Aircraft Design Project

Aircraft Design Project 1
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Conceptual design of a supersonic multifunctional military aircraft
Abdelrahman ELSAYED, Tandy Ari IRAWAN, Nur Salam bin ABDULLAH SANI
Sarifuddin AWAE, Mamoutou BAYA, Abdulrahman MUHAMMAD, Prabowo Galih MAHANENDRA
Instructor, Asst. Prof. Durmuş Sinan KÖRPE
Abstract
There are three stages to designing an aircraft; conceptual design, preliminary design, and detailed design. The
beginning stage is very crucial to the final stage as it has strong relationship. The first stage is the high standard than
the final stage, which will yield result that were conceptual and have produced a basis. This report provides an
understanding of the parameters that are physical and performance for the final design of a trainer aircraft, as trainer
aircraft is mainly the focused areas in this arena. This journal has been arranged to facilitate the designer’s gradual
understanding of design techniques. The reader is encouraged to study all such solved problems carefully; this will
allow the interested reader to obtain a deeper understanding of the materials and tools. The aircraft design has been
constructing on some certain step processes, it consists weight estimation, location of the center of gravity of the
aircraft, aerodynamic center in the main wings and tail and generally, performance characteristics and parameters.
The jet trainer which is designed must have performance near to performance requirement that given to make the
aircraft capable to do its mission profile. At the end, when already at a point whereby the work is concluded, and cost
analysis is putted into account, this cost analysis is to determine how much money should be achievable in the actual
manufacturing process.
Keywords
Conceptual design, performance characteristics, aerodynamic parameters, aircraft design
Introduction
Aircraft design is the intellectual engineering process as parts of competitors’ research. There are dissimilar
of creating a flying machine to certain specifications kinds of designs and the ordered points could be
and requirements estimated by potential users (e.g. categorized in preliminary design from the point of
military aircraft and commercial aircraft) and pioneer design view.
innovative new ideas and technology (experimental
The aircraft design itself, the process is depended on
aeroplane). This will present the entire process of
many factors such as customer and manufacturer
aircraft conceptual design, from requirements
demand, safety protocol, physical, economic, etc.
definition to initial sizing, configuration layout,
There are the main aspects of aircraft design,
analysis, sizing, optimization, and trade studies.
aerodynamics, propulsion, controls, mass, and
Intuition, intellectual activity, innovation, experience,
structure. Actually, more aspects to be considered,
and creativeness are the properties that are required by
such as emission and noise, cost, performance, etc.
a general design process.
The four main aspects are primarily the areas of
One of the most considerable aspects for the designing aeronautical engineering. The reader is expected to be
period is the conduction of a wide investigation about familiar with some of the fundamentals, concepts,
the aircrafts that belong to the same class from the technical terms, and engineering techniques in such
industry. This way will influence the design areas. All aircraft designs involve these main aspects
improvement process for reaching better results. The to achieve the design mission.
positive and negative points that are eliminated in the
Design is not just a drawing process, but also an
previous designs of the products, general statistics,
analysis process to determine what the design should
presence of calculations, the several types of design
be, and how to make the design better. There are three
structures and many other statements could be counted
2 Aircraft Design Project
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stages to designing an aircraft; conceptual design, 2. KAI T-50 Golden Eagle
preliminary design, and detail design.
3. Chengdu J-10S
Phases of aircraft design
4. Chengdu (AVIC) / PAC JF-17B
The phases of aircraft design are distinct and are
5. F-16D Block 52
clearly known to be as;
6. Saab JAS 39 Gripen
1. Conceptual design
7. Mitsubishi F-2B
Conceptual design is the first stage in aircraft design.
In this stage, designers include sketches of various Above are jet trainer aircraft with different
aircraft configurations as material for consideration to background and have been manufactured in different
meet the specifications needed such as aerodynamics, years. These aircraft have capability which related to
propulsion, performance, structure, and control. performance requirement.
Fundamental aspects such as the fuselage shape, wing Dassault Mirage 2000B
configuration, and engine size are determined at this
stage. The constraints for designing as mentioned Mirage 2000B is one of the variants of Mirage 2000
above are all taken into account at this stage too. The from France which is manufactured by Dassault
final product of conceptual design is the guesswork of Aviation. The two-seat operational conversion trainer
a sketch in the form of a plane configuration layout variant which first flew on October 11, 1980 and has
concept. produced around 30 units in France for two-seater with
2000C kit and exported 2 units to Brazil for two-seat
2. Preliminary design trainer. It was powered by SNECMA M53-P2
The design at the next conceptual stage will be revised afterburning turbofan engine of 21400lb of thrust with
and modeled in the form of parameters. In this stage, afterburner, and 14500lb on standard thrust. There are
aerodynamic testing of the model will be carried out, nine total external stores under the wing and fuselage
using both wind tunnels and computational fluid up to 13900lb in combined weight. The aircraft could
dynamic. Major analyzes of structure and control are be utilized as an air-to-air missiles with 2× Matra
also carried out at this stage. The final product of the R550 Magic-II and 2× Matra Super 530D.[1]
preliminary design is the improvement of sketches
KAI T-50 Golden Eagle
along with dimensions of aircraft geometry and
parameters. The T-50 “Golden Eagle” is an advanced supersonic
trainer and light strike-capable aircraft platform
3. Detail design produced by both the South Korean corporation of
At this stage, the design must be ready to enter the Korean Aerospace Industries (KAI) and the American
manufacturing stage. For example, in conceptual and corporation of Lockheed Martin. The TA-50 version
preliminary designs, designers only design wings in has a three-barrel cannon version of the M61 Vulcan
the form of geometry in general. So, in detail design, mounted internally behind the cockpit, which fires link
the designer details wing designs into sections such as less 20 mm ammunition.[2] Wingtip rails can
ribs, spars, and skins, each of which must be designed accommodate the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, and a
and analyzed separately. Another important thing at variety of additional weapons can be mounted to
this stage is production design. An expert must be able underwing hardpoints.[3] Compatible air-to-surface
to determine how the aircraft will be manufactured, weapons include the AGM-65 Maverick missile,
starting from the preparation of subassembly to the Hydra 70 and LOGIR rocket launchers, CBU-58 and
final assembly. Designers at this stage must also Mk-20 cluster bombs, and Mk-82, −83, and −84
determine the steps of the easiest, most economical, general purpose bombs.[4]
and efficient manufacturing. Chengdu J-10S
Chosen aircraft details The Chengdu J-10 is designed originally in China as
The below list entails the requirements that enable the air-superiority fighter jet with the day/night multi role
engineers to be able to obtain the kind of aircraft that fighter in simple to lightweight general dynamic F-16
they may require with the requests from the potential fighting falcon, it introduced to army air force in 2005,
users. This list also entails the data of aircrafts as Pakistan has been procuring the type in squadron-
follows; strength number the J-10 has Israel and Russian
technology. There are several variants, Chengdu J-10S
1. Dassault Mirage 2000B is one of the variants for training purpose. With the
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engine afterburning turbofan engine developing Mitsubishi F-2B
29,101lb of thrust with after-burn. According to
One of the multirole fighter aircraft that derived from
armament, there are 11 hardpoints in total (6 under the
wing, 5 under the fuselage) with a capacity of 7,000kg. the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is the
4 air-to-air missiles are included, PL-8, PL-9, PL-11, Mitsubishi F-2. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and
and PL-12.[5][6][7] Lockheed Martin are the company which
manufactured that aircraft. There are variants of
Chengdu (AVIC) / PAC JF-17B Mitsubishi F-2 but for Trainer one is Mitsubishi F-2
JF-17B is one of series model variants of JF-17 series B, contained two seats with tandem cockpits and
Thunder, lightweight multi-role fighter, advanced jet dual-controls. The GE F110-GE-129 engine is a
trainer and attack capabilities. It was developed jointly turbofan engine that produces 17,000lb of dry thrust
by the Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation (CAIC) and 29,500lb of thrust with an afterburner. this aircraft
and the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC), is a multirole fighter aircraft so for the armaments, the
conceived of as low-cost jet trainer for developing F-2 fighter aircraft can also carry 500lb bombs, CB-
country with 58% of the airframe is Pakistani and 42%
87/B cluster bombs and rocket launchers.[17][18]
Chinese/Russian-origin. Powered by a single Klimov
RD-39 turbofan engine delivered 11106lb of standard Aircraft and requirements
thrust and up to 18973lb of thrust with afterburner
Comparative data records are available which shown
with Max speed up to Mach 1.8. Armaments are
in this list below.
supported by AIM-9L/M, PL-5E, PL-9C Beyond
visual range: PL-12 / SD-10 air-to-air, and Mk-82 and Table 1. Geometric properties
Mk-84 unguided drop bombs. [8][9][10]
Airplane Wingsp Length Height Wing Aspect
F-16D Block 52 model an (m) (m) (m) area ratio
F-16C/D BLOCK 52 is a variant of the F-16 Fighting (m2)
Falcon, one of the most famous lightweight aircraft. Dassault 9.13 14.56 5.27 41 2.03
There is large number of variants that has been Mirage
produced by manufacturers such as General 2000B
Dynamics, Lockheed Martin, and other various series
licensed manufacturers. The present description KAI T-50 9.45 13.4 4.94 23.6 3.77
concerns the F-16 C/D BLOCK 52, which is a trainer Golden
jet powered by a Turbofan engine with afterburner Eagle
(General Electric F110-GE-129). It has a maximum Chengdu 9.75 15.49 5.43 33 2.88
speed of 1,300 km/h reaching up to max range of 1,839 J-10S
km. [11][12][13] PAC JF- 9.46 14.26 4.5 24.4 3.66
17B
Saab JAS 39 Gripen F-16D 9.96 15.06 4.88 27.8 3.56
One of aircraft which was manufactured by the Block 52
Swedish aerospace company (Saab) with a light JAS 39F 8.6 15.2 4.5 31 2.39
single-engine multirole fighter aircraft is JAS 39 Gripen
Gripen. Originally planned to fly in 1987, the first
Mitsubishi 11.13 15.52 4.96 34.8 3.56
flight was delayed by 18 months due to issues with the
F 2 series
flight control system. Finally, the aircraft flew on
B
December 9, 1988 for the first time, and it was
Average 9.64 14.78 4.93 30.8 3.12
officially introduced on June 9, 1996. It has been
produced in 1987 until now and has built
approximately 247 units. A lot of countries that have
expressed interest in Gripen, such as Argentina,
Austria, Malaysia, Serbia, etc. There are around 7
variants, one of the variants is for pilot training, JAS-
39F. The aircraft was powered by General Electric
F414-GE-39E afterburning turbofan engine, which
can deliver 1500km for combating air-to-ground with
2460km/h at high altitude, and 1400km/h at sea
level.[14][15][16]
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Table 2. Performance parameters
Max cruise Max range Take-off Landing Service Max Stall G-
Airplane model speed 1728.72 at 3,000 distance distance ceiling climb rate speed limit
(km/h) (km) 350 (m) 650 (m) 14,000 (m) 190 (m/s) (km/h)
Dassault +9 g
259.28
Mirage 2000B 1481.76 1550 503 610 16470 284.48
194.46 +8g/
KAI T-50
-3 g
Golden Eagle
1640 1851 400 520 14630 198
Chengdu J-10S 360 +7.5
1481.76 1800 650 620 18000 300 /-4g
Chengdu N/A +8g/
(AVIC) / PAC -3 g
JF-17B
1950.984 3482 609 823 16920 249
F-16D Block 333.36 +9g/
52 1300 1839 345 457 15000 170 -3 g
JAS 39F 180 +9g/
Gripen 1400 4000 500 600 16000 254 -3 g
Mitsubishi F-2 N/A +9g/
series B 1358.28 1665 760 360 18000 306 -3 g
Average 1516.11 2312.43 538.14 570.00 16431.43 251.64 265.42 -
Table 3. Weight estimation

Maximum gross Empty weight
Airplane Model weight (kg) (kg) Fuel weight (kg) Payload weight (kg)
Dassault Mirage 2000B 17000 7500 3160 6300
KAI T-50 Golden
Eagle 12300 6470 2220 4536
Chengdu J-10S 19277 8850 4500 4500
Chengdu (AVIC) /
PAC JF-17B 12383 6586 2330 3700
F-16D Block 52 19200 6800 3200 5400
JAS 39F Gripen 16500 8000 3400 7000
Mitsubishi F 2 series B 22100 9635 3100 9000
Average 16965.71 7691.57 3130.00 5776.57
All of these table that shown above are important for aircraft, etc. The mission profile looks like a diagram
helping to design a jet trainer aircraft as a reference that can contain lines and curves symbolizing different
and several values (average) in the table will be used specifications and motions of the aircraft types. Take-
for unknown values in the equation. At the end, it can off, climb, cruise(range), landing, combat, dropping
be compared to the jet trainer that has design in this bombs, descent, loiter are some performance
journal. specifications or segments that are described in the
mission profile of the required aircraft model. The
Weight estimation current below mission profile is simply showing the
Mission profile movement of the jet trainer aircraft with respect to its
altitude, weight with respect to payloads and other
In general aviation field, the flight performance from parameters that affect the movement of the aircraft
a position to another position is titled as mission within its function ability from take-off to landing.
profile, which reflects the major task of specific
aircraft during its flight with respect to their type.
Mean that for own fighter aircraft more dissimilar
mission profile than a commercial aircraft, a cargo
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aircraft takes-off. The maximum take-off weight can
Mission Profile be defined as all-up weight and is symbolized as
Altitude (m)
12000 MTOW. Since it is the most important weight type,
1500 km every designed component of the aircraft should be
8 9
10000 able to support it. There is a general method of the
1500 km estimation of the aircraft weight. This estimation
8000 2 3
includes statistical approach and calculation with the
help of performance equations. MTOW consists of 4
6000
Loiter (60 min) partial sections. These sections are categorized under
4 the titles Payload (Wpayload), Crew Weight (Wcrew), Fuel
4000
5 Weight (Wfuel) and Empty Weight (Wempty). So,
2000 6 7 MTOW can be summarized as the summation of all
Combat (10min) these weight values:
1 650 m
0 10 11 𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 (1)
350 m
Figure 1. Mission profile and mission segments Some of these sections are generally known data and
are evaluated by the manufacturer company like crew
As it can be seen from the above sketching of the weight and payload weight although the others as fuel
mission profile which is consisted of 11 regions that and empty weight must be determined by using the
reflect the given performance requirements. Region 0 MTOW formulation. For the simplification of the
to 1 shows the take-off distance which is 350 m with a calculations fuel and empty weights can be expressed
straight line at sea level (Taxi). In the region 1-2, the as the MTOW fractions and can be written in the form
aircraft experiences the climbing till 8000 m, after of W0:
that, from 2-3 the cruise flight is performed with 𝑊𝑓
Mach=0.9 with respect to the economic cruising flight 𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + ( ) × 𝑊0
𝑊0
at 1500 km, which is the maximum range value of the
𝑊
required aircraft model. The descending is shown in +( 𝑒 ) × 𝑊0 (2)
𝑊0
the 3rd region till 4th where 4000 m altitude is
achieved, and from 4-5 the aircraft loiters for 60
minutes. From 5-6 is another region of descending to This can be solved for W0 as follow:
a certain altitude (3000m), within dropping 2xMK 82
𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑒
bombs and 4x L-UMTAS air to ground missiles. Then 𝑊0 − ( ) × 𝑊0 − ( ) × 𝑊0
6-7 the dogfight is performed for 10 minutes with 𝑊0 𝑊0
maximum speed of Mach=1.23 by using afterburner, = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (3)
within dropping 2xAIM-SIDEWINDER air to air 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 +𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
missiles and using 200kg ammo of the cannon. 𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑓 𝑊
(4)
1−( )−( 𝑒 )
Thereafter 2nd climbing is performed again from 7-8 to 𝑊0 𝑊0
10000m, with maximum climb rate configuration If the value of We /W0 and Wf /W0 were estimated,
(R/Cmax= 251.64m/s) and from 8-9 one more cruise then the value of W0 can be determined.
is performed with speed Mach= 0.9 with respect to the
economic cruising. 9-10 region is portion of Payload weight[21]
descending. From 6-7 the landing is performed whose Passenger, luggage, cargo, weapons, and other useful
distance is 650m. The mission is then successfully equipment are the payload weight which is the total
completed. weight of an aircraft is able to carry. The payload
weight itself actually depends on the nature of the
Takeoff gross weight[19][20]
flight mission of the aircraft. The jet trainer, which is
An aircraft has a range of weight from minimum to the chosen aircraft for this case which just carry crew
maximum depending upon the number of crew, fuel, and weapons, such as bombs, missiles, and cannon
and payload (passenger, load, luggage, cargo, and (included ammo). There is a relation between payload
weapons). As the aircraft flies, the fuel is burning, and weight and take-off gross weight, if the payload
the aircraft weight is decreasing. In the design process
weight is increased then take-off gross weight will
of an aircraft the most significant weight value is
increase, and vice versa.
known as maximum allowable weight while the
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Flying boat 1.09 -0.05

