e s can be u n d e r t a k e n :

- reducing the heat d i s s i p a t i o n from the p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g to the

environment;

- reducing the energy consumption f o r a u x i l i a r y purposes in the process plant;

- reducing the water intake to the p r o c e s s ;

- reducing the t o t a l water intake to the sugar house;

- replacing outdated process-equipment units b y new o n e s f a c i l i t a t i n g a better

e n e r g y economy;

- improving the automatic controls for better energy u t i l i z a t i o n in the p r o c e s s .

(iii) Improving the capabilities o f the energy system, i n c l u d i n g the

effectiveness ratio o f the thermal s y s t e m . T y p i c a l m e a s u r e s a r e as follows:

- r e d u c i n g t h e e n e r g y l o s s e s and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n f o r auxiliary purposes

i n t h e power h o u s e ;

- improving t h e power f a c t o r of the e l e c t r i c a l subsystem;

- reducing the heat d i s s i p a t i o n from the components o f the energy system to the

environment;

- improving the utilization of condensates;

- improving the u t i l i z a t i o n of low-pressure vapours;

- optimizing the utilization o f vapours from the evaporator;

- replacing outdated e n e r g y - s y s t e m equipment b y more modern and efficient

machinery;

- improving automatic controls to achieve better efficiency of energy conversion

and d i s t r i b u t i o n processes.

8.1.2 Review o f examples

There is a vast literature devoted to s t e p - b y - s t e p improvements in the energy

economy o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , although it is felt that problems o f rationalization

of power b a l a n c e s a r e n o t a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d . Some p u b l i c a t i o n s simply present

particular measures undertaken in specific factories (refs. 1,2). Very valuable

information can be f o u n d i n the articles attempting to draw g e n e r a l i z e d

c o n c l u s i o n s from the e x p e r i e n c e s o f consultants, e n g i n e e r i n g companies o r sugar

i n d u s t r y managers i n v o l v e d i n e n e r g y - r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n programmes i m p l e m e n t e d in

a number o f sugar f a c t o r i e s (refs. 3-12).

T h e most interesting group o f p u b l i c a t i o n s is that devoted to the experiences

accumulated in specific factories during longer periods of step-by-step

improvements (refs. 13-16). As p r e s e n t a t i o n s of this kind are r a t h e r scarce, let

us a d d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r two e x a m p l e s o f s t e p - b y - s t e p i m p r o v e m e n t programmes
292

w h i c h h a v e been e f f e c t e d during a period of 15 y e a r s i n Swedish sugar factories.

T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d b e l o w h a v e been e x t r a c t e d b y t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r from the

published operations reports.

The p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s o f the f a c t o r i e s c o n s i d e r e d a r e 2100 and 5800

t o n s p e r d a y . As b o t h f a c t o r i e s belong to the same c o m p a n y , i t can be assumed

that t h e y h a v e been s u b j e c t t o the pressure of identical economic stimulators

and t h a t t h e same l e v e l of technological e x p e r t i s e has been a v a i l a b l e to them.

Their starting positions in 1970 can be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:

- both f a c t o r i e s were equipped w i t h tower-type extractors, classical juice

purification stations, quintuple-effect e v a p o r a t o r s and three-boiling

crystallization schemes w i t h the a f f i n a t i o n of C sugar;

- both f a c t o r i e s were equipped w i t h oil-fired boilers operated at live-steam

p a r a m e t e r s 40 b a r and 430°C;

- in both cases, a b o u t 10% o f t h e p o w e r demand was c o v e r e d by p o w e r p u r c h a s e s

from the e x t e r n a l grid;

- as t h e f l u e gases from b o i l e r s in the l a r g e r o f the two f a c t o r i e s were

utilized in the p u l p - d r y e r f u r n a c e , no e c o n o m i z e r s w e r e i n s t a l l e d there, this

resulting in a boiler efficiency 8% l o w e r t h a n t h a t in the smaller factory;

- following i n v e s t m e n t s made d u r i n g 1950s and 1960s, the larger f a c t o r y was

g e n e r a l l y equipped with more modern m a c h i n e r y and a u t o m a t i c control circuits.

T a b l e s 8.1 and 8 . 2 list the rationalization measures t h a t were implemented in

t h e e n e r g y economy and o t h e r related areas in both f a c t o r i e s during the period

1970-1985. T h e r e s u l t s w e r e c a r e f u l l y controlled as, starting from the f i r s t oil

crisis in 1974, the f a c t o r i e s adopted e n e r g y - m o n i t o r i n g p r o c e d u r e s b a s e d on

frequent 24-hour energy-consumption t e s t s . In a d d i t i o n , detailed investigations

of t h e e n e r g y economy e m p l o y i n g o n e - w e e k t e s t p e r i o d s were performed every

second or t h i r d year.

In both f a c t o r i e s , the m o d i f i c a t i o n s of juice heating and t h e improvements

introduced in the s u g a r h o u s e s seem t o have p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e in reducing

the e n e r g y consumption. The t o t a l water intake and t h e m a s s e c u i t e circulation

were reduced i n t h e s u g a r h o u s e s , and t h e p a r a m e t e r fluctuations originating

from batchwise o p e r a t i o n o f the s u g a r house equipment were substantially

1imited.

In the larger factory, most o f t h e investments proposed to implement the

energy-economy improvements were performed d u r i n g the actual p e r i o d . On t h e

contrary, t h e managers o f t h e smaller f a c t o r y were n e i t h e r able to modernize the

tower extractor for lower j u i c e draft, nor able to modify the j u i c e purification

station for l o w e r CaO r a t e (throughout the p e r i o d o f interest including the 1985

season, t h e CaO r a t e was 20-25% h i g h e r t h a n in the larger factory).

Nevertheless, the results of the 15-year developments are q u i t e impressive in

TABLE 8 . Ί
Energy-saving and other related measures introduced 1970-1985, and statistical data on normal-fuel (heating value
29300 kJ/kg) consumption in sugar manufacture in a 5800 t/d factory.

\/,^^w, c^r^^'-cA^^^-A^^ Normal fuel consumed

Year Specification ^^^^^^^

1966-1969 3.70-4.17

1970 Automatic boiling controls installed on vacuum pans C. 3.93

1971 Two new limed-juice heaters with increased heating surface areas installed. Heating 3.79
surface area in fourth evaporator effect increased. Temperature controllers
installed on heaters before first and second carbonatation.
1972 Level controllers installed on water seals (acting as steam traps) in condensate 3.58
drainage lines from 2nd, 3rd and 4th evaporator effects.
1974 Thermal insulation of fuel tanks improved. New boiler for off-season heating and room 3.56
temperature controllers installed. One new vacuum pan A equipped with a stirrer and
an air-tight, low-pressure steaming system installed.
1975 Three continuous affination centrifugals installed. One continuous centrifugal 3.23
installed in Β strike for acceptance tests.
1976 Four continuous centrifugals installed in Β s t r i k e . One continuous centrifugal 3.42
installed in C strike for acceptance tests.
1977 New steaming-out system using second-effect vapour installed in all vacuum pans A . 3.21
1978 Optimization of C-massecuite station completed. 3.36
1979 Economizer installed in one b o i l e r . Venting of noncondensables improved. Water intake 3.38
to carbonatation sludge sweetening-off reduced.
1980 Flow meter installed on water supply to the sugar house. 3.28
1982 Stirrer installed in one vacuum pan A . 3.20
1983 Tower extractor modernized for lower j u i c e draft. Automatic boiling controls on vacuum 3.18
pans A modernized. Condensate-heated plate heat exchanger installed as t h i c k - j u i c e
heater instead of a tubular heat exchanger heated by third-effect vapour.
1984 Syrup wash tested in one centrifugal in A strike. 3.15
1985 Improved oil burners installed in one b o i l e r . Microcomputer-based boiler control 3.13
system implemented.
293
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TABLE 8.2

Energy-saving and other related measures introduced 1970-1985, and statistical data on normal-fuel (heating value
29300 kJ/kg) consumption in sugar manufacture in a 2100 t/d factory.

^ e .jr- 4.· Normal fuel consumed

Year Specification ^^^/^^^

1967-1970 3.88-4.02

1971 New measuring instruments installed on the evaporator station. Equipment operators 4.09
instructed on the principles of smooth operation of A-massecuite station.
1972 Energy economy analysed and equipment modernization programme proposed. 3.98
1973 Thermal insulation replaced on three evaporator bodies and one condensate tank. 4.17
1974 Stirrer installed in one vacuum pan A . New boiler for off-season heating installed. 3.96
1975 New measuring instruments installed on the extractor as well as on vacuum pans Β and C. 3.49
1977 Performance of C-massecuite station analysed and modernization proposed. 3.66
1978 Continuous centrifugals installed for increased throughput of C-massecuite station. 3.77
1979 Automatic temperature control circuit installed on exhaust steam supply to the 3.65
evaporator station. Level controllers installed on water seals (acting as steam traps)
in condensate drainage lines between evaporator effects 3 and 4 as well as 4 and 5.
1980 Syrup wash implemented in centrifugals A and B. Energy economy analysed. 3.73
1981 Chemical scale prevention implemented. 3.45
1982 Steam-turbine driven kiln-gas pumps replaced by new electrically-driven ones. New 3.40
heater for thin juice installed. Vapour distribution scheme adjusted for better
utilization of low-temperature vapours. Energy economy analysed.
1983 Automatic level-control circuits in the evaporator station modernized. Spiral heat 3.46
exchangers heated by condensate and fourth-effect vapour implemented as raw-juice
heaters. Integrated automatic control of the beet house implemented.
1984 Stirrers installed in all vacuum pans A . Continuous centrifugals installed in Β strike. 3.14
Programmable control of A centrifugals implemented. Chemical scale prevention improved.
1985 3.23
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both cases. The f u e l consumption expressed in kg normal fuel per 100 kg b e e t has

been r e d u c e d by a b o u t 20% i n the larger factory and by a b o u t 30% i n the smaller.

In order to initiate energy-economy improvements using the step-by-step

approach, sufficient i n f o r m a t i o n must be a v a i l a b l e on t h e existing state of

things and p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f action. In the following, two e x a m p l e s are

presented of the results of studies intended to create convenient starting

points for step-by-step improvements.

The first example ( S e c t i o n 8.2) is representative of rather small, not-so-

modern f a c t o r i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r a t h e r poor energy u t i l i z a t i o n and very

limited initial knowledge o f measures t h a t c a n be t a k e n to improve it. The

initial fuel consumption in sugar manufacture is a b o u t 6.7 kg normal fuel per

100 kg b e e t . P o s s i b l e improvements are studied on t h e b a s i s o f mass and heat

balances which are c a l c u l a t e d using input data e x t r a c t e d from r o u t i n e factory

records. T h e h e a t s a v i n g w h i c h can be o b t a i n e d b y t a k i n g t h e most urgent

rationalization measures (aimed m a i n l y at reducing the energy waste) is

estimated at a b o u t 20% o f t h e initial heat consumption. In order to prepare

d e c i s i o n s on f u r t h e r improvements, a detailed design study is recommended.

The second example ( S e c t i o n 8.3) is concerned w i t h a medium-capacity sugar

factory c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a q u i t e effective e n e r g y economy. The i n i t i a l fuel

consumption in sugar manufacture is 3.5 kg normal fuel per 100 kg b e e t . An

a n a l y s i s o f ways t o improve the h e a t economy i s performed using the results of

measurements of the parameters of e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n processes.

I n t h i s manner, a reliable basis is created for evaluation of the consequences

of small improvements of the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n . The e s t i m a t e d heat saving is

of the order o f 2% o f the initial heat consumption.

The experience proves that even h i g h l y efficient modern e n e r g y s y s t e m s can be

improved using the s t e p - b y - s t e p a p p r o a c h . To i l l u s t r a t e this point. Section 8.4

p r e s e n t s a summary o f e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e s t a k e n during a 10-year period in

a large raw-sugar f a c t o r y . At present, the factory is consuming l e s s than 2 kg

normal fuel per 100 kg b e e t . This example indicates also the importance of

coordinating the h e a t and p o w e r b a l a n c e s a t a very l o w h e a t demand. In addition,

the d i f f i c u l t y is demonstrated of distinguishing between step-by-step

improvements and a m o d e r n i z a t i o n . Although the general approach to the

improvements can be c o n s i d e r e d as e v o l u t i o n a r y , some o f the steps taken involve

extensive technological c h a n g e s and r a t h e r costly investments.

8.2 FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY POOR I N I T I A L ENERGY UTILIZATION

8.2.1 Introductory remarks

The example p r e s e n t e d i n this Section is b a s e d on a r e a l case i n v e s t i g a t e d by

the present author a few y e a r s a g o . The c o n s u l t a n t was i n v i t e d to the factory in

296

q u e s t i o n by a manager whose i n t e r e s t in e n e r g y economy was o b v i o u s l y stimulated

by t h e rapidly rising oil p r i c e s at that time. Another c o n t r i b u t i n g factor was

the plague o f frequent b o i l e r failures that seriously affected the operational

results. T h e r e was an e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t some q u i c k actions c o u l d be undertaken

during the subsequent o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d , with t h e aim o f achieving substantial

energy savings a l r e a d y in the next season. T h e manager was r e a d y t o continue

the rationalization o f t h e e n e r g y economy i n coming y e a r s , b u t he made i t clear

that in the foreseeable f u t u r e , no i n v e s t m e n t f u n d s w o u l d be a v a i l a b l e f o r an

e x t e n s i v e modernization o f the factory.

The i n v i t a t i o n came as t h e s e a s o n a p p r o a c h e d i t s e n d . No a c t u a l data were

a v a i l a b l e on t h e d e t a i l s o f the f a c t o r y ' s e n e r g y b a l a n c e . As t h e r e was no t i m e

left for preparing additional measurements, it became c l e a r that evaluation of

t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d on t h e basis of the data

e x t r a c t e d from the f a c t o r y r e c o r d s o r m e a s u r e d by t h e e x i s t i n g instrumentation.

8.2.2 Basic f a c t o r y d a t a and scheme o f t h e s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g process

Processing c a p a b i l i t y : 2100 t/d.

Polarization of cossettes: 16.18%.

Extractor: trough-type.

Juice draft: 120%.

R a w - j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p u r i t y : 15.80% DS and 86.82%.

Pulp pressed t o : 17.3% D S .

P o l a r i z a t i o n of pressed pulp: 1%.

K i l n g a s : 30-32% C O ^ v o l .

Juice purification according to the classical scheme, comprising:

- hot pre-liming a t 45°C, CaO r a t e 0.30 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- main l i m i n g a t 85°C, CaO r a t e 2.01 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- carbonatation I at 80-85°C;

- double-stage f i l t r a t i o n I;

- carbonatation II at 93-97°C;

- single-stage f i l t r a t i o n II.

Purification effect: 36%.

Thin-juice c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p u r i t y : 15.63% DS and 91.19%.

Evaporator station: quadruple-effect, Robert-type bodies.

Thick-juice concentration: 61.4% D S .

Sugar h o u s e :

- raw-sugar addition 3.21 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- three-boiling scheme w i t h the a f f i n a t i o n o f C s u g a r and r a w s u g a r ;

- Β sugar melted in water;

- mixture of affined C s u g a r and raw s u g a r m e l t e d in thin juice.

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Sugar o u t p u t (including sugar introduced as raw s u g a r ) : 15.73 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Power h o u s e :

- oil-fired boilers, six units rated 12.5 t/h and one 6.5 t/h, average

efficiency about 80%;

- live steam p a r a m e t e r s 25 b a r and 425°C;

- two b a c k - p r e s s u r e turbines rated 3 MW e a c h ;

- back-pressure 3.3 bar.

Steam s u p p l y t o the sugar manufacturing process:

- live steam t h r o t t l e d t o 4.9 bar to the centrifugals;

- heating steam 3.3 bar ( e x h a u s t steam and t h r o t t l e d live steam) to the

remaining receivers.

Heating steam c o n s u m p t i o n : 56-57 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Normal fuel consumption: about 6.5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

The schemes o f the b e e t h o u s e and s u g a r h o u s e a r e shown i n Figs. 8.1 and 8.2,

respectively.

8.2.3 Scheme o f the thermal system

T h e scheme i s shown i n F i g . 8.3. There are several questionable details to

account f o r in the evaluation of the heat economy:

- the heating systems o f the factory buildings and s u g a r s i l o s are supplied with

exhaust steam;

- melter, remelt heater, thin-juice heater and s y r u p t a n k s a r e h e a t e d by exhaust

steam;

- steaming-out o f vacuum p a n s i s performed using exhaust steam;

- most condensate from steam- and v a p o u r - h e a t e d e q u i p m e n t , and t h e condensate

from the heating systems, is wasted;

- the fourth evaporator effect is operated as a c o n c e n t r a t o r , implying that the

evaporator is essentially operated as a triple-effect;

- the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme i s rather primitive and t h e temperatures of the

vapours supplied to the individual heaters do n o t satisfy the requirement of

minimum t e m p e r a t u r e differences;

- the scheme o f the condensate subsystem in the evaporator area is also

primitive, resulting in poor u t i l i z a t i o n of the condensate energy;

- the heating surface areas of the evaporator b o d i e s and most j u i c e heaters are

very large.

8.2.4 Additional information acquired in the factory

In the process heating area, a number o f m a l f u n c t i o n i n g subsystems and

components w e r e identified:

- all the steam t r a p s were o f the float type and some o f them w e r e leaking

vapour to the condensate lines;

298

feed cossettes
water

• press water

01
S Ε
EXTRACTOR
c
o PRESSES
.5 ι raw j u i c e wet pulp —J
p r e s s e d pulp
1 to drying

HEATERS

PRE-LIMING
•D
Ό
(Λ
ι-
MAIN LIMING
(Λ

Ζ)
(/)

HEATERS

CARBONATATION I HEATER

iir~
juice

-J_J:
sweet water
THICKENERS I
to lime slaking

VACUUM FILTERS
juice

Τ
water
sludge

HEATER

to evaporation^

1
CARBONATATION I I
Γ

HEATERS
to s u g a r h o u s e ^

THICKENERS I I
thin j uice
τ f
FILTERS SULPHITATION |

juice
sludge^

Fig. 8.1. Scheme o f extraction and j u i c e purification.

 thick juice thin juice water row sugar

VACUUM PANS A [ VACUUM PANS Β | VACUUM PANS C |

I MIXERS A ^ I MIXERS Β | ^ MIXERS C [

ω I (- r- I l O I

' I CENTRIFUGALS A I ? á I CENTRIFUGALS ΒI f CENTRIFUGALS C

sugar A sugar Β sugar C

I MELTER Β I MIXER | MIXER

affination massecuite

^ I »ELTER C I I I 'ΏJ°MJ
^ I 777^ I riR I AFFINATION I ΏST
I I ^"-TŁR I οω I CENTRIFUGALS | o

white sugar | | f | | f molass

Fig. 8.2. Scheme of the sugar house.

299
300

to b o i l e r — —
house — 1
6^
L to

F i g . 8 . 3 . Scheme o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m i n t h e p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a . C o n d e n s a t e
d r a i n a g e l i n e s n o t shown i n t h e p i c t u r e a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s e w e r s y s t e m . T h e
meaning o f numbers d e n o t i n g e q u i p m e n t u n i t s i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t i n F i g . 1.5.

- start-up vents in several steam t r a p s w e r e k e p t permanently open, leaking

vapour to the environment;

- venting o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s was c l e a r l y in a chaotic condition, heater vents

being kept c l o s e d and v a c u u m - p a n v e n t s l e a k i n g t o o much v a p o u r t o the

environment;

- a number o f m e a s u r i n g instruments were m i s s i n g or out of order.

In the power house a r e a , t h e equipment seemed t o be r a t h e r w e l l maintained.

Among t h e m e a s u r i n g instruments, flue g a s a n a l y s e r s w e r e o u t o f o r d e r and steam

f l o w meters were c l e a r l y n o t w o r k i n g reliably. T h e most s e r i o u s p r o b l e m seemed

to be t h e p o o r q u a l i t y o f make-up w a t e r , w i t h resulting c o r r o s i o n damage

frequently occurring in the boiler tubes.

Concerning the heat d i s t r i b u t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , a number of

 301

deficiencies in the thermal s y s t e m and i n the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s can be

immediately identified:

- e x c e s s i v e heat l o s s e s due t o large sections of thermal insulation being in

poor condition or missing ( e . g . a few h e a t e r s , vapour p i p e l i n e s from the third

evaporator effect and a number o f condensate pipes);

- e x c e s s i v e heat consumption in the room-heating s y s t e m , due t o lack of room

temperature control;

- e x c e s s i v e heat l o s s e s due t o uncovered tanks in the s u g a r house (most o f the

existing c o v e r s kept permanently open);

- non-optimal operation of the e v a p o r a t o r and e x c e s s i v e p a r a m e t e r fluctuations

due t o inadequate automatic controls.

It gradually became c l e a r during the visit to the factory that its energy-

economy p r o b l e m s w e r e c a u s e d m a i n l y by a waste o f heat in the process heating

area. T h i s was a c c o m p a n i e d by a w a s t e o f c o n d e n s a t e s , and t h u s e x c e s s i v e

consumption o f make-up w a t e r w h i c h must be a d d e d t o the boiler f e e d . When

overloading the water-treatment station by a l a r g e flow of polluted river water,

the quality o f make-up w a t e r became u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . This contributed to

a c c e l e r a t e d c o r r o s i o n , w h i c h was t h e immediate cause o f boiler-tube failures.

Taking into a c c o u n t t h a t no p o w e r - b a l a n c e p r o b l e m s w e r e d e t e c t e d and t h a t the

power h o u s e seemed t o be w e l l maintained and o p e r a t e d , the above c o n c l u s i o n s

point at process heating as t h e essential problem to which a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be

d i r e c t e d when p e r f o r m i n g subsequent stages o f the analysis.

8.2.5 Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e sugar manufacturing process

T h e c a l c u l a t e d mass b a l a n c e o f the b e e t house i s shown i n T a b l e 8 . 3 . The

parameters of the extraction and j u i c e purification p r o c e s s e s can be r e g a r d e d as

essentially correct.

T h e c a l c u l a t e d mass b a l a n c e o f the s u g a r house i s shown i n T a b l e 8 . 4 . The

parameters of g r e e n s y r u p s A and B , i.e. high p u r i t i e s and r e l a t i v e l y low

concentrations, indicate t h a t t o o much wash w a t e r is s u p p l i e d t o A and Β

centrifugals. As a r e s u l t , crystals dissolve in excess water, causing a reduced

crystal yield and i n c r e a s e d c i r c u l a t i o n of massecuites in the sugar house. This

contributes to t h e e x c e s s i v e h e a t demand i n the sugar house.

8.2.6 Heat balance o f the thermal s y s t e m and h e a t economy evaluation

The h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed according to the evaporator-

receiver a p p r o a c h . The r e s u l t s , expressed in s t e a m and v a p o u r f l o w s , a r e shown

in Table 8.5. The b a l a n c e data seem t o confirm the impression gained from the

review of the thermal s y s t e m scheme t h a t the v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e distribution

is rather primitive. It can a l s o be s e e n t h a t the calculated steam demand is

3 . 5 - 4 . 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n the steam c o n s u m p t i o n taken from the factory

302

TABLE 8.3

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e beet house.

Total flow Concentration Purity

No. S t r e a m name (% DS) (%)
(kg/100 kg b )

1 Cossettes 100.00 85.70

2 Wet p u l p 85.00
3 Pressed pulp 30.70 17.30
4 Press water 54.30 1.50
5 Fresh water 50.70
6 Raw j u i c e 120.00 15.17 86.82
7 Juice to pre-liming 123.76
8 J u i c e t o main l i m i n g 125.28
9 Juice to carbonatation I 135.35
10 J u i c e f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s 17.37
11 Juice to thickeners I 152.45
12 Juice to carbonatation I I 130.20
13 Subsider sludge I 22.25
14 S w e e t e n i n g - o f f w a t e r t o vacuum f i l t e r s; 14.33
15 Sludge 9.55
16 Sweet w a t e r f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s 9.55
17 Juice to thickeners I I 130.16
18 Subsider sludge I I to pre-liming 3.76
19 Juice to f i n e filters 126.40
20 Thin juice 126.40 13.56 91.19
21 Thin j u i c e to evaporation 119.57
22 Milk-of-lime to pre-liming 1.52
23 M i l k - o f - l i m e t o main l i m i n g 10.07
24 K i l n gas t o c a r b o n a t a t i o n I 4.49
25 K i l n gas t o c a r b o n a t a t i o n I I 0.40

records. Most p r o b a b l y , t h i s is an i n d i c a t i o n of steam a n d / o r v a p o u r leaks

occurring in the condensate drainage subsystem.

On t h e basis o f the data thus a c q u i r e d , the following general conclusions

were drawn.

(i) The thermal system i s c l e a r l y working less e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n c o u l d be

e x p e c t e d on t h e basis of its d e s i g n and e q u i p m e n t characteristics. T h e most

important reasons a r e :

- steam and v a p o u r l e a k s w i t h i n the system or d i r e c t l y to the environment;

- unreliable venting of noncondensables;

- e x c e s s i v e heat d i s s i p a t i o n to the environment.