[22]
Crew weight
Jet trainer 1.59 -0.10
Who are taking responsibility for conducting the flight
operations and serving passengers and payload. The Jet fighter 2.34 -0.13
crew itself can be copilot, flight engineer, navigation
pilot, etc. Since will deal with jet aircraft, the crew will Military cargo/bomber 0.93 -0.07
be only two, which are two pilots only(170kg).
Jet transport 1.02 -0.06
Empty weight fraction[23]
Empty weight, from the name itself is known as the Fuel weight fraction
‘basic weight’, in this case, of an aircraft. It means the The weight of the fuel that is used in operating the
measured weight is not taking any external load or aircraft can be measured by using fuel weight fraction
payload into account. Technically the empty weight of 𝑊𝑓
( 𝑊 ). This fraction also acts as the key parameter in
an aircraft consists of the essential equipment in 0
building an aircraft, including undrainable oil and determining the aircraft range, which means the
𝑊 distance that the aircraft can be flown without the
hydraulic oil. Empty weight fraction ( 𝑊𝑒 ), is a ratio
0 needs to refuel. However not all fuel can be included
of empty weight with gross weight. It can be estimated in this fraction. The only one that applicable is the fuel
from the historical trends, where it varies from 0.3 to that is capable in performing the mission; fuel that will
0.7. For different types of aircraft, the trend lines will be combusted to produce thrust. The amount of fuel
be showing different slopes of empty weight fraction that is required in an aircraft is depending on several
vs. takeoff weight. The fraction can be estimated by factor, such as the aircraft’s aerodynamic, engine’s
inserting the certain value depending on the aircraft fuel consumption and the most important, the mission
type, such as: of the aircraft. The fraction can be calculated by using
𝑊𝑒 the following formula, allowing 6% of fuel
𝑊0
= 𝐴𝑊0𝑐 𝐾𝑣𝑠 (5)
reservation:
where 𝐾𝑣𝑠 is variable sweep constant; 1.04 for 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
variable sweep and 1.00 for fixed sweep. = 1.06 (1 − ) (6)
𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑓
Table 4. Empty weight fraction vs W0[24] 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

where 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓
is the fraction from the last and the
𝑊𝑒 A C first condition in the aircraft’s mission profile; landing
⁄𝑊 = 𝐴𝑊0𝑐 𝐾𝑣𝑠
0 and takeoff. In our case, this condition will occur in
Sailplane-unpowered 0.86 -0.05 11th and 0th points in mission profile, so it turns out to
𝑊
be 𝑊11. Therefore, in order to find the fuel weight
0
Sailplane-powered 0.91 -0.05 𝑊11
fraction, we need to calculate first the 𝑊0
by using all
Homebuilt-metal/wood 1.19 -0.09 the fraction from the beginning of the mission until the
end, such that:
Homebuilt-composite 0.99 -0.09 𝑊𝑛 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊0
= 𝑊1 × 𝑊2 × … … … × 𝑊𝑛−1 × 𝑊 𝑛 (7)
0 1 𝑛−2 𝑛−1
General aviation-single 2.36 -0.18
engine where,
General aviation-twin 1.51 -0.10 𝑊𝑛 = landing weight, 𝑊0 = takeoff weight, and insert
engine the obtained value to the fuel weight fraction.
Calculation and estimation of the aircraft’s takeoff

Agricultural aircraft 0.74 -0.03
weight
Twin turboprop 0.96 -0.05 In this section, all the method and calculation to
estimate the weight of the aircraft during takeoff will
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be explained. Weight fraction method will be used to segment is including the engine starting, taxiing and
determine the percentage changes in the aircraft take off. As required, the value of higher fuel
weight during each segment in the mission profile, consumption will be used in this fraction.
from takeoff until landing which eventually will lead 𝑊1
us to obtain the takeoff weight. For the aircraft that 𝑊0
= 0.97 (8)
will be designed, there are two major factors that will
Climb (1-2)
affect the reduction in the aircraft weight; fuel
consumption and armament usage, where these two For the first climbing, the same method used; the
factors will change the fuel weight fraction and historical trends method:
payload weight fraction, respectively. During the 𝑊2
= 0.99 (9)
calculation process, there are several parameters that 𝑊1
need to be taken care, such as the parameters that will Table 6. Historical mission segment weight fraction [25]
be chose from the historical trends and the parameters
𝑊𝑖
that will change according to the aircraft condition. ( ⁄𝑊 )
𝑖−1
Warmup and takeoff 0.970
Armament Climb 0.985
Landing 0.995
For this aircraft, 10 military weapons in total have
been chosen to complete the aircraft’s armament Cruise (2-3, 8-9)
requirement. These 10 weapons consist of 3 air-to-air For cruising, the range formula will be applied:
missiles, 4 air-to-ground missiles, 2 bombs and 1
𝑉∞ 𝐿 𝑊
cannon. Air-to-ground missiles and bombs will be 𝑅= 𝐶 𝐷
𝑙𝑛 𝑊2 (10)
3
dropped during the descending after loitering, and air-
to-missiles during the combat also will using full By deriving the range equation, it becomes:
cannon (drop 200 kg ammo). This dropping will 𝑊3 𝑅×𝐶
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− 𝑉 ) (11)
reduce a lot of the aircraft weight, thus reduce the fuel 𝑊2 ∞ ×(𝐿/𝐷)
consumption. The range will be followed the requirement which is
Table 5. Armament installed into the aircraft 1500 × 103 𝑚. By referring Raymer’s book, the
Types Name Number of Weight
specific fuel consumption (𝐶) for a low-bypass
items (kg) turbofan engine is 0.8 per hour for cruise condition.
Air to air Gökdoğan 2 170 kg The value of low-bypass engine is chosen as our
missile Bozdoğan 1 157 kg aircraft’s engine will be equipped with afterburner,
Air to L-Umtaş 4 150 kg and afterburner in turbofan engine will only be able to
ground operate with low-bypass engine.
missile
Bombs Mk-82 2 454 kg 𝐶 = 0.8 /ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (12)
Cannon - 1 300 kg
For the aircraft velocity (𝑉∞ ) during cruise, the value
These types of armaments were chosen based on the will be obtained from the division of the average
demands, the suitability with the mission, budget and maximum range of the competitor aircraft to average
the estimation of the desired aircraft total weight. maximum endurance.
Mission segment weight fraction Table 7. Average value for maximum range and
Based on the requirements of the aircraft, there are 11 endurance
segments of mission profile. Each segment has its own
Types of Max. Range Max.
ratio number indicating the reduction of the weight.
aircraft (km) Endurance (s)
Some of them will be calculated using the specific
formula according to the flight attitude and some of Dassault 1481.76 9000
them is determined using the historical trends. Mirage 2000B
Take off (0-1)
KAI T-50 1640 n/a
For takeoff, the fraction will be chosen from the Golden Eagle
provided range based on the historical trends. This
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Since first and second cruise are the same due to same
Chengdu J- 1481.76 n/a
10S velocity and the L/D will be no difference using the
formula below.
Chengdu / 1950.984 8100 (𝑣∞1 )2 (𝐿⁄ )max(2)
PAC JF-17B (𝑣∞2 )2
= (𝐿⁄𝐷) (19)
𝐷 max(1)
F-16D Block 1300 8700 Then,

52 𝑊9
𝑊8
= 0.87 (20)
JAS 39F 1400 10800
Gripen
Mitsubishi F-2 1358.28 n/a

series B
Average 2312.43 9150
From these average values, the velocity can be

obtained:
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (13)
2312.43×103
𝑉∞ = = 252.72m/s (14)
9150
This velocity will be used to calculate the weight

fraction during cruise condition.
𝐿 Figure 2. Maximum lift to drag ratio trends[27]
The 𝐷
max can be estimated by using the historical
trends: Descent and landing (3-4, 5-6, 9-10, 10-11)
Because of the aircraft is supersonic fighter aircraft, it For the descent, value from the historical trends will
𝐿
is wise to choose 18 of max. For cruise condition of be applied:
𝐷
jet aircraft, the L/D value will be reduced down to 𝑊4
𝐿 First descent: = 0.99 (21)
0.866 𝐷max: 𝑊3
𝑊6
𝐿 Second descent: = 0.99 (22)
𝐿/𝐷 = 0.866 × 𝐷max (15) 𝑊5
𝑊10
𝐿/𝐷 = 0.866 × 18 = 15.588 (16) Third descent: = 0.99 (23)
𝑊9
[26]
Table 8. L/D values for jet and prop aircraft 𝑊
Landing: 𝑊11 = 0.99 (24)
10
Cruise Loiter
Climbing (7-8)
Jet 𝐿 𝐿
0.866 max max
𝐷 𝐷 For the second climbing, a specific formula will from
𝐿 𝐿
Raymer’s will be used:
Prop max 0.866𝐷max
𝐷 𝑤𝑖
Supersonic: 𝑤 = 0.991 − 0.007𝑀 − 0.01𝑀2 (25)
𝑖−1
After obtaining all the required parameters, substitute
them into the range equation to find the weight ratio:
𝑊3 𝑅×𝐶
𝑊2
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− 𝑉 ) (17)
∞ ×(𝐿/𝐷)
𝑊3 1500×103 ×0.8
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) = 0.87 (18)
𝑊2 252.72×9.526
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
To be able to find Mach number, average maximum
rate of climb of seven competitors’ aircraft will be
used and speed of sound will be used at that altitude
is 336.4m/s.
𝑤8 251.64 251.64 2
= 0.991 − 0.007 × − 0.01 × ( )
𝑤7 336.4 336.4
𝑤8
𝑤7
= 0.98 (26)
Loiter (4-5)
Loiter weight fractions are found from the endurance
equation:
𝐿⁄ 𝑤
𝐷
𝐸= 𝐶
ln 𝑤 𝑖 (27)
𝑖−1
Or
𝑤𝑖 −𝐸𝐶
𝑤𝑖−1
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐿⁄ (28) Figure 3. TSFC vs Mach number[28]
𝐷
Where E is endurance or loiter time. The loiter time is Droping segment

one hour long and specific fuel consumption c, is This segment is related to dogfight segment and will
given in table 4 above which is 0.7. drop air to air missiles, air to ground missiles, and drop
0.7 full ammo.
𝑤5 3600×
3600
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 0.94 (29)
𝑤4 11 Drop bombs and air to ground missiles (𝑊6 ):
Dogfight (6-7) 𝑊5 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑤
𝑊0
= 𝑊1 × 𝑊2 × 𝑊3 × 𝑊4 × 𝑤5 (32)
0 1 2 3 4
In the dogfight segment, missiles such as air-to-air and
air-to-ground missiles will be used, dropping all the 𝑊5 = 0.97 × 0.99 × 0.87 × 0.99 × 0.94 × 0.99
bombs, and using cannon. First of all, calculate the × 𝑊0
ratio in this segment without considering dropping
missiles and etc. = 0.77 × 𝑊0 (33)
𝑤𝑖 𝑛 𝑊6 = 𝑊5 − 𝑏𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 − 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (34)
𝑤𝑖−1
= 1 − 𝐶(𝐿⁄ )(𝑑) (30)
𝐷
𝑊6 = 0.77 × 𝑊0 − 604 (35)
Where n is the load factor and d is the duration of
𝑊6 0.77×𝑊0 −604
doing dogfight. The load factor itself is gotten from 𝑊5
= 0.77×𝑊0
(36)
the average of seven competitors’ aircraft which is g
limit. Load factor is dimensionless, traditionally Drop ammo and air to air missiles (𝑊7 ):
referred to as g, and commonly expressed in g unit. 𝑤7
𝑤6
= 0.84 (37)
The average of g limit is 8.5, duration of dogfight is
10 minutes, and the specific fuel consumption that will 𝑊7 ′ = 𝑊6 × 0.84 − 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜 (38)
be used is, using afterburner which taken from
Reymer’s book figure. 𝑊7 ′ = 0.84 × (0.77 × 𝑊0 − 604) − 427 (39)
This figure shows that TSFC depends on the Mach and Empty weight estimation
altitude (ft). Since the Mach number is 1.23 taken from From equation 5 and the table 4 it can be seen that
the average of seven competitors’ aircraft and the since the seven-competitor aircraft near to jet fighter,
altitude of doing dogfight is 3000 meters (9842.52ft), then the constant values A and C will be taken from
it gives 1.28 TSFC using afterburner. jet fighter type and also the aircraft is fixed sweep.
𝑤7 1.28 8.5 𝑤𝑒
= 1 − 3600 × 11×0.866 × 60 × 10 = 0.84 (31) 𝑤0
= 2.34 × 𝑤0−0.13 × 1 (40)
𝑤6
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Fuel weight estimation Trade study
From equation 6, fuel weight fraction can be found. The main target behind the trade studies are
Since there is drop segment, then the equation has optimizing the crucial data, to see the possibilities for
changed and calculated as follow: the changes in the performance of an aircraft. Trade
𝑊𝑓 𝑊11 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 studies are necessary to see different configurations
= 1.06 × (1 − − ) (41) for aircraft and their behaviors on specific
𝑊0 𝑊0 𝑊0
𝑊𝑓 𝑊1 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑤
circumstances. Performing trade studies are
= 1.06 × [1 − ( × 2× 3× 4× 5 × unavoidable processes for the manufacturers of
𝑊0 𝑊0 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑤4
𝑊5 −𝑏𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠−𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 aircraft, to overcome specific problems and
0.77×𝑊0
×
simultaneously making the aircraft more versatile,
0.84×(0.77×𝑊0 −604)−427 𝑤 𝑊
𝑊5 −𝑏𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠−𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
× 𝑤8 × 𝑊9 × which in contrast may have even positive results like
7 8
𝑊10 𝑊11 that the designed aircraft fills some gap in the industry.
×𝑊 ] (42)
𝑊9 10 Also, by performing enough trade studies the behavior
𝑊𝑓 0.77×𝑊0 −604 of the aircraft in different configurations can be
𝑊0
= 1.06[1 − 0.77 × 0.77×𝑊0
× observed as well. Therefore, by choosing proper and
0.84×(0.77×𝑊0 −604)−427 enough number of trade studies, the optimum
0.77×𝑊0 −604
× 0.84] (43)
configuration of the aircraft is achieved. Trade study
Maximum takeoff weight estimation considerations can be divided into 2 trades: Range
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 +𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Trade, Payload Trade.
𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑓 𝑊
(44)
1−( )−( 𝑒 ) Range trade analysis
𝑊0 𝑊0
170𝑘𝑔+1131𝑘𝑔
𝑊0 = 𝑊𝑓 (45) Table 11. Range trade analysis
1− (𝑒𝑞𝑛.10)−2.34×𝑤0−0.13 ×1.0 Range We We/W0 Wf Wf/W0 W0
𝑊0
(km) (kg) (kg)
By putting all the values inside the equation above, W0
can be found using Secant Method for iteration. The 11944 0.6533 5035 0.2754 18283
1000
iteration table can be shown below: 15581 0.6281 7914 0.3192 24733
1500
Table 9. Maximum takeoff weight result
18400 0.6125 10334 0.344 30041
1800
Iteration Calculated Empty weight The table 11 means that by increasing the range, also
weight fraction fuel weight fraction, fuel weight, empty weight and
22,257.35 0.6368 overall weight increase. But empty weight fraction
1
decreases by increasing range. It can be seen by Figure
2 24,057.40 0.6304 4 easily.
3 24,648.72 0.6284
24,730.67 0.6281 31000
4
Maximum takeoff weight
29000
5 24,733.32 0.6281 27000
25000
6 24,733.33 0.6281
(kg)
23000
21000
Table 10. Result of the weight estimation 19000
17000
Weights Unit (kg) 15000
24733 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Range (m)
15581
Empty weight
7914
Fuel weight Figure 4. Range trade analysis
170
Crew weight
1131
Payload
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Payload trade analysis Airfoil selection and airfoil design
Table 12. Payload trade analysis
parameters
Calculation of design lift coefficient
Bombs and Wp We Wf W0
missiles (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) The lift coefficient is a number that engineers use to
2*Gökdoğan+ 1250.5 16041 8196 25662 model all the complex dependencies of shape,
2*Bozdoğan+
3*L-Umtasş+
inclination, and some flow conditions on lift. This
2*Mk-82+ equation is simply a rearrangement of the lift equation
ammo where be solved for the lift coefficient in terms of the
1*Gökdoğan+ 1149 15841 8078 25294 other variables. The lift coefficient refers to the
2*Bozdoğan+ dynamic lift feature of two-dimensional foil section,
4*L-Umtasş+ with the reference area’s place taken by the foil chord.
2*Mk-82+
ammo Design lift coefficient is selected for the cruise
2*Gökdoğan+ 1131 15581 7914 24733 condition with level flight assumption. It can be seen
1*Bozdoğan+ from the mission profile that for the cruise condition
4*L-Umtasş+ 8000 m with the assumption of a level flight and the
2*Mk-82+ velocity at that cruise is 252.72 m/s according to study
ammo
2 which is gotten from the average of seven
2*Gökdoğan+ 1061 15198 7693 24117
1*Bozdoğan+ competitors’ aircraft of maximum range and
4*L-Umtasş+ maximum endurance. The data is given below
2*Mk-82+ according to this altitude which is at 8000 meters.
ammo
The formula to find the value of lift coefficient is given
In the same way, there is a similar relationship below, and since it is in steady level flight or cruise
between payload trade and gross weight as range condition the weight and lift will be the equal and can
trade. The different values of payload can be observed be written as below;
with different W0 values, which again creates new 𝑊=𝐿 (46)
possibilities like for example the possible different 1
configurations for the aircraft models at the specified 𝑊 = × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞2 × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝑙 (47)
2
attributes.
By rearranging the formula, there will be a wing
Table 12 means that by increasing weight of the
loading W/S which will be found according to the data
payload, empty weight, fuel weight, fuel weight
from seven competitors' aircraft. The mean wing
fraction and take-off weight increase. However, empty
loading is 391.68 kg/m2 which equals to 3842.42 N/m2
fraction decreases by increasing payload. That is,
𝑊 1
overall weight increase is much more than empty = × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞2 × 𝐶𝑙 (48)
𝑆 2
weight increase.
𝐶𝑙 = 0.23 (49)
26000 Since the ideal lift coefficient of the airfoil between
25500
0.2 and 0.3 from the experimental data, then the lift
coefficient will be chosen 0.2 or 0.3.
25000
Drag coefficient
(kg)
24500
Lift coefficient and drag coefficient are the same
24000 which is dimensionless quantity. Drag coefficient is
1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 used to quantify the drag or resistance of an object in
Payload (kg) a fluid movement, such as air and water. Lower drag
coefficient indicates the object will have less
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag and it is always
Figure 5. Payload trade analysis associated with a surface area. The drag coefficient of
a complete structure such as an aircraft also includes
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
the effect of interference drag. The formula is given maintain laminar flow over a large part of the chord,
below.
1
𝐷 = × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞2 × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝑑 (50)
2
Pitching moment coefficient

In aerodynamics, pitching moment on airfoil is the
moment which is produced by aerodynamics force on
the airfoil if that aerodynamic force is applied, not at
the center of pressure, but at the aerodynamic center.
The pitching moment on the wing of an airplane is part
of the total moment that must be balanced using the
lift on the horizontal stabilizer. The coefficients used Figure 6. Thickness ratio historical trend[29]
for moment are like coefficients of lift, drag, and
thrust, and are likewise dimensionless; however, these thus they maintain a lower Cd,min compared with four-
must include a characteristic length, in addition to the and five-digit airfoils. The application in this study is
area; the span is used for rolling or yawing moment, for supersonic jets. There are several advantages and
and the chord is used for pitching moment 100%. disadvantages which depends on the application. One
1 of the advantages is optimized for high speed and the
𝑀 = 2 × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞2 × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝑚 (51) one of the disadvantages is very susceptible to
Thickness ratio and airfoil types roughness.
Effect of Reynolds Numbers on Cl,max
From the average of seven competitors’ aircraft of
(incompressible)
maximum Mach number is 1.23, and from the
requirement that given is 1.4 Mach number. From the The most effective variables in the airfoil designs are
figure below, the thickness ratio will be selected Cl, Cl and Cm that relate with each other and influence
according to Mach number, which yields 0.05 for 1.23 the quantities like on the maximum velocity. In the
Mach number. following table Cl values of the found airfoils with
𝑡
respect to the different Reynold numbers. The highest
𝑐
= 0.05 (52) evaluated Cl value is 1.295 and belongs to the airfoil
NACA 63A-305 at 14,844,124 Re. It can be seen that
Finally, by using design lift coefficient and thickness
while Re increases, Cl will be greater too. The lowest
ratio, the four 6-digit type of supercritical airfoils are
values at different Reynold numbers are NACA 64-
selected as shown below;
208 with 0.938 at 7,200,227 Re, NACA 64A-204 with
• NACA 64-206 1.149 at 14,400,454, and NACA 64A-204 with 1.158
• NACA 64-208 with 14,844,124 Re.
• NACA 64A-204
Table 13. Cl values at different Reynolds Numbers
• NACA 63A-305
Airfoil Cl,max
The following is the 6-digit airfoil nomenclature (e.g. Re = Re = Re
NACA 64A-305); 7,200,227 14,400,454 =14,844,124
6 – series designator NACA 0.94 1.178 1.193
64-206
4 – maximum pressure location, 0.4c NACA 0.938 1.178 1.192
64-208
A – maximum drag at design lift coefficient NACA 0.981 1.149 1.158
64A-204
3 – design lift coefficient
NACA 1.081 1.283 1.295
05 – the maximum thickness, 0.05c 63A-305
In contrast, newly designed faster aircraft require more The maximum speed quantity plays an important role
efficient airfoil sections. Several series of airfoils were on the certification and operation of an aircraft in the
designed at that time, but the 6-series were found to be marketing industry. High speed performance makes an
the best. The 6-series airfoils were designed to aircraft the favorite one for the selection. Because of
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
the significance of the speed, most of the determined It can be seen from the table above that NACA 63A-
parameters are calculated to get the best performance 305 shows the best result with higher range flight
in a direct or indirect way. Lift value has a direct ability. Second is NACA 64-206 airfoil which is tight
relation with the speed. For reaching a higher lift with NACA 63A-305. The best two airfoils which
performance the speed is needed to be increased which almost have equal value of range at Re = 14,400,454.
proves that the both quantities have a proportional For the rest of NACA, the rank of the value is different
connection. Maximum velocity gets higher when Cd is according to Reynold number, which the rank is not
at minimum. This relation proves the non-proportional linear.
relation between maximum speed and minimum drag
Effect of Cl,max on stall speed
coefficient.
Stall speed is defined as the minimum steady flight
Effect of (Cl/Cd)max on maximum range
speed at which the airplane is controllable and crucial
(incompressible)
specification for an aircraft. Unlike VTOL aircraft or
By using Breguet Range formula which is given in helicopters which can hover and do not need a
Sadraey’s book, the maximum range can be horizontal speed in order to be airborne, the fixed wing
determined by the effect of (Cl / Cd)max. The formula aircraft which is going to be designed needs forward
can be written as; speed to fly. By looking to lift equation (eqn.47) it can
𝑉(𝐿⁄ ) be clearly seen that as the speed of the aircraft
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿 𝑊2
𝑅= × ( )𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑙𝑛( ) (53) decreases, the aircraft lift coefficient must increase to
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊3
stay airborne and we can decrease that speed value till
Rewriting equation with (Cl / Cd)max instead of a point after that the aircraft stalls and the
(L/D)max; corresponding speed is the stall speed. Therefore, the
𝑉(𝐿⁄ ) 𝐶𝑙 𝑊2 minimum speed an aircraft can fly is the stall speed
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × ( )𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑙𝑛( ) (54)
𝐶 𝐶𝑑 𝑊3 (Vs).
All corresponding variables for 𝑉(𝐿⁄ , c, and 1
𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊 = 𝐿 = × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞2 × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝑙 (56)
2
W2/W3 are found in previous study. Put all this
variables values into the equation yield; As the stall speed required from the aircraft going to
be designed is smaller than the competitor aircraft, a
252.72 𝐶𝑙
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.866 × (0.8÷3600) × (𝐶𝑑) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 × high aircraft lift coefficient is needed for this case. It
1
𝑙𝑛(0.918865733287097) (55) is recommended to select a both high and reasonable
value for the maximum lift coefficient.
However, in this study it is considered that the airfoil Table 15. Stall speed performance on Cl,max
effect only on the range not on the wing. Induced drag
is ignored therefore (𝐶𝑙/𝐶𝑑)max is bigger. This Airfoil Stall Speed (m/s)
Re= Re= Re=
assumption should be kept in mind looking at the
7,200,227 14,400,454 14,844,124
Table 13. NACA 40.83 36.47 36.24
Below, calculated range data is located for the various 64-206
airfoil types. NACA 40.88 36.47 36.26
64-208
Table 14. Airfoil performance influence on maximum NACA 39.97 36.93 36.79
range 64A-204
NACA 38.06 34.95 34.79
Airfoil Range (km) 63A-305
Re= Re= Re=
7,200,227 14,400,454 14,844,124 The table above can be concluded that NACA 63A-
NACA 9118 10349 10349 305 shows good performance with the smallest stall
64-206 speed in each Reynold numbers.
NACA 8040 10228 10416
64-208 Analysis of the graph (compressible)
NACA 8611 9,229 9229 Selection of an airfoil for a wing begins with the clear
64A-204
statement of the flight requirements. For instance,
NACA 9671 10564 10564
63A-305 subsonic flight design requirements are very much
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
different from supersonic flight design objectives. In
general, the following are the criteria to select an NACA64-208 NACA64-206
airfoil for a wing with a collection of design NACA63A-305 NACA64A-204
requirements; [30]
2
1. The airfoil with the highest maximum lift 1.5
Lift Coefficient
coefficient (Clmax ).
2. The airfoil with the proper ideal or design lift 1
coefficient (Cld or Cli ). 0.5
3. The airfoil with the lowest minimum drag
coefficient (Cdmin ). 0
4. The airfoil with the highest lift-to-drag ratio -10 -0.5 0 10 20 30
((Cl/Cd)max). AoA (degree)
5. The airfoil with the highest lift-to-drag ratio
((Cl/Cd)max). Figure 7. AoA - lift coefficient
6. The airfoil with the highest lift curve slope
(Clαmax).
7. The airfoil with the lowest (closest to zero; NACA64-206 NACA64-208
negative or positive) pitching moment
Coefficient. (Cm). NACA63A-305 NACA64A-204
8. The proper stall quality in the stall region (the 0.2
variation must be gentle, not sharp). Drag Coefficient
0.15
9. The airfoil must be structurally reinforceable. The
airfoil should not be so thin that spars cannot be 0.1
placed inside.
0.05
10. The airfoil must be such that the cross-section is
manufacturable. 0
11. The cost requirements must be considered. -10 0 10 20 30
12. Other design requirements. AoA (degree)
According to the data in compressible regime
(subsonic), NACA63A305 is selected as the airfoil for Figure 8. AoA - drag coefficient
the aircraft, as it is the one that standing out from the
other airfoils and fulfill the criteria from the airfoil
selection’s requirement. NACA64-206 NACA64-208
Table 16. Type of airfoil with different aerodynamic NACA63A-305 NACA64A-204
parameter
0
Moment Coefficient
Airfoil Cl,max Cd,min Cm,max (L/D) Mcrit -10 0 10 20 30