(ii) T h e d e s i g n and p a r a m e t e r s o f the sugar manufacturing process in the sugar

house a r e a a r e c o n t r i b u t i n g to the e x c e s s i v e t o t a l h e a t demand. T h e e s s e n t i a l

deficiencies are:

- unnecessary water intake to Β remelt;

- too l a r g e wash-water consumption i n A and Β c e n t r i f u g a l s .

(iii) The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e heat d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme i n the process heating

area i s too low. The u n d e r l y i n g reasons a r e :

- waste o f condensates;
 303

TABLE 8.4

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e s u g a r house.

7Γ
No.
¡ri77~T7Z
S t r e a m name
Total
^^^^^^^ flow Concentration
^./^
Purity
^o/^^

1 Thick juice 26.24 61.40 91 .14

2 Thin juice 6.83 13.56 91 .19
3 Raw s u g a r 3.21 98.73 98.70
4 A massecuite 41.33 91.90 93.74
5 Green s y r u p A 24.15 79.70 89.00
6 Wash s y r u p A 3.84 74.19 91.94
7 White sugar 15.73 99.95 99.80
8 Β massecuite 18.51 92.00 88.39
9 Green s y r u p Β 8.15 81.80 79.20
10 Wash s y r u p Β 3.79 74.18 85.69
11 Β sugar 7.59 99.50 97.50
12 C massecuite 13.32 94.60 82.93
13 C sugar 8.56 98.50 92.50
14 Molasses 4.76 87.60 63.60
15 A f f i n a t i o n massecuite 21.26 90.00 91.93
16 Affination syrup 11.04 78.81 87.42
17 A f f i n e d C sugar 10.65 98.00 95.69
18 Β remelt 11.86 65.00 97.55
19 C - a f f . remelt 17.48 65.00 95.32
20 Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s A 1.53
21 Steam t o c e n t r i f u g a l s A 1.03
22 Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Β 1.02
23 Water t o Β r e m e l t 4.11

TABLE 8.5

Steam and v a p o u r f l o w s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s in the

p r o c e s s - h e a t i n g area o f the thermal system.

Sources
No. Receivers Exhaust Evaporator effects n4-höv-c
steam 1 2 3 4 ^^"^^^^

1 Extractor 1.18 1.85

2 Raw-juice heaters 1.23 condensate
3 Limed-juice heaters 0.44 6.30
4 Heater in carbonatation I 1.30
5 C l e a r - j u i c e heater 3.67
6 T h i n - j u i c e heaters 5.85
7 T h i c k - j u i c e heater 0.45
8 Melter 0.40
9 I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0.38
10 D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0.55
11 Remelt h e a t e r 0.36
12 Vacuum pans A 18.61
13 Vacuum pans Β 3.46
14 Vacuum pans C 2.67
15 Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g 1.80
16 O t h e r small r e c e i v e r s 0.50
17 Sugar d r y e r 0.50
18 Condenser 0.58
19 Evaporator total 5.85 3 0 . 0 3 10.67 0.58
20 Exhaust-steam consumption 51.58
 304

thick juice thin juice raw sugar

VACUUM PANS A VACUUM PANS Β VACUUM PANS C

< ' I ' < CD ' I ' CD * I '

^ MIXERS A ^ Φ MIXERS Β ^ MIXERS C

CENTRIFUGALS A I Γ • I CENTRIFUGALS Β I Γ CENTRIFUGALS C I

sugar A sugar Β sugar C

-slumps— ^ j ^ 1 LI-*—, |—I 1—,

I MELTERB I I ""-ψ I I I

^ ^ j affination massecuite

φ MpiTPRr rpmpit Β AFFINATION

Ε ^^^^^^ C remeltB ^ | MIXERS c

I ^7^^ I I AFFINATION I §^
I '^"-^'^ I I CENTRIFUGALS | σ
white sugar | I | | | t molasses

Fig. 8 . 4 . Modified scheme of the sugar house.

 305

- no u t i l i z a t i o n of fourth-effect vapour;

- inadequate u t i l i z a t i o n of t h i r d - e f f e c t vapour;

- unnecessary heating with exhaust steam;

- unnecessary u t i l i z a t i o n o f e x h a u s t steam f o r a u x i l i a r y purposes.

8.2.7 P o s s i b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategy

Evaluation o f the h e a t economy i n d i c a t e s that substantial improvements can be

o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g v a r i o u s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n m e a s u r e s . As t h e parameters of the

equipment are s u f f i c i e n t l y well suited to the factory's needs, the step-by-step

approach a v o i d i n g large investments seems t o be s u f f i c i e n t to c u t down t h e heat

consumption considerably.

The i m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategy evolves naturally from the f o l l o w i n g logical

sequence o f corrective actions.

(i) First, t h e w a s t e o f e n e r g y s h o u l d be i m m e d i a t e l y eliminated by r e p a i r i n g or

replacing all the malfunctioning auxiliary components o f the thermal system,

that is:

- leaking steam traps;

- unreliable vents;

- i n o p e r a t i v e measuring instruments.

(ii) Second, the t o t a l h e a t demand o f the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s s h o u l d be

reduced by:

- repairing or installing damaged o r m i s s i n g s e c t i o n s of the thermal insulation

in the process heating area;

- eliminating the u s e o f e x h a u s t steam f o r auxiliary p u r p o s e s and r e p l a c i n g it

by f i r s t - or second-effect vapour;

- modifying the crystallization scheme t o t h e f o r m shown i n F i g . 8.4, thus

cutting down t h e t o t a l water intake to the s u g a r house (B r e m e l t is prepared

using t h i n juice instead of water);

- reducing the c o n s u m p t i o n o f wash w a t e r i n A and Β c e n t r i f u g a l s ;

- reducing the t o t a l water intake to the s u g a r house even f u r t h e r by increasing

the t h i c k - j u i c e concentration.

T h e e s t i m a t e d mass b a l a n c e o f the s u g a r house a f t e r water intake reductions is

shown i n T a b l e 8.6.

(iii) The e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio of the thermal s y s t e m s h o u l d be i m p r o v e d . First of

all, it is necessary to eliminate the waste o f c o n d e n s a t e s by installing

condensate drainage l i n e s linking all the heaters with properly selected

respective condensate tanks. While improving the energy r e c o v e r y , t h i s will

reduce the d e f i c i t o f make-up w a t e r and c o n t r i b u t e to improved boiler

reliability. F u r t h e r improvement in this r e s p e c t can be o b t a i n e d b y replacing

t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d steam h e a t i n g of factory buildings by w a t e r heating. To

complete the corrective actions related to the condensate subsystem

306

TABLE 8.6

M o d i f i e d mass b a l a n c e o f t h e sugar house.

Total flow Concentration Purity

No. S t r e a m name ^^^/^^^ (o/^j

1 Thick juice 24.57 65.00 91.14

2 Thin j u i c e 7.91 13.56 91.19
3 Raw s u g a r 3.21 98.73 98.70
4 A massecuite 31.27 92.00 94.11
5 Green s y r u p A 12.43 81.00 85.00
6 Wash s y r u p A 3.25 76.93 92.91
7 White sugar 16.05 99.96 99.95
8 Β massecuite 11.80 93.00 86.29
9 Green s y r u p Β 5.24 83.00 72.00
10 Wash s y r u p Β 1.26 79.27 85.29
11 Β sugar 5.66 99.50 97.50
12 C massecuite 7.86 93.50 76.87
13 C sugar 3.55 98.50 95.50
14 Molasses 4.62 83.50 60.00
15 A f f i n a t i o n massecuite 11.99 90.50 92.33
16 Affination syrup 6.17 78.64 84.69
17 A f f i n e d C sugar 6.06 99.00 98.52
18 Β remelt 9.73 65.00 97.03
19 C aff. remelt 10.06 65.00 97.91
20 Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s A 0.47
21 Steam t o c e n t r i f u g a l s A 0.16
22 Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Β 0.35
23 Water t o c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s C 0.31

it is necessary to add, to the existing equipment and p i p i n g , a condensate tank

and a f e w f l a s h - v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s making i t possible to utilize fully the

available condensate energy in the evaporator.

The n e x t s t e p t o improve the effectiveness ratio consists of eliminating

process-equipment heating with exhaust steam, improving utilization of third-

effect v a p o u r and i n t r o d u c i n g the utilization of fourth-effect vapour. This

amounts to a reconstruction o f the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme and must be

coordinated with the installation of the condensate drainage lines mentioned

before.

The m o d i f i e d vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme i s shown i n F i g . 8.5. In order to

take full advantage o f the reconstruction of the evaporation subsystem, the

evaporator should also be e q u i p p e d w i t h automatic level controls.

Equipment r e p a i r and c h a n g e s n e c e s s a r y f o r introducing the modifications

mentioned under (i) and ( i i ) c a n e a s i l y be c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g one off-season

period. It can be e s t i m a t e d t h a t the resulting reduction of the steam

consumption w i l l be a t l e a s t 4 . 5 - 5 . 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . As r e g a r d s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of

the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme, i t must be p r e c e d e d b y a d e s i g n s t u d y on the

necessary piping modifications. A preliminary heat balance (expressed in steam

and v a p o u r f l o w s ) of the modified thermal system i s presented in Table 8.7. As

 307

to ammonia
water
i tank

Ϊ
ί
Β - Q -

-Ε
5
r-m-

exhaust
steam

-4^ :
exhaust
steam

to boiler -——M3I ^j^^'^ljj to 6*

house
.J

F i g . 8 . 5 . M o d i f i e d scheme o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m i n t h e p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a .
C o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e s n o t shown i n t h e p i c t u r e a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e ammonia
w a t e r t a n k . T h e meaning o f numbers d e n o t i n g e q u i p m e n t u n i t s i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t
i n F i g . 1.5.

c a n be s e e n , the steam c o n s u m p t i o n c a n be r e d u c e d t o a b o u t 41.8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b,

which i s n e a r l y 10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n indicated in the heat balance o f the

existing thermal system ( T a b l e 8.5).

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t e v e n a f t e r the completion of the

rationalization programme p r o p o s e d a b o v e , t h e h e a t economy w i l l remain rather

primitive, as t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o o f a thermal system w i t h o u t full

utilization o f the low-temperature h e a t c a n n o t be v e r y high. Unless a detailed

design study i s performed, it is impossible to determine whether or not the

application o f more a d v a n c e d s o l u t i o n s c o u l d be e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e . It is

therefore recommended t o e v a l u a t e t h e e n e r g y economy a g a i n a f t e r two o r three

y e a r s o f t h e s t e p - b y - s t e p i m p r o v e m e n t p r o g r a m m e , and t o repeat the a n a l y s i s of

p o s s i b l e e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures. The i n d i v i d u a l m e a s u r e s c a n be e v a l u a t e d
308

TABLE 8.7

Steam and v a p o u r f l o w s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n the

process-heating area of the modified thermal system.

No. Receivers Sources

Exhaust Evaporator effects
steam Ί 2 3 4 "

1 Extractor 1 .18 1 .87

2 Raw-juice heaters 0,.30 condensate
3 Limed-juice heaters 2.44 4,.33
4 Heater in carbonatation I 1.32
5 C l e a r - j u i c e heaters 1, .14 2.54
6 T h i n - j u i c e heaters 2.21 2 .99
7 T h i c k - j u i c e heater 0,.35
8 Melter 0,.40
9 I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0,.30
10 D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks 0, .24
11 Remelt h e a t e r 0, .26
12 Vacuum pans A 13,.04
13 Vacuum pans Β 2,.87
14 Vacuum pans C 1, .42
15 Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t 1, .80
16 O t h e r small r e c e i v e r s 0 .50
17 Sugar d r y e r 0 .50
18 Condenser 1. .02
19 Evaporator total 2.21 25. .99 8.16 4. .63
20 Exhaust-steam consumption 41 ,.77

economically, creating a basis for d e c i s i o n s on t h e future course of a c t i o n . If

the lack of investment funds continues, the next stage of the step-by-step

improvement programme can be p l a n n e d ; o t h e r w i s e , a modernization of the factory

can be c o n s i d e r e d .

8.3 FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY GOOD I N I T I A L ENERGY UTILIZATION

8.3.1 Introductory remarks

The e x a m p l e p r e s e n t e d i n this Section is b a s e d on a r e a l case investigated

by a s p e c i a l i z e d team a f e w y e a r s ago i n Sweden ( r e f . 17). The i n v e s t i g a t i o n was

planned i n a d v a n c e by t h e factory manager (as a r u l e , e v e r y Swedish sugar

factory has i t s e n e r g y economy i n v e s t i g a t e d every third or f o u r t h year).

T h e f a c t o r y was known f o r its rather l o w steam c o n s u m p t i o n , a b o u t 30-32 kg

per 100 kg b , resulting from investments performed mainly in the 1950s and 1960s

and s t e p - b y - s t e p improvements introduced in the 1970s. For economic reasons, the

s t e p - b y - s t e p approach i s also likely to remain the only practical method of

introducing improvements in the foreseeable future.

It was p l a n n e d t o acquire the necessary data during 5 measurements sessions

organized approximately e v e r y two weeks f r o m t h e beginning to the end o f the

season. This a r r a n g e m e n t was f o r studying the parameters of the heat utilization

p r o c e s s e s as f u n c t i o n s of time, t h u s making i t possible to identify the

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influence o f the scale build-up. The u l t i m a t e goal was t o prepare a complete

survey of the heat u t i l i z a t i o n in the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s and for

auxiliary p u r p o s e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y in the evaporator s t a t i o n , s u g a r h o u s e and

a number o f small steam r e c e i v e r s . On t h e basis of the survey r e s u l t s , the most

effective measures t o reduce the h e a t demand c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d .

During the o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d preceding the actual season's operations, a

special measuring system independent o f the f a c t o r y ' s measuring instruments was

installed with the aim o f p r o v i d i n g v e r y a c c u r a t e d a t a on t h e most important

parameters, n a m e l y p r e s s u r e s and temperatures in the evaporation subsystem,

including condensate tanks. O r i f i c e s were i n s t a l l e d in t h e main v e n t i n g lines

i n o r d e r t o make i t possible to evaluate the flows of noncondensables.

A r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e a l s o made w i t h the laboratory to p e r f o r m a number o f extra

analyses, mostly of the d r y substance content and p o l a r i z a t i o n (as well as

alkalinity and c a l c i u m s a l t s in the case o f samples taken from the juice

purification station) of juice and s y r u p s a m p l e s . T h e p o i n t s of sampling were

planned to achieve a high accuracy of identification of the p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e

and o f t h e t h e r m a l properties of all the important mass s t r e a m s . In the

evaporator area, juice samples were t o be c o l l e c t e d in a manner allowing

determination of inlet and o u t l e t juice concentrations in all the evaporator

bodies.

It was p l a n n e d t o acquire the remaining data from the o r d i n a r y factory

instrumentation, and t o take certain instrument readings s o l e l y for the purpose

of cross-checking the indications of the special measuring system. After

calculating the time averaged v a l u e s o f the key p a r a m e t e r s , every measurement

period (lasting a b o u t one w o r k i n g shift) was e x p e c t e d t o p r o d u c e a b o u t 300 data

to be u s e d i n t h e heat balance calculations.

8.3.2 Basic factory d a t a and scheme o f the sugar manufacturing process

Processing c a p a b i l i t y : 3700 t/d.

Polarization of cossettes: 15.7%.

Extractor: trough-type.

Juice draft: 120%.

Raw-juice concentration: 15.0%.

Pulp pressed t o : 21.4% D S .

Kiln g a s : 36-38% C O ^ v o l .

Juice purification according to the classical scheme, comprising:

- hot p r e - l i m i n g at 60-65°C;

- main liming at about 85°C;

- carbonatation I at 80-85°C;

- double-stage f i l t r a t i o n I;

- carbonatation II at 92-95°C;
310

- double-stage f i l t r a t i o n II.

Thin-juice concentration: 14.2% D S .

Evaporator: quintuple-effect, f a l l i n g - f i l m bodies in the first and fifth

effects, Robert-type bodies in the remaining effects.

Thick-juice concentration: 64.8% D S .

Sugar house:

- three-boiling scheme w i t h the affination of C sugar;

- affined C sugar melted in thin juice;

- standard liquor p r e p a r e d from t h i c k j u i c e , Β s u g a r and C - a f f . remelt.

Power h o u s e :

- oil-fired boiler rated 50 t / h , efficiency 91%;

- live-steam parameters 60 b a r and 470°C;

- back-pressure turbine r a t e d 6 MW;

- b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3.5 bar.

Steam s u p p l y t o the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s : steam 3.5 bar (in principle,

e x h a u s t steam o n l y , and t h r o t t l e d live steam i f necessary).

H e a t i n g steam c o n s u m p t i o n : 30-32 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Normal fuel consumption: a b o u t 3.6 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

T h e schemes o f t h e b e e t h o u s e and s u g a r h o u s e a r e shown i n Figs. 8.6 and 8.7,

respectively. It can i m m e d i a t e l y be s e e n t h a t the sugar manufacturing process

has been c a r e f u l l y planned to minimize water intakes and t o eliminate

unnecessary r e c y c l i n g of the process media.

8.3.3 Scheme o f the thermal system

T h e scheme i s shown i n F i g . 8.8. A number o f details deserve to be n o t e d , as

they indicate t h a t a high degree o f rationalization of the e n e r g y economy has

a l r e a d y been attained.

In the process heating area, three factors make it possible to attain a high

effectiveness ratio:

- the a p p l i c a t i o n of a quintuple-effect evaporator station and t h e utilization

of fifth-effect vapour in raw-juice heating;

- the utilization o f t h e vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n raw-juice heating;

- the utilization o f the condensate i n heating pre-limed juice.

The e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n consists of nine b o d i e s , two o f them o f the falling-

f i l m t y p e and t h e remainder o f the Robert t y p e . A scheme o f j u i c e and v a p o u r

connections, including venting lines, is shown i n F i g . 8.9. (Heating surface

areas are given in Table 8.9.)

A f a l l i n g - f i l m body i n t h e first evaporator effect is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a

large overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficient which remains nearly constant throughout

the season. This is a decisive factor keeping the evaporation capacity at a high

level, even i f scale build-up takes place in the s e c o n d and t h i r d effects.

 311

cossettes • p r e s s water -

HEATER
1 Γ 1
EXTRACTOR
(/)
o f L-wet pulp —J PRESSES I-
CT» raw juice I \ 1
c
p r e s s e d pulp
Ξί i
to d r y i n g
HEATERS

PRE-LIMING

HEATERS

milk-of - lime
MAIN LIMING
i
LIME SLAKING
CARBONATATION I

ω
—ΓΤ j u i c e CaO

α; THICKENERS I
I
τ VACUUM FILTERS

HEATERS sludge
•σ

Χ3 water

FILTERS

to evaporation
CARBONATATION I I
HEATERS
to s u g a r house
HEATERS
thin j u i c e

l _ i
THICKENERS Π SAFETY FILTERS

- juice -

F i g . 8 . 6 . Scheme o f e x t r a c t i o n and j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n . 1 - heat exchanger in

w h i c h c o n d e n s a t e ( f r e s h w a t e r ) warms up p r e s s w a t e r .
 312

thin thick
juice juice | ^ "} ^ j

I VACUUM PANS A I I VACUUM PANS Β VACUUM PANS C

MIXERS A MIXERS Β MIXERS C

CENTRIFUGALS A CENTRIFUGALS Β CENTRIFUGALS C

g sugarC
15 —wash syrup A——I Logreen syrup A—I I » syrup Β—I—• ^ |

. sugar B- 1 | ^^IXER |

——— ^ affination massecuite >,

MELTER I I ^
I 1 I AFFINATION I I
I 1 I I MIXERS I g

g AFFINATION
£ CENTRIFUGALS
I
^ ^ , f>— affined sugar C ' ' '
MELTER C
I I white sugar molasse;

Fig. 8 . 7 . Scheme of the sugar house.

 313

— hot feed w a t e r

from 13

• OIL TANKS
saturated
PULP DRYING & PELLETING
ί
i
i steam 6Ab
STORAGE HOUSES
16
FACTORY BUILDING
CM
_i_ ^make-up OFFICE BUILDING
Ε
-a water FROM BOILER BLOWDOWN
fuel power
•

F i g . 8 . 8 . Scheme o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m . 14 - e x t r a c t o r , 18 - p r e s s - w a t e r heater;
t h e r e m a i n i n g numbers h a v e t h e same meaning as i n F i g . 1.5. D u r i n g t h e
m e a s u r e m e n t s , h e a t e r 6"*" was o u t o f o p e r a t i o n .
314

to the 2nd thin to

juice heater condenser
thin
juice

1 2A 3A1 3Α2

1
π π ΑΑ AB

2B 3B thick
juice

π π
F i g . 8 . 9 . Scheme o f j u i c e and v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s in the evaporator station.
Dotted l i n e s indicate venting connections.

Another f a l l i n g - f i l m body i n the fifth evaporator effect a l s o p l a y s an important

role. Its large heat t r a n s f e r coefficient makes it possible to keep the

temperature o f the fifth-effect vapour s u f f i c i e n t l y high to utilize the low-

temperature heat, even d u r i n g the final weeks o f the season. T h i s w o u l d be very

difficult to achieve with a Robert-type body.

Venting lines from c e r t a i n e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s and v e n t i n g lines from selected

heaters are connected to vapour supply pipes of other heaters. T h i s makes it

possible to utilize the energy o f the mixture o f v a p o u r and n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s

prior to discharging it to the environment or to the condenser.

Plate heat exchangers are a p p l i e d as c l e a r - j u i c e heaters (before

carbonatation I) and as j u i c e heaters after carbonatation I I . Owing t o their

l a r g e heat t r a n s f e r coefficients, these heaters can be s u p p l i e d w i t h vapours of

relatively low temperatures.

I n t h e power h o u s e a r e a , boiler blowdown i s performed v i a a f l a s h tank

connected to the exhaust-steam p i p e l i n e . F l a s h vapour obtained from the boiler

water (subsequently discharged to the sewer system) is thus mixed w i t h exhaust

steam. A n a l o g o u s l y , the v e n t i n g line f r o m t h e main feed-water tank is connected

to the pipe supplying t h i r d - e f f e c t vapour to the heating chamber o f t h e fourth

evaporator effect. In t h i s arrangement, the feed water is flashed from the

pressure^ o f second-effect vapour to that of third-effect vapour.

8.3.4 Information o b t a i n e d from the measurements

Using the recorded values of j u i c e concentrations, as w e l l as v a p o u r and

condensate temperatures measured i n the e v a p o r a t o r a r e a , mass and h e a t balances

of the e v a p o r a t o r were c a l c u l a t e d for e a c h measurement session. An e x a m p l e of

a complete set of input d a t a and c a l c u l a t i o n results (corresponding to the

TABLE 8.8
Mass and heat balances of the evaporator station. Body 4B was disconnected during the actual measurement session.

Evaporator body 1 2A 2B 3A1 3A2 3B 4A 4B 5

Input data: «
Heating surface area (m^^) 1200 1210 800 880 800 1200 1100 860 700
Juice concentration (% DS)
inlet 14.2 18.8 18.8 29.3 40.0 25.2 44.8 59.7
outlet 18.8 29.3 25.2 40.0 48.0 40.9 55.7 64.8
Vapour temperature ( C )
heating chamber 1 3 7 . 4 125.2 124.7 115.6 115.3 115.6 108.2 91.3
vapour chamber 128.8 117.0 117.8 108.8 107.1 107.9 92.5 77.7
Condensate temperature (°C) 136.0 126.7 126.0 117.3 118.3 117.3 114.7 91.7
Flow of noncondensables (kg/100 kg b) 0 . 0 7 0.10 0.14 0.10 0.10 0.14 0.07 0.10
Results:
Juice temperature ( ° C )
inlet 133.0 128.8 128.8 117.0 108.8 117.8 108.0 93.5
outlet 128.8 117.0 117.8 108.8 108.1 107.9 93.5 80.7
Juice flow (kg/100 kg b)
inlet 113.7 50.5 35.3 32.4 23.7 26.4 36.0 51.7*
outlet 85.8 32.4 26.4 23.7 19.8 16.2 29.0 24.9
Vapour flow (kg/100 kg b)
heating chamber 27.8 17.8 9.0 8.7 4.4 10.3 6.7 3.5
vapour chamber 27.9 18.1 9.0 8.7 4.1 10.3 7.1 4.2
Condensate flow (kg/100 kg b) 27.7 17.7 8.9 8.7 4.3 10.2 6.6 4.5
Heat flux at heating surface (kW/m^) ^ 20.6 13.2 9.8 8.9 4.7 7.7 5.5 4.5
Overall heat transfer coefficient ( W / ( m ^ K ) ) 2400 160 1420 1310 660 1000 375 430

*/
recirculation flow
315
3 1 6

second s e s s i o n , i.e. t h e t h i r d week o f t h e season) i s given in Table 8.8. As c a n

be s e e n , the results include h e a t f l u x e s and o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients

in the individual e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s . T h i s makes i t possible to evaluate the

influence of scale build-up on t h e heat t r a n s f e r intensity in the evaporator

station.