-0.02
max
-0.04
NACA 1.395 0.004 -0.073 8.72 0.81
63A305 5 7 -0.06
NACA 1.136 0.004 -0.057 6.31 0.85
64A204 3 0 -0.08
AoA (degree)
NACA 1.46 0.004 -0.059 11.23 0.80
64208 5 3 Figure 9. Drag coefficient - lift coefficient
NACA 1.338 0.006 -0.058 8.92 0.82
64206 2
The graph for 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 , 𝐶𝑚 will be given below with
respect to angle of attack (AoA) and 𝐶𝑙 with respect
with 𝐶𝑑 .
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
NACA64-206 NACA64-208 Twin 9.2

turboprop
NACA63A-305 NACA64A-204
2 Flying boat 8.0
1.5 𝑐
Equivalent aspect ratio = 𝑎𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
Lift Coefficient
1
Jet aircraft a C
0.5
Jet trainer 4.737 -0.979
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 Jet fighter 5.416 -0.622
-0.5
Drag Coefficient (dogfighter)
Jet fighter 4.110 -0.622

Figure 10. AoA - moment coefficient (other)
Aspect ratio
Military 5.570 -1.075
In aviation, aspect ratio is the ratio of span to mean cargo/bomber
chord of the wing. It is equal to the square of the wing
wingspan divided by the area of the wing. Long and Jet transport 7.50 0
narrow wing has high aspect ratio otherwise wide
wing has low aspect ratio. Aspect ratio can be used to By taking the value of maximum Mach number is
estimate the aerodynamic efficiency because the 1.23 and considering the jet fighter (dogfighter) as
increasing of lift to drag ratio with aspect ratio. reference aircraft. Therefore,
Although high aspect ratio has aerodynamic 𝑐
𝐴𝑅 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 (56)
advantages with its lift to drag ratio, a low wing ratio
is desirable because it has lower bending stress, higher 𝐴𝑅 = 5.416 × 1.23−0.622 (57)
roll angular acceleration, and less parasitic drag. Low 𝐴𝑅 = 4.76 (58)
aspect ratio wings are usually applied on fighter
aircraft due to the advantages in mission Since the value is too high for jet fighter, the value
performances. that chosen is the average value of aspect ratio in
Table 17. Equivalent aspect ratio for several types of
study 1, the value is 3.12.
aircraft [31] Wing sweep
Propeller Equivalent aspect ratio A sweep wing or wing swept is a wing that has angles
aircraft either backward or forward from its root rather than in
straight direction. Wing sweep is used to reduce the
Homebuilt 6.0 unfavorable effect of transonic and supersonic flow,
usually a jet fighter is designed with sweep wing to fly
General 7.6 at these speeds. At supersonic speed the loss of lift can
aviation-single be reduced by sweeping the wing leading edge of the
engine Mach cone angle [arcsine(1/M)]. The characteristic of
sweep angle is normally considered by drawing a line
General 7.8 from root to tip, typical angles vary for different kind
aviation-twin of aircraft for fighter the angles is up to 45 degrees or
engine more.
The figure shows historical trend line for wing leading
Agricultural 7.5
aircraft edge with respect to the Mach number, by taking the
maximum Mach number is 1.23 the desirable design
for leading edge sweep is found as 45 degrees, when a
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
diamond-shape wing planform is chosen, ∧𝑐/4 ≅ 22.5
degrees.
Figure 12. Quarter chord sweep-degrees vs. taper ratio[33]

Figure 11. Maximum Mach Number vs. leading
edge sweep-degrees [32] Wing twist
Taper ratio Wing twist is used to prevent tip stall and revise the
lift distribution to approximate an elliptical one.
Wing taper ratio is the ratio between the tip chord and
Mostly the wing twist vary from 0 degrees to 5
the centerline root chord. A tapered wing is efficient
degrees. Geometric of wing twist is the actual change
in terms of induced drag. The smaller the taper ratio,
in airfoil angle of incidence measured with respect to
the wing structure became lighter, if taper ratio us
the root airfoil. A negative-angle-of-attack tip airfoil
decreasing more lift is produced. Low taper ratio wing
of wing is said to have “washout”. This kind of wing
has undesirable stall characteristic, turbulent flow
will tend to stall at the root before the tip, be able to
trailing at the root. An elliptical wing planform is
improve control during stall and tends to reduce wing
difficult and expensive to build, the easiest wing to
rock. A wing with no geometric twist can have
produce is the untampered or λ=1. However, the
aerodynamic twist if the root airfoil is symmetric but
untapered wing has constant chord length across the
the tip of airfoil is highly chambered.
span, causing the wing generates more of its lift
toward the tip than is ideal due to “loads up” of the tip. Optimizing the lift distribution by twisting the wing
When a rectangular wing is tapered, the tip became will be rational only for one geometric angle of attack.
shorter, creating the undesired effect of the constant- The more twist is required to produce good lift
chord rectangular wing. A wing swept tends distract distribution at the design lift coefficient, the worse
the air towards the tips, and creating more lift than the wing will have other lift coefficient, therefore large
equivalent unswept wing, to increase lift contribution amount of twist or more than 5 degrees should be
it is needed to increase the value of taper. avoided.
Most low sweep wings have a taper ratio of about 0.4 It is very difficult to optimize twist for arbitrary wing
– 0.5, and most swept wings have a taper ratio of platform. For design purpose, historical data is needed.
around 0.2 – 0.3. Figure demonstrates historical trend Typically, the twist angle that used is 3 degrees.
between taper ratio and quarter chord sweep values. Thrust to weight ratio
From ∧𝑐/4 ≅ 22.5° is already calculated. For ∧𝑐/4 ≅
22. ° graphs give 𝜆 = 0.2. The two most important performance parameter in
affecting the aircraft performance are the thrust to
weight ratio T/W and wing loading estimation W/S, it
allows the design to get the various requirement to
begin the design layout, the calculation of the wing
loading has the big effect on size of the aircraft take –
off gross, to improve performance we need to reduce
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
the wing loading and large wing will increase take-off Wing loading
gross weight.
Being the loaded weight of the aircraft divided by the
Historical trend area of the wing of the aircraft that is not exposed.
A first estimation of T/W can be obtained by using With the thrust to weight ratio the wing loading term
Raymer’s book from historical trend. usually refers to the take-off wing loading. This may
also refer to other conditions. The wing loading has
Table 18. Historical trend of Thrust to Weight ratio[34] effect on the climb rate, stall speed, take-off and
𝑇⁄ = 𝑎𝑀𝑐 a c landing distance together with the turning
𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Jet trainer 0.448 0.728 performances. The wing loading acts as a determinant
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594 for the design lift coefficient and influences the drag
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141 through its effect upon the wetted area and wing span.
Military cargo/bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363
Wing loading has an effect that is strong on the sized
aircraft’s take of weight. If the wing loading is
The below ratio is obtained from historical trend for increased the wing tends to be smaller and if
thrust to weight ratio vs. maximum Mach number can increased it tends to be nigger, these have effects on
be used: the wing and upon the drag these wings may be
𝑇 𝑐 reacted upon. The leverage impact of the sizing
𝑊0
= 𝑎 × 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 (59) equation will require a more proportional weight
increase when factors such as empty weight and drag
𝑇
𝑊0
= 0.648 × 1.230.594 = 0.73 (60) are reduced.
𝑇 Wing loading and thrust to weight ratio must be

𝑊0
= 0.648 × 1.40.594 = 0.79 (61) optimized together. Such optimizing methods employ
weight, aerodynamic and propulsion data obtained
Competitor data
from the initial design layout.
From competitor data obtained before, average T/W
ratio is found as follows: Calculation of the wing loadings
Table 19. Thrust to Weight ration of seven Stall speed wing loadings
competitors’ aircraft Stall speed is the main in flying aircraft safely and we
Competitor Aircraft Typical Installed T/W can find stall speed of an aircraft by determine the
Dassault Mirage 2000B 0.7 maximum lift coefficient and the wing loading, in
KAI T-50 Golden Eagle 0.92 level flight lift equals and stall speed aircraft at the
Chengdu J-10S 1.15 maximum lift coefficient.
Chengdu / PAC JF-17B 0.82 Using the equation 5.6 from Raymer’s book. The wing
F-16D Block 52 1.095 loading of the stall speed can be determined;
JAS 39F Gripen 0.97
𝑊 1 2
Mitsubishi F-2 series B 0.89 = 2 𝜌𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 (65)
𝑆
𝑘𝑔
By using table 19, average thrust-to-weight ratio is 𝜌= 1.225 𝑚3 at see level (66)
determined as:
𝑇 Vstall = 73.73 m/s, that value was found by taking
= 0.935 (62) average of the competitor aircraft. Since Vstall values
𝑊0
of two aircraft were not provided, average was taken
From table 5.3, for thrust to weight ratio based upon
maximum Mach number; by using the remaining five competitor aircraft data.
𝑇 𝐶 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.395 (67)
𝑊0
= 𝑎𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 (63)
Substituting all these values into equation (65), wing
Where a = 0.648 and C = 0.594 for jet trainer, in this 𝑊
case, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 is considered 1.23 from the given loading is found as 𝑆 = 4644.82 N/m2 (68)
requirements. For getting accurate historical estimation of the
𝑇 maximum lift, it is important to resort the test result
𝑊0
= 0.648 𝑥 1.230.594 = 0.732 (64)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
historical data, the equation 65 said that lift equals 𝑊
(𝑆) = 156,2377 kg/𝑚2 (80)
weight in level flight and stall speed, the aircraft is at 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
maximum lift coefficient. 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑊𝑜 − 0.5𝑊𝑓 (81)

Take off distance Wing Loadings
𝑊𝑜 = 24733 𝑘𝑔 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 2) (82)
For the wing loading and thrust to weight ratio provide
to take off distance, from figure 5.4 of Raymer’s book, 𝑊𝑓 = 7914 𝑘𝑔 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 2) (83)
he used to find the take-off parameter (TOP) for
𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 20776 𝑘𝑔 (84)
distance of 1500 ft, the equation for assume that thrust
to weight ratio has been selected and used to find the 𝑊𝑜 𝑊
𝑆
= (𝑆) × W0/Wlanding (85)
requirement wing loading; 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑊𝑜 𝑇
𝑆
= (𝑇𝑂𝑃)𝜎𝐶𝑙𝑇0 𝑊 (69) By putting all these values, it yields:
𝑊𝑜
(𝑇𝑂𝑃) = 91 (70) 𝑆
= 186.08 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 (86)
𝜎 (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) = 1 (71) Cruise Wing Loadings
𝐶𝑙𝑇0 = 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 /1.21 = 1.15 (72) The wing loading selected to provide a high L/D at the
𝑇
cruise condition to maximize range during cruise, the
𝑊0
= 0.935 (73) lift equals the weight so the lift coefficient equals the
wing loading divided by the dynamic pressure, Jet
Substituting all these values into equation (69), wing aircraft flying at cruise climb will get maximum range
loading is found as by flying at wing loading and the parasite drag is the
𝑊𝑜 three times the induced drag from Raymer’s book
= 97.8 lb/ft2 or 473.6 kg/m2 (74)
𝑆 gives a formula for wing loading selection for range
Landing distance Wing Loadings optimization of jet aircraft here is the equation;
𝑊
Wing loading affects the approach speed and landing = √𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷 0 /3 (87)
𝑆
distance is mainly determined by wing loading, 1.2 for
military aircraft, civil aircraft is 1.3. For certain At 8000 m, following properties obtained standard
multiple of stall speeds. To move on speed, we need atmosphere conditions:
to determine the touchdown speed, define the kinetic 𝜌∞ = 0.5258 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (88)
energy to dissipate to bring aircraft to a half, so the Speed of Sound a = 308.1 m/s (89)
kinetic energy stopping distance varies as a square of
touchdown speed.
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 µ = 1.527 × 10 − 5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
To get good approximation of the landing distance and (90)
provide estimate the maximum landing wing loading,
At cruise condition, V∞ is calculated for M = 0.8
from Raymer’s book, first term represents the ground
roll to absorb the kinetic energy at touch down speed,
the term (𝑆𝑎 ) represent obstacle clearance, here is the V∞ = M × a
equation; = 0.8 × 308.1 = 246.48 m/s (91)
𝑊 1 1
𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 80 ( ) ( ) (75) 𝐾 = π×AR×e (92)
𝑆 𝜎𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where Oswald span efficiency factor is based on 2
𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1870,08 ft (taken from the average of the wing configuration equation for swept wing aircraft
competitor-aircraft) (76) the following equation chosen:
𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.395 (77) e = 4.61 × (1 − 0.045 × (AR)0.68) ×
(cos⋀LE)0.15 − 3.1 (93)
𝜎=1 (78)
𝑊 1
1870,08 = 80 ( 𝑆 ) (1 x 1.395) (79)
𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Where aspect ratio (AR) and swept angle (⋀𝐿𝐸) are
known from study 3 as 2.12 and 45°
𝑒 = 4.61 × (1 − 0.045 × (2.12)0.68) ×
(𝑐𝑜𝑠45°)0.15 − 3.1 = 0.95 (94)
𝐾 = 0.158 (95)
In subsonic cruise condition, will have parasite drag
that is mostly skin-friction drag for different classes of
27 aircraft. Therefore, in initial subsonic analysis
equivalent skin friction coefficient (𝐶𝑓𝑒) is used for
estimating the 𝐶𝐷0. 𝐶𝐷0 formula given as follows:
𝐶𝐷 0 = Cfe × Swet /Sref (96)
Table 20. Equivalent skin friction coefficient[35]
𝐶𝐷 0 = Cfe × Swet /Sref 𝐶𝑓,𝑒 - subsonic Figure 13. Maximum lift to drag ratio trends [36]
Bomber and civil 0.0030
transport Instantaneous Turn Ratio Wing Loadings
Military cargo 0.0035 Aircraft that designed for air to air dog fighting must
Air force fighter 0.0035 be capable of high turn ratio, if the aircraft turns at
Navy fighter 0.0040 quicker rate then the drag becomes greater than the
Clean supersonic clean 0.0025 available thrust, so the aircraft start to slow down or
aircraft lose altitude, the instantaneous that an aircraft can
Light aircraft-single 0.0055 achieve without losing altitude or slowing down.
engine The relation given by Raymer’s book in formula 5.20,
Light aircraft-twin engine 0.0045 can be used to find instantaneous turn rate wing
Prop seaplane 0.0065 loading.
Jet seaplane 0.0040
𝑊 𝑞𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
From figure 2 𝐶𝑓𝑒 is determined as 0.0035 for air 𝑆
= 𝑛
(100)
force fighter. 𝐶𝑓𝑒=0.0035 Suppose the requirements are given as 𝜑̇>20° at
Figure 27 shows the relation between (L/D) max 8000m. Density at 8000m is 0.5258 kg/m3
versus wetted aspect ratio. From study 2, (L/D) max is In instantaneous turn pilots try to get to corner speed
known for cruise condition as 18. Therefore, wetted as soon as possible for providing best turn. The
aspect ratio is estimated as 3. modern fighter of corner speed about 350 knots which
Swet is equal to 180 𝑚/𝑠
Sref
=3 (97)
𝑉∞ = 180 𝑚/𝑠 (101)
Put all these values into eqn. 53, it yields:
Assume that only leading edge flaps are deployed, so
𝐶𝐷 0 = 0.0105 (98) assume 𝐶l,max=1.395 (102)
Therefore, wing loading for cruise segment calculated; 𝜑 > 20° /𝑠 = 0,349066 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 (103)
Load factor is defined as 8.5
𝑊 1 0.0105
( ) = × 0.5258 × 246.48 × √ 𝑊 1
𝑆 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 3 × 0.158 ( ) = × 0.59 × 1802
𝑆 𝑖𝑛𝑠 2
𝑁
= 2377.17 × 1.395/(8.5) (104)
𝑚2
𝑊 N
= 242.32 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (99) (𝑆) = 1568.63 m2 = 159.90 kg/𝑚2 (105)
𝑖𝑛𝑠
From study before, the fuel weight and payload weight

as taken;
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑊𝑓 = 7914 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 1/2𝑊𝑓 = 3957 𝑘𝑔 (106)
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1131 𝑘𝑔 (107)
It is needed to find out the payload weight except the
air to air mission payload (2 Gukdogan and 1
buzdogan) which yields;
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑛𝑒𝑤) = 1131 − (2 × 85 + 157)
= 804 (108)
1
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑊0 − 2 × 𝑊𝑓 − 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑟 (109)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 29594.06 − (3957 + 804)

= 19972 𝑘𝑔 (110)
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊0
( 𝑆0 )𝑖𝑛𝑠 = ( 𝑆 )𝑖𝑛𝑠 × 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠
(111) Figure 14. Uninstalled thrust vs. Mach number [37]
𝑊0 𝑘𝑔 24733 kg 1
( ) = 159.90 2 × 𝐾 = π×AR×e (120)
𝑆 𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑚 19972 𝑘𝑔
= 198.02 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 (112) For maneuvering flight, then value of e can be
determined as below;
Sustained Turn Rate Wing Loadings
𝑒 = 0.7 × 𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 (121)
Sustained turn rate is important for success in combat,
if two aircraft pass each other in different direction, it 𝑒 = 0.7 × 0.95 = 0.665 (122)
will take them about 10 seconds to complete 180-degs 1 1
𝐾 = π×AR×e = 𝜋×3.12×0.665 = 0.153 (123)
turns back toward the other, the aircraft will not be
able to maintain speed while turn the maximum 𝐶𝐷 0 = 0.0105 (124)
instantaneous ratio, it can be fatal if one of the aircraft At 10000 m
slow down below corner speed during this time it will
kg 𝑚
at a turn rate disadvantages. 𝜌∞ = 0.4135 𝑚3
, 𝑎∞ = 299.463 𝑠2 (125)
𝑇⁄ + √(𝑇⁄ )2 −4 𝑛2 𝐶 𝐾 Then the velocity can be found as:
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝐷0
= 2 𝐾 (113) 𝑚
𝑆 2 𝑛 ⁄𝑞∞ 𝑉∞ = 0.9 × 299.463 𝑠2 = 269.52 𝑚/𝑠 2 (126)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑊0
(𝑊)𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 = (𝑊)𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 × 𝑇 10000𝑚 × 𝑊 (114) 1 1
𝑞∞ = 2 × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞2 = 2 × 0.4135
kg
× (269.52 𝑚/
𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑚3
2 2 𝑘𝑔
Sustained turn should be performed n = 6 at M = 0.9 𝑠 ) = 15018.53 𝑚𝑠4 (127)
at 10000 m.
Then, finally substituted all these values into eqn. 113:
𝑇10000𝑚 = 14000 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑡 𝑀 = 0.9 (115) 𝑤
( 𝑆 )𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 867.91 𝑁/𝑚2 (126)
𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 34000 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑡 𝑀 = 0.9 (116)
Then editing to wing loading to take off gross weight;
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊0 − (𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑊0 𝑊 𝑊0
+0.5 × 𝑊𝑓 ) (117) ( ) =( ) ×
𝑆 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑆 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑁 24733 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 24733 kg − (1131 kg − 327 kg + 0.5 × = 867.91 𝑚2 × 19972 𝑘𝑔
7914 kg) = 19972 kg (118)
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
Then thrust to weight in sustained can be obtained as; = 1074.82 𝑚2 = 110 𝑚2
(127)
𝑇 14000 𝑙𝑏 24733 𝑘𝑔
( ) = 0.935 × ×
𝑊 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 34000 𝑙𝑏 19972 𝑘𝑔
= 0.47 (119)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Wing Loading Selection yields 𝑊𝑓 = 7914 𝑘𝑔. Then, the fuel volume can be
Table 21. Wing loading result for each flight segments found as;
𝑊𝑓 7914 𝑘𝑔
Flight segment Wing loading (kg/m2) ∀𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓
= 802.84 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 9.85 𝑚3 ≅ 10𝑚3 (132)
Stall 473.48
Take off 473.6 Wing sizing and planform shape
Landing 186.08
Producing the aerodynamic force lift to maintain the
Cruise 253.93
aircraft in the air space is the main function of the wing
Instantaneous turn 198.02
itself and it is an important part of the aircraft in
Sustained turn 110
providing the aircraft lateral stability which is of
As a result, wing loading of each flight segments will fundamental significance to the flight safety.
be compared, and it can be shown that for the stall and Unneeded aerodynamic produces an aerodynamic
take off values are too high and kind of unrealistic drag force and an aerodynamic pitching moment.
values. Therefore, wing loading of the aircraft is
selected for cruise segment which is 253.93 kg/m2. Planform area can be determined by using wing
loading that already chosen from previous study and
Compatibility Check of T/W in Takeoff Distance the formula will be given as below;
By rearranging eqn. 69, take off parameters is given 𝑊0 24733 𝑘𝑔
𝑆= = = 97.4 𝑚2 (133)
as; (𝑊0 /𝑆) 253.93 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑇 𝑊⁄
𝑆 52 lb/𝑓𝑡2 Since the value of the planform area is too high and
𝑊
= 𝜎×𝐶 = 1×1.15×91 = 0.49 (128) little unrealistic, the planform area will be decreased
𝑙𝑇 ×𝑇𝑂𝑃
0
30 m2, and it is 67.4 m2. Then, W0/S becomes 367
Since this value is low, that thrust to weight will be kg/m3.
chosen from the previous one, 0.935.
𝑆𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 67.4 𝑚2 (134)
Compatibility Check of T/W in Sustained Turn
(𝑊0 /𝑆)𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 367 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 (135)
Let’s calculate wing loading in sustained turn:
Since the planform area is high, unfortunately the
𝑤 𝑊0 𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑔 19972 𝑘𝑔 wing size will not be increased since the wing is the
( ) =( )× = 253.93 2 ×
𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑆 𝑊0 𝑚 24733 𝑘𝑔 heaviest part of an aircraft and also since more weight
= 205.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 (129) is not desired, sizing will be done accordingly.
Then T/W ratio of it can be solved by the formula 𝜆 = 0.2 (136)

below; 𝐴𝑅 = 4.76 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) (137)
𝑇 𝑞∞ ×𝐶𝐶0 𝑊 𝑛2
(𝑊)𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊⁄ + ×𝐾×𝑞 (130) 𝐴𝑅 = 4.76 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) (138)
𝑆 𝑆 ∞
𝑘𝑔
By using the formula below, span can be determined.
𝑇 15018.53 ×0.0105
𝑚𝑠4
(𝑊)𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 205.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
+ 𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 = 𝑆
= 3.12 (139)
205.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 ×0.153×36
𝑘𝑔 = 0.84 (131)
15018.53
𝑚𝑠4 𝑏 = √𝐴𝑅 × 𝑆 = √3.12 × 97.4 = 17.43 𝑚 (140)
This value is smaller than the chosen one before, so Since planform area is changed, the new span than
the T/W ratio will be selected from the average seven becomes 14.5 m.
competitors’ aircraft.
𝑏𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 14.5 𝑚 (145)
Classification by configurations Since all the requirements to figure out tip chord and
Fuel volume calculation root chord are found, then tip and root chord can be
found as below;
Fuel volume is to be calculated for JP-8/JETA1 fuel
which have density, 𝜌 = 802.84 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and the fuel 2×𝑆 2 × 97.4
𝐶𝑟 = =
weight can be found from study case before, which 𝑏 × (1 + 𝜆) 17.43 × (1 + 0.2)
= 9.31 𝑚 (𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑) (150)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝐶𝑡 = 𝜆 × 𝐶𝑟 = 0.2 × 9.31 Fuselage length
= 1.862 𝑚 (𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑) (160) Fuselage length (Lf) and maximum diameter (Df) are
the 2 important basic parameters which must be
Due to planform area and span are changed, then root determined during the design period. Since the
chord and tip chord become; fuselage height is a changeable quantity from the front
𝐶𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 7.74 𝑚 (161) region to the end, the diameter will also be affected
directly, too.
𝐶𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 1.548 𝑚 (162)
The design of the required aircraft’s fuselage
After finding these values above, the mean according to the study should be started by estimating
aerodynamic chord can be determined as formula the main geometrical dimensions. The total fuselage
given below: length for designing, the data from historical trend are
used. These are based from takeoff gross weight and
2 (1 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 )
𝑐̅ = × 𝐶𝑟 × give good corrections to most existing aircraft.
3 (1 + 𝜆)
Table 22. Historical trend of length of fuselage[38]
2 (1+0.2+0.22 )
= × 9.31 ×
3 (1+0.2)
= 6.41 𝑚 (163) 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎𝑊0𝑐 a c
Sailplane-unpowered 0.86 0.48
Same thing happens also to the mean aerodynamic
Sailplane-powered 0.71 0.48
chord, then it yields:
Homebuilt-metal/wood 3.68 0.23
𝑐̅ = 5.332 𝑚 (164) Homebuilt-composite 3.50 0.23
General aviation-single 4.37 0.23
Mean aerodynamic chord may not be too high because
engine
it may affect the neutral point excessively, which is not General aviation-twin 0.86 0.42
desired. Show that the y-location of the aerodynamic engine
center of the wing’s position with respect to the root Agricultural aircraft 4.04 0.23
chord. Twin turboprop 0.37 0..51
𝑏 (1 + 2 × 𝜆) Flying boat 1.05 0.40
𝑦̅ = × Jet trainer 0.79 0.41
6 (1 + 𝜆)
Jet fighter 0.93 0.39
17.43 𝑚 (1+2×0.2)
= × = 3.39 ≅ 3.4 𝑚 (165) Military cargo/bomber 0.23 0.50
6 (1+0.2)
Jet transport 0.67 0.43
And the x-location of the aerodynamic center of the
From the table the formula that used with the variable
wing (measured from the leading edge of the root
for jet fighter a = 0.93 and C = 0.39
chord) is:
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑎𝑊0𝑐 (169)
𝑥𝑎𝑐 = 𝑦̅ × tan∧𝐿𝐸 + 0.25 × 𝑐̅ = 3.4 𝑚 × tan 45 +
0.25 × 6.41 𝑚 = 5.0025 𝑚 (166) 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.93 𝑥 247330.39 = 48.06 𝑓𝑡 (170)
Changing the mean aerodynamic chord, will change By converting the length from feet to meter the length
the position of aerodynamic center in x-y position: of aircraft is 14.64 m.
𝑦̅ = 2.82 𝑚 (167) Table 23. Length of fuselage of 7 competitors’ aircraft
𝑥𝑎𝑐 = 4.153 𝑚 (168) Airplane Model Length (m)