The o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients in the individual evaporator effects

a r e shown as f u n c t i o n s o f time in F i g . 8.10. As c a n be s e e n , the tendencies

characteristic of R o b e r t - t y p e b o d i e s h a v e been r e g i s t e r e d i n e f f e c t s 2-4. The

reduction of the heat t r a n s f e r intensity in the f o u r t h effect was so drastic

after f i v e weeks t h a t a s t a n d - b y body (48) was c o n n e c t e d t o this effect. As

r e g a r d s t h e f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d i e s , no s c a l e b u i l d - u p is visible in the first

effect, while the heat t r a n s f e r intensity in the f i f t h effect decreases like

that in Robert-type bodies.

Using the recorded values of the temperatures of heating v a p o u r s , as w e l l as

juice temperatures and j u i c e flows, the heat balances o f j u i c e h e a t e r s were

2500
1st effect

- 2000

§ 1500

ΙΛ
C

I 1000
α
χ:

6 500h

4 6 10

Time ( w e e k s )

F i g . 8.10. Changes o f t h e a v e r a g e d o v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e
evaporator s t a t i o n ( s t a n d - b y body c o n n e c t e d t o t h e f o u r t h e f f e c t a f t e r 5 w e e k s ) .
 317

calculated for e a c h measurement s e s s i o n . An e x a m p l e o f a complete set of input

d a t a and c a l c u l a t i o n results (corresponding to the second s e s s i o n ) i s given in

Table 8.9. As t h e results include the overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients of the

individual h e a t e r s , the e f f e c t s of scale build-up i n t h e h e a t e r s c a n be s t u d i e d .

TABLE 8.9

Heat balances o f the j u i c e heaters.

Raw j u i c e Pre- Clear juice J u i ce Thin juice

Medium h e a t e d 1 i med after
juice 2nd
1 2 1* 2* carb.'* 1 2 3 4

Input data:
Heating surface
a r e a (m^) 125 125 259 70.2 70.8 100 150 150 150 150
Heating vapour. ex­
e f f e c t No. ^ 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 2 1 haust
temperature ( C) 77.7 77.7 92.5 92.5 92.5 108.1 108.1 117.3 128.8 137.4
Juice
temperature ( C)
inlet 42.3 42.3 75.1 80.7 88.7 85.0 95.5 105.5 116.0 124.4
outlet 60.1 58.8 84.3 88.7 91.5 98.5 105.5 116.0 124.4 133.0
Juice flow
( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 56.6 106.4 147.2 138.2 138.2 116.8 113.7 113.7 113.7 113.7

Results:
V a p o u r demand
( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 3.09 2.86 1.86 1.86 0.65 2.70 1 .96 2.08 1 .69 1.76
O v e r a l l heat
transfer
coefficient
(W/(m2K)) 950 850 720 3660 4280 1680 1970 2790 1340 1360

V plate heat exchangers

The o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients in the individual juice heaters are

shown as f u n c t i o n s o f time in F i g . 8.11. These c o e f f i c i e n t s are g e n e r a l l y very

high, which i n d i c a t e s that the heaters are u t i l i z e d effectively. The e f f e c t s of

the scale build-up can be s e e n e x a c t l y w h e r e t h e y m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , n a m e l y in

raw-juice, pre-1imed-juice and c l e a r - j u i c e heaters.

It can be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the j u i c e - t e m p e r a t u r e profiles determined during the

measurement s e s s i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t . A comparison o f temperature

profiles corresponding to the beginning and e n d o f t h e season i s shown in

Fig. 8.12. Noteworthy are the v e r y small values - sometimes as l o w as 2 Κ - of

t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e difference in the thin-juice h e a t e r s , which are of

tubular design.

T h e e x h a u s t steam c o n s u m p t i o n was d e t e r m i n e d a t 3 0 . 5 - 3 4 . 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b in

measurement s e s s i o n s 1-4. It increased to 43.1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b i n measurement

s e s s i o n 5, w h i c h was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the f i n a l stage of the season. Concerning

318

4000 h

clear juice ( P H E )

3000 h

2000 h

1000 h
c
ω
'ο

I
o

(Λ
C
O

3000 h
α
o»

O
2000 h

1000 h

A 6
Time (weeks)

F i g . 8 . 1 1 . O v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e j u i c e h e a t e r s as functions
o f t i m e . PHE - p l a t e h e a t e x c h a n g e r s . * d e n o t e s two h e a t e r s c o n n e c t e d in
paral l e i .
 319

F i g . 8 . 1 2 . T e m p e r a t u r e s o f h e a t i n g v a p o u r s ( d a s h e d l i n e s ; numbers d e n o t e
e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s ) and j u i c e ( s o l i d l i n e s ) . T h i c k l i n e s - f i r s t week o f t h e
s e a s o n , t h i n l i n e s - t e n t h week o f t h e s e a s o n .

the heat consumption components, particular a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e s u g a r

house. T h e h e a t i n g - v a p o u r demand o f t h e vacuum p a n s was c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s

of t h e mass b a l a n c e o f t h e s u g a r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e demand figures

corresponding to the f i v e measurement s e s s i o n s were c o n t a i n e d i n the range

1 4 . 1 - 1 6 . 8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , w i t h a t e n d e n c y t o i n c r e a s e as t h e s e a s o n p r o g r e s s e d . As

t h e v a p o u r used i n vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t was s u p p l i e d v i a a s e p a r a t e supply

line, it was p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e its consumption directly, and i n measurement

sessions 1-4 t h e r e s u l t s were n e a r l y identical, at 0.9-1.0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . T h e

value determined i n measurement s e s s i o n 5 was 1.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

In a d d i t i o n t o the exhaust steam, saturated boiler steam (withdrawn from the

boiler drum) t h r o t t l e d to 12 b a r i s s u p p l i e d t o t h e f a c t o r y f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s as

heating fuel oil before the burners, as w e l l as o i l atomization in the burners

installed in the b o i l e r furnace and i n t h e l i m e k i l n . In the f i v e measurement

sessions, the consumption o f 12 b a r s t e a m r e m a i n e d n e a r l y c o n s t a n t at

0.3-0.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .
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8.3.5 Heat balance o f the thermal system

The h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed in the following manner:

- using the results of f l o w measurements ( o r the c a l c u l a t e d mass b a l a n c e data)

and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e values measured, the vapour or steam c o n s u m p t i o n was

determined for all heat r e c e i v e r s , and t h e total consumption o f vapours from the

individual evaporator effects was calculated;

- using the values of the e v a p o r a t o r p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d , t h e mass and heat

balances of the e v a p o r a t o r , including vapour flows (available for process

heating) from the individual effects, were calculated.

Owing t o measurement errors, the total v a p o u r c o n s u m p t i o n may d i f f e r from

the calculated available vapour f l o w . If the difference is less than

TABLE 8.10

Steam and v a p o u r f l o w s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n the

thermal system.

Sources
No. R e c e i v e r s Exhaust Evaporator effects Others
steam 1

Extractor 0.83
Raw-juice heaters 5.95 vacuum-pan v a p o u r
Pre-1imed-juice
heaters 1.86 condensate
C l e a r - j u i c e heaters 2.51
Heater a f t e r
carbonatation I I 2.70
T h i n - j u i c e heaters 1.76 1.69 2.08 1.96
O i l tanks 0.25
P u l p d r y i n g and
pelleting 0.02
Heating of product
stores 0.50
10 Heating of f a c t o r y
buildings 0.19
11 Heating of o f f i c e
buildings 0.16
12 Main f e e d - w a t e r t a n k 0.13
13 M o l a s s e s and
a f f . - s y r u p tanks 0.12
14 Melter C 0.02
15 Syrup A tanks 0.37
16 Syrup Β tanks 0.12
17 Melter Β 0.33
18 Vacuum pans A , B, C 14.13
19 Vacuum-pan
steaming-out 0.86
20 Centrifugals 0.22
21 Sugar d r y e r 0.48
22 Evaporator total 1.8 4.4 18.8 5.2 6.0
23 Exhaust-steam
consumption 30.6
24 Oil burners in
b o i l e r and l i m e k i l n 12 b a r steam
 321

1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , then the accuracy o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n be r e g a r d e d as

satisfactory. It can be added t h a t this value is equivalent to determining juice

concentrations in the f i r s t and s e c o n d e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s with an a c c u r a c y o f

0.1% D S .

The h e a t b a l a n c e d e t e r m i n e d using the results of the s e c o n d measurement

session (third week o f the season) i s presented in Table 8.10.

8.3.6 E v a l u a t i o n o f the h e a t economy and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of possible improvements

The r e s u l t s o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s and t h e subsequent heat balance calculations

confirmed that the h e a t economy i s quite effective. No s u b s t a n t i a l discrepancies

were o b s e r v e d between the p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and

distribution p r o c e s s e s and t h e real behaviour of the thermal s y s t e m . From

a detailed r e v i e w o f t h e h e a t r e c e i v e r s , h o w e v e r , a number o f possible small

improvements o f heat u t i l i z a t i o n c a n be identified.

As r e g a r d s t h e sugar house, i t was o b s e r v e d d u r i n g session 5 t h a t the vapour

consumption i n vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t changed w i t h o u t apparent reason; this

indicates that if more a t t e n t i o n is paid to the f u n c t i o n i n g of the steaming

equipment, t h e n v a p o u r can be s a v e d . As some s m a l l syrup tanks a r e h e a t e d by

first-effect v a p o u r , a h e a t s a v i n g can be o b t a i n e d u s i n g s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r

instead. F u r t h e r m o r e , some o t h e r syrup tanks are d i r e c t l y h e a t e d by second-

effect vapour without any a r r a n g e m e n t s t o secure a uniform temperature

distribution in the syrup volume. T h i s is associated with a risk of locally

overheated zones causing e x c e s s i v e heat consumption. This situation can be

improved e i t h e r by implementing indirect heating, o r by i n s t a l l i n g mixing

devices in d i r e c t l y heated tanks.

As r e g a r d s s m a l l e x h a u s t - s t e a m r e c e i v e r s , some o f them can a c t u a l l y be

supplied with first- or second-effect vapour. In the first place, this applies

to oil-tank heating, as w e l l as t o heating of factory buildings. The heating

system in the o f f i c e building can a l s o be s u p p l i e d w i t h second-effect vapour.

Finally, it was o b s e r v e d t h a t the flow of the mixture o f v a p o u r and

noncondensables withdrawn from the e v a p o r a t o r by v e n t i n g c o u l d be r e d u c e d

without any a d v e r s e e f f e c t s in the heat t r a n s f e r intensity. The a s s o c i a t e d

energy-saving potential can be u t i l i z e d , providing the operating personnel

operate the v e n t i n g s y s t e m more carefully.

The e s t i m a t e d effects of the improvements listed above were c a l c u l a t e d using

a computer program f o r evaporator balance c a l c u l a t i o n s . The r e s u l t s are listed

i n T a b l e 8.11. Only in the case o f replacing e x h a u s t steam b y v a p o u r s i n the

heating of certain r e c e i v e r s , h o w e v e r , can t h e estimates be t r e a t e d as the

values of expected savings. Other estimates, o b t a i n e d on t h e "if-then" basis,

indicate the o r d e r o f magnitude but leave a margin o f uncertainty about the

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TABLE 8.11

Estimated heating-steam savings resulting from v a r i o u s improvements of the heat

economy.

~ I 77. ~ Estimated steam

No. Specification 3^^.^g

1 Reducing t h e v a p o u r consumption i n vacuum-pan

s t e a m i n g - o u t b y 15% 0,.06
2 R e p l a c i n g f i r s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r by s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r
i n the h e a t i n g o f small s y r u p tanks 0 .02
3 Reducing the consumption o f s e c o n d - e f f e c t vapour i n
the d i r e c t heating o f syrup tanks 0 .20
4 R e p l a c i n g e x h a u s t steam b y f i r s t - and s e c o n d - e f f e c t
v a p o u r i n t h e h e a t i n g o f o i l t a n k s and f a c t o r y
buildings 0 .28
5 R e p l a c i n g e x h a u s t steam b y s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r i n
the heating o f the o f f i c e building 0,.06
6 Reducing the f l o w o f vapour-noncondensables m i x t u r e
w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r b y 25% 0,.10

attainable values o f the savings. (Most n o t a b l y , this applies to the vacuum-pan

steaming-out and t o the venting of noncondensables. I f reductions of the vapour

flows b y 15% and 25%, respectively, can be a t t a i n e d , then steam s a v i n g s of

0.06 k g / 1 0 0 kg b and 0.10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , r e s p e c t i v e l y , seem t o be w i t h i n reach.

The a s s u m p t i o n s on v a p o u r - f l o w r e d u c t i o n , h o w e v e r , can o n l y be p r o v e d by

practical results.) T h e r e f o r e , T a b l e 8.11 can o n l y be r e g a r d e d as a r e v i e w of

possible rationalization m e a s u r e s and t h e i r relative importance, but not their

absolute effects.

8.4 FACTORY FEATURING AN ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEM

8.4.1 Introductory remarks

Although the p r e s e n t book i s assumed t o be c o n c e r n e d m a i n l y w i t h white-sugar

factories, it seems r e a s o n a b l e t o give, in this S e c t i o n , a summary o f step-by-

step improvements i n t r o d u c e d on an a d v a n c e d e n e r g y s y s t e m i n a raw-sugar

factory. Putting aside the p r o c e s s - s p e c i f i c aspects of this particular case, it

may be i n t e r e s t i n g to s e e how much e n e r g y can be s a v e d , and how i m p o r t a n t the

power b a l a n c e becomes i n a modern f a c t o r y utilizing energy very efficiently.

The information p r e s e n t e d below i s extracted partly from p u b l i c a t i o n s (refs.

18,19) and p a r t l y from the m a t e r i a l obtained d i r e c t l y from Pfeifer&Langen

Company, C o l o g n e , FRG ( r e f . 19,20).

The A p p e l d o r n f a c t o r y was e r e c t e d i n the period 1975-77. Its main p r o d u c t is

raw s u g a r d e s t i n e d f o r further processing in a refinery owned b y t h e same

company.

The initial processing capability was 4500 t / d . However, the equipment was

d i m e n s i o n e d t o make it possible to increase the processing capability without

further heavy investment. The l a y o u t o f the process stations and t h e main

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factory building were a l s o d e s i g n e d t o facilitate future extensions. Following

the e v o l u t i o n of fuel and p o w e r p r i c e s in F R G , a d v a n t a g e was t a k e n of these

special features of the Appeldorn f a c t o r y , and a number o f improvements were

i n t r o d u c e d aiming to improve the overall economic r e s u l t s and, in particular, to

reduce the energy c o s t s .

At the initial steam c o n s u m p t i o n level of a b o u t 27 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , the factory

could in p r i n c i p l e be c o n s i d e r e d as r a t h e r energy-efficient. With carefully

d e s i g n e d p r o c e s s and t h e r m a l s y s t e m schemes as w e l l as modern e q u i p m e n t and

automatic controls, it was p o s s i b l e t o p r e v e n t u n n e c e s s a r y e n e r g y w a s t e and to

keep t h e energy conversion, d i s t r i b u t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n processes well under

control. T h e r e f o r e , when d e s i g n i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g the improvements, attention

was t u r n e d t o two g r o u p s o f rationalization measures:

- reducing the t o t a l e n e r g y demand o f the sugar manufacturing process;

- improving the c a p a b i l i t i e s of the energy system.

8.4.2 E v o l u t i o n o f the sugar manufacturing process

The f a c t o r y is equipped with a tower extractor, classical juice purification

station, multiple-stage evaporator station and b a t c h - t y p e crystallization

equipment. Initially, a juice draft about 125 k g / 1 0 0 kg b was m a i n t a i n e d . The

evaporators - four R o b e r t - t y p e and two f a l l i n g - f i l m units, with heating surface

2
a r e a s o f 2000 m each - were a r r a n g e d i n a quintuple-effect station. At a thin-

juice concentration about 14% D S , a t h i c k - j u i c e concentration o f 66% DS was

maintained.

The i n i t i a l v e r s i o n of the s u g a r h o u s e was b a s e d on a single-boiling

crystallization process, with raw s u g a r and s y r u p as t h e final products. In

order to produce molasses needed i n the pulp-drying plant, a low-grade product

s t a g e was a d d e d t o the crystallization scheme. In 1978, the capacity of the low-

grade s t a t i o n was s u f f i c i e n t to process about h a l f of the syrup flow. A t 66% DS

thick-juice concentration, the t h e o r e t i c a l water evaporation in the s u g a r house

was 8.7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Following adjustments of the factory equipment, the processing capability

attained 5000 t / d already in 1979. In order to reduce the e n e r g y demand, the

water intake to the p r o c e s s was r e d u c e d b y g r a d u a l l y decreasing the j u i c e draft

to 117%. I n 1981, the e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s was m o d i f i e d by a t t a c h i n g a vapour

compression c i r c u i t to the evaporator station and r e a r r a n g i n g vapour and

condensate d i s t r i b u t i o n to the heat r e c e i v e r s . As t h i s made i t possible to

increase t h i c k - j u i c e concentration to 68% D S , t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r house

was r e d u c e d . H o w e v e r , a Q u e n t i n s t a t i o n was i n s t a l l e d in the s u g a r h o u s e and the

capacity of the low-grade s t a t i o n was e x t e n d e d t o process the entire syrup flow,

this increasing the heat demand.

324

I n 1986, the processing capability was r a i s e d t o 6200 t / d . Owing t o extension

of the extractor (the average e x t r a c t i o n t i m e was c h a n g e d f r o m 87 t o 120 min),

the j u i c e draft attained a very low v a l u e o f 109%. A new falling-film unit with
2
a heating s u r f a c e a r e a o f 2500 m was i n s t a l l e d as t h e fifth evaporator effect,

and t h e t h i c k - j u i c e concentration was i n c r e a s e d t o 72-73% D S . E v e n t h o u g h the

crystallization scheme was t r a n s f o r m e d to incorporate "two-and-a-half-boiling"

( r a w s u g a r s I and I I , and a l o w - g r a d e p r o d u c t ) , high t h i c k - j u i c e concentration

and t h e introduction of crystal footing resulted in the theoretical water

evaporation in the s u g a r house b e i n g reduced to 8.2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

8.4.3 Evolution of the thermal system

T h e 1978 v e r s i o n o f the thermal system i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 8.13,

together with t h e d a t a on mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s . T h e e v a p o r a t o r consumed

26.8 kg steam p e r 100 kg b . Owing t o a rather l o w h e a t demand o f the sugar

house, it was i m p o s s i b l e to utilize the e n t i r e amount o f v a p o u r s , and a

relatively large flow of last-effect vapour to the c o n d e n s e r had t o be a c c e p t e d .

T h e c o n d e n s a t e e n e r g y was n o t f u l l y utilized. In the p o w e r h o u s e , one turbo­

generator d r i v e n by a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e supplied with live steam a t 58 bar

and 500°C was e n o u g h t o cover the power demand o f the factory. However, a part

of the heating-steam flow had t o be s u p p l i e d v i a t h e throttling-desuperheating

station.

Following the e x t e n s i o n s o f the factory and t h e resulting increase in power

demand, a s e c o n d t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r was i n s t a l l e d in the power h o u s e . A theoretical

possibility arose to sell the power s u r p l u s t o the external grid; however, the

f a c t o r y was o f f e r e d a power p r i c e w h i c h t u r n e d o u t t o be t o o low t o cover the

cost. This stimulated a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s and r e - o r i e n t a t i o n of the energy

policy towards f a r - r e a c h i n g power and h e a t savings.

It was d e c i d e d t o m o d i f y the thermal system by i n t r o d u c i n g the compression of

first-effect v a p o u r i n an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n mechanical compressor. In order to

c h a n g e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r , raw-juice heating with

v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s and p r e - 1 i m e d - j u i c e heating with condensate were implemented.

T h i s made i t possible to recirculate 27.3 kg f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour per 100 kg beet

in the vapour-compression c i r c u i t , and t o decrease the heating-steam consumption

in the evaporator to 23.6 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . T h e 1981 v e r s i o n of the thermal system is

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 8.14.

Among t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s introduced after 1981, extension of the evaporator

station p l a y e d t h e main role. Following the installation of a falling-film

2
evaporator with a heating surface area of 2500 m i n t h e last effect, the total
2
heating surface area of the evaporator r e a c h e d 14500 m . T h i s made i t possible

to maintain 73% DS t h i c k - j u i c e concentration at reduced temperature differences

in the individual effects. It thus became p o s s i b l e t o decrease the temperature

Fig. 8 . 1 3 . Simplified scheme of the thermal system of the Appeldorn factory, 1978 version (after ref. 1 8 ) .
Steam and vapour flows are given in kg/lOO kg b.

Fig. 8 . 1 4 . Simplified scheme of the thermal system of the Appeldorn factory, 1981 version (after ref. 1 8 ) .
325
 326

Fig. 8.15. Scheme of the utilization of condensate in the Appeldorn factory (after ref. 18).

Fig. 8.16. Simplified scheme of the thermal system of the Appeldorn factory, 1986 version (after ref. 18).
 327

(and the corresponding saturation pressure) o f the heating steam, this resulting

i n an i n c r e a s e d i s e n t r o p i c enthalpy drop in the turbine and an i n c r e a s e o f the

power g e n e r a t e d . Owing t o lower j u i c e temperatures in the individual evaporator

effects, s u c r o s e d e c a y was a l s o reduced, with a considerable reduction of thick-

juice c o l o u r as a r e s u l t (ref. 17,18).

Very intensive utilization of the c o n d e n s a t e e n e r g y was a l s o implemented

(Fig. 8.15). In a s e r i e s of heat exchangers connected to the room heating

system, 1imed-juice and r a w - j u i c e heating, fuel-oil heating and w a s t e - w a t e r

treatment system, the temperature of the condensate f a l l s from its initial

v a l u e o f 92°C t o as l o w as 37°C. In a d d i t i o n , d e p e n d i n g on t h e temperature

level, parts of the condensate stream are u t i l i z e d as:

- wash w a t e r in the centrifugals;

- sweetening-off water in the sludge presses;

- fresh water in the extractor.

T h e scheme o f t h e thermal system, with the d a t a on mass and h e a t balances

characteristic of the 1986 season, a r e shown i n F i g . 8.16. As can be s e e n , the

heating-steam consumption in the e v a p o r a t o r was r e d u c e d t o 18.5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

8.4.4 E v o l u t i o n o f the power balance

When d e s i g n i n g the Appeldorn sugar f a c t o r y , much e f f o r t was s p e n t on ensuring

a l o w power demand. For example, j u i c e pumps i n the e x t r a c t i o n and juice

purification stations were equipped w i t h thyristor-controlled d.c. drives,

making i t p o s s i b l e to apply variable speed c o n t r o l . As a r e s u l t , power

consumption as l o w as 2.54 kWh/100 kg b was a c h i e v e d i n t h e first season.

The i n s t a l l a t i o n of an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n vapour compressor caused the power

demand o f t h e factory to i n c r e a s e b y 13%. In order to restore the relation

b e t w e e n power g e n e r a t e d and power c o n s u m e d , a number o f rationalization measures

were taken:

- an e x t e n s i o n o f the processing capability of the factory took place without

any e x t e n s i o n o f t h e beet storage y a r d s ;

- the e x i s t i n g waste-water treatment plant was r e p l a c e d by an a n a e r o b i c plant

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l o w e r e n e r g y demand;

- only a part of the p r e s s e d p u l p was d i r e c t e d to the drying plant (50% i n 1986).

A r e v i e w was a l s o undertaken of the electric d r i v e s and electrically-driven

machines in the entire factory. For example, all the trough c o n v e y o r s were

investigated to identify those that c o u l d be r e p l a c e d b y more energy-efficient

belt c o n v e y o r s . However, p a r t i c u l a r attention was p a i d t o the flow machinery

and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of replacing throttling control by v a r i a b l e speed control,

or introducing intermittent instead of continuous operation. Taking advantage of

falling prices of frequency-controlled a.c. d r i v e s , v a r i a b l e - s p e e d d r i v e s were

implemented in b e e t pumps and k i l n - g a s c o m p r e s s o r s , as w e l l as i n p u l p p r e s s e s .

 328

TABLE 8.12
Power consumed and power supplied to the Appeldorn sugar factory, in kWh/100 kg b (after ref. 18).

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Beet storage yards 0.272 0.261 0.276 0.294 0.264 0.290 0.233 0.164 0.140 0.160
Beet house 0.870 0.860 0.856 0.843 1.018 0.980 0.963 0.945 0.922 0.830
Sugar house 0.614 0.610 0.612 0.633 0.609 0.584 0.554 0.642 0.630 0.670
Pulp-drying plant 0.338 0.334 0.350 0.343 0.330 0.334 0.271 0.260 0.210 0.280
Power house 0.155 0.157 0.160 0.154 0.142 0.154 0.159 0.158 0.160 0.173
Water circuits and compressed-air supply 0 . 1 5 5 0.157 0.176 0.156 0.162 0.149 0.160 0.157 0.130 0.140
Waste-water treatment 0.133 0.201 0.228 0.260 0.251 0.263 0.178 0.200 0.110 0.110
Vapour compressor 0.390 0.410 0.380 0.290 0.240 0.330
Power generated 2.473 2.506 2.612 2.642 3.022 3.012 2.752 2.640 2.414 2.534
Power purchased 0.064 0.074 0.046 0.041 0.144 0.152 0.146 0.176 0.128 0.159
Total power supplied 2.537 2.580 2.658 2.683 3.166 3.164 2.898 2.816 2.542 2.693

TABLE 8.13
Power consumed and power supplied to the Appeldorn sugar factory, in kWh/t sugar (after ref. 18).

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986"
Beet storage yards 20.89 18.63 19.28 21.73 18.80 20.94 16.54 11.63 9.49 10.70
Beet house 66.79 61.49 59.84 62.23 73.34 71.94 69.88 67.76 65.48 53.30
Sugar house 47.14 43.62 42.80 46.71 43.30 42.16 39.47 45.57 43.70 42.90
Pulp-drying plant 25.94 23.85 24.47 25.34 23.48 24.08 19.31 18.30 14.81 18.20
Power house 11.90 11.19 11.20 11.41 10.07 11.10 11.30 11.24 10.94 11.20
Water circuits and compressed-air supply 11.90 11.19 12.07 11.52 11.49 10.76 11.40 11.15 9.27 8.80
Waste-water treatment 10.18 14.17 15.95 19.21 17.52 19.03 12.70 14.25 7.70 8.70
Vapour compressor 26.60 28.40 25.80 19.80 16.20 20.50
Power generated 189.82 179.12 182.42 195.14 214.39 2 1 7 . 4 2 195.96 187.30 168.65 164.00
Power purchased 4.92 5.32 3.19 3.01 10.21 10.99 10.44 12.40 8.94 10.30
Total power supplied 194.74 184.44 185.61 198.15 224.60 228.41 206.40 199.70 177.59 174.30
 329

As a r e s u l t , the total installed power o f the d.c. drives reached a l e v e l of

3200 kW, and t h a t o f the frequency-controlled a.c. drives 1900 kW, w i t h the

variable speed d r i v e s dominating in the beet h o u s e and i n the s u g a r h o u s e . As

regards the equipment installed in the power h o u s e and i n the pulp-drying

plant, it turned out that the potential energy savings are too small to justify

the investment costs of variable-speed drives there.

The e v o l u t i o n of the power c o n s u m p t i o n in seven s e c t i o n s of the factory (and

the vapour compressor) is illustrated in T a b l e s 8.12 and 8 . 1 3 . As can be seen,

the power c o n s u m p t i o n of the vapour compressor has been o f f - s e t by t h e power

savings attained in the beet storage yards, beet house, p u l p - d r y i n g plant, water

s u p p l y s y s t e m and w a s t e - w a t e r treatment plant. It is also interesting to see

that in the sugar house, while the power c o n s u m p t i o n per 100 kg b e e t has

i n c r e a s e d due t o the extensions of the crystallization scheme, a reduction of

the power c o n s u m p t i o n per 1 t s u g a r was achieved.

I n T a b l e s 8.12 and 8 . 1 3 , data are also g i v e n on t h e power s u p p l i e d to the

factory. It can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e steep increases of power g e n e r a t e d and

purchased which took place in 1981 that the heat saving mentioned in the

preceding S e c t i o n was a t t a i n e d a t the expense o f increased power consumption.

It can a l s o be s e e n t h a t the measures taken to adjust the power g e n e r a t i o n to

changing p o w e r demand w e r e q u i t e effective, as a t present, the power purchased

does n o t e x c e e d 5-6% of the total power supplied.

REFERENCES

1 L. S z y d l o , W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , M o d e r n i z a c j a g o s p o d a r k i cieplnej
C u k r o w n i K l e c i n a , G a z . C u k r o w . , 9 3 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 134.
2 N . K . P o l i s h c h u k , I s p o l z o v a n i e e n e r g o r e s u r s o v na E r k e n - S h a k h a r s k o m s a k h a r n o m
z a v o d e , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1986) 39-40.
3 K. U r b a n i e c , Ocena p r a k t y c z n y c h m o z l i w o s c i o s z c z e d z a n i a p a l i w a w g o s p o d a r c e
e n e r g e t y c z n e j c u k r o w n i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 89(4) (1981) 80-81.
4 Y u . D . G o l o v n y a k and L . G . B e l o s t o t s k i i , S h i r o k o v n e d r y a t n a u c h n y e r a z r a b o t k i
d l y a s n i z h e n i y a raskhoda t o p l i v a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 8 ) (1981) 21-24.
5 K. U r b a n i e c , R a c j o n a l i z a c j a g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j w c u k r o w n i a c h , G a z . C u k r o w . ,
92(2) (1984) 27-28.
6 C . H . I v e r s o n , W i t h e r g o e s t t h o u , oh BTU ? , S u g a r J . , 4 5 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 1 7 - 2 2 .
7 J . B o z e c , E v o l u t i o n de l a c o n s o m m a t i o n t h e r m i q u e dans 1 ' i n d u s t r i e s u c r i e r e ,
I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 100(7-8) (1983) 477-480.
8 Anonymous, E n e r g y program a t I m p e r i a l S u g a r , Sugar J . , 4 7 ( 1 ) (1984) 20.
9 B. K a r r e n , E x p e r i e n c e o f e n e r g y s a v i n g i n t h e C a n a d i a n s u g a r i n d u s t r y , in:
F . O . L i c h t s G u i d e t o t h e S u g a r F a c t o r y M a c h i n e I n d u s t r y , F . O . L i c h t GmbH,
R a t z e b u r g , 1984, p p . A 7 5 - A 8 8 .
10 L . L . N e v i l l e , H o l l y Sugar C o r p o r a t i o n ' s c a p i t a l improvement program,
Sugar y A z ú c a r , 80(2) (1985) 4 9 , 5 2 .
11 G . K o w a l s k a , P o r z a d k o w a n i e g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j na p r z y k l a d z i e c u k r o w n i
w i e l k o p o l s k i c h , G a z . C u k r o w . , 94(4) (1986) 52-53.
12 W. L e k a w s k i , M o d e r n i z a c j a G o s p o d a r k i C i e p l n e j C u k r o w n i , S T C , W a r s z a w a , 1986.
13 E . V . M l o d z y a n o w s k i i , V . S . B e r e z y u k and K . N . S a v c h u k , Ekonomnoe i s p o l z o v a n y e
e n e r g o r e s u r s o v , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1981) 22-27.
14 E . K r u p k a and J . S z a d k o w s k i , G o s p o d a r k a c i e p l n a w C u k r o w n i G o s l a w i c e ,
G a z . C u k r o w . , 89(1) (1981) 2-5.
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15 A . I . Khomenko, Ekonomya t o p i i v n o - e n e r g e t i c h e s k i k h r e s u r s o v - i t o g i i
z a d a c h i , S a k h . P r o m . , (2) (1983) 35-39.
16 L . P . I g n a t e v ( e t a l . ) , O p y t r a b o t y po s n i z h e n i y u r a s k h o d a t o p i i v n o -
e n e r g e t i c h e s k i k h r e s u r s o v na A l e k s a n d r i i s k o m sakharnom z a v o d e , S a k h . P r o m . ,
(10) (1985) 32-34.
17 G. F e l t b o r g , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
18 H. W e i d n e r , D i e B r ü d e n k o m p r e s s i o n i n e i n e r R o h z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . ,
108(8) (1983) 736-742.
19 υ . C u r d t s , E i n Weg z u r V e r b e s s e r u n g d e r W ä r m e w i r t s c h a f t e i n e r R o h z u c k e r ­
f a b r i k - am B e i s p i e l d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k A p p e l d o r n , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference "Improvement o f Beet Sugar P r o d u c t i o n " , Warszawa,
May 1987.
20 A . Colsman, personal communication.
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Chapter 9

DESIGN OF MODERNIZED OR NEW ENERGY SYSTEMS

9.1 THE MODERNIZATION OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

Contrary to the s t e p - b y - s t e p approach c o n s i d e r e d i n the preceding Chapter,

modernization of a sugar f a c t o r y i n v o l v e s e x t e n s i v e changes t h a t a r e introduced

either all at once o r i n a few s t e p s p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g consecutive off-season

periods. Typically, this is a s e r i o u s and c o s t l y u n d e r t a k i n g , very s e l d o m aimed

solely a t e n e r g y s a v i n g s . Most o f t e n there are several technological objectives,

among w h i c h an e x t e n s i o n o f the processing c a p a b i l i t y has a l e a d i n g role and

t h e o t h e r s s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e o f c u t t i n g down m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o s t s . As the

undertaking has t o be c o m p l e t e d w i t h i n a d e f i n i t e cost/time framework, it may be

difficult to a r r i v e at an i n i t i a l problem f o r m u l a t i o n , and e v e n more s o t o find

the s o u g h t - a f t e r solution. Therefore, modernization usually requires the

e x p e r t i s e o f s p e c i a l i z e d e n g i n e e r i n g companies.

Publications related to the methodological problems o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f sugar

factories are rather s c a r c e , as t h i s subject is r e g a r d e d as a p a r t o f t h e know-

how of t h e companies i n v o l v e d . A book and a f e w a r t i c l e s c a n be f o u n d reviewing

the general d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s , as w e l l as t h e s p e c i a l i z e d q u e s t i o n s o f e n e r g y

economy i m p r o v e m e n t s (refs. 1-3).

The investigation o f modernization requirements b e g i n s w i t h d r a w i n g up an

inventory of existing factory s u b s y s t e m s . T h e number o f subsystems typically

defined is 25-30. For every subsystem, c r u c i a l d a t a on p r o c e s s a p p a r a t u s and

m a c h i n e s a r e r e g i s t e r e d , as w e l l as on a s s o c i a t e d e l e c t r i c a l equipment, control

circuitry and m e a s u r i n g instruments. Drawings are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y prepared of

essential factory buildings, together with a site plan. The i n f o r m a t i o n thus

a c q u i r e d makes i t p o s s i b l e to evaluate the f a c t o r y ' s technological b a s e and the

state o f the buildings.

The n e x t s t e p u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f d i s c u s s i n g t h e d a t a w h i c h a r e particularly

important to determination of t h e o b j e c t i v e s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the c o s t - and

time-related constraints of the modernization. The data o f c r u c i a l importance

are as follows:

- beet polarization;

- sugar losses in the manufacturing process, including their distribution

between e x t r a c t i o n , c a r b o n a t a t i o n s l u d g e , m o l a s s e s and u n d e f i n e d loss;

- purities of raw j u i c e , thick juice and m o l a s s e s ;

- t h e main f e a t u r e s of the j u i c e purification scheme, i n c l u d i n g temperatures of

essential process s t e p s ;

- CaO r a t e s and main f e a t u r e s of the lime-slaking process;

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- t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e p u l p - p r e s s i n g and p u l p - d r y i n g processes;

- t h e main f e a t u r e s o f the sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme and s u g a r boiling

process;

- automation requirements;

- environmental protection requirements;

- the fuel t y p e and t h e e x p e c t e d l e v e l of fuel demand i n t h e p o w e r h o u s e and in

the pulp-drying plant;

- power c o n s u m p t i o n requirements.

Having a c q u i r e d n e c e s s a r y knowledge o f t h e c o n d i t i o n of the f a c t o r y and the

priorities o f t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s , t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r s s h o u l d be a b l e

to c a l c u l a t e and p r e p a r e s k e t c h e s o f reconstruction proposals f o r the most

important factory sections. D e p e n d i n g on s p e c i f i c conditions, the following

m a t e r i a l may be r e q u i r e d :

- scheme o f b e e t r e c e p t i o n , unloading, transport and s t o r a g e ;

- mass b a l a n c e s o f e x t r a c t i o n , j u i c e purification, e v a p o r a t i o n and s u g a r

crystallization;

- heat balance o f the thermal system;

- heat balance o f the p u l p - d r y i n g plant;

- verification of rating of the e x i s t i n g equipment and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s on the

selection of new e q u i p m e n t units;

- e n e r g y ( h e a t and p o w e r ) b a l a n c e o f t h e power h o u s e .

Completion o f this s t e p makes it p o s s i b l e to determine the scope o f

equipment p u r c h a s e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , as w e l l as t o plan dismantling of

the e x i s t i n g equipment, construction work, a s s e m b l i n g o f new e q u i p m e n t and

piping, installation of electrical e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l circuitry, etc.

The s o l u t i o n s are u s u a l l y prepared in a number o f v e r s i o n s and d e s c r i b e d i n a

r e p o r t on p o s s i b l e and recommended c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n , c o s t p r o j e c t i o n s and

preliminary time-schedules. This constitutes a basis for decision-making on

detailed modernization designs.

The d e c i s i o n s t e p d e s e r v e s most a t t e n t i o n as i t determines, to a great

extent, the economic r e s u l t s of the e n t i r e undertaking. The c o s t s t r u c t u r e of

a typical modernization case i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal

contributions of the f o l l o w i n g c o s t components:

- the c o s t o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n work;

- the c o s t o f p u r c h a s i n g and a s s e m b l i n g t h e main equipment;

- the c o s t o f p i p i n g , electrical equipment, control and instrumentation

circuitry, engineering services, etc.

Prior t o making t h e d e c i s i o n s , one c a n a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n c o s t s as

a sum o f t w o c o m p o n e n t s :

(i) the c o s t o f the increase of processing capability;

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(ii) the c o s t o f the o p t i m i z a t i o n of detailed solutions.

It c a n be e s t i m a t e d t h a t component (ii) is typically of the order of 15-20% o f

the total cost. By o p t i m i z i n g the solutions, h o w e v e r , o n e may i n f l u e n c e the

economic results o f the modernization to a degree comparable w i t h that

associated with the processing-capability increase. Actually, this is where the

importance of improvements of t h e e n e r g y economy l i e s . It is not unusual that

these improvements are d e c i s i v e in optimizing the modernization solutions.

Optimization of t h e e n e r g y economy o f a m o d e r n i z e d s u g a r f a c t o r y is a

decision p r o b l e m u n d e r many c o n s t r a i n t s . Within the field of feasible solutions,

each e n e r g y - s a v i n g t e c h n i q u e of those considered in Chapters 3 to 7 and

systematized in S e c t i o n 8.1 c a n be c o n s i d e r e d f o r application. The s e t of

techniques satisfying the c o n s t r a i n t s and p r o m i s i n g the b e s t economic results

constitutes the desired solution (see also Section 9.4).

It c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e above i n t r o d u c t i o n that it is difficult to

report a modernization example i n g r e a t d e t a i l . As a r u l e , the presentations

p u b l i s h e d a r e v e r y c o n c i s e and f e w , if any, technical details are given

(refs. 4-7). T r y i n g t o change t h i s situation a l i t t l e without exceeding the

space a v a i l a b l e in the present book, summaries are presented in Sections 9.2

and 9 . 3 o f two r e a l - l i f e cases: one f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r a t h e r poor

initial energy u t i l i z a t i o n and a n o t h e r i n w h i c h t h e e n e r g y economy was quite

decent. Both m o d e r n i z a t i o n s were u l t i m a t e l y aimed a t extensions of the

processing c a p a b i l i t y , this b e i n g v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on i m p r o v e m e n t s of the

e n e r g y economy. P u l p d r y i n g was n o t t a k e n into consideration.

The p r e s e n t a t i o n s concentrate on t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t parts of the modernization

concepts, namely t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h possible versions of the reconstructed

thermal s y s t e m s and t h e i r heat balances. It is noteworthy, however, that the

importance of the p o w e r b a l a n c e s has a l s o come i n t o focus. In the first example,

presented in Section 9.2, owing t o a relatively large net h e a t demand, the

factory is generally able to sell a power s u r p l u s t o the external grid. It is

o n l y t h e most e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t version of the thermal system which reduces the

steam f l o w through the turbine to a value l e s s than that required for electrical

self-sufficiency. The second example p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 9.3 is concerned with

an e n e r g y s y s t e m i n w h i c h p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t heat s a v i n g s a r e accompanied by

a widening power d e f i c i t . In t h i s situation, measures t o reduce the power

demand become an i m p o r t a n t part o f the modernization, and t h e m a g n i t u d e of

complementary power p u r c h a s e s f r o m t h e external grid takes a place in the

evaluation of modernization versions.

Concluding this C h a p t e r and t h e e n t i r e b o o k , a summary i s given in Section

9.4 of principles of energy-system design using optimization methods.

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9.2 FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY POOR I N I T I A L ENERGY UTILIZATION

9.2.1 Introductory remarks

The f a c t o r y was e r e c t e d a t the beginning o f t h i s century. In the 1930s and

1940s s a t e l l i t e production f a c i l i t i e s were b u i l t , including an a l c o h o l

distillery, a carbon d i o x i d e p l a n t and a m a c h i n e - s h o p . A f t e r numerous

extensions and m o d e r n i z a t i o n s o f t h e sugar f a c t o r y , a processing capability of

3000 t / d was a t t a i n e d in the 1960s. By c o m b i n i n g the s t e p - b y - s t e p approach with

two l i m i t e d - s c a l e modernizations during a period o f several years ending late

in the 1970s, the bulk o f t h e o l d p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t was r e p l a c e d b y new

machinery. The p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y was t h e n increased to 3900 t o n s per day,

with t h e maximum t h r o u g h p u t o f the e x t r a c t i o n station estimated at about

5000 t/d.

As t h e r e were o n l y minimal investments in the thermal system during the most

recent period of factory improvements, symptoms o f inadequate installed boiler

c a p a c i t y became v i s i b l e at this processing c a p a b i l i t y . The managing s t a f f was

aware o f t h e o u t d a t e d h e a t economy and t h e f a c t t h a t no f u r t h e r factory

e x t e n s i o n s c a n be p l a n n e d u n l e s s t h e thermal system i s thoroughly modernized.

As a m a t t e r of fact, this situation was n o t u n e x p e c t e d . I t was deliberately

allowed to coincide with the necessary i n s t a l l a t i o n of replacements for two old

evaporator bodies in t h e 2nd e f f e c t , their certificates of pressure-vessel

o p e r a t i o n a b o v e 2 b a r b e i n g due t o e x p i r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , an e n g i n e e r i n g company

was hired to d e s i g n the n e c e s s a r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the thermal system.

A number o f c o n s t r a i n t s and a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d in advance by the

managing s t a f f of the factory:

- t h e e n e r g y s a v i n g s s h o u l d make i t possible to increase the processing

capability to 5000 t / d , but the n e s e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n s o f the process equipment

will be c o n s i d e r e d a t a l a t e r date;

- no i n v e s t m e n t f u n d s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f t h e power house

equipment;

- the factory has t o be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t in p o w e r , as t h e e x t e r n a l grid is not

reliable enough d u r i n g the w i n t e r period of peak loads;

- steam c o n s u m p t i o n i n the p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s outside the sugar f a c t o r y is

well under c o n t r o l and n e e d n o t be a n a l y s e d ;

- in the sugar f a c t o r y , the j u i c e draft s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d and t h e crystalliz­

ation scheme s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d t o increase the sugar output;

- due t o the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the e x i s t i n g thick-juice filtration equipment,

thick-juice concentration s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 65% D S .

Under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the task o f t h e d e s i g n e r s was l e s s complicated

than in a typical case o f factory modernization. It was p o s s i b l e t o limit the

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extent of the i n v e n t o r y o f the e x i s t i n g factory subsystems t o the c o l l e c t i o n of

essential data r e q u i r e d f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f the

thermal system. Only f o r the case o f the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n and heaters

(together with the associated piping and a u x i l i a r y e q u i p m e n t ) were detailed

schemes and l a y o u t d r a w i n g s p r e p a r e d . An i n v e n t o r y o f t h e relevant supporting

s t r u c t u r e s was a l s o drawn u p , and a s e p a r a t e e x a m i n a t i o n of the measuring

instruments and c o n t r o l circuits was u n d e r t a k e n .

9.2.2 Basic factory data

Processing c a p a b i l i t y : 3900 t/d.

Polarization of cossettes: 14.0-14.5%.

Extraction station: two t r o u g h - t y p e extractors.

Juice draft: 108%.

Raw-juice concentration and p u r i t y : 15.29% D S , 88.5%.

Pulp pressed t o : 10.5% DS and 15.0% DS ( 4 / 5 and 1/5 of the wet-pulp flow,

respectively; the former part is sold to farmers and t h e latter directed to

a dryer).

Kiln g a s : 26.8% CO2 v o l .

Juice purification according to the c l a s s i c a l scheme, c o m p r i s i n g :

- hot pre-liming at 50°C, CaO r a t e 0.22 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- main l i m i n g a t 8 6 ^ C , CaO r a t e 1.30 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- 1st carbonatation at 82°C;

- decanting and filtration;

- 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n at 9 4 ° C , CaO r a t e 0.10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- d o u b l e - s t a g e 2nd filtration.

Thin-juice c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p u r i t y : 13.42% D S , 92.40%.

Evaporator: quadruple-effect, Robert-type bodies.

Thick-juice c o n c e n t r a t i o n : 60-62.5% D S .

Sugar house:

- standard-liquor based t h r e e - b o i l i n g scheme w i t h the a f f i n a t i o n of C sugar;

- Β s u g a r and a f f i n e d C sugar melted in thin juice;

- standard l i q u o r prepared from t h i c k juice and remelt.

Sugar o u t p u t : 10.89 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Power h o u s e :

- coal-fired boilers, two u n i t s rated 30 t / h and t h r e e u n i t s r a t e d 20 t/h,

average e f f i c i e n c y about 60%;

- l i v e steam parameters 22 b a r , 320°C;

- two b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e s rated 3.3 MW e a c h , steam r a t e s about 11 kg/kWh;

- b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3.2 bar.

The f a c t o r y sells a power s u r p l u s t o the e x t e r n a l grid.

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I cocí VCI 3

Fig. 9 . 1 . Scheme of the thermal system and mass and heat balance data, for factory before modernization (thick-
juice concentration 60% D S ) . Condensates obtained from vapour streams marked * are discharged to the sewer system.
 337

Steam s u p p l y t o the sugar manufacturing process:

- live steam t h r o t t l e d to 6 bar to the c e n t r i f u g a l s and v a c u u m - p a n steaming;

- heating s t e a m 3.2 b a r ( e x h a u s t s t e a m and t h r o t t l e d live steam) to the

remaining receivers.

Steam c o n s u m p t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o m e a s u r e m e n t s : 4 4 . 5 - 4 8 . 6 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Power c o n s u m p t i o n : e s t i m a t e d at a b o u t 2.5 kWh/100 kg b.

Normal fuel c o n s u m p t i o n : 6 . 2 0 - 7 . 0 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t in parallel to supplying energy to the sugar factory,

the p o w e r h o u s e s u p p l i e s p o w e r and steam t o the following production facilities:

- alcohol distillery;

- carbon-dioxide plant;

- machine-shop.

The c o m b i n e d p o w e r demand o f t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s does n o t e x c e e d 0.8 MW, and the

heating steam demand i s o f the o r d e r o f 6 t/h. T h e demand on 6 b a r steam is

negligibly small.

The scheme o f v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e main r e s u l t s of the

mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s of the thermal system o f the sugar factory

b e f o r e m o d e r n i z a t i o n , a r e shown i n F i g . 9.1. It can i m m e d i a t e l y be r e c o g n i z e d

that t h e r e a r e a few q u e s t i o n a b l e d e t a i l s that s h o u l d be eliminated:

- the q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t evaporator is e s s e n t i a l l y o p e r a t e d as a t r i p l e - e f f e c t one

because t h e r e is no h e a t i n g w i t h last-stage vapour;

- the 1st- and 2 n d - e f f e c t condensates are flashed to the atmosphere;

- a significant part o f the condensates i s wasted;

- the flow o f condensate returned to the power house i s too small t o e n s u r e an

adequate f e e d - w a t e r supply.

Actually, vacuum-pan steaming w i t h 6 b a r steam - as m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r - also

belongs to this list.

Another observation is that t h e c a l c u l a t e d demand on h e a t i n g steam i s lower

than the consumption found i n the measurements. Two main r e a s o n s f o r this

d i s c r e p a n c y c a n be identified:

- vapour leaks through f l o a t - t y p e steam t r a p s in the condensate d r a i n a g e lines

in the e v a p o r a t o r a r e a ;

- frequent parameter instabilities, caused by inadequate t h r o u g h p u t and unstable

controls of the throttling-desuperheating station delivering 3.2 bar steam.

It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t the f o l l o w i n g questionable d e t a i l s , n o t shown in

Fig. 9.1, were a l s o found i n the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme:

- extractor heating by I s t - e f f e c t vapour o n l y ; this was m o t i v a t e d by the fact

that it helped to provide a high temperature o f the e x t r a c t i o n mixture, thus

making i t possible to maintain a very low j u i c e draft;

- multiple-stage heating of pre-limed juice and t h i n j u i c e w h e r e v a p o u r s at

338

the temperatures required in the f i n a l stages were a l s o used i n the preceding

stages; this contributed to inadequate u t i l i z a t i o n of low-temperature vapours.

9.2.3 Field of solutions

The e n g i n e e r i n g team p r o p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g strategy o f modernization, to be

implemented in two s t e p s .

(i) While i n s t a l l i n g the necessary replacements o f the e v a p o r a t o r bodies i n the

2nd e f f e c t , thermal s y s t e m c o r r e c t i o n s c a n be i n t r o d u c e d t o reduce the net heat

demand and make i t p o s s i b l e to operate the f a c t o r y at a higher j u i c e draft and

increased sugar output.