Mitsubishi F 2 series B 15.52
All of these values are changed due to the engine that KAI T-50 Golden Eagle 13.4
will be chosen. The engine that is chosen cannot carry Chengdu F-10B
the huge wing, also due to the span of the wing "Vanguard" 15.49
comparing to the length of the fuselage itself which JAS 39F Gripen 15.2
F-16 block D 15.06
makes unrealistic. On the wing, there will be 2
Chengdu (AVIC) / PAC
different airfoils in root and tip. On root, the airfoil JF-17B 14.93
will be taken from NACA 64-208 with thick airfoil Dassault Mirage 2000B 14.36
and on the tip NACA 63A-305 since it is good for Averages 14.85
supersonic flow with thin airfoil.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
The averages value of competitor aircraft from study bw×Svt 14.5×67.4
Svt = 0.07 × lht
= 0.07× 6.4
1 is 14.85 m
Svt=10.68 m2 (179)
It is a wise to increase the length by 10 % by the issue
of super cruise requirement, so the length become: Total tail area:
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 14.64 x 1.1 = 16.10 𝑚 (171) 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 𝑆ℎ𝑡 + 𝑆𝑣𝑡 = 22.46+10.68 = 33.14 m2 (180)
Fuselage fitness ratio is the ratio between the length of 𝑆𝑣𝑡
Γ𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1√𝑆ℎ𝑡 (181)
aircraft and the maximum diameter of fuselage, for
fixed internal volume the subsonic drag is minimized 10.68
by a fitness ratio of 3 and for supersonic it is at the Γ𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1√22.46 = 34.59° (182)
value of 14 while most of aircraft fall at these value
Horizontal projection area of tail:
from (raymer book p 110), therefore the fitness ratio
taken as 13:1, so the diameter of fuselage is 1.23 S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (Γ𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙) (183)
meter. S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 33.14 × cos (34.59°) (184)
Tail configuration S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 27.28 m2 (185)
Tails are little wings of which much of the discussion For finding tail span use tail aspect ratio and taper ratio
of the wings can be applied to. The wing is designed table from the below table (Raymer Table 4.3).
to carry routinely a substantial amount of lift while the
Table 24. Tail aspect ratio and taper ratio[39]
tail is designed to operate at a fraction of its lift
potential. tails are for the trim control and stability Horizontal tail Vertical tail
operations. trim is the balancing of moments of the AR 𝜆 AR 𝜆
aircraft by the moments of the tail. for the vertical tail, Fighter 3-4 0.2-0.4 0.6-1.4 0.2-0.4
the generation of the trim force is normally not needed Sail plane 6-10 0.3-0.5 1.5-2.0 0.4-0.6
due to the aircraft being left-right symmetric and not Others 3-5 0.3-0.6 1.3-2.0 0.3-0.6
creating any sort of unbalanced yawing moments. the T-tail - - 0.7-1.2 0.6-1.0
other function of the tail is control, the surface area Use a similar planform as the wing with slightly
that are needed to design the tails are always directly small AR:
proportional to the aircrafts wing area. for the initial
ARℎ𝑡= 3, λℎ𝑡= 0.2 (186)
layout, the historical approach is utilized in the
estimation of the tail size. the effectiveness of the tail Leading-edge swept angle of the horizontal tail is
in production of the moment about the center of the usually set to about 5 deg more than the wing swept
gravity (C.G) is proportional to the force produced by angle.
the tail and the moment arm of the tail.
So, the swept angle of the horizontal tail becomes
According to the fighter aircraft design in Raymer’s Λ𝐿𝐸= 50° (187)
lht 2 ARht=𝑏ht2 /𝑆ht2 (188)
= (172)
lf 5 3= 𝑏ht2 /22.46 (189)
For the fighter aircraft in this design lf = 16 m (173) bℎ𝑡 = 8.23 𝑚 (𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛) (190)
2
So, lht = 5×16 = 6.4 m (174) Root chord length of the tail:
(2)×(𝑆ℎ𝑡) (2)×(22.46)
Horizontal tail area: 𝑐𝑟,ℎ𝑡= = (191)
𝑏ℎ𝑡×(1+𝜆ℎ𝑡) (8.23)×(1+0.2)
lht×Sht
Vht = c̅×S
= 0.40 (Raymer, Table 6.4) (175) 𝑐𝑟,ℎ𝑡=4.5 𝑚 (192)
c̅w×Sw 5.332×67.4
Sht = 0.4× = 0.4× (176) Tip chord length of the tail:
lht 6.4
𝑐𝑡,ℎ𝑡=(𝜆ℎ𝑡)×(𝑐𝑟,ℎ𝑡)=(0.2)×( 4.19)=1.6 𝑚 (192)
Sht = 22.46 m2 (177)
Vertical tail area:
lvt × Svt
Vvt = c̅×S
= 0.07 (178)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Mean aerodynamic chord length of the horizontal and unload the cargo without hitting the wing. The
tail: aircraft structure is lighter due to the installation of the
𝑐̅ℎ𝑡= (2/3) × (𝑐𝑟ℎ𝑡) × (1+ 𝜆ℎ𝑡+𝜆ℎ𝑡2) / (1+𝜆ℎ𝑡) (193) strut, the rod can handle higher tensile stress. The high
2
wing will produce more lift and provides additional
𝑐̅ℎ𝑡= (2/3) × (4.5) × (1+0.2+0.2 ) / (1+0.2) (194) stability for rolling motion. The disadvantages are the
𝑐̅ℎ𝑡=3.1 𝑚 (195) aircraft tends to have more frontal are so the drag will
increase, the ground effect will be lower and affecting
Distance of mean aerodynamic chord from the root:
the wing pressure distribution.
𝑦̅ℎ𝑡= 2(𝑏ℎ𝑡/6) × (1+ 2𝜆ℎ𝑡) / (1+𝜆ℎ𝑡) (196)
The low wing configuration, the takeoff performance
𝑦̅ℎ𝑡= 2(8.23 / 6) × (1+ 2× (0.2)) / (1+0.2) (197) is better due to the ground effect and it close to the
𝑦̅ℎ𝑡=3.2 𝑚 (198) landing gear. The aircraft structure will be lighter
since no strut and lowering the drag. Since the aircraft
The projected vertical tail area can also be
has less lateral static stability, higher lateral control is
determined as:
achieved. In the other hand the wing will generate less
S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, 𝑣 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙×𝑠𝑖𝑛 (Γ𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙) (199) lift since the wing has two separate sections, with
S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, 𝑣 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= (33.14) ×(sin34.59°) (200) lower maximum lift coefficient the aircraft will have
higher stall speed. With lack of contribution to the
S𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙, 𝑣 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=18.81 m2 (201) dihedral effect, the aircraft is dynamically less stable.
Height of the vertical tail: In mid wing configuration, the aircraft structure is
h𝑣𝑡 = (𝑏ℎ𝑡 /2) × (𝑡𝑎𝑛(Γ𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙)) (202)
heavier because of reinforcing the wing root intersect
h𝑣𝑡 = (8.23 / 2) × (tan (34.59°)) =2.84 𝑚 (203) with the fuselage. The mid wing is aerodynamically
streamlined and has less interference drag because the
Mean aerodynamic chord length of the tail:
wing-body is reducing. Benefit in ground clearance,
2×𝑆𝑣𝑡 2×10.68
𝑐𝑟,𝑣𝑡= = =2.51 𝑚 (204) many fighter aircraft are designed in mid wing because
(𝜆+1)×ℎ𝑣𝑡 (2+1)×2.84
it allows bomb and missile to be carried under the
𝑐̅𝑣𝑡=(2/3)×𝑐𝑟,𝑣𝑡×(1+λ+λ2)/(1+λ) (205) wing. The mid wing configuration is superior for
𝑐̅𝑣𝑡=(2/3)×(2.51)×(1+0.2+0.22)/(1+0.2) (206) aerobatic maneuver ability.
Table 25. Wing configuration of competitors aircraft
𝑐̅𝑣𝑡=1.73 𝑚 (207)
Distance of mean aerodynamic chord from the root: Airplane Model Wing configuration
𝑦̅𝑣𝑡=2× (h𝑣𝑡 /6) × (1+ 2𝜆𝑣𝑡) / (1+𝜆𝑣𝑡) (208)
Mitsubishi F 2 series B Mid-wing
𝑦̅𝑣𝑡=2× (2.84 /6) × (1+ 2(0.2)) / (1+0.2) (209)
KAI T-50 Golden Eagle Mid-wing
𝑦̅𝑣𝑡=1.1 𝑚 (210)
Then for airfoil, we can choose a biconvex airfoil Chengdu F-10B "Vanguard" Mid-wing
with 6% 64A-006 thickness.
JAS 39F Gripen Mid-wing
Wing location
The wing vertical location on the fuselage is generally F-16 block D Mid-wing
set by environment in where aircraft will operate. The
wing parameter will influence the design of aircraft. It Chengdu (AVIC) / PAC JF-
depends on what type of aircraft, for all high-speed 17B Mid-wing
commercial transport aircraft are of low wing design,
Dassault Mirage 2000B Mid wing
military transport is high wing design because the
similarity if their mission profiles and payload Airplane Model Wing configuration
weights. Each wing configuration has their advantages
and disadvantages.
For high wing configuration it simplifies the loading
of fuselage to the ground, so it will be very easy to load
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 26. Approximation empty weight buildup[40]
Item Fighters Transports and General Multiplierft Approximation location
bombers aviation
Wing 9.0 10.0 2.5 Sexposed planform ft2 40% MAC
Horizontal tail 4.0 5.5 2.0 Sexposed planform ft2 40% MAC
Vertical tail 5.3 5.5 2.2 Sexposed planform ft2 40-50% length
Fuselage 4.8 5.0 1.4 Swetted area ft2 -
Landing gearb .033 .045 .057 TOGW (lb) -
.045 Navy
Installed 1.3 1.3 1.4 Engine weight -
engine (lb)
“All else .17 .17 .10 TOGW (lb) 40-50% length
empty”
a
Results are in pounds
b
15% no nose gear; 85% to main gear
and for the chosen competitor aircraft is military
The chosen wing configuration is mid-wing
aircraft, the angle is takes as approximately 0 degree.
configuration because the mid wing-wing has the
In this design, the wing incidence is 3 degrees.
lowest drag of the three configurations, since the
aircraft flying at supersonic region the less drag is Wing dihedral
more desirable. many fighter aircraft are mid-wing due
Wing dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to
to the support of this configuration in aircraft mission
horizontal line in front view of aircraft. The rolling
performance, the competitor aircraft from study 1 use
moment by dihedral effect is caused by a sideslip
the mid-wing configuration, it is a wise choice to
introduced by the bank angle that create aircraft slides
respect the criteria and historical trend.
toward the lowering wing which increases the angle of
The longitudinal wing configuration, location of mean attack. Positive dihedral provides a strong roll
aerodynamic center of the wing is close to the center stiffness. The resulting rolling moment is proportional
gravity of the aircraft and the neutral point must be to the dihedral angle. Wing sweep also produce rolling
behind the center of gravity. By estimating the weight moment because of sideslip, 10 degrees of sweep
of the wing as function geometry in g-limit, the wing provides about 1 degree of effective dihedral. For
aerodynamic is at 25 percent of mean aerodynamic forward swept wing, it produces negative dihedral
chord calculated from the initial point of leading edge. effect.
From the historical trend in the figure it shows that the The position of the wing on the fuselage has an effect
approximate location of wing is at the 40 percent of on the effective dihedral, high wing creates the
the length of aircraft. greatest effect. The fuselage in sideslip pushes the air
over the top and air being pushed pushes up on the
Wing incidence
forward wing, providing dihedral effect. The reserve
Wing incidence angle is the pitch angle of the wing is happened for low wing.
with respect of the fuselage. The untwisted wing, it
Table 27. Wing dihedral angle guideline[41]
incidence angle is defined by some arbitrarily chosen
spanwise location of the wing, the root is usually Wing position
intersecting with the fuselage. Wing incidence Low Mid High
generates to minimize the drag at some point, usually Unswept 5 to 7 2 to 4 0 to 2
used in cruise condition. When the wing is at the (civil)
correct angle of attack for certain condition, the Subsonic 3 to 7 -2 to 2 -5 to -2
fuselage is at the angle of attack for minimum drag. swept wing
Supersonic 0 to 5 -5 to 0 -5 to 0
Wing incidence is set by using wind tunnel data. For swept wing
designing work, it can be assumed that general
aviation and homebuilt aircraft will have an incidence Since the aircraft is supersonic swept wing with mid-
of about 2 degrees, transport aircraft about 1 degree, wing configuration the dihedral angle is 0 degree.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Fuselage design
Table 28. Functional analysis of the fuselage[42]
No. Functions and features Description

1 Primary function Accommodate the payload
2 Secondary functions • Accommodate crew members Accommodate
flight attendants and other technical personnel
• Provide space for landing gear (if retracted inside
fuselage)
• Provide space for engine (if inside fuselage)
Provide space for fuel tanks (if inside fuselage)
• Provide sufficient room for systems (electric,
hydraulic, mechanical, radio, etc.) Provide
structural arm for empennage Keep the integrity of
the aircraft structure (e.g., hold the wing)
3 Desired features and • Generate the lowest drag
expectations • Contribute positively to the lift generation Low
weight
• Provide passenger/pilot/crew comfort
Carry structural flight loads
• External symmetry
• Loading and unloading effectiveness Safe
against environmental hazards (e.g.
lightning) Low wetted area
After calculating the sizing process for the wing and into several parts shown by the table above. Other than
tail, the fuselage is the third most important aircraft the functional analysis of the fuselage, there are a few
component. The fuselage is an aircraft's main body expectations that are recommended to be considered
section. It can carry different main components of the during the fuselage design process. These expectations
aircraft. But these components may change according can be titled as low weight, low drag, contributing
to the type and aim of the aircraft. Crew, passengers, positively to the lift generation, external symmetry and
luggage are the parts that are generally held by the safety against environmental hazards’ damages such
fuselage but for the military aircraft, it can carry the as lightning. It is interesting to know that, in General
engine, radar, bombs, missile etc. In a single-engine Aviation (GA) and transport aircraft, about 5% of the
aircraft it will usually contain an engine in addition. aircraft lift is produced by the fuselage. A
The fuselage also serves to position control and conventional fuselage may consist of the following
stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting sections: pilot and crew station (cockpit), passenger
surfaces, which is needed for aircraft stability and cabin, luggage room, cargo cabin, nose section, doors,
maneuverability. The primary function of the fuselage windows, rear section, fuel tanks, necessary flight
is to accommodate the payload. A major driving force carrying items (e.g. food, water), internal systems (I.e.,
in the design of the Pilot cockpit and passenger cabin electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic), and engine(s).
is human factors, the design of other sections is Each section needs to be designed separately, since at
provided by the design of the fuselage. Since the stage of design each section has a unique design
fuselage deals with the human pilot and passengers, requirement as well as the locations of them related to
human factors must be included in the design each other to be determined.
considerations. Landing gear, engine, fuel & power
Internal arrangement
transmission systems may be included by the fuselage
to be able to cause decrease on the drag quantity. As Generally, the internal arrangement consists of six
known, beside accommodation of the payload, the basic rules, to locate the allocated items inside the
fuselage owns more functions that can be categorized fuselage:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Keeping the fuselage small and compact as much indicator, heading indicator, outside air temperature
as possible. indicator, glide slope indicator, GPS, magnetometer,
2. Arrangement to be symmetric from the top view transponder, compass, electric panel, weather radar,
as far as possible. radio, and engine instruments (fuel, exhaust gas
3. Available space to accommodate all the items. temperature, turbine inlet temperature and rpm). Pilot
4. Usable loads such as fuel must be close to the inside and outside vision at cruising flight as well as at
aircraft center of gravity. take-off and landing is of crucial importance. Over-
5. The pilot cockpit must be allocated the most nose vision is critical for safety reasons, particularly
forward location of the fuselage, to let the pilot to during landing, and is also important for a combat
view the runway during take-off and landing. success. The Standards for the military fields require a
6. Arrangements must close to the aircraft center of 17-degree over-nose angle for transport aircraft, and
gravity like the wing/fuselage are close to it. 10-15 degree for fighters.
Figure15. Fuselage internal arrangement [43] Figure17. Pilot seat sizing [45]
Cockpit The parameters of the seat like cushion angle, arm set
The detailed design of the cockpit includes the height, seat length, seat width, and cushion thickness
integration of components, assemblies, and must be determined. The seatback angle (𝜃𝑠𝑏 ) is
instruments that are under the control of various required to be close to 13 degrees, however angles of
functional disciplines in the system engineering up to 30 degrees have been used (e.g. F-16) to produce
approach. The cockpit must enable the crew members better g tolerance for the fighter pilot. Also seat back
to easily reach and perform all required flight tasks angles of up to 60 degrees have been used for modern
while seated. The main source of designing the cockpit fighters to decrease fuselage diameter and aircraft drag
is based on ergonomic principles. Incorrect instrument as well.
panel positioning can cause neck, eye strain, and can
lead to poor positioning for the seat, which creates
pressure on the back. When screens are too far away,
the pilot must lean forward to see well. This is
increasingly true as pilot’s age, since vision almost
inevitably declines over time. If the pilot can extend
his/her arm and just touch the screen with their
fingertips, then the seat is in the right position. The
floor is recommended to be horizontal.
Figure 18. Radar location[46]
Radar location
Radar is an instrument as object-detection system that
uses electromagnetic waves for determining the range,
Figure 16. Cockpit sizing for fighter aircraft [44] altitude, direction, or speed of both fixed and moving
objects. The radar contains radar dish, or antenna,
A list of the important instruments generally included which transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves
in a cockpit as follows: airspeed indicator, altimeter, that bounce off any object in their path. Then the
turn coordinator, bank angle indicator, vertical speed object returns a tiny part of the wave’s energy to the
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
dish or the antenna. Different types of radars are location must have an open view to transmit and
employed that the modern aircraft using nowadays, receive radar signals. One of the best locations is the
including weather radar. nose of the fuselage. Most military aircraft also
employ a radar dish in the fuselage nose.
For the location of the radar, there are several locations
for putting the antenna or dish. For the antenna, the
Engine installation
Table 29. Engine dimension of competitor aircraft
Engine Length Diameter Dry Weight Maximum Maximum T/W SFC with
Model (m) (m) (kg) thrust with thrust (afterburning) afterburner
afterburner without (lb/(lbf·h) )
(KN) afterburner
SNECMA
M53-P2 5.07 0.796 1,515 95 0.04224 6.5 2.1
General
Electric
F404 4 0.89 1,036 78.7 0.0472 7.8 1.74
Saturn-
Lyulka AL-
31FN or
WS-10A 4.99 1.28 1,570 122.58 0.04745 7.87 1.92
Klimov
RD-93 4 1.04 1,055 81.3 0.04739 7.9 1.85
General
Electric
F110-GE-
129 5.9 1.18 1,996 131 0.03697 7.9 -
General
Electric
F414-GE-
39E 3.91 0.89 1,110 97.9 0.05207 9 -
General
Electric
F404 4 0.89 1,036 78.7 0.0472 7.8 1.74
Average 4.56 1.00 1377.17 100.65 0.05 7.82 1.87
The table above reflects the needed parameters of the Whitney F135-PW-100 will be chosen according to
competitor aircraft’s engines. In order to make an the capability of carrying the aircraft. The data of the
optimum decision among the engines, the ratio of engine can be seen in below;
Maximum thrust without afterburner to Dry Weight
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 190 𝑘𝑁 (211)
will be calculated. The desired value is taken
according to the engine with high Maximum thrust and 𝑇𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 125 𝑘𝑁 (212)
low weight as well as low Specific fuel consumption
whether with/without afterburner. The maximum ratio 𝑊𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 1701 𝑘𝑔 (213)
in the corresponding table is 0.04739 and belongs to 𝐿 = 5.59 𝑚 (214)
the engine model Klimov RD-93. Thus, the
displacement of the chosen engine will be accepted as 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.17 𝑚 (215)
4 m, 1.04 m for the diameter, and it will have located 1
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 0.7 ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑦 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦) (216)
at backward section of the aircraft in the design
process. Unfortunately, since the planform area is big 1
𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 2 ℎ (217)
and the high fuel demand, the engine will be chosen
out of seven competitors’ aircraft engine. Pratt & 𝑚 = 90.7 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 (218)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
the choice of application due to its low drag option as
well as exceptional stealth qualities. A special type of
Fuselage Rear Section Consideration
internal weapons carriage is the rotary weapons bay.
This makes the launching of all the weapons through
a single, small door. At supersonic speed it can be
difficult or even impossible to lunch weapons out of a
bay due to buffeting and air loads which tend to push
the weapons back into the bay. A single smaller door
reduces all these tendencies. Also, the rotary launcher
simplifies the installation of multiple weapons into a
single bay. So, in reality it is possible to design a rotary
launcher that can be pre-loaded with weapons and
loaded full into the aircraft.
To escape the yaw motion from firing, canon should
be located as near as possible to the centerline of the
Figure 19. Fuselage rear upsweep [47] aircraft. When a canon is fired, it produces a brash
light and a large cloud of smoke, to avoid obstructing
As requested from preceding sections, the fuselage is the pilot view, cannon should be located away from
desired to follow an airfoil shape to reduce the drag. the cockpit. The produced cloud smoke by the gun
This concludes that the rear fuselage should be tapered could easily stall the engine if sucked into the inlet,
to a zero diameter. If the engine is not intended to be this also has accounted.
accommodated by the rear fuselage, the diameter of Aerodynamic Consideration
the fuselage must be reduced from the cabin diameter
to almost zero. If an engine is ringed by an aft fuselage, For the fuselage external shape of the aerodynamic
the fuselage diameter should be reduced from the considerations introduce the basic requirements such
diameter at midsection (e.g. cockpit diameter) to the as low drag, low pitching moment low yawing, zero
engine exit nozzle diameter. Care must be taken as not rolling moment sometimes generating lift as much as
to taper of the rear section of the fuselage at too large possible. The zero-rolling moment requirement needs
angle, otherwise the flow separation will occur. To a symmetric fuselage about the x-z plane. Thus, from
ease the fabrication, part of the rear fuselage can be the top view, the fuselage must be symmetric. To have
conical. The transition from cylinder to cone should be a lower drag, the fuselage designer needs to choose a
smooth with enough large radius of curvature. section close to an airfoil shape. From the side view,
other design requirements (e.g. payload) do not
Weapons Carriage
usually let the designer to have the option of designing
a symmetric fuselage. But the streamlining must be
considered. So, a semicircle or semi cone is added to
the nose and obtain upsweep to the back of the
fuselage. To escape large regions of separations of the
boundary layers and the increasing of the associated
drag in the fuselage, the length of the rear fuselage is
often two or three times the diameter of the cylindrical
section. Where the wing is connected to the fuselage,
some forms of filleting are required to avoid the
Figure 20. Fighter jet sweep [48] separation of the flow and the turbulence. In some
aircraft, for example supersonic military aircraft SR-
Carriage of weapons is the reason of most military 71 Blackbird, the fuselage is modified to produce a fair
aircrafts. Traditional weapons include canons, bombs, amount of lift. The extra lift is partly to cover the short
missiles. The weapons are a fundamental part of the fall in lift generation by the wing. To make a fighter
aircraft’s total weight. This needs that the weapons more controllable and highly maneuverable, the wing
should be located close to the aircraft’s center of area is small and the wing span to be short. The
gravity. Otherwise the aircraft would pitch-up or down solution for lift generation is to have a blended
once the weapons are released. There are four options wing/fuselage. Therefore, at supersonic speeds, the
for weapons carriage, which of these four options has shock wave at the fuselage edges generates a great
its advantages and disadvantages, internal carriage is deal of lift.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Stealth Consideration
One of the design requirements of modern military
aircraft is to be equipped with stealth technology to
escape the detection by radar and reduce the visibility
of the aircraft as well in the infrared visual and audio
spectrum. This capability is applied by employing a
combination of features, such as using composite
materials that absorb the radar signals. Another
technique to improve aircraft detectability is to design
the external shape of the aircraft, including fuselage,
such that the equivalent radar cross-section (RCS) of
the aircraft is reduced. Radar cross-section (RCS) is a
function of various parameters including the aircraft
cross-section perpendicular to the line of the radar
signal. Four common techniques to improve the stealth Figure 21. Inlet types for buried engines [49]
capability of the aircraft
(a)fabricate the components of the aircraft with radar Noting that a F16 military plane has a smaller circular
absorbent materials. inlet with a 34.8 inch which is equal to 0.88392 m
where the inlet area is 0.6133 m2.
(b)decrease the size of the aircraft.
(c) eliminate any surface which is perpendicular to the Aircraft Stealth
radar incoming signals and make it inclined. The capture area has been divided into 2 parts and
(d)hide the hot gasses of the engine from direct decreased, because of this, the stealth of the aircraft
detection. become important principle, the engine is low
observable.
In the third technique every component including the
fuselage must be shaped such that the incoming radar Inlet Sizing and Capture Area Calculation
signals are not reflected to the transmitting source. The
stealth technology is employed in several military From the figure 10.13 from Raymer’s book is shown
aircraft such as the F-117 Night Hawk, Lockheed how to calculate the captured area. As a previous
Martin F-35 lightening. Therefore, the fuselage must study, Much Number is designed to be equal to 1.23,
𝐴
be designed so that it contributes to the aircraft radar so ṁ𝑐 can be found 3.61 from the figure. And the front
cross-section (RCS) as less as possible. diameter of the engine is taken to be equal to 1.3 m
Inlet Location and Capture Area from the engine dimension.
Inlets Location is the area where the first air coming ṁ = 0.183 × 𝐷𝑖 2 = 0.30927 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 (219)
to the engine is captured and directed towards an
engine to drive a vehicle move forward. Capturing can
be done by inlets or diffusers. These two studying are
used for interchangeably for the component that
captures the ambient air stream tube and conditions it
for entry the engine. The inlet is used for the first air
coming through engine condition, after that entry to
the fan or compressor of the engine. The inlet located
at the root of the vertical tail and the inlet above the
afterword fuselage that using for buried engine is used
on the L-1011 and B-727. Because of this, it’s allows
the engine exhaust to be placed at the rear of the
fuselage and it can reduce fuselage separation and Figure 22. Preliminary capture area sizing [50]
drag.
𝐴𝑐
= 3.61, 𝐴𝑐 = 1.1164 𝑚2 (220)
ṁ
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Comparing from the F35 capture area is calculated by as suggested from Raymer book, the weight of
Dig XY software. Firstly, by using Heron formula, installation engine will be 2211.3 kg. The estimation
corner points are found and from these points area is location of the center gravity of engine is subtraction
determined 0.828 m2. So, our calculation from from the total length of the fuselage 16 m, with the
Raymer’s book which is 1.1164 m2 is taken as capture middle length of the engine 2.75 m which yields 13.25
area. m. The weight of payload from study 2 is taken as
1131 kg, because the missiles and bomb are located
𝑑inlet = 1.3 m diameter of inlet (221)
under the wing, so it can be assumed that the location
ℎinlet = … . height from ground (222) of center gravity of the payload is 0.6c or 9.6 meter
Center of Gravity from the leading edge. The weight of the crew is 170
kg with the estimation location of the central gravity
Center of gravity of aircraft is the average location of is located at 0.25c or 4 m from the leading edge. The
the weight of the aircraft, point around where the center gravity of the cannon can be assumed as 0.4c of
resultant torque due to gravity force disappear. The the fuselage or 6.4 m.
main component weight in aircraft is the crew, engine,
Table 31. First estimation center of gravity
payload and the wing. By knowing the location and
the weight of the components it can be able to estimate
Weight x- Weight*x-
the location of center gravity. (kg) coordinate coordinate
For the first estimation, the component that needed are (m) (kg*m)
the crew, engine, and payload. The fuselage, wing and
the tail are also contributed in the center of gravity Engine 2211.3 13.25 29299.725
location, but their size and location are still unknown.
Cannon 400 6.4 2560
The weight of payload and crew is taken from study 2,
for the weight of engine, the average of the engine of
Crew 170 4 680
the competitor aircraft from study 2 is taken as the
value. Payload 1131 9.6 10857.6
Table 30. Weight of engine from competitor aircraft
Average 978.075 33.25 433397.325
Weight of
Airplane Model Engine engine (kg) By using the moment equation:
Mitsubishi F 2 General Electric 1996 𝑥̅ = 11.09 𝑚 (223)
series B F110-IHI-129
KAI T-50 General Electric 1036 By assuming center gravity of the wing is located at
Golden Eagle F404 center of gravity calculated before, 11.09 m.
Chengdu F-10B Shenyang WS- 1874 Assuming that the wing aerodynamic center is 25% of
"Vanguard" 10A the mean aerodynamic chord from the leading edge
JAS 39F Gripen Volvo RM12 1052 which yields 1.333 m, and that the wing center of
Pratt & 1467 gravity is at 40% of the mean aerodynamic chord
Whitney F100- which yields 2.1328 m. The location of center of
F-16 block D PW-220/220E gravity is 0.7998 m from aerodynamic center location.
Chengdu (AVIC) Klimov RD-93 1055 From the Raymer book, the multiplier for the wing
/ PAC JF-17B
weight is 1.84 kilogram/square meter to the wing area,
Dassault Mirage SNECMA 1515
the wing area is taken as 67.4 m2, so for the weight of
2000B M53-P2
the wing is 124.02 kg, acting through the moment arm
Averages 1428
(11.09+0.7998).
From the figure the average weight from competitor
With this the new center of gravity can be obtained,
aircraft is 1428 kg and since these engines did not meet
so the equation will be
the requirement for carrying the wing or aircraft, the
chosen engine Pratt & Whitney F135 with the dry (43397.32𝑘𝑔) + (124.02𝑘𝑔)(11.8898)𝑚
weight 1701 kg and by taking the weight of 𝑥̅ =
3912.3𝑘𝑔 + 124.02𝑘𝑔
installation engine by 1.3 of the dry weight of engine
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
= 11.12 𝑚 (224) = 11.2532 − 1.333 − 2.82 = 7.1032 𝑚 (228)
So, the center gravity of the aircraft is 11.12 m from Since the root chord is 7.74 m, and the root chord in
the leading edge. leading edge to nose is 9.1234 m, then the location of
the center of the wing of the root chord is at;
Wing Placement
7.74
From considerations of longitudinal stability, the 𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 7.1032 + = 10.9732 𝑚 (229)
2
aerodynamic center of the aircraft must lie behind the
Fuel Tank Sizing
aircrafts’ center of gravity and the aerodynamic center
of the aircraft is also called the neutral point of it. For The wing tanks, which carry most of a jet’s fuel, are
more further, neutral point is the location of the located near the center of gravity of the plane as
aircrafts’ center of gravity that will result in the well. Modern jets typically also have trim tanks,
pitching moment about the center of gravity being located in the plane’s horizontal stabilizers. These
independent of angle of attack. allow the airplane’s flight control systems (or a pilot,
manually) to adjust the plane’s center of gravity for
To be able determining the location of aerodynamic
most efficient aerodynamics throughout a flight.
center of the wing, leading edge of the wing, and the
Normally in the military aircrafts the self-sealing tanks
location of the center of the wing in root chord with
are used as whenever any impact resulting from the
respect to the leading edge of the fuselage, it can be
combat phase of the mission is done the self-sealing
figured out as below;
tank plays a phenomenal role in survival of the pilot as
First, determining the location of neutral point by it highly reduces loss of fuel by the self-sealing.
following equation;
For each wings’ fuel tank volume, shall be 5 m3, and
𝑥𝑛 −𝑥̅ it is considered by multiplying 1.06 fuel volume that
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐̅
(225)
is for safety reason six percent, extra is added to the
Where 𝑥̅ is the c.g. of the aircraft with respect to the tanks volume. The fuel tanks on the right and left sides
nose, 𝑐̅ is the mean aerodynamic chord, and Static are symmetric. The fuel tanks are located close to the
margin of the jet aircraft is between 1%-3%. Let’s fuselage to be able to get good balance. As written
assume the static margin is 1%. By arranging the before, c.g. of the fuel tanks are near to the c.g. of the
formula, neutral point can be found as below; plane. By calculating the when the weight of the fuel
𝑥𝑛 = 0.1𝑐̅ + 𝑥̅ = 0.1(5.332) + 11.12 is added to the wing and assembly it to the fuselage.
The fuel tank is located from 0.2c to 0.9c from the
= 11.6532 𝑚 (226) selected airfoil chord and the surface will follow the
There is a relation between the location of the pattern of the outer surface of the wing.
aerodynamic center of the wing body and the location
of neutral point. By using this relation, the distance
between nose of fuselage and the aerodynamic center
of the wing can be figured out. Formula below is for
finding the location of mean aerodynamic center
behind the nose of the fuselage.
(𝑥𝑎𝑐 )𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑉𝐻𝑇 = 11.6532 − 0.4
= 11.2532 𝑚 (227)
Furthermore, from the calculation 6the mean
aerodynamic chord from the leading edge, and the
location of center of gravity from aerodynamic center
location, then the location of the root chord from the
leading edge to nose is; Figure 23. Main wing and its geometry
𝑥 = (𝑥𝑎𝑐 )𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑀. 𝐴. 𝐶𝑎.𝑐.