(ii) T h e e v a p o r a t o r and t h e v a p o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme c a n be r e c o n s t r u c t e d to

improve the e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio o f the thermal s y s t e m and t h u s reduce the net

h e a t demand e v e n further.

When a n a l y s i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e x t r a c t i o n station at a higher juice

draft, it was c o n c l u d e d t h a t b o t h t h e f l o w of extraction f e e d - w a t e r and t h e flow

of p r e s s w a t e r c a n be i n c r e a s e d . T h e d r y s u b s t a n c e c o n t e n t o f the pressed pulp

can be i n c r e a s e d t o 11.2% DS and 15.6% DS ( 4 / 5 and 1/5 o f the wet-pulp flow,

respectively), this being well within the o p e r a t i n g range o f the e x i s t i n g pulp

presses. In t h i s w a y , more p r e s s w a t e r is o b t a i n e d and a d d i t i o n a l energy

savings in p u l p d r y i n g become p o s s i b l e . C o n c e r n i n g t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme,

it t u r n e d o u t t h a t an i n c r e a s e d s u g a r o u t p u t requires a larger massecuite

circulation, this making an i n c r e a s e d h e a t demand o f t h e sugar b o i l i n g process

u n a v o i d a b l e even a t thick-juice concentration o f 65% DS ( a s c o m p a r e d t o 60% DS

prior to the modernization).

Two t h e r m a l system v e r s i o n s were proposed f o r step (i) and t h r e e versions for

step (ii). In the f o l l o w i n g , t h e s e v e r s i o n s a r e d e n o t e d A l , A2 and 8 1 , 82, 83.

Each o f them assumes t h a t the following changes are i n t r o d u c e d t o the thermal

system:

- vacuum-pan steaming is performed using 2 n d - e f f e c t vapour;

- c o n d e n s a t e s from a l l important vapour r e c e i v e r s are returned to the condensate

tanks (this requires installing new t a n k s , as t h e v o l u m e s o f t h e e x i s t i n g ones

are too small t o accommodate i n c r e a s e d c o n d e n s a t e f l o w s ) ;

- cascade f l a s h i n g o f condensates i s applied;

- e x t r a c t o r s are heated by 1 s t - and 3 r d - e f f e c t vapour;

- multiple-stage juice heating is performed using vapours o f different

temperatures, starting from the lowest p o s s i b l e temperature (in some v e r s i o n s ,

this may r e q u i r e installing new h e a t e r s , as t h e heating surface areas o f the

existing o n e s may be t o o s m a l l when u t i l i z e d at reduced temperature

differences);

- l e v e l - c o n t r o l l e d hydraulic seals are applied in the condensate drainage lines

c o n n e c t e d t o e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s l a and lb;
 339

- a new t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station to s u p p l y 3.2 b a r steam i s installed

and e q u i p p e d w i t h an a u t o m a t i c control circuit stabilizing exhaust-steam

pressure.

The c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n employed i n the different

versions are presented i n T a b l e 9.1. T h e main f e a t u r e s of the individual

versions are reviewed below.

Al. Quadruple-effect evaporator with increased heating surface areas in the 2nd

and 3 r d e f f e c t s , and t h e following adjustments o f the thermal system:

- 4th-effect vapour i s utilized in raw-juice heating and i n direct heating of

extraction feed-water in a precondenser;

- an a d d i t i o n a l condensate tank is installed to c o l l e c t the condensate drained

from the 3rd e v a p o r a t o r effect;

- automatic level controllers are installed i n 2 n d - and 3 r d - e f f e c t condensate

tanks to ensure e f f e c t i v e hydraulic seals in r e s p e c t i v e condensate drainage

lines.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s , a n d t h e r e s u l t s o f mass and heat

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s , a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 2 . In a d d i t i o n to two new e v a p o r a t o r

bodies (which are also included in other modernization versions), this version

requires installing four new c o n d e n s a t e tanks.

TABLE 9.1

Evaporator configurations in different modernization versions.

2
Body Heating surface area (m )

No. Existing Al A2 Bl B2 B3

la 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500

lb 1500 1500^ 1500^ 1500^ 1500^ 1500^
2a 1460 1800^ 1800? 1800^ 1800f 1800^
2b 1460 1800^ 1800^ 1800^ 1800^ 1800^
3a 1320 1320 1460 1320 1460 1460
1460 1460 1460
3b
-
900
1460
900
1460
1320 900 1320 1320
4
900 900
5
- - - -

' new b o d i e s

A2. Quadruple-effect evaporator with increased heating surface areas in the 2nd,

3 r d and 4 t h effects; and t h e following adjustments o f the thermal system:

- 4th-effect vapour is utilized in raw-juice and 1 i m e d - j u i c e heating;

- other details are e s s e n t i a l l y identical to those of version A l .

F o r more i n f o r m a t i o n , see F i g . 9 . 3 . It is necessary to install four new

condensate tanks in this version.

 340

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 341

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342

Bl. Quadruple-effect evaporator with vapour c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d :

- a heating scheme s i m i l a r t o that of version Al;

- vacuum-pan v a p o u r i s u t i l i z e d in r a w - j u i c e heating;
- i n a d d i t i o n to the b a s i c condensate subsystem i d e n t i c a l to that of version Al,
an a u t o m a t i c l e v e l c o n t r o l l e r i s i n s t a l l e d in the 4 t h - e f f e c t c o n d e n s a t e t a n k and
a condensate tank f l a s h e d to 4 t h - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s i n s t a l l e d as a f i n a l link in
the c o n d e n s a t e t a n k chain;
- compression of I s t - e f f e c t vapour i s performed u s i n g j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s ;
- c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r i s d i r e c t e d to the h e a t i n g chamber o f body la;
- e x h a u s t steam i s d i r e c t e d to the heating chamber o f body lb;
- in order to reduce compression work, a temperature d i f f e r e n c e of 6 Κ i s
maintained a c r o s s the heating surface i n body l a , w h i l e the corresponding
f i g u r e i n body l b is 10 K;

- s e p a r a t e c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s a r e i n s t a l l e d t o c o l l e c t c o n d e n s a t e s from b o d i e s la
and lb.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme f o r v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s and e x c e r p t s f r o m the mass
and h e a t b a l a n c e d a t a a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 4 . This version requires installing
s i x new c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s and one new h e a t e r .
B2. Quintuple-effect evaporator, and:

- condensate tank c o l l e c t i n g 5 t h - e f f e c t condensate i s not connected to the

condensate tank chain;
- condensate i s u t i l i z e d in heating pre-limed j u i c e , preheating air before the
sugar dryer, kiln-gas heating and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n b e f o r e the carbonatation tanks,
and room heating;
- vacuum-pan v a p o u r s a r e u t i l i z e d i n raw-juice heating;
- vacuum pans A a r e h e a t e d by 2 n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r , but vacuum p a n s Β and C by 3rd-
e f f e c t vapour (the heating surface areas in vacuum pans A t u r n e d o u t t o be too
small, precluding the use o f vapour at a lower temperature);
- t h i n - j u i c e heating i n the final s t a g e i s performed u s i n g exhaust steam.
F o r more i n f o r m a t i o n , s e e F i g . 9 . 5 . It i s n e c e s s a r y to install f i v e new
c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s and t h r e e new h e a t e r s in this version.
B3. Quintuple-effect evaporator with vapour c o m p r e s s i o n , and:
- a heating scheme e s s e n t i a l l y the same a s i n version B2;
- a continuous chain of condensate tanks applied between the 2nd and 5th
evaporator effects;
- t h i c k j u i c e a f t e r the 4 t h e f f e c t i s d i r e c t e d t o the s u g a r h o u s e where
standard liquor is prepared;
- standard liquor is returned to the 5 t h e f f e c t and t h i c k e n e d to 11% D S ;
- compression of I s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s p e r f o r m e d u s i n g an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n
mechanical compressor;
Fig. 9 . 4 . Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version Bl. Not shown: raw-juice heating using vacuum-pan
vapour.
343
 344

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Fig. 9.6. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version B3. Not shown: raw-juice heating using vacuum-pan
vapour.
345
346

- compressed vapour i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e h e a t i n g chamber o f body l a ;

- e x h a u s t steam i s d i r e c t e d t o the h e a t i n g chamber o f body lb;
- i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e c o m p r e s s o r power demand, a t e m p e r a t u r e difference of 6 Κ
i s m a i n t a i n e d between the h e a t i n g chamber and v a p o u r chamber i n body l a , while
the c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i g u r e i n body l b i s 10 K;
- separate condensate tanks are i n s t a l l e d to c o l l e c t c o n d e n s a t e s from b o d i e s la
and lb.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme f o r v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s , and s e l e c t e d r e s u l t s of
mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s , a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 6 . T h i s v e r s i o n r e q u i r e s
installing s i x new c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s and f i v e new h e a t e r s .

9 . 2 . 4 Comparison o f solutions

When a n a l y s i n g the m o d e r n i z a t i o n s t r a t e g y o u t l i n e d i n the p r e c e d i n g Sections,

each v e r s i o n o f the m o d e r n i z e d f a c t o r y c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v e c t o r of
a t t r i b u t e s comprising investment c o s t , fuel s a v i n g and power demand i n c r e a s e .
U s i n g the a c t u a l p r i c e s o f f u e l and p o w e r , the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f modernization
can t h u s be e x p r e s s e d i n economic t e r m s . The economic d a t a can a l s o be combined
i n t o some s y n t h e t i c i n d e x , l i k e the p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t . T h i s makes
it p o s s i b l e to compare the s o l u t i o n s and to s e l e c t the most f e a s i b l e one o f
v e r s i o n s B l , B2 and B 3 .

The I n v e s t m e n t c o s t was c a l c u l a t e d on the b a s i s o f p r i c e s q u o t e d by the

s u p p l i e r s o f the m a i n e q u i p m e n t ( e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s , j u i c e h e a t e r s , c o n d e n s a t e
t a n k s , pumps and v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r s ) . To t h e e q u i p m e n t p r i c e s , the following
e s t i m a t e d c o s t components were a d d e d :

- p i p i n g and a u x i l i a r y equipment;
- m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s and c o n t r o l circuits;
- thermal insulation;
- design documentation;
- construction work;
- a s s e m b l i n g o f e q u i p m e n t , p i p i n g and instrumentation.
E s t i m a t e d v a l u e s o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n v e r s i o n s were taken
from r e s u l t s o f the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s summarized i n the p r e v i o u s S e c t i o n .
It was a g r e e d w i t h the f a c t o r y m a n a g e r s t h a t no d e t a i l e d economic a n a l y s i s is
r e q u i r e d , b e c a u s e the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e thermal system
l i e s m a i n l y i n making i t p o s s i b l e to extend the p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y ; however,
this will be d e s i g n e d and a n a l y s e d a t a l a t e r d a t e . In order to reduce the
complexity o f the c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s , a p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e s
( n e g l e c t i n g the influence of capital c o s t ) o f the p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on
i n v e s t m e n t , i n y e a r s , were c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e formula
τ = I/A (9.1)

where I i s t h e i n v e s t m e n t c o s t and A i s t h e a n n u a l saving.

 347

The r e s u l t s of the c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 9 . 2 . Due t o

fluctuations of p r i c e s and c u r r e n c y e x c h a n g e r a t e s i n the international market,

it w o u l d make l i t t l e sense to quote the absolute level o f the economic e s t i m a t e s

in the o r i g i n a l currency. A t t h e moment o f publication o f the present book,

a couple of y e a r s a f t e r the a n a l y s i s was c o m p l e t e d , t h e s e d a t a w o u l d be o f

historical value only. Therefore, the c o s t s and s a v i n g s a r e g i v e n r e l a t i v e to

the investment c o s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m o d e r n i z a t i o n v e r s i o n Al (this cost is

taken as ^00%),

TABLE 9 . 2

Comparison o f main t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c p a r a m e t e r s o f different modernization

versions.

Thermal system v e r s i o n Existing Al A2 Bl B2 B3

H e a t i n g - s t e a m demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) 42.4 41.2 40.3 37.7 36.8 31.9

6 b a r steam demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) 2.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
N o r m a l - f u e l demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 6.00 5.62 5.50 5.12 4.60 3.07
L i v e - s t e a m demand i n v a p o u r
compression ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) - - - 6.10 - -
Power demand i n v a p o u r
compression ( k W h / 1 0 0 kg b) - - - - - 0.32
C o n d e n s a t e f l o w to the b o i l e r h o u s e
( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) 40.5 46.5 45.2 47.0 41.5 35.7
Total heating s u r f a c e area in the^
evaporator (m ) 8140 10280 10420 10280 11740 11740
R e l a t i v e investment c o s t (%) - 100 111 116 148 234
Value o f coal saved per season {7o) - 58 70 107 157 205
A p p r o x i m a t e p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on
investment (years) - 1.73 1.59 1.08 0.94 1.14

As can be s e e n i n T a b l e 9 . 2 , v e r s i o n s B l , B2 and B3 a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y more

attractive t h a n Al and A 2 . T h i s i n d i c a t e s that after the f i r s t modernization

s t e p h a s been c o m p l e t e d , the s e c o n d s t e p s h o u l d be t a k e n a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e .

Among t h e Β v e r s i o n s , it i s Bl that i s characterized by the lowest investment

cost; B3 o f f e r s the largest fuel saving, and B2 seems t o provide a trade-off

between i n v e s t m e n t c o s t and f u e l saving.

From the data g i v e n in S e c t i o n 9 . 2 . 2 , the total power demand ( v a p o u r

compression excluded) of the sugar factory at the processing capability of

5000 t / d , plus other production facilities, c a n be e s t i m a t e d a t 6 . 0 MW. A d d i n g

a 10% s a f e t y m a r g i n , the power demand w i l l equal the r a t i n g o f the turbines.

To g e n e r a t e 6 . 6 MW i n the turbo-generators, a steam flow o f a b o u t 73 t / h is

required. Subtracting 6 t/h consumed o u t s i d e the sugar factory, a minimum

h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand o f 67 t / h , o r 3 2 . 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , is obtained. L o o k i n g now a t

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of version B3, it can be s e e n t h a t t h e total power demand,

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n i n c l u d e d , amounts t o 6 . 7 MW and t h e h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand i s

348

a little l e s s t h a n the minimum v a l u e . T h i s e x c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of

implementing v e r s i o n B3 w i t h o u t p u r c h a s i n g power from the e x t e r n a l grid, or
m o d e r n i z i n g the power h o u s e . Therefore, v e r s i o n B3 d o e s n o t s a t i s f y the
constraints l i s t e d in Section 9.2.1.

9.3 FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY GOOD I N I T I A L ENERGY U T I L I Z A T I O N

9.3.1 Introductory remarks

The f a c t o r y was b u i l t i n the e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s w i t h an i n i t i a l processing

capability o f 4 0 0 0 t o n s p e r d a y . The i n i t i a l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n was a b o u t 5 . 3 kg
normal fuel per 100 kg b e e t . D u r i n g a p e r i o d o f a b o u t ten y e a r s , relying mostly
on the s t e p - b y - s t e p a p p r o a c h , the p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y was i n c r e a s e d to
5900 t / d . T h i s was a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o f the sugar manufacturing
process with r e s p e c t to the f u e l demand, and numerous improvements o f the
t h e r m a l s y s t e m . Among o t h e r s , the u t i l i z a t i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n two
tubular r a w - j u i c e h e a t e r s was i n t r o d u c e d , a l o n g w i t h improvements o f the
u t i l i z a t i o n of low-temperature primary v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e . A s a result,
normal-fuel c o n s u m p t i o n d e c r e a s e d t o 3 . 5 - 3 . 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

When a p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y o f 5900 t / d was a t t a i n e d , difficulties arose in

maintaining proper values of c r u c i a l p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s . The t e m p e r a t u r e s of
e x t r a c t i o n and main l i m i n g tended t o be t o o l o w , and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of thick
j u i c e d e c r e a s e d . T h i s was a c c o m p a n i e d by v a c u u m - l e v e l instabilities disturbing
the s u g a r b o i l i n g process. An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f the
evaporator indicated a l s o a l a r g e flow of l a s t - e f f e c t vapour to the c o n d e n s e r .
A f t e r the r e s u l t s o f the s e a s o n had been r e v i e w e d , i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t the
operational difficulties caused too h i g h s u g a r l o s s e s . It a l s o became c l e a r that
no f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n o f the energy consumption i s p o s s i b l e u n l e s s the existing
p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and t h e r m a l s y s t e m a r e m o d e r n i z e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , an
e n g i n e e r i n g team was c a l l e d i n t o a n a l y s e the s i t u a t i o n and t o d e s i g n the
necessary modifications.

A detailed inventory o f 12 f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s i n the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g line

was prepared, starting from the b e e t w a s h i n g s t a t i o n and e n d i n g a t t h e C
massecuite s t a t i o n . A r e v i e w o f i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s o f 15 o t h e r s u b s y s t e m s was
also carried out. W h i l e most o f t h e d a t a needed t o i n i t i a t e a modernization
s t u d y i n the h e a t economy a r e a were o b t a i n e d , it was f o u n d t h a t the d a t a on the
factory's power b a l a n c e were n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y detailed. Taking i n t o account that
the m o d e r n i z e d f a c t o r y c a n n o t be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n power, i t became c l e a r that
ways t o r e d u c e t h e power demand i n a l l relevant f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s s h o u l d be
s t u d i e d and p r o p e r m e a s u r e s s h o u l d be t a k e n . It was t h e r e f o r e recommended t h a t :
- measurements be made o f t h e power c o n s u m p t i o n i n m a j o r power r e c e i v e r s during
t h e n e x t s e a s o n , t o a n a l y s e t h e r a t i n g o f m o t o r s and t r a n s f o r m e r s ;
- a detailed s t u d y be u n d e r t a k e n o f the w a t e r - s u p p l y and w a s t e - w a t e r treatment
 349

Subsystems, with the aim o f reducing the power demand;

- a d e t a i l e d s t u d y be u n d e r t a k e n of flow control requirements in the sugar
manufacturing p r o c e s s , w i t h the aim o f m o d e r n i z i n g the control systems for
better energy utilization.

9 . 3 . 2 B a s i c f a c t o r y d a t a and h e a t balance
Processing capability: 5900 t/d.
Polarization of c o s s e t t e s : 15.7%.
Extraction station: two t h r o u g h - t y p e extractors.
J u i c e d r a f t : 115%.
Raw-juice concentration and p u r i t y : 1 5 . 0 % DS and 8 8 . 4 % .
Pulp pressed t o : 27.6% D S .
Kiln g a s : 35% CO^ v o l .
Juice p u r i f i c a t i o n according to the c l a s s i c a l scheme, c o m p r i s i n g :
- hot p r e - l i m i n g at 4 5 - 5 0 ° C ;
- main l i m i n g a t 79-80°C (required temperature: 82-85°C);
- 1st carbonatation at 77°C ( r e q u i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e : 80-82°C);
- double-stage 1st filtration;
- 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n at 96°C;

- d o u b l e - s t a g e 2nd filtration.
Decalcification o f t h i n j u i c e by i o n e x c h a n g e .
Thin-juice concentration and p u r i t y : 1 5 . 4 % DS and 9 1 . 8 % .
Evaporator: quadruple-effect, Robert-type b o d i e s ; N i e s s n e r columns a p p l i e d in
the c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e s u b s y s t e m .
Thick-juice concentration: 6 1 . 9 % DS ( r e q u i r e d v a l u e : 65% D S ) .
Sugar house:
- t h r e e - b o i l i n g scheme w i t h the a f f i n a t i o n of C sugar;
- 60% o f Β s y r u p p r o c e s s e d i n a Q u e n t i n unit.
Power h o u s e :
- oil-fired boilers, average e f f i c i e n c y 92%;
- l i v e steam p a r a m e t e r s 40 b a r , 430^0;
- back-pressure 2.9 bar;
- f e e d - w a t e r pump d r i v e n by a steam t u r b i n e .
Steam s u p p l y t o the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g process:
- l i v e steam t h r o t t l e d t o 8 b a r t o the centrifugals;
- heating steam 2 . 9 b a r ( e x h a u s t steam and t h r o t t l e d l i v e steam) to the
remaining receivers.
Heating steam c o n s u m p t i o n : 3 5 . 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.
Power c o n s u m p t i o n : 2 . 8 5 k W h / 1 0 0 kg b.
Normal f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n : 3 . 6 8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.
The s i m p l i f i e d scheme o f v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and the results
350

Fig. 9.7. Scheme of the thermal system and mass and heat balance data, for factory before modernization.
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352

o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f the thermal system before modernization

a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 7 . No d e t a i l s o f the v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e c o n n e c t i o n s in
the p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a a r e g i v e n , a s t h e s e were f o u n d e n t i r e l y correct.

9 . 3 . 3 Field of solutions
The e n g i n e e r i n g team p r o p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r a t e g y o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n , to be
implemented in four steps.
(i) I n t r o d u c e equipment m o d i f i c a t i o n s and m i n o r thermal system c o r r e c t i o n s ,
aimed a t s e c u r i n g p r o p e r p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s and e l i m i n a t i n g unnecessary energy
losses.
(ii) C o n v e r t the e x i s t i n g e v a p o r a t o r i n t o a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t one, in order to
attain a high concentration o f t h i c k j u i c e and t o i n c r e a s e the effectiveness
r a t i o o f t h e thermal system.
(iii) I n c r e a s e the h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a i n the f i r s t e f f e c t (two alternative
2
s o l u t i o n s can be c o n s i d e r e d : the e x i s t i n g R o b e r t - t y p e body w i t h 1800 m
h e a t i n g - s u r f a c e a r e a can be e i t h e r removed from t h e f a c t o r y , or only temporarily
disconnected).
(iv) I n t r o d u c e a v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t and a d d i t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e the
e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o o f t h e thermal system through improved u t i l i z a t i o n of low-
temperature vapours ( e a c h s o l u t i o n c o n s i d e r e d i n the p r e c e d i n g s t e p g e n e r a t e s
two p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n s ) .
The p r o p o s a l can be c o n v e n i e n t l y r e v i e w e d by s u m m a r i z i n g the main features
o f two i n t e r m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n s t h a t may r e s u l t from the c o m p l e t i o n of steps (i)
and ( i i ) , as well as four p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n s among w h i c h a c h o i c e must be made
when e x e c u t i n g s t e p s ( i i i ) and ( i v ) . T a b l e 9 . 3 shows c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of the
evaporator station for all versions, together w i t h d a t a on the juice
concentrations.
Al. An i n t e r m e d i a t e solution resulting from s t e p (i):
- steam j a c k e t s of the e x t r a c t o r s a r e h e a t e d by 2 n d - and 3 r d - e f f e c t v a p o u r s , and
2nd-effect vapour i s a d d i t i o n a l l y i n j e c t e d i n t o the e x t r a c t i o n mixture, but note
t h a t v a p o u r i n j e c t i o n may a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio, being
primarily aimed a t s e c u r i n g a c o r r e c t temperature distribution i n the extraction
process;
- the b u f f e r t a n k between p r e - l i m i n g and h o t main l i m i n g i s converted to a l i m e r
i n w h i c h c o l d main l i m i n g can be p e r f o r m e d ;
- one o f the h e a t e r s used h i t h e r t o f o r raw-juice h e a t i n g w i t h vacuum-pan vapour
i s c o n v e r t e d to limed-juice heating (prior to h o t main l i m i n g ) with last-effect
v a p o u r , a c h a n g e w h i c h does n o t a f f e c t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s ratio (the flow of
l a s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r t o the c o n d e n s e r was anyway t o o l a r g e ) but secures a correct
temperature i n the h o t main liming;
- k i l n - g a s h e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n apparatus i s installed before the 1st
 353

carbonatation;
- a new b u f f e r t a n k is installed a f t e r t h e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n to s e c u r e an
a d e q u a t e j u i c e r e t e n t i o n time needed t o s t a b i l i z e CaCO^ c r y s t a l s ;
- i m p r o v e d steam t r a p s a r e i n s t a l l e d i n c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e s o f vacuum pans
A , and a u t o m a t i c level control i s a t t a c h e d to the condensate tank collecting
c o n d e n s a t e s from t h e h e a t i n g chambers o f t h e vacuum p a n s ;
- i m p r o v e d v e n t i n g o f t h e h e a t i n g chambers o f t h e vacuum pans i s implemented;
- i m p r o v e d v e n t i n g o f the h e a t i n g chambers o f t h e 2nd e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t and o f
the j u i c e h e a t e r s h e a t e d w i t h 1 s t - and 2 n d - e f f e c t vapours i s implemented;
- pipes of i n c r e a s e d diameters are i n s t a l l e d i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n s between the
vacuum pans and t h e c o n d e n s e r , a s w e l l a s between t h e l a s t e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t and
the c o n d e n s e r ;
- the C m a s s e c u i t e s t a t i o n i s e x t e n d e d by i n s t a l l i n g two vertical-type
c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 150 m^ e a c h .
I n s p i t e o f a number o f improvements i n t r o d u c e d to the thermal system, the
measures l i s t e d a b o v e c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o r e d u c e t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n .
A c t u a l l y , when b r i n g i n g p r o c e s s h e a t i n g back t o n o r m a l , the t o t a l h e a t demand i s
increased. Heat s a v i n g s can o n l y be o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g the next modernization
step.
C o n c e r n i n g the power demand, two m i n o r i m p r o v e m e n t s were proposed:
- a thyristor-controlled d.c. drive installed i n the o u t l e t s e c t i o n o f the beet
w a s h e r ( t o make b e e t - f l o w control p o s s i b l e , and t o s a v e p o w e r ) ;
- a thyristor-controlled d.c. drive applied i n t h e j u i c e pump a f t e r 1st
carbonatation ( t o m i n i m i z e the i n f l u e n c e o f pumping on t h e s t r u c t u r e of deposits
to be f i l t e r e d , and t o s a v e p o w e r ) . It s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t an
i n c r e a s e o f the t o t a l power demand can be e x p e c t e d f o l l o w i n g the i n s t a l l a t i o n of
a stirred c o l d main l i m e r and two C m a s s e c u i t e c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s .
A2. Another intermediate solution, resulting from s t e p (ii):
- the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n i s e x t e n d e d by i n s t a l l i n g two f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d i e s w i t h
heating surface areas of 1400 m and 1000 m , t o be u s e d a s t h e 4 t h and 5 t h
effects, respectively;
- no c h a n g e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d to the 1 s t and 2nd e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , but the 3rd
effect i s e x t e n d e d by a d d i n g a R o b e r t - t y p e body p r e v i o u s l y u s e d i n t h e 4th
effect;
- t h e c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e s u b s y s t e m i s e x t e n d e d by i n s t a l l i n g two c o n d e n s a t e
t a n k s a t t a c h e d t o new e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s ;
- a thick-juice conditioner o f t h e vacuum t y p e i s installed at the evaporator
o u t l e t to s t a b i l i z e the f i n a l concentration o f the t h i c k j u i c e , by means of
self-evaporation or thin-juice intake, at a level o f 70% D S .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s and t h e r e s u l t s o f mass and h e a t
 354

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 357

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s o f the modernized thermal s y s t e m a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 8 .

In o r d e r to s t a b i l i z e the e x t r a c t i o n parameters and t h i c k - j u i c e concentration,
as w e l l a s t o m i n i m i z e h e a t l o s s e s c a u s e d by t h e v e n t i n g o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s , it
was a l s o p r o p o s e d t o install some a d d i t i o n a l control equipment:

- automatic control o f the temperature d i f f e r e n c e between raw j u i c e and i n c o m i n g

c o s s e t t e s , by means o f a v a r i a b l e f l o w o f v a p o u r i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e extraction
mixture;
- automatic control o f the t h i c k - j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n at the o u t l e t o f the thick
juice conditioner;

- automatic control o f t h e v e n t i n g o f t h e vacuum p a n s ;

- automatic control o f the v e n t i n g o f the c l e a r - j u i c e heater ( h e a t e d by 2 n d -
effect vapour).
Bl. Compression of 2 n d - e f f e c t vapour.
In addition t o t h e c h a n g e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , a f a l l i n g - f i l m body w i t h a
2
h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a o f 2400 m is installed as the 1 s t e v a p o r a t o r effect
( r e p l a c i n g the o l d R o b e r t - t y p e b o d y ) . I n the vapour c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t , 2 n d -
e f f e c t v a p o u r i s r e c y c l e d t o t h e h e a t i n g chamber o f t h e I s t - e f f e c t u s i n g an
electrically-driven mechanical compressor. Other changes are as f o l l o w s :
- thick-juice concentration 74% D S ;
- raw-juice heating in a spiral h e a t e r u s i n g hot water from a "hot c o n d e n s e r " i n
which vacuum-pan vapours a r e c o n d e n s e d ;
- pre-limed juice heating with last-effect v a p o u r i n two t u b u l a r heat exchangers
p r e v i o u s l y u s e d a s raw j u i c e h e a t e r s ;
- thin-juice heating in four stages;
- the s t e a m - t u r b i n e d r i v e n f e e d - w a t e r pump r e p l a c e d by an electrically-driven
one.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s and t h e r e s u l t s o f mass and h e a t
balance c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h i s v e r s i o n a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 9 . I t c a n be f u r t h e r
e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e combined power demand o f t h e v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r and t h e feed-
w a t e r pump i s a b o u t 920 kW. Owing t o r e d u c e d h e a t demand, t h e power demand o f
t h e c o m b u s t i o n - a i r f a n s and t h e b a r o m e t r i c - w a t e r pumps can s i m u l t a n e o u s l y be
r e d u c e d by a b o u t 300 kW.
B2. Compression of I s t - e f f e c t vapour to a f a l l i n g - f i l m body.
Two f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d i e s , 1 5 0 0 m^ ( l a ) and 2 4 0 0 m^ ( l b ) , are i n s t a l l e d in the
1 s t e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t and I s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s r e c y c l e d t o t h e h e a t i n g chamber
o f body l a u s i n g an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n m e c h a n i c a l c o m p r e s s o r . A new t a n k is
installed to c o l l e c t t h e c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n e d f r o m body l a . Other d e t a i l s remain
t h e same a s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s i o n , e x c e p t t h a t t h e e x h a u s t - s t e a m t e m p e r a t u r e
is 3 Κ lower, resulting i n a l o w e r b a c k - p r e s s u r e and t h u s more power g e n e r a t e d
i n the t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r . F o r d a t a on mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s , s e e F i g . 9 . 1 0 .
358

The combined power demand o f t h e v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r and the f e e d - w a t e r pump i s

a b o u t 660 kW. The power demand r e d u c t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m r e d u c e d h e a t demand i s
the same a s i n v e r s i o n Bl.
CI. Compression of Ist-effect vapour to a R o b e r t - t y p e body.
A f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d y , 2 4 0 0 m^, i s added t o the e x i s t i n g Robert-type body in
the 1st evaporator effect. The v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t r e m a i n s i d e n t i c a l to
that of the p r e c e d i n g v e r s i o n , but the c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r i s recycled to the
heating chamber o f body l b . As t h e heating s u r f a c e area o f the Robert-type body
is larger than t h a t o f the f a l l i n g - f i l m body, the temperature d i f f e r e n c e between
h e a t i n g - s t e a m and v a p o u r can be r e d u c e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a r e d u c e d power demand by
the c o m p r e s s o r . The mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s a r e n e a r l y the same a s i n the
preceding v e r s i o n . The combined power demand o f t h e c o m p r e s s o r and the feed-
w a t e r pump i s a b o u t 600 kW. The power-demand r e d u c t i o n i n the remaining
equipment is identical t o t h a t i n v e r s i o n s Bl and B 2 .
C2. Thermocompression o f Ist-effect vapour.

The e v a p o r a t o r station is identical to t h a t o f the p r e c e d i n g v e r s i o n but the

I s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s c o m p r e s s e d u s i n g j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s . W h i l e t h e mass and
h e a t b a l a n c e s o f the t h e r m a l s y s t e m i n the p r o c e s s - h e a t i n g a r e a r e m a i n identical
to t h o s e o f v e r s i o n s B2 and C I , t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f t h e power h o u s e
and t h e 1st evaporator e f f e c t a r e c h a n g e d a s shown i n F i g . 9 . 1 1 . The power
demand o f t h e f e e d - w a t e r pump i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal to the power-demand
r e d u c t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m r e d u c e d h e a t demand, s o t h e t o t a l power demand i s equal
to that of v e r s i o n s A l , A2 and B l .

l o s s e s 0.5

F i g . 9 . 1 1 . E x c e r p t s f r o m mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e m o d e r n i z e d thermal

system, version C2.
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9 . 3 . 4 Comparison o f solutions
An a p p r o x i m a t e e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n p r o p o s a l was p r e p a r e d ,
t o compare t h e s o l u t i o n s ( B l , B 2 , C I and C 2 ) and t o s e l e c t t h e most feasible
version. The g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d was s i m i l a r to t h a t presented i n Section
9 . 2 . 4 , w i t h the f o l l o w i n g e x t e n s i o n s :
- the v e c t o r o f a t t r i b u t e s includes additional sugar production;
- when a n a l y s i n g t h e investment cost, it s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t i f a
certain equipment u n i t i s removed from t h e f a c t o r y i n q u e s t i o n , i t can be
considered for application in other sugar factories o f t h e same c o m p a n y ;

- the p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e changes i n fuel and power p r i c e s s h o u l d be allowed

for;
- when c a l c u l a t i n g the p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , capital c o s t and
i n c r e a s e d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d for.

I n v e r s i o n s Bl and B 2 , removal o f t h e e x i s t i n g R o b e r t - t y p e body f r o m t h e 1st

e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t was a s s u m e d . As i t can be a p p l i e d in another sugar factory,
the v a l u e o f t h i s e q u i p m e n t u n i t was d e d u c t e d f r o m t h e investment costs of these
versions.
The e s t i m a t e d r e s u l t s o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n , t h a t i s , the f u e l saving, power
demand i n c r e a s e and a d d i t i o n a l s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n , were t a k e n f r o m t h e d e s i g n
a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s S e c t i o n . Two e c o n o m i c e s t i m a t e s were
determined for fuel s a v i n g s and power demand i n c r e a s e s :

1. u s i n g the a c t u a l prices of fuel oil and p o w e r ;

2. u s i n g the f o r e c a s t average p r i c e s f o r the initial seasons with the modernized
factory; e.g. for a period of three y e a r s , a fuel oil price i n c r e a s e d by 50% and
power p r i c e by 35%.
The c a p i t a l c o s t and i n c r e a s e d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t were j o i n t l y e s t i m a t e d , using
an e q u i v a l e n t i n t e r e s t r a t e o f 0 . 1 3 . As a f i r s t approximation, the p e r i o d of
r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , i n y e a r s , was c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g the formula
τ = I/(A - rl) (9.2)
where I i s t h e investment c o s t , A i s t h e a n n u a l s a v i n g , and r i s t h e equivalent
interest rate.
The r e s u l t s o f t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s a r e shown i n T a b l e 9 . 4 . As i n Table
9.2 in Section 9 . 2 . 4 , the c o s t s are g i v e n r e l a t i v e to the investment cost of
a selected version. It h a s been assumed t h a t t h e investment cost a s s o c i a t e d with
modernization step (i) i s 100%.
The c o n t e n t s o f T a b l e 9 . 4 can be s u m m a r i z e d a s follows:
- the i n t e r m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n s are economically h i g h l y attractive;
- the economic r e s u l t s o f f u r t h e r i n v e s t m e n t s i n t h e e n e r g y economy a r e
d e p e n d e n t on d e v e l o p m e n t s i n the f u e l market;
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TABLE 9.4
Comparison of main technical and economic parameters of different modernization versions.

Version Existing Al A2 Β C Bl B2 CI C2

Processing capability 5900 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000

Fuel-oil demand (kg/100 kg b) 2.68 2.75 2.30 2.30 2.30 1.95 1.95 1.95 2.09
Fuel-oil saving relative to earlier version (kg/100 kg b) - -0.07 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.21
Power demand (kWh/100 kg b) 2.85 2.85 2.85 2.85 2.85 3.03 2.95 2.94 2.85
Power-demand increase (kW) - - - - - 620 360 300
Sugar-output increase (kg/100 kg b - 0.42 - - - - - - -
Total evaporator heating surface area (m2 7200 7200 9600 10200 10200 10200 11700 12000 12000

Investment cost (%) - TOO 42 69^ 76^ 32 57 39 22

Value of fuel oil saved per season (%)
- at actual price - - 5 . 3 34 34 34 26 26 26 16
- at forecast price - - 38 45 45 42 42 42 25
Cost of additional power purchased per season {%)
- at actual price - - 10 6 5 -
- at forecast price - - - - - 14 8 7 -
Value of additional sugar produced per season W - 199 -

Period of return on investment (years)

- at actual prices - 0.54 1.5 2.8 3.1 2.7 4.4 2.4 1.7
- at forecast prices - - 1.3 1.9 2.2 1.3 2.1 1.3 1.0

^/ including the cost of version A2

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- among the v e r s i o n s c o n s i d e r e d , C I and C2 a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e shortest

periods of r e t u r n on investment.

9.4 O P T I M I Z A T I O N OF ENERGY SYSTEMS

9.4.1 Practical meaning o f d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n
W i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l d e s i g n m e t h o d s , improvements a r e i n t r o d u c e d to energy
systems u s i n g the learning-by-experience a p p r o a c h . When e v a l u a t i n g the results
o b t a i n e d from s u g a r f a c t o r y o p a r a t i o n , the o p e r a t o r s and d e s i g n e r s l e a r n from
t h e i r m i s t a k e s . As a new f a c t o r y i s e r e c t e d o r an e x i s t i n g one i s modernized,
a t t e m p t s a r e made t o i m p r o v e the e n e r g y economy i n r e l a t i o n to earlier
solutions. The r e s u l t s a r e v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on t h e e n g i n e e r ' s i n t u i t i o n and
e x p e r i e n c e , and i t may be i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e j u s t how c l o s e a d e s i g n i s to
the r e a l minimum e n e r g y demand. On t h e o t h e r hand, it is increasingly often
required t h a t e n e r g y - c o s t s a v i n g s s h o u l d be b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t c a p i t a l investments
and economic and o p e r a t i n g constraints to i d e n t i f y t h e most cost-effective
d e s i g n i n any g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . I n o r d e r t o make i t possible for e n g i n e e r s to use
this a p p r o a c h , new c o m p u t e r - a i d e d methods have been p r o p o s e d f o r energy-system
design.

I n the f o l l o w i n g , short reviews are g i v e n o f the underlying principles of

s y s t e m s y n t h e s i s by m a t h e m a t i c a l programming and t h e p r o c e s s i n t e g r a t i o n
technique. B o t h methods o r i g i n a t e d from the needs o f g e n e r a l process engineering,
and p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y t o shape energy systems o f complex and o f t e n
e n t i r e l y new c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s r a t i o n a l l y , where i t may be i m p o s s i b l e t o use
the e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h . I n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y , the s i t u a t i o n is different
because the p r o c e s s has changed r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e o v e r many d e c a d e s . When
applied t o an e x i s t i n g s u g a r f a c t o r y , t h e new methods m i g h t j u s t indicate that
the p r o c e s s i s o p e r a t i n g c l o s e t o minimum e n e r g y demand and any improvement can
be a c h i e v e d o n l y by i n t r o d u c i n g new u n i t o p e r a t i o n s and e q u i p m e n t . When new
solutions a r e c o n s i d e r e d , h o w e v e r , t h e new methods may p r o v e u s e f u l in studying
their energy-saving potential and m a x i m i z i n g p o s s i b l e profits.

9 . 4 . 2 E n e r g y - s y s t e m s y n t h e s i s u s i n g mathematical p r o g r a m m i n g methods
"Mathematical p r o g r a m m i n g " i s t h e common name o f s e v e r a l mathematical
techniques t h a t a t t e m p t t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s by m i n i m i z i n g or maximizing a function
(called the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n ) o f s e v e r a l independent variables. Typical
industrial applications include determining t h e optimum a l l o c a t i o n of resources
(i.e., capital, raw m a t e r i a l s , manpower, e t c . ) t o o b t a i n maximum p r o f i t or
minimum c o s t f o r the p r o j e c t , c h o o s i n g t h e optimum v a l u e s o f d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s to
o b t a i n minimum c o s t o r maximum t h r o u g h p u t o f the equipment unit, etc. Optimal
allocation of resources or optimal values of d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s must be determined
under c o n d i t i o n s where t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e u s e s o f r e s o u r c e s o r alternative
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d e s i g n s , and where p h y s i c a l , economic and o t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s must be met. The

constraints t a k e the form o f e q u a t i o n s or i n e q u a l i t i e s containing t h e same
problem v a r i a b l e s as appear i n the o b j e c t i v e function.
Restricting o u r a t t e n t i o n to the e n e r g y economy o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , we can
state that for a g i v e n scheme and known p a r a m e t e r s o f the s u g a r manufacturing
p r o c e s s , a l t e r n a t i v e e n e r g y - s y s t e m d e s i g n s can be c o n s i d e r e d . Each d e s i g n is
defined by:
- a system s t r u c t u r e (i.e. a s e t o f components and t h e i r connections);
- parameters o f the e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s
(flows of energy-carrying media, temperatures, etc.).
L e t us assume t h a t the s e t o f p o s s i b l e s y s t e m s t r u c t u r e s i s l i m i t e d to a few
v e r s i o n s and the p r o b l e m c o n s i s t s o f d e t e r m i n i n g the v a l u e s o f η unknown
variables ×2, .., x^ c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the components and t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s
o f each v e r s i o n . The c o n s t r a i n t s e t t h a t d e s c r i b e s a t y p i c a l e n e r g y s y s t e m
consists largely o f the following relationships.
(i) Equations for t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s f o r process units and equipment
items considered, including multiple-effect evaporator, juice heaters, extractor,
turbine, etc.
(ii) Equations for h e a t and power demand.
(iii) Upper and l o w e r bounds f o r the independent variables.
(iv) E q u a t i o n s and i n e q u a l i t i e s t h a t a r e factory-dependent.

U s i n g the n o t a t i o n χ = (X],X2>..fXp)5 we may w r i t e down t h e g e n e r a l form o f the

c o n s t r a i n t set as

fT(x) =0 i = 1 , 2, .., ρ (9.3)

^j(x) < 0 j = 1 , 2, .., q (9.3)

The o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n f o r an e n e r g y s y s t e m can r a n g e f r o m v e r y s i m p l e to
q u i t e complex. The s i m p l e s t consist of a s i n g l e variable representing, for
e x a m p l e , the l i v e steam demand, o r t h e total fuel demand. I n e i t h e r c a s e , the
objective function is minimized.
A c o m p r e h e n s i v e o b j e c t i v e can be d e f i n e d a s the sum o f o p e r a t i n g expenses
( i n c l u d i n g f u e l , e l e c t r i c power, f e e d - w a t e r make-up f o r the b o i l e r , e t c . ) and
the c o s t ^ f capital recovery, p l u s a r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t f o r major equipment.
F o r a new e n e r g y s y s t e m ( i n a m o d e r n i z e d o r an e n t i r e l y new f a c t o r y ) at the
design stage, this objective function represents the total variable cost of the
s y s t e m and i s a l s o minimized.
Between the two t y p e s o f o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n m e n t i o n e d above, functions of
i n t e r m e d i a t e c o m p l e x i t y can be i m a g i n e d . Selection of a particular objective
f u n c t i o n , to r e f l e c t the w i s h e s and e x p e c t a t i o n s o f the d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s , is
o f t e n t r e a t e d as a p a r t o f the d e s i g n s t u d y . In a preliminary d e s i g n , it may be
s u f f i c i e n t to minimize t h e t o t a l steam o r f u e l demand. I n a d e t a i l e d d e s i g n , the
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objective function should include all the e s s e n t i a l factors that affect the

economic r e s u l t s o f f a c t o r y operation.

Having s p e c i f i e d the o b j e c t i v e function F ( x ^ ) , we c a n f o r m u l a t e the

mathematical p r o g r a m m i n g p r o b l e m w h i c h i s an a b s t r a c t representation of the

problem o f optimal s y n t h e s i s o f the energy s y s t e m . Among a l l t h e p o s s i b l e x ' s we

a r e s e e k i n g s u c h an xP ( i . e . , x°,X2>.. »2<^) t h a t the o b j e c t i v e function attains

its minimum

F(x°) = mjn F ( x ) (9.5)

Of c o u r s e , x ° can be a c c e p t e d o n l y if it s a t i s f i e s the c o n s t r a i n t s ( 9 . 3 ) and

(9.4).

From t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l point of view the p r o b l e m , c o n s i s t i n g o f conditions

(9.3)-(9.5), c a n be e i t h e r linear or nonlinear. I n the former case, the

functions F, f, and f . must be l i n e a r , that i s , it s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o express

' J η
each o f them i n t h e f o r m ^E^aj^Xj^, where a p a2» . . j a r e known c o n s t a n t s . If

at l e a s t one o f the f u n c t i o n s involved is nonlinear, then the e n t i r e problem is

s a i d to be n o n l i n e a r . D e p e n d i n g on t h e p r o b l e m t y p e , different mathematical

p r o c e d u r e s must be a p p l i e d t o find a solution.

It i s an i n h e r e n t property of the problems o f e n e r g y - s y s t e m o p t i m i z a t i o n that

some o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p s mentioned under ( i ) , (ii) and ( i v ) are n o n l i n e a r . In

principle, it may be p o s s i b l e t o transform such r e l a t i o n s h i p s into linear ones

and t o a p p l y w e l l proven, reliable linear p r o g r a m m i n g methods t o find a solution

(ref. 8). It h a s a l s o been d e m o n s t r a t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t n o n l i n e a r p r o b l e m s c a n be

effectively solved using appropriate numerical methods ( r e f s . 9,10). For

example, optimal s y n t h e s i s o f a thermal system f e a t u r i n g a quadruple-effect

e v a p o r a t o r h a s been f o r m u l a t e d and s o l v e d as a n o n l i n e a r programming problem

w i t h 2 4 - 2 6 v a r i a b l e s and 1 9 - 2 4 c o n s t r a i n t s , t h e e x a c t number o f v a r i a b l e s and

c o n s t r a i n t s d e p e n d i n g on t h e s y s t e m s t r u c t u r e considered (ref. 11).

It i s worth noting t h a t the f i r s t successful attempts to introduce the

methods o f o p t i m a l system s y n t h e s i s to the s u g a r i n d u s t r y took place at the

b e g i n n i n g o f the 1 9 7 0 s , when t h i s a p p r o a c h was r e l a t i v e l y new. It c a n be s e e n in

the literature, however, that a wider interest in the a p p l i c a t i o n of

optimization methods t o the food i n d u s t r i e s began some t e n y e a r s later (refs.

12,13). Taking advantage o f the development o f mathematical techniques, it is

now p o s s i b l e t o o p t i m i z e the system s t r u c t u r e a l o n g w i t h the parameters o f the

components and p r o c e s s e s .

9 . 4 . 3 E n e r g y - s y s t e m d e s i g n u s i n g the technique of process integration

A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f the optimal synthesis approach d i s c u s s e d i n the preceding

S e c t i o n i s t h a t the t r a n s l a t i o n of real-life d e s i g n problems to abstract

mathematical formulae i s both d i f f i c u l t and t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even w i t h computer

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p r o g r a m s t h a t automate t h e m i n i m u m - s e e k i n g c o m p u t a t i o n s , a l o t o f e f f o r t must be
s p e n t on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l formulation,
preparation of input data i n accordance w i t h the mathematical convention assumed,
etc. Once the o p t i m i z a t i o n r e s u l t s have been o b t a i n e d , h o w e v e r , t h e d e s i g n e r s
t e n d to t r e a t the f i g u r e s w i t h some s u s p i c i o n b e c a u s e t h e y a r e u s u a l l y u n a b l e to
control i n t u i t i v e l y the p r o c e s s o f a r r i v i n g at a s o l u t i o n . A b e t t e r i n s i g h t can
o n l y be g a i n e d i n an i n d i r e c t m a n n e r , by r e p e a t i n g t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n computations
for multiple sets of input d a t a and a n a l y s i n g t h e s o l u t i o n ' s s e n s i t i v i t y to
changes o f important input p a r a m e t e r s ( l i k e t h e p r i c e s o f f u e l and p o w e r , capital
cost rate, etc.). Owing t o t h e a s s o c i a t e d w o r k l o a d and t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l barrier,
this a p p r o a c h may be d i f f i c u l t to adopt as a p a r t o f the e n g i n e e r i n g activities.

Process integration i s a t e c h n i q u e to f a c i l i t a t e s y s t e m a t i c thermodynamic

a n a l y s i s of complicated energy systems. O r i g i n a t i n g from t h e work on mathematical
tools to s y n t h e s i z e e n e r g y - o p t i m a l heat exchanger networks ( r e f s . 14,15), it can
h e l p t h e u s e r t o u n d e r s t a n d how and where a v a i l a b l e e n e r g y can b e s t be s u p p l i e d
and r e - u s e d w i t h i n the p r o c e s s , and a t what t e m p e r a t u r e it s h o u l d be r e j e c t e d
f r o m the p r o c e s s (refs. 16,17).

An i n t r o d u c t i o n to the r e a s o n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of process integration can be

g i v e n by u s i n g t h e s o - c a l l e d c o m p o s i t e c u r v e s i n a g r a p h s h o w i n g c u m u l a t i v e heat
loads as functions of temperature. The g r a p h can be c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m mass and
h e a t b a l a n c e d a t a c o n s i s t i n g o f the mass f l o w , e n t h a l p y o r s p e c i f i c heat, supply
temperature and r e q u i r e d (target) temperature for each p r o c e s s s t r e a m .

The h o t c o m p o s i t e r e p r e s e n t s t h e amount o f h e a t a v a i l a b l e a t various

t e m p e r a t u r e s o f the h o t p r o c e s s media ( e x h a u s t s t e a m , h e a t i n g v a p o u r s , c o n d e n s a t e
condensate, e t c . ) . T h i s h e a t must be removed t o d e c r e a s e t h e e n t h a l p i e s o f the
h o t m e d i a , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e assumed methods o f t h e i r u t i l i z a t i o n . The c o l d
c o m p o s i t e r e p r e s e n t s t h e amount o f h e a t r e q u i r e d a t v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s o f the
c o l d p r o c e s s media ( c o s s e t t e s , p r e s s w a t e r , juice in various stages of the
process, syrups, etc.). T h i s h e a t must be s u p p l i e d t o i n c r e a s e the temperatures
o f t h e c o l d media t o t h e i r r e q u i r e d v a l u e s , a s d e f i n e d by t h e p r o c e s s needs.
Assuming a hypothetical situation that there i s no h e a t r e c o v e r y i n t h e e n e r g y
system, it w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p l y t h e e n t i r e h e a t amount r e p r e s e n t e d by
t h e c o l d c o m p o s i t e i n the b o i l e r fuel. S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , the h e a t amount a v a i l a b l e
i n the h o t media w o u l d need t o be removed f r o m t h e p r o c e s s u s i n g c o o l i n g water.
Using heat r e c o v e r y , that i s , a l l o w i n g f o r some o f t h e h e a t a v a i l a b l e i n the hot
s t r e a m s t o c o v e r t h e h e a t demand o f t h e c o l d s t r e a m s , i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o
r e d u c e t h e f u e l demand. T h i s can be done i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s , and e x p e r i e n c e
p r o v e s t h a t some o f t h e h e a t - r e c o v e r y s o l u t i o n s may be p r e f e r a b l e to others.
The p o t e n t i a l for h e a t r e c o v e r y by h e a t e x c h a n g e between h o t and c o l d process
media can be i n v e s t i g a t e d by f i x i n g t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e h o t and c o l d
 365

100 150 200 150

Heat load (MW) Heat load (MW)

F i g . 9 . 1 2 . Examples o f c u m u l a t i v e h e a t l o a d s a s f u n c t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e . 1 -
h o t c o m p o s i t e , 2 - c o l d c o m p o s i t e , 3 - p i n c h p o i n t , 4 - minimum h e a t s u p p l y ,
5 - minimum h e a t r e j e c t i o n .

c o m p o s i t e c u r v e s , a s shown i n F i g . 9 . 1 2 . The d i s t a n c e between them i n t h e

direction o f the temperature a x i s must be g r e a t e r t h a n , o r e q u a l t o , t h e minimum
acceptable temperature difference characteristic o f the h e a t - e x c h a n g e equipment
available ( i n a way, t h i s temperature difference reflects the a t t a i n a b l e overall
heat t r a n s f e r coefficient, see Section 3 . 3 . 2 ) . Once t h e minimum temperature
difference h a s been d e f i n e d , t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f b o t h c u r v e s become f i x e d
and t h e amounts o f h e a t t o be s u p p l i e d , e x c h a n g e d a n d r e j e c t e d c a n be d e t e r m i n e d .
I t a l s o becomes p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e p i n c h p o i n t , that i s , the point on t h e
g r a p h where t h e c o m p o s i t e c u r v e s a r e s e p a r a t e d by t h e minimum temperature
difference.

The p i n c h p o i n t s e p a r a t e s two d i s t i n c t r e g i o n s o f the p r o c e s s . At

temperatures above the p i n c h - p o i n t temperature, all the heat a v a i l a b l e i n the
h o t media c a n be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e c o l d m e d i a , and t h e h e a t d e f i c i t must be
b a l a n c e d by s u p p l y i n g f u e l . Below t h e p i n c h - p o i n t temperature, all the heating
needs o f t h e c o l d media c a n be s a t i s f i e d u s i n g the heat a v a i l a b l e i n the hot
m e d i a , a n d t h e s u r p l u s h e a t must f i n a l l y be r e j e c t e d . I t c a n t h u s be c o n c l u d e d
that there s h o u l d be no h e a t t r a n s f e r a c r o s s t h e p i n c h , a s a n y h e a t amount
transferred will i n c r e a s e the d e f i c i t i n the upper r e g i o n ; t h i s will lead to
increased fuel demand, and more i n s t a l l e d h e a t i n g s u r f a c e area than really
needed. Heat t r a n s f e r a c r o s s the pinch s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a v o i d e d i n a new
design. When i n v e s t i g a t i n g p o s s i b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s i n an e x i s t i n g factory, the
366

p i n c h - p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d and the c a s e s o f incorrect heating

s h o u l d be identified.

It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the a b o v e c o n c l u s i o n s r e l a t i n g t o the energy

t a r g e t s and h e a t t r a n s f e r a r r a n g e m e n t s can be drawn b e f o r e i n i t i a t i n g design
work, and the i n f o r m a t i o n thus acquired can be t r e a t e d a s a d e s i g n guideline.
Actually, if the p i n c h - p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e i s known, then a d d i t i o n a l information
can be o b t a i n e d regarding other energy processes too. For example, it s h o u l d be
clear t h a t a v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t can s a v e e n e r g y o n l y if it takes the
heat from below the p i n c h and s u p p l i e s it to a temperature l e v e l above the pinch
p o i n t where t h e r e i s a h e a t d e f i c i t . T h i s i s an u n a m b i g u o u s c r i t e r i o n m a k i n g it
p o s s i b l e to i d e n t i f y economic a p p l i c a t i o n s of vapour c o m p r e s s i o n .
As can be s e e n i n F i g . 9 . 1 2 , w h i l e the minimum a c c e p t a b l e temperature
difference affects the relative positions o f the composite curves, it also
determines the w i d t h o f the region of overlap representing possible heat
e x c h a n g e , and the w i d t h o f the region representing n e c e s s a r y heat s u p p l y . Taking
i n t o a c c o u n t the costs of heat-exchanger s u r f a c e s and e n e r g y and applying
computer-aided o p t i m i z a t i o n methods, i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o f i n d the most
economic v a l u e o f the minimum t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e . The r e s u l t i n g design
guidelines can t h e n be t r e a t e d a s o p t i m a l w i t h r e s p e c t to o v e r a l l factory
economy. U s i n g t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s , the most e c o n o m i c e n e r g y - s y s t e m o p t i o n s to be
c o n s i d e r e d i n the d e t a i l e d d e s i g n are e a s i l y identified.

REFERENCES

1 N . P . Romenskii ( E d . ) , R e k o n s t r u k t s i y a i Tekhnicheskoe Perevooruzhenie

Sakharnykh Zavodov, Tekhnika, K i e v , 1985.
2 H. W u n s c h , E r k e n t n i s s e und E r f a h r u n g e n b e i d e r P l a n u n g von K a p a z i t δ t s ­
erweiterungen in Zuckerfabriken, Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(10) (1982) 932-934.
3 W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , M o d e r n i s i e r u n g d e r W δ r m e w i r t s c h a f t i n Z u c k e r ­
f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(4) (1983) 338-343.
4 R. M i c h e l , P h . T e r n y n c k and P h . B o n n e n f a n t , R e a l i s a t i o n du p o s t e
d ' e v a p o r a t i o n dans une u s i n e de 1 2 0 0 0 t / j de b e t t e r a v e s s t o c k a n t 60% du
s i r o p p r o d u i t en c a m p a g n e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 4 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 7 0 1 - 7 0 5 .
Η. C y r k l a f f ( e t a l . ) , M o d e r n i z a c j a g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j c u k r o w n i C h e l m z a ,
Gaz. Cukrow., 9 2 ( 7 - 8 (1984) 1 5 6 - 1 5 7 .
H.R. Brunner (et a l . , Die Verdampfstation der Zuckerfabrik+Raffinerie
A a r b e r g AG und das M u l t i - E n e r g i e - S c h e m a , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 3 9 3 - 3 9 8 .
/ P . H o f f m a n , Optimal i z a c e e n e r g e t i c k e h o h o s p o d a r s t v i c u k r o v a r u L o v o s i c e ,
L i s t y C u k r . , 102(7) (1986) 1 5 5 - 1 6 1 .
8 J . K . C l a r k and N . E . H e i m i c k , How t o o p t i m i z e the d e s i g n o f s t e a m s y s t e m s ,
i n : R. Greene ( E d . ) , P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k ,
1982, pp. 1 5 3 - 1 6 4 .
9 A. Kubasiewicz (et a l . ) , Optymalizacja g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j cukrowni za
pomoca maszyny m a t e m a t y c z n e j , G a z . C u k r o w . , 8 3 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 7 5 ) 1 6 5 - 1 6 7 .
10 A . K u b a s i e w i c z ( e t a l . ) . Optimum d e s i g n o f t h e r m a l s y s t e m s o f s u g a r p l a n t s .
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t V I I I I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on I n d u s t r i a l E n e r g e t i c s ,
G d a n s k , September 1 9 7 5 .
11 A . K u b a s i e w i c z ( e t a l . ) . Some a s p e c t s o f c o m p u t e r i z e d d e s i g n o f t h e r m a l
s y s t e m s o f b e e t s u g a r p l a n t s , i n : P r o c . Symp. Computers i n t h e D e s i g n and
E r e c t i o n o f Chemical P l a n t s , K a r l o v y V a r y , September 1 9 7 5 , p p . 5 9 9 - 6 0 7 .
 367

12 I . S a g u y , O p t i m i z a t i o n t h e o r y , t e c h n i q u e s , and t h e i r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i n the
f o o d i n d u s t r y : i n t r o d u c t i o n . Food T e c h n . , ( 1 9 8 2 ) ( 7 ) 8 7 .
13 D. Depeyre and P h . L u c a s , S y n t h e s e de p r o c e d e s e t a m e l i o r a t i o n e n e r g e t i q u e
du p r o c e d e s u c r i e r , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 1 0 2 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 7 4 3 - 7 4 8 .
14 Β . L i n n h o f f and J . R . F l o w e r , S y n t h e s i s o f h e a t e x c h a n g e r n e t w o r k s , A I C h E J . ,
24(4) (1978) 633-654.
15 D. B o l a n d and B . L i n n h o f f , The p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n o f n e t w o r k s f o r h e a t
e x c h a n g e by s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s , Chem. E n g i n e e r , ( 1 9 7 9 ) ( 4 ) 2 2 2 - 2 2 8 .
16 B . Goublomme, Comment a b o r d e r l e p r o b l e m e de l a r e d u c t i o n d e s c o u t s
e n e r g e t i q u e s d a n s l e s s u c r e r i e s , S u c r . B e i g e , 103 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 7 - 3 0 .
17 N . R . T w a i t e , H . J . D a v e n p o r t and E . K . M a c d o n a l d , E n e r g y r e d u c t i o n and p r o c e s s
i n t e g r a t i o n . I n t . Sugar J . , 88 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , P a r t I : (1055) 2 1 7 - 2 1 9 , Part I I :
(1056) 230-236.
368

Appendix 1

NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF WATER AND STEAM

Data on the thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of water and steam a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e

to e n g i n e e r i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s r e l a t e d to the e n e r g y economy o f s u g a r factories.
M o s t o f t e n used a r e d a t a on the p r o p e r t i e s o f s a t u r a t e d water and d r y saturated
s t e a m , a s w e l l a s s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m . They can be f o u n d i n g e n e r a l tables of
the p r o p e r t i e s o f water and steam ( r e f . 1 ) , or in s p e c i a l i z e d t a b l e s , diagrams
and nomographs where the r a n g e s o f the p a r a m e t e r s a r e a d a p t e d to the needs o f
the s u g a r i n d u s t r y (ref. 2).

In computerized c a l c u l a t i o n s , o r when u s i n g h a n d - h e l d programmable

calculators t o automate p a r t s o f the c a l c u l a t i o n procedures, tables or diagrams
o f thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s should preferably be r e p l a c e d by s u i t a b l e functional
relationships. This requirement i s nowadays r e c o g n i z e d by the p u b l i s h e r s of
i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y known t a b l e s o f thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of water and s t e a m ,
where m a t h e m a t i c a l formulae a r e a l s o g i v e n f o r most thermodynamic functions
(ref. 1 ) . These f o r m u l a e are i n t e n d e d , h o w e v e r , to combine thermodynamic
c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h h i g h a c c u r a c y over broad ranges o f parameter v a l u e s . To s a t i s f y
this condition, the m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s c o n s i s t o f many terms and the
coefficients are g i v e n with s e v e r a l - d i g i t a c c u r a c y . Such f o r m u l a e may be
inconvenient t o u s e , e s p e c i a l l y when r e l y i n g on s m a l l - m e m o r y c o m p u t i n g hardware.
However, i f the p a r a m e t e r r a n g e s a r e n a r r o w and the a c c u r a c y c o n d i t i o n s are not
very s t r i n g e n t , then the l e n g t h y e x p r e s s i o n s can be r e p l a c e d by more c o n c i s e
ones. Numerous s i m p l e f o r m u l a e d e s i g n e d f o r use w i t h i n d e f i n i t e i n t e r v a l s of
parameter v a l u e s can be f o u n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e , and some o f them have been
elaborated to s a t i s f y the n e e d s o f t h e s u g a r industry.
The most i m p o r t a n t a p p r o x i m a t i o n formulae are given in Table A l . Unless
otherwise stated, t h e i r r a n g e s o f v a l i d i t y s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d to c o i n c i d e with
the r a n g e s o f p a r a m e t e r s n o r m a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y . The maximum
relative difference between the t a b u l a t e d d a t a and t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s d o e s not
exceed 0 . 3 % and the a v e r a g e e r r o r i s t y p i c a l l y l e s s than 0 . 1 % .

REFERENCES
1 U. G r i g u l l ( E d . ) , P r o p e r t i e s o f Water and Steam i n S l - u n i t s , 2nd e d n . ,
S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 1979.
2 T. B a l o h , Wδrmeatlas f ٧ r die Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Schaper V e r l a g , Hannover, 1 9 7 5 .
3 A . I l l y e s , Anwendung von N δ h e r u n g s g l e i c h u n g e n i n d e r W δ r m e t e c h n i k ,
Ζ. Z u c k e r i n d . , 26(12) (1976) 763-765.
4. G , B a t o r and Κ. U r b a n i e c , P r o j e k t i e r u n g von V e r d a m p f a n l a g e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n
m i t H i l f e von C o m p u t e r n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1 0 3 5 - 1 0 4 2 .
5 W. R e e d , The s m a l l programmable c a l c u l a t o r i n a s u g a r r e f i n e r y . S u g a r J . ,
Part I : January 1979, 1 3 - 2 0 , Part I I : February 1979, 13-20.
TABLE Al

Approximation formulae for thermodynamic functions of water and steam (temperature in pressure in bar, enthalpy in

kJ/kg, specific volume in m ^ / k g ) .

Specification ^^"^^^^ Reference

validity

Saturation temperature as 0 . 2 5 - 6 . 0 bar t^^^ = 159.52 ρ ^ · " " ^ ^ ^ - 59.96 3

a function of pressure t^^^ = (585.43 + 2 0 2 . 2 log p ) / ( 4 . 9 8 7 - log p) - 17.78 5^

Saturation pressure as 65-160°C p^^^ = ( ( t + 5 9 . 9 6 ) / 1 5 9 . 5 2 ) ^ ' ^ ^ ^ 3

a function of temperature p,,. = exp(2.3026(11.066 t - 4 3 4 ) / ( 1 . 8 t + 396) - 2.6744) 5^

sat

afS1SL?ioroTSeraf"e 20-160°C h' = 1.543 . 4.1220 t . 0.54494(t2/1000) 4

Enthalpy of dry saturated steam 20-160°C h" = 2500 + 1.813 t + (0.471 t^ - 0.01104 t^)/1000 4

as a function of temperature 65-160°C h" = 1309.1 + 5 4 6 . 3 5 ( t + 59.96)°·^^°^ 3

Specific volume of saturated water ^.^^ o^ ^, ^ y^^^^^ _ ^^^^ ^ _ 0 0 0 3 5 3 ^ 2 ^ 3

as a function of temperature ^ ^

Specific volume of dry saturated 0 . 2 5 - 1 . 2 bar v " = 1/(0.105 + 0.6105 ρ - 0.0303 p^) 3

steam as a function of pressure 1.2-6.0 bar v" = 1 / ( 0 . 0 5 3 + 0.5462 ρ - 0.004553 p^) 3

Enthalpy of superheated steam as h = 1077.81 + 0.77458 t + 0.000137 t^ - ^a

Srlssuie""" ^^"^P^^^^^^^ - 1 3 0 . 5 3 ( p + 0 . 6 8 9 ) ( l o g ρ + 1 . 1 6 1 5 ) / ( 1 . 8 t - 218)

' British units used in this reference

369
370

Appendix 2

NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS

Data on the thermodynamic properties of sugar solutions can be f o u n d in

the t a b l e s and d i a g r a m s g i v e n i n r e f . 1 and o t h e r sources. A s i n the properties
o f w a t e r and s t e a m , when c a l c u l a t i n g the energy b a l a n c e s , these data should
preferably be a v a i l a b l e i n the form o f f u n c t i o n a l relationships. Most published
relationships a r e b a s e d on d a t a measured f o r pure s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n s and t h u s
y i e l d only approximate v a l u e s when u s e d f o r technical sugar solutions. However,
in typical engineering calculations, t h e i r a c c u r a c y can be r e g a r d e d a s
sufficiently high.

A few approximation formulae are given in Table A 2 . Unless otherwise stated,

the r a n g e s o f v a l i d i t y s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d to c o i n c i d e w i t h the ranges of
parameters normally encountered i n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y . The maximum r e l a t i v e
d i f f e r e n c e between the t a b u l a t e d d a t a and the a p p r o x i m a t i o n s does n o t e x c e e d
0.5% e x c e p t f o r the s e c o n d d e n s i t y formula, the maximum e r r o r o f w h i c h is
a b o u t 2%.

REFERENCES
1 T. B a l o h , Wδrmeatlas f ٧ r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Schaper V e r l a g , Hannover, 1 9 7 5 .
2 A . I l l y e s , Anwendung von N δ h e r u n g s g l e i c h u n g e n i n d e r W δ r m e t e c h n i k ,
Ζ. Z u c k e r i n d . , 26(12) (1976) 763-765.
3 G . B a t o r and Κ. U r b a n i e c , P r o j e k t i e r u n g von V e r d a m p f a n l a g e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n
m i t H i l f e von C o m p u t e r n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1 0 3 5 - 1 0 4 2 .
4 W. R e e d , The s m a l l programmable c a l c u l a t o r i n a s u g a r r e f i n e r y . S u g a r J . ,
Part I : January 1979, 1 3 - 2 0 , Part I I : February 1979, 1 3 - 2 0 .
TABLE A2

Approximation formulae for thermodynamic functions of sugar solutions (temperature in °C, b.p.e. in K, concentration

in % DS, purity in %, enthalpy in kJ/kg, specific heat in k J / ( k g K ) , density in kg/m^).

Specification Siditν Reference

Boiling-point elevation, as 20-140°C ΔΤ = f, + (t/100)fp + (t/100)^f-. 3

a function of concentration 10-90% DS ^
and water saturation temperature f-j = e x p ( - 1 . 5 2 5 4 + 0.022962 b + 0.0002163 b ) - 0.2

f2 = exp(-3.2021 + 0.0066743 b - 0.0001161 b^) - 0.15

f3 = e x p ( - 1 . 4 2 7 8 - 0.024382 b + 0.0006047 b^)

Specific heat as a function of C = 4.194 + t(t - 72)/108155 -

temperature, concentration and _ ( b / 1 0 0 ) ( 2 . 7 2 2 - 0.0075 t . 0.0046(100 - r)) ^

Specific heat as a function of

temperature and concentration C = 4.1868 - 0.0255814 b + 0.00007536 bt
(purity about 90%)
Enthalpy as a function of ^n, T/inOr o
temperature and concentration in ano/ nc h = 1.5 + (4.122 - 0.02512 b)t + ( 5 . 5 + 0.375 b)(t/100)'^ 3
(purity about 90%) '"'^"/^

Spiννtrr/aνr^coν^nννation ρ = ^ ^ ^ - ^ " 0-0^383 t - 0.00384 . ( b t ) / ( 0 . 2 4 6 t - 0.268) 2

Density as a function of
concentration (temperature 10-70% DS ń = 1022.53 b ^ ' ^ ^ - ^ ' ^ ^ ^ e x p ( 0 . 0 0 5 5 5 3 b)
70-130OC)
371
372

Appendix 3

CALCULATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER PHENOMENA

It was assumed t h r o u g h o u t C h a p t e r 2 and o t h e r relevant p a r t s o f the present

book t h a t d a t a on the thermal properties o f e q u i p m e n t a r e a v a i l a b l e whenever
needed i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s o f e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f f a c t o r y subsystems. In practice,
s u c h d a t a a r e o f t e n unknown f o r specific equipment u n i t s , and i n o r d e r to make
the b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s possible, certain a s s u m p t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d . The aim
of this Appendix i s to s y n t h e s i z e information w h i c h can p r o v e h e l p f u l in making
realistic a s s u m p t i o n s about the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f thermal equipment.

In the e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f an equipment u n i t , h e a t l o s s e s t o the environment

are accounted f o r by m u l t i p l y i n g the h e a t e f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s f e r r e d within the
u n i t by the h e a t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t . It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t different
definitions o f such c o e f f i c i e n t s can be f o u n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e i r
actual v a l u e s may depend on equipment d e s i g n , the e f f i c i e n c y of thermal
insulation and l o c a l conditions (for example, outdoor location of a particular
unit). I n the f o r m u l a e g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 2 , the f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s of heat loss
coefficients can be u s e d :

- juice heaters 0.03-0.05;

- extractors 0.05-0.10;
- vacuum pans 0.03-0.12;
- syrup tanks 0.03-0.05.
As r e g a r d s the e v a p o r a t o r s , e x p e r i m e n t a l work h a s been r e p o r t e d on the
determination of heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s . Z a g r o d z k i and S o k o l o w s k i ( r e f . 1) found
t h a t the h e a t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t o f a R o b e r t - t y p e e v a p o r a t o r body i n the second
effect of a quadruple-effect e v a p o r a t o r was 0 . 0 0 1 5 ; w i t h an additional
insulation layer, the c o e f f i c i e n t was r e d u c e d to 0 . 0 0 0 9 . These r e s u l t s a r e in
good agreement w i t h the v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 1 1 m e a s u r e d by Hogg e t a l . (ref. 2 ) . Taking
i n t o a c c o u n t h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n from j u i c e , v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e p i p e l i n e s ,
a c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 2 5 was recommended by the latter authors, while in
o l d e r s o u r c e s , v a l u e s o f up to 0 . 0 3 can be f o u n d ( r e f . 3).

It seems t h a t f o r most e v a p o r a t o r s , a h e a t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t between 0 . 0 0 2 5

and 0 . 0 1 can be a s s u m e d . When u s i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n algorithm presented in
Chapter 2 , i d e n t i c a l v a l u e s can u s u a l l y be assumed f o r b o t h the e v a p o r a t o r body
and the c o n d e n s a t e t a n k .
The values of overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients u s e d i n the design
calculations o f thermal systems are d e c i s i v e in e n s u r i n g a proper choice of
the a r e a s o f h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s i n e q u i p m e n t u n i t s . As the p r a c t i c a l values of
heat t r a n s f e r coefficients may v a r y w i t h t i m e , d e p e n d i n g on s c a l e b u i l d - u p .
 373

it is difficult to c o r r e l a t e d e s i g n d a t a and r e a l i t y . A l t h o u g h the film

coefficients of heat t r a n s f e r characterizing c l e a n h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s c a n be
calculated using dimensionless relationships known from the t h e o r y o f heat
transfer and w i d e l y c i t e d i n the literature, it i s common t o r e l y i n s t e a d on
practically verified figures. C a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n , h o w e v e r , o f the
compatibility of all d a t a u s e d i n the e q u a t i o n g o v e r n i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r across
the h e a t i n g surface
Q = k F At

where Q i s t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d in unit time, k i s the o v e r a l l heat transfer

coefficient, F i s t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a , and At i s the mean temperature
difference.
I n the j u i c e h e a t e r s , i t is essential t h a t t h e v a l u e o f k be d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g
the same d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a a s assumed i n the actual
calculation. For t u b u l a r h e a t e r s , the inner surface area of the t u b e s is
t y p i c a l l y used. D e p e n d i n g on the tube d i a m e t e r and w a l l thickness, it may d i f f e r
by up to 12-15% from the o u t e r s u r f a c e area o f the tubes.

For vapour-heated tubular heaters operated at correct v a l u e s o f the juice

flow v e l o c i t y , the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficients d e f i n e d a t the inner
s u r f a c e a r e a o f the t u b e s can u s u a l l y be assumed a s f o l l o w s :
- raw j u i c e 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 W / ( m ^ K ) ;
- c l e a r j u i c e 700-1000 W/(m^K);
- thin juice 900-1200 W/(m^K);
- t h i c k j u i c e and s y r u p s 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 W / ( m ^ K ) .
These v a l u e s can be t r e a t e d a s r o u g h e s t i m a t e s o n l y (cf. experimental values
c i t e d i n C h a p t e r 8 ) . As r e g a r d s p l a t e and s p i r a l h e a t e r s , the s c a t t e r of
practical v a l u e s of heat t r a n s f e r coefficients i s s o l a r g e t h a t one can o n l y
rely on the d a t a s u p p l i e d by the e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
I n the c a s e o f e v a p o r a t o r s , d e f i n i t i o n s o f b o t h t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a and
the e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e difference a r e e s s e n t i a l . The t e m p e r a t u r e difference,
a c c o r d i n g t o the d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 2 and most f r e q u e n t l y used in the
literature, is
At = t^ - (t^ + ΔΤ)
where t^ i s the t e m p e r a t u r e o f the h e a t i n g steam ( v a p o u r ) c o n d e n s i n g i n the
h e a t i n g c h a m b e r , t^ i s the t e m p e r a t u r e o f s a t u r a t e d v a p o u r i n the v a p o u r chamber
and AT i s t h e b o i l i n g point elevation. H o w e v e r , some a u t h o r s t a k e the effective
temperature difference as
At = t^ ^ t^
Adopting t h i s definition, the v a l u e s o f t h e o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient
calculated for evaporator effects operated at higher j u i c e concentrations
( 5 0 - 7 0 % D S ) may be up to 50-60% g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the
374

d e f i n i t i o n o f At adopted i n the p r e s e n t b o o k .

F o r a p r o p e r l y d i m e n s i o n e d and c o r r e c t l y operated Robert-type evaporator,

the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t can be c a l c u l a t e d from B a l o h ' s formula
(ref. 3)

k = 5.23-10^(b2^ + b^^^ + 8 0 0 ) (W{mh))

where b^.^ and b^^^ a r e j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (in % DS) at i n l e t and o u t l e t ,
respectively. This formula i s known t o g i v e somewhat t o o h i g h v a l u e s o f t h e heat
transfer c o e f f i c i e n t a t the h i g h e s t j u i c e concentrations.
A p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e s o f the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient i n both R o b e r t -
t y p e and f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporators are a l s o g i v e n , as f u n c t i o n s o f mean j u i c e
concentration, in F i g . 5 . 5 .

REFERENCES
1 S . Z a g r o d z k i and A . S o k o l o w s k i , P o m i a r y s t r a t cieplnych w aparatach wyparnych,
Gaz. C u k r o w . , 8 1 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 7 3 ) 8 1 - 8 5 .
2 J . S . Hogg ( e t a l . ) . The r o l e o f t h e r m o g r a p h i c s u r v e y i n g in energy
conservation. I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1011) (1983) 67-71.
3 T. B a l o h , W δ r m e a t l a s f ٧ r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Schaper V e r l a g , Hannover, 1975.
 375

Appendix 4

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The S I s y s t e m o f u n i t s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s book i s b a s e d on the following

units:
- mass i n k i l o g r a m s ( k g ) ;
- length in metres (m);
- time i n s e c o n d s (s).
The t e m p e r a t u r e i s measured i n d e g r e e s C e l s i u s ( ° C ) , and the a b s o l u t e
temperature i n K e l v i n s ( K ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e i s e x p r e s s e d i n K.
The m e t r i c system of u n i t s ( a l s o known a s t h e t e c h n i c a l system) i s b a s e d on
the f o l l o w i n g units:

- force in kilograms f o r c e , or kiloponds (kgf or kp);

- l e n g t h i n m;
- time i n s .
The mass i s measured i n k g . The t e m p e r a t u r e i s measured i n ^ C , and t h e a b s o l u t e
temperature in degrees K e l v i n ( ° K ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e can be e x p r e s s e d
i n °C o r \ .

The B r i t i s h s y s t e m o f u n i t s ( a l s o known a s p o u n d - s e c o n d - f o o t s y s t e m ) is
based on the f o l l o w i n g units:
- mass i n pounds (lb.);
- length in feet (ft.);
- time i n s e c o n d s (denoted s e c ) .
The f o r c e i s e x p r e s s e d i n pounds f o r c e (Ibf.). The t e m p e r a t u r e i s m e a s u r e d in
d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t ( ^ F ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e i s a l s o expressed in ^ F .
The c o n v e r s i o n from S I t o m e t r i c o r B r i t i s h u n i t s can be p e r f o r m e d using
the c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s g i v e n i n T a b l e A 4 .
The c o n v e r s i o n f o r m u l a f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f the temperature i n °F from a g i v e n
t e m p e r a t u r e t^ i n °C i s
t p = 1 . 8 t(. + 32
and from g i v e n tj^ in Κ
tp = 1.8(t,^ - 2 7 3 . 1 5 ) + 32 .
 376

TABLE A4
Conversion table - SI to metric and British units.

Quantity SI unit Metric equivalent British equivalent

Mass 1 kg 1 kg 2.204622 lb.

Length 1 m 1 m = 100 cm 3.280284 ft. = 39.37 in.
Area 1 m^ 1 m^ = 10^ cm^ 10.764 s q . f t . = 1550 sq.in.
Volume 1 m^ 1 m"^ 35.3147 cu.ft. = 61024 c u . i n .
Density 1 kg/m^ 1 kg/m^ 0.062428 l b . / c u . f t .
Force 1 kg m/s^ = 1 Ν 0.101972 kgf 0.046254 Ibf.
Pressure 1 N/m^ = 1 Pa 1.01972-10"^ kgf/cm^ 0.0208855 I b f . / s q . f t . = 1.45038-10"^ p . s . i .
1 bar = 10^ Pa 1.01972 kgf/cm^ 2088.55 Ibf./sq.ft. = 14.5038 p . s . i .
Work, energy 1 Ν m = 1 J 0.101972 kgf m 0.737562 ft.-Ibf.
1 kJ = 10^ J 101.972 kgf m 7 3 7 . 5 6 2 ft.-Ibf
Heat 1 J 2.38846-10"^ kcal 9.47817-10"^ BTU
1 kJ 0.238846 kcal 0.947817 BTU
Power 1 J/s = 1 W 0.101972 kgf m/s 0.737562 f t . - I b f . / s e c .
1 kW = 10^ W 101.972 kgf m/s 737.562 ft.-Ibf./sec.
Heating value 1 kJ/kg 0.238846 kcal/kg 0.429923 BTU/lb.
Temperature difference I K 1°C 1.8°F
Specific heat 1 k J / ( k g K) 0.238846 kcal/(kg°C) 0.238846 BTU/(lb.°F)
Thermal conductivity 1 W / ( m K) 0.860 k c a l / ( m h^C) 0.577816 BTU/(ft.h°F)
Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/(m^K) 0.860 kcal/(m^h°C) 0.176110 BTU/(sq.ft.h°F)
 377

INDEX

Air preheating, 157, 342

A l k a l i n i t y of water, 2 3 8 , 2 4 3 , 245
A p p a r e n t power, 38
Appearance of water, 2 4 0 , 244
Ash content of c o a l , 247
Barometric c o n d e n s e r , see condenser
B a r o m e t r i c w a t e r , 2 , 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 2 , 6 5 , 2 7 7 , 357
B a t c h c e n t r i f u g a l , 3 3 , 2 0 6 , 228
B a t c h vacuum p a n , 7 4 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 6 7 , 2 0 1 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 5 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 7 , 280
B i o g a s p r o d u c t i o n , 175
B o i l e r blowdown, 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 , 2 5 5 , 313
B o i l e r c h e c k , 253
B o i l e r e f f i c i e n c y , 2 6 , 1 4 8 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 8 , 2 9 2 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 5 , 349
Boiler loss:
a s h , 255
c h i m n e y , 254
i n c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n , 255
r a d i a t i o n , 256
B o i l e r w a t e r q u a l i t y , 241
B o i l i n g p o i n t e l e v a t i o n , 7 8 , 1 2 3 , 2 6 5 , 3 7 0 , 373
Bomb c a l o r i m e t e r , 248
B o u n d a r y o f thermodynamic s y s t e m , 3 , 6 , 5 7 , 234
B . p . e . , see b o i l i n g p o i n t e l e v a t i o n
C a r b o n a t a t i o n , 5 , 2 9 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 9 , 2 9 6 , 2 9 8 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 1 , 318
C a r b o n a t a t i o n g a s , 2 , 9 , 1 5 , 2 2 , 5 3 , 6 5 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 178
C e n t r i f u g a l d r i v e , 3 9 , 4 1 , 2 0 7 , 209
Chemical c l e a n i n g o f t u b e s , 117
C l o s e d thermodynamic s y s t e m , 57
C o l o u r b u i l d - u p , 3 4 , 1 6 3 , 166
Combined g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y , 1 0 , 4 3 , 262
Combustible matter:
i n a s h , 2 5 2 , 255
i n c o a l , 247
C o m p o s i t e c u r v e , 364
C o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o , 1 8 , 1 4 0 , 150
Condensate:
drainage, 15, 97, 99, 103, 105, 109, 1 1 1 , 118, 264, 270, 272, 278, 290, 293,
3 0 2 , 3 3 2 , 338
f l a s h i n g ( f l a s h - e v a p o r a t i o n ) , 1 5 , 7 6 , 7 9 , 8 2 , 119
p o l l u t i o n , 1 0 1 , 144
q u a l i t y , 1 0 0 , 1 1 7 , 2 3 9 , 290
Condensate t a n k , 2 , 7, 3 1 , 7 6 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 0 , 144, 2 3 9 ,
2 7 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 5 , 3 3 8 , 3 4 2 , 3 4 6 , 353
Condenser, 3 , 7, 10, 14, 17, 3 1 , 4 6 , 4 8 , 6 5 , 77, 7 9 , 8 3 , 9 7 , 102, 104, 113, 1 2 1 ,
1 2 6 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 4 , 2 2 3 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 7 , 3 4 8 , 352
C o n t i n u o u s c e n t r i f u g a l , 2 0 6 , 2 0 9 , 2 9 3 , 294
C o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n , 1 2 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 3
C o n t r o l s u r f a c e , 57
C o n t r o l v o l u m e , 57
C o o l i n g - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t o w e r , 165
C o s s e t t e s m i x e r , 189
C r y s t a l f o o t i n g , 3 6 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 4 , 324
378

Crystal 1ization:
c o o l i n g , 1 6 3 , 167
e v a p o r a t i n g , 1 6 3 , 1 6 7 , 173
f r e e z e , 173
under vacuum, 165
C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme:
D a n i s h , 161
s i n g l e b o i l i n g , 323
t h r e e - b o i l i n g , 3 4 , 6 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 5 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 6 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 5 , 349
t w o - a n d - a - h a l f - b o i l i n g , 324
t w o - b o i l i n g , 166
w i t h c r y s t a l f o o t i n g , 1 6 6 , 168
w i t h two j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , 36
C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t o w e r , 2 0 3 , 206
D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f a s y s t e m , 3 , 10
D u l o n g ' s f o r m u l a , 249
E f f e c t i v e p o w e r , 38
E f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o , 9 , 2 3 , 9 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 8 7 , 2 1 3 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 8 , 352
E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f w a t e r , 243
E l e c t r i c a l d e s c a l e r , 118
Energy b a l a n c e , 5 , 8 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 6 5 , 8 4 , 8 7 , 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 5 5 , 2 3 4 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 7 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 9 ,
2 7 8 , 2 9 6 , 382
E n e r g y s y s t e m , 5 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 5 , 3 2 2 , 3 3 3 , 3 6 2 , 364
E n t h a l p y b a l a n c e , 88
E n t r a i n m e n t s e p a r a t o r , 1 0 1 , 1 3 0 , 194
E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n , 219
E v a p o r a t i o n , 6 , 1 2 , 2 4 , 3 5 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 6 , 2 6 4 , 2 8 7 , 307
E v a p o r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , 121
Evaporator:
c l i m b i n g - f i l m , 222
d o u b l e - e f f e c t , 195
f a l l i n g - f i l m , 1 9 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 6 3 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 4 , 3 1 6 , 3 2 3 , 3 5 3 , 3 5 7 , 374
m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t , 8 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 3 4 , 7 6 , 8 3 , 1 2 1 , 1 9 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 6 3 , 3 2 3 , 349
q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t , 1 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 6 , 2 9 6 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 9 , 342
quintuple-effect, 1 4 , 8 3 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 5 , 2 9 2 , 3 1 0 , 3 2 3 , 342
Robert-type, 106, 1 9 1 , 222, 263, 296, 310, 314, 316, 323, 335, 349, 352, 357,
3 5 9 , 3 7 2 , 374
s e x t u p l e - e f f e c t , 1 2 7 , 224
t r i p l e - e f f e c t , 1 2 6 , 2 9 7 , 337
t h i n - f i l m , 1 9 1 , 222
E v a p o r a t o r c h e c k , 2 6 4 , 266
E v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r a p p r o a c h , 8 4 , 1 0 3 , 301
E x e r g y , 8 9 , 90
E x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e , 6 5 , 8 4 , 1 0 1 , 103
Extractor:
b e l t t y p e , see moving-bed type
drum t y p e , 1 8 8 , 2 2 0 ,
m o v i n g - b e d t y p e , 1 8 8 , 220
s c r o l l t y p e , see trough type
tower t y p e , 3 1 , 7 3 , 1 8 8 , 2 2 0 , 2 9 2 , 3 2 3
t r o u g h t y p e , 3 1 , 6 1 , 7 3 , 1 3 5 , 1 8 8 , 2 2 0 , 2 6 7 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 3 5 , 349
E x t r a c t o r c h e c k , 269
F e e d - w a t e r q u a l i t y , 238
F i l m c o e f f i c i e n t of heat t r a n s f e r , 1 6 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 , 373
F l o a t - t y p e steam t r a p , 1 0 6 , 1 1 1 , 2 9 7 , 337
 379

Flow c o n t r o l :
by p o s i t i o n i n g o f i n l e t g u i d e v a n e s , 219
by t h r o t t l i n g , 4 2 , 2 1 7 , 219
b y - p a s s , 4 2 , 1 5 5 , 2 1 7 , 219
v a r i a b l e s p e e d , 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 , 327
Frequency-converter (-controlled) a . c . d r i v e , 2 0 8 , 3 2 7 , 329
Fuel s t o r a g e , 2 3 3 , 250
Gas t u r b i n e , 2 1 , 5 0 , 184
Grassmann d i a g r a m , 89
H a r d n e s s o f w a t e r , 2 3 8 , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 245
Heat b a l a n c e , 6 , 8 , 1 8 , 6 8 , 7 3 , 7 6 , 8 4 , 9 6 , 1 0 4 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 0 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 7 , 3 0 1 ,
3 0 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 4 , 3 2 0 , 3 2 4 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 6 , 3 3 9 , 3 4 2 , 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 , 352
Heat l o s s :
by d i s s i p a t i o n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , 2 4 , 2 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 3 , 1 5 5 , 2 8 4 , 2 9 1 , 301
by f r e e c o n v e c t i o n , 28
by r a d i a t i o n , 28
Heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t , 6 0 , 6 9 , 7 3 , 7 5 , 7 8 , 8 9 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 1 , 372
Heat o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n r e a c t i o n , 6 6 , 155
Heat o f c o m b u s t i o n , 248
Heat o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f s u g a r , 5 9 , 6 6 , 7 5 , 2 3 6
Heat pump, 1 7 , 25
Heater, see j u i c e heater
H e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n o f k i l n g a s , 1 5 8 , 3 4 2 , 352
H e a t i n g v a l u e o f f u e l , 1 4 8 , 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 , 257
Hot c o n d e n s e r , 1 3 4 , 357
H y d r o g e n i o n c o n t e n t , s e e pH
H y p e r f i l t r a t i o n , 171
J u i c e c a r r y o v e r , 1 0 1 , 1 4 4 , 194
Juice d r a f t , 24, 30, 6 1 , 66, 9 8 , 187, 219, 2 2 1 , 268, 292, 296, 309, 323, 334,
3 3 8 , 349
Juice heater:
c o n d e n s a t e - h e a t e d , 6 9 , 1 1 9 , 2 7 1 , 293
d i r e c t - c o n t a c t , 1 3 0 , 133
p l a t e , 1 9 8 , 2 9 3 , 3 1 4 , 3 1 7 , 373
s e g m e n t e d , 200
s p i r a l , 1 3 1 , 1 9 9 , 2 9 4 , 3 5 7 , 373
t u b u l a r , 1 0 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 9 9 , 2 9 3 , 373
v a p o u r - h e a t e d , 6 9 , 1 2 2 , 271
J u i c e h e a t e r c h e c k , 271
Juice p u r i f i c a t i o n , 2 , 23, 29, 4 1 , 6 1 , 116, 135, 153, 163, 169, 1 7 1 , 213, 216,
2 9 2 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 1 , 3 2 3 , 3 3 1 , 3 3 5 , 349
J u i c e s e p a r a t i o n , 169
K i l n g a s , 9 , 6 2 , 6 7 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 3 5 , 349
Law o f mass c o n s e r v a t i o n , 57
Law o f t h e r m o d y n a m i c s :
f i r s t , 5 7 , 8 8 , 2 3 4 , 261
s e c o n d , 88
L e v e l - c o n t r o l l e d h y d r a u l i c (water) s e a l , 1 0 6 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 2 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 3 8 , 342
L i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g , 363
Mass b a l a n c e , 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 7 , 7 4 , 7 9 , 8 3 , 9 4 , 1 0 1 , 2 3 5 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 7 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 1 ,
3 0 5 , 3 1 4 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 , 352
Mean l o g a r i t h m i c t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e , 69
Membrane f i l t r a t i o n , 171
Minimum t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e , 1 2 1 , 3 6 5
M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f c o a l , 247
M o t o r s l i p , 207
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Net h e a t demand, 8 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 6 6 , 9 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 8 7 , 2 0 3 , 3 3 3 , 3 3 8
N i e s s n e r c o l u m n , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 349
N o n c o n d e n s a b l e s , 9 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 2 6 4 , 2 7 0 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 0 , 3 0 0 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 9 , 314
N o n l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g , 363
Normal f u e l , 4 3 , 53
Normal steam p a r a m e t e r s , 43
N o z z l e - t y p e steam t r a p , 1 0 6 , 279
Number o f mass t r a n s f e r u n i t s , 189
O b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n , 362
Open thermodynamic s y s t e m , 3 , 5 7 , 65
Optimal s y n t h e s i s , 3 6 3
Overall heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , 6 0 , 6 9 , 8 1 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 4 4 , 1 9 3 ,
1 9 8 , 2 0 1 , 2 6 4 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 0 , 3 1 5 , 3 6 5 , 372
O v e r a l l t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r e f f i c i e n c y , 2 5 9 , 262
Oxygen c o n s u m p t i o n o f w a t e r , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 5
Oxygen c o n t e n t o f w a t e r , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 246
pH, 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 245
P e r i o d o f r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , 3 4 6 , 359
P i n c h p o i n t , 365
P o l e - c h a n g e a . c . m o t o r , 207
Power c a p a c i t o r , 3 9 , 4 3
Power demand, 1 3 , 1 8 , 3 7 , 4 0 , 4 5 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 7 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3 , 3 2 7 ,
3 3 2 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 6 , 3 5 3 , 357
Power f a c t o r , 3 8 , 4 3 , 2 0 8 , 2 9 0
Power h o u s e , 1 , 6 , 1 0 , 3 9 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 5 2 , 1 4 9 , 2 3 3 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 7 , 3 0 0 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 4 ,
3 2 4 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 , 348
Power n e t w o r k , 37
P r e s s i n g a i d s , 177
P u l p d e h y d r a t i o n , 1 9 , 1 5 3 , 174
Pulp d r y e r :
drum t y p e , 2 1 , 8 9 , 2 2 9 , 2 8 1 , 285
f l u i d i z e d - b e d t y p e , 183
l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 , 5 3 , 179
s t e a m , 2 2 , 182
t r a v e l l i n g - s c r e e n t y p e , 1 7 9 , 182
P u l p d r y e r c h e c k , 282
Pulp dryer e f f i c i e n c y , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 285
Pulp d r y i n g :
h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 , 179
l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e , 1 6 , 2 2 , 1 7 6 , 178
m e d i u m - t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 , 178
s t e a m , 2 2 , 181
P u l p e n s i l a g e , 175
P u l p f e r m e n t a t i o n , 175
P u l p p r e s s i n g , 1 9 , 1 7 6 , 178
Quentin u n i t , 1 9 8 , 3 2 3 , 349
R e a c t i v e p o w e r , 3 8 , 43
Reverse o s m o s i s , see h y p e r f i l t r a t i o n
Sampling:
f u e l , 246
j u i c e , 265
s t e a m , 244
w a t e r , 243
Sankey d i a g r a m , 8 , 4 4 , 5 0 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 1 5 8 , 283
S c a l e , 1 0 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 8 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 , 2 6 4 , 2 7 0 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 6 , 372
S e c a n t m e t h o d , 8 0 , 82
Seed magma, 1 6 7 , 204
S i e g e r t ' s f o r m u l a , 254
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S i l i n ' s f o r m u l a , 221
S i m u l a t i o n , 6 1 , 91
S l u d g e s w e e t e n i n g - o f f , 3 2 , 302
S o l u b i l i t y o f s u c r o s e , 1 6 3 , 1 6 6 , 227
S t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , 5 8 , 9 1 , 235
Steam demand, 1 6 , 4 3 , 4 6 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 9 , 3 0 1 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 7 , 3 6 2
Steam q u a l i t y , 2 3 7 , 243
Steam r a t e , 4 6 , 4 9 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 8 , 2 5 8 , 2 6 3 , 3 3 5
Steam t r a p , 6 , 5 9 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 1 , 2 7 8 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 0 , 3 5 3
Steam t u r b i n e :
b a c k - p r e s s u r e , 1 3 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 2 6 0 , 2 9 7 , 3 1 0 , 324
b a c k - p r e s s u r e / e x t r a c t i o n , 48
c o n d e n s i n g , 48
c o n d e n s i n g / e x t r a c t i o n , 46
t o p p i n g , 46
Sugar b o i l i n g :
c o n t r o l , 3 3 , 2 0 3 , 2 2 6 , 293
p r o c e s s , 1 5 , 3 2 , 3 5 , 1 1 1 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 7 , 1 6 7 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 3 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 7 1 , 332
Sugar l o s s :
i n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s , 3 1 , 1 8 9 , 221
i n s l u d g e , 32
S u r r o u n d i n g s o f thermodynamic s y s t e m , 5 7 , 88
Temperature p i n c h , s e e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e
Thermal decay o f s u c r o s e , 1 4 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 100
Thermal d e g r a d a t i o n o f e n e r g y , 88
Thermal i n s u l a t i o n , 2 5 , 2 7 , 7 8 , 9 9 , 1 0 3 , 2 7 9 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 4 4 , 372
Thermal s y s t e m , 6 , 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 3 , 6 0 , 6 5 , 6 8 , 8 4 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 3 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 7 ,
1 3 1 , 136, 145, 153, 187, 213, 2 2 1 , 2 5 1 , 275, 277, 279, 287, 297,
3 0 0 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 0 , 3 2 0 , 3 2 3 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 4 , 3 4 0 , 3 4 3 , 3 4 8 , 3 5 4 , 373
Thermodynamic f u n c t i o n s , 6 0 , 7 8 , 8 4 , 8 9 , 2 3 4 , 3 6 8 , 370
Thermodynamic s y s t e m , 3 , 6 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 6 7 , 8 8 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 5
T h e r m o g r a p h i c s u r v e y i n g , 100
Throttling-desuperheating s t a t i o n , 4 7 , 9 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 9 , 2 5 7 , 2 7 5 , 324
T h y r i s t o r - c o n t r o l l e d d . c . d r i v e , 2 0 8 , 3 2 7 , 353
T o t a l h e a t demand, 8 , 1 2 , 2 2 , 6 8 , 9 5 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 5 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 5 , 3 2 3 , 3 5 3
Turbine e f f i c i e n c y :
i n t e r n a l , 262
m e c h a n i c a l , 262
T u r b o - g e n e r a t o r c h e c k , 258
Turbo-generator efficiency, see o v e r a l l t.-g. e.
Ultrafiltration, 171
Vacuum-pan c h e c k , 272
Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t , 3 3 , 2 0 3 , 2 7 5 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 9 , 337
Vacuum-pan s t i r r e r , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 2 0 2 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 6
Vapour c o m p r e s s i o n , 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 5 ,
3 2 4 , 3 4 2 , 3 4 7 , 3 5 7 , 3 6 0 , 366
Vapour c o m p r e s s o r :
e l e c t r i c a l l y d r i v e n , 1 3 8 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 3 2 4 , 3 4 2 , 357
j e t t y p e , 1 8 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 9 , 3 2 4 , 3 4 2 , 358
m e c h a n i c a l , 1 8 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 3 2 7 , 3 4 2 , 357
t u r b i n e d r i v e n , 1 3 9 , 142
Venting (of noncondensables), 112, 115, 264, 270, 2 7 2 , 280, 290, 300, 3 0 3 , 314,
3 5 3 , 357
Waste h e a t , 1 4 , 2 1 , 2 5 , 5 3 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 0 , 185
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Water intake:
to j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , 32
to C m a s s e c u i t e c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s , 33
to p r o c e s s , 3 0 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 0 , 323
to s u g a r h o u s e , 3 2 , 3 4 , 2 9 1 , 3 0 2 , 305
to vacuum p a n s , 3 2 , 6 6 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 8 , 271