−𝑐. 𝑔.𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎.𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Sizing and Location Landing Gear Determining the clearance angle:
Landing Gear is the strongest component of an During take-off, the produced aircraft rotation angle
aircraft. It is using to facilitate take-off and landing αTO need to be deal properly, so that the fuselage will
operations. And between take-off and landing not strike the ground. The clearance angle, αC need to
operations, fuselage, wing, tail and aircraft be greater than αTO in order to prevent this condition.
components are set to be away from the ground to be The aircraft is rotated by the amount of αTO. The
safe by using landing gear. The wheel of the landing minimum clearance between fuselage and the ground
gear is important to use for safe the acceleration and (HC during take-off rotation is about 30cm. [53] The
deceleration of an aircraft. Rolling wheels can make clearance angle can be obtained by using the formula
the aircraft accelerate without using amount of thrust below:
to overcome the friction. 𝐻
𝛼𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑓 ) (230)
𝐴𝐵
Where 𝐻𝑓 is the fuselage height, and AB is the aft

distance of the main gear to the beginning of the
upsweep angle.
Assume AB = 5m, αTO generally will reach to the angle
that produce 90% of the Lmax , which is around 12
degree, thus make the minimum 𝛼𝐶 is to be 12 degree.
Then the required 𝐻𝑓 ,
𝐻𝑓 = 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛(12 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒) = 1.06𝑚 (231)
[51]
Figure 24. Landing gear arrangement
When the landing gear height is 1.06, the fuselage is
about to have contact with ground. To ensure the
Tip back angle and tip forward angle is the important
safety during takeoff, a landing gear height of 1.37m
angle that make an aircraft balance. Both of those
(1.063 + (30/(cos (12))) provides a 30cm clearance
angles are caused by landing gear. The aim of these
during a 12 deg take-off rotation.
angle is to protect the aircraft from tipping back on its
tail or tipping forward on its nose. HLG = 1.37m
To get the tip back angle is the distance between The distance between the main gear and the
aircraft most aft cg and the main gear in a tricycle aircraft forward cg
configuration. And for getting the tip forward angle is Since it is assumed and chose that the position of the
the distance between aircraft most forward cg and the main wheel from the tail is 5m, then we can use that to
main gear in a tail gear configuration. The tip back the proceeding calculation to check the validity. The
angle is the maximum aircraft nose-up attitude with distance of the nose to the center of gravity is 11.12,
the tail touching the ground and the strut is fully and the distance of the tail to the cg is 6.4m, thus the
extended. The tip back angle must always be higher distance of the main wheel to the cg is 1.4m (𝐵𝑚 ).
than the take-off rotation angle for protecting a tip Forward cg and aft cg is calculated as below,
back in tricycle configuration.
Forward cg,
Landing gears
Xcg fwd = 18% MAC = 0.18(5.332) = 0.96m (232)
Height of landing gear
Aft cg,
Landing gear height is defined as the distance between
the ground and the conjunction between the main gear Xcgaft=3%MAC=0.3(5.332)=1.6m (233)
strut and the aircraft structure. In our case the main By applying the obtained Xcg fwd value, the distance of
gear will be attached to the fuselage. In determine the the main gear:
height of the landing gear, there are several factors that
need to be concerned, such as the clearance during 1.4m (from main gear to cg) + 0.96m (from cg to
taxi, rear fuselage clearance during take-off location, forwardcg)=2.36m. (234)
tip back prevention and overturn prevention. [52] 𝑋𝑚𝑔 = 2.36𝑚 (235)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Tip back requirement Previously, 𝐵𝑚 is obtained as 1.4m, then
To prevent a tip back in a tricycle configuration, the B=(6.67)(1.4)=9.3m (245)
tip back angle (𝛼𝑡𝑏 ) must always be greater than take
Wheel track
off rotation angle (𝛼 𝑇𝑂 )[54] with an angular difference
of 5 degree for safety purpose The minimum value for the wheel track must satisfy
the overturn angle requirements. Firstly, the criterion
𝛼𝑡𝑏 > 𝛼 𝑇𝑂 + 5˚ (236)
of overturning prevention will be used. The lateral
As obtained before, distance between each main gear to the cg must be
greater than 25 degrees. There will be 2 values for the
𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 = 0.96𝑚 (237)
overturning angle; from the front and top view. [55]
𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 1.6𝑚 (238) From the front view.
∆𝑋𝑐𝑔 = 𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑎𝑓𝑡 − 𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 Φ is chose as 45 degrees, then
= 1.6 − 0.96 = 0.64𝑚 (239) T=2Hcgtan(45)=2(2.47)tan45=4.94m (246)
Distance between the main gear and the aft cg: From the top view.
𝑋𝑚𝑔 𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑋𝑚𝑔 − ∆𝑋𝑐𝑔 Φ1 = tan-1 ( (T/2) / B )
= 2.36 − 0.64 = 1.72𝑚 (240) =tan-1((4.94/2)/9.3)=15.1˚ (247)
The tip back angle, YOT=Bnmtan(Φ1)=6.94tan(15.1)=1.87m (248)
𝑥𝑚𝑔 1.72
𝛼𝑡𝑏 = tan−1 ( ℎ ) = tan−1 (2.47) = 34.9˚ (241) ΦOT=tan-1((YOT)/Hcg)
𝑐𝑔
=tan-1(1.87/2.47)=37.1˚ (249)
𝛼𝑡𝑏 = 34.9˚ > 𝛼 𝑇𝑂 + 5˚, therefore, satisfies the tip
The overturn angle is greater than 25 deg, so the wheel
back angle requirement.
track satisfies the rule for overturn prevention
Take-off rotation clearance requirement requirement. As the value of the angle from the top
As the calculation before, with 30cm of clearance view is lower, that it chosen.
were taken into account, the value of 1.37m will be Tires
used for 𝐻𝑓 and 5m for AB. Thus,
As stated before, the nose wheel will carry 15% of the
𝐻𝑓 1.37 load and 85% for the main wheel. Nose tire can be
𝛼𝐶 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐴𝐵)=𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 5 ) = 15.3˚ (242)
assumed to be 60-100% the size of the main tire sizes.
Since the clearance angle 𝛼𝐶 is greater than the At the end, the actual tires to be used must be selected
rotational angle 𝛼 𝑇𝑂 , the fuselage will not hit the from a manufacturer’s catalog, where it is based upon
ground during take-off operation. the smallest tire to carry the loads.
Wheel base Table 32. Statistical tire sizing [56]
Due to the ground controllability requirement, the Main wheels diameter or width (in.) = AWBw
nose gear is set to carry 15% of the total load and the Diameter Width
remaining 85% of the load will be carried by two main A B A B
wheels, make it 42.5% of the load for each main General aviation 1.51 0.349 0.7150 0.312
wheel. Business twin 2.69 0.251 1.170 0.216
Transport/bomber 1.63 0.315 0.1043 0.480
The wheel base is determined by using the following Jet fighter/trainer 1.59 0.302 0.0980 0.467
formula, WW = Weight on Wheel
𝐵𝑚
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑊 (243) Based on the table above, the diameter and width of
𝐵
both nose and main wheel can be determined:
With 𝐹𝑛 is 0.15 of weight of the aircraft,
𝐵𝑚 𝐵
Main wheel
𝑚
𝐵= 𝐹𝑛
𝑊 = 0.15𝑊 𝑊 = 6.67𝐵𝑚 (244) B
For diameter: D = A × WW (250)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
(A = 1.59, B = 0.302 and WW = 23 173.9 lb) W = 10.7 inches (253)
D = 33 inches (251)
B
For width: D = A × WW (252)
(A = 0.0980, B = 0.467 and WW = 23 173.9 lb)
Table 33. Historical data of tires[57]
Size Speed Max Infi (psi) Max Max Rolling Wheel Number of
(mph) load (lb) width (in) diameter (radius) (diam) plies
(in)
Type VII
16×4.4 210 1,100 55 4.45 16.00 6.9 8.0 4
18×4.4 174kt 2,100 100 4.45 17.90 7.9 10.0 6
18×4.4 217kt 4,350 225 4.45 17.90 7.9 10.0 12
24×5.5 174kt 11,500 335 5.75 24.15 10.6 14.0 16
30×7.7 230 16,500 270 7.85 29.40 12.7 16.0 18
36×11 217kt 26,000 235 11.50 35.10 14.7 16.0 24
40×14 174kt 33,500 200 14.00 39.80 16.5 16.0 28
46×16 225 48,000 245 16.00 45.25 19.0 20.0 32
50×18 225 41,770 155 17.50 49.50 20.4 20.0 26
Nose wheel Weight of the aircraft

For nose wheel selection, other than static load, Each parts of an aircraft have different materials and
dynamic load also needs to be taken into account, should choose the requirement materials according to
which can be calculated as 1.3 from the static load. the purpose of the aircraft. For the canopy, the fighter
jet canopies usually are made of (special) acrylic
Static load = 8179.05 lb (254)
plastics or polycarbonate, with special coatings for
Dynamic load = 1.3 (8179.05) RCS reduction in some cases. In general, different
fighter canopies differ in their material and
= 10 632.8 lb (255) construction. For the fuselage, the wings and the
For the tire selection, landing gears, use aluminum. The aluminum used to
make planes is always blended with other metals to
(10 632.8 + 8179.05) / 1.3 = 14 470 lb (256) make it strong and light. While aluminum fuselages
B don’t corrode as easily as those made of steel,
For diameter: D = A × WW (257)
aluminum isn’t used on the surface of many
(A = 1.59, B = 0.302 and WW = 14.470 lb) supersonic planes because heat generated by the
friction from flying at such speeds causes aluminum’s
D = 28.7 inches (258) strength to decrease. For the weight of itself, it can be
B
For width: D = A × WW (259) seen in Solidworks in mass properties. The weight
shows that 25628.01 kg (without payloads).
(A = 0.0980, B = 0.467 and WW = 14 470)
W = 7.5 inches (260)
For jet aircraft, the type of tire that will be used id from
Type VII. Then, according to the diameter and width
calculation, the suitable size that can carry the load on
each tire are from 30x7.7-type for nose wheel and
36x11-type for main wheel.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Resulting layout
Figure 25. Top detailed view Figure 27. Front detailed view
Figure 26. Side detailed view
Table 34. Summary of important parameters
Parameter Value Description
𝑥̅ 11.12 m Location of center of gravity from the nose of the fuselage
𝑥𝑛 11.6532 m Location of the aerodynamic of the aircraft from the nose of the fuselage
(𝑥𝑎𝑐 )𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 11.2532 m Position of the mean aerodynamic center from nose of the fuselage
𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 10.9732 m Location of the center of wing of the root chord from the nose
𝑙𝐻𝑇 6.4 m Distance from center of gravity to mean aerodynamic center of the horizontal tail
𝑙𝑉𝑇 6.4 m Distance from center of gravity to mean aerodynamic center of the vertical tail
𝑥 7.1032 m Distance between the leading edge of the root chord to nose of the fuselage
𝑙𝑓 16.10 m The length of the fuselage
𝑏 14.5 m The span of the main wing
ℎ𝑣𝑡 2.84 m Height of the vertical tail
𝑏ℎ𝑡 8.23 m The span of the horizontal tail

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑐𝑟,ℎ𝑡 4.5 m Root chord of horizontal tail
𝑐𝑡,ℎ𝑡 1.6 m Tip chord of horizontal tail
𝑐ℎ𝑡
̅̅̅̅ 3.1 m Mean chord of the horizontal tail
𝑦
̅̅̅̅
ℎ𝑡 3.2 m Distance of mean aerodynamic chord of horizontal tail from the root
𝑐̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑡 1.73 m Mean chord of vertical tail
𝑦𝑣𝑡
̅̅̅̅ 1.1 m Distance of mean aerodynamic chord of vertical tail from the root
𝑆𝑣𝑡 10.68 m2 Planform area of the vertical tail
𝑆ℎ𝑡 22.46 m2 Planform area of the horizontal tail
𝑥𝑎𝑐 4.153 m The location of a.c. of mean chord in main wing from leading edge of the root chord
in x axis
𝑦̅ 2.82 m The location of a.c. of mean chord in main wing from leading edge of the root chord
y axis
𝑐̅ 5.332 m The mean chord of the main wing
𝐶𝑡 1.548 m The tip chord of the main wing
𝐶𝑟 7.74 m The root chord of the wing
𝐴𝑅 3.12 Aspect ratio of the main wing
𝑆 67.4 m2 Planform area of the main wing
𝐻𝑓 1.06 m Height of landing gear
HLG 1.37 m Height of landing gear with clearance
𝑋𝑚𝑔 2.36 m The distance between the main gear and the aircraft forward cg
𝛼𝑡𝑏 34.9˚ + 5˚ Tip back angle
𝛼𝐶 15.3˚ Take-off rotation clearance requirement
B 9.3 m Wheel base
ΦOT 37.1˚ Overturn angle
Dm 0.8382 m Diameter of main wheel
Wm 0.27178 m Width of main wheel
Dn 0.72898 m Diameter of nose wheel
Wn 0.1905 m Width of nose wheel

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
T 4.94 m Distance of each other of the main wheel
Aerodynamic parameters estimation

Lift curve slope of a jet fighter
There are some conditions which can affect the lift
curve slope (maximum lift coefficient), effect of
camber and effect of aspect ratio. The lift slope for a
finite wing decreases as the aspect ratio decreases.
This is a general result as the aspect ratio decreases,
the induced flow effects over the wing due to the tip
vortices are stronger, and hence at a given angle of
attack, the lift coefficient is decreased. Usually,
camber itself is designed into an airfoil to be able to
increase the maximum lift coefficient and due to this,
this can minimize the stalling speed of an aircraft
using the airfoil. Generally, the more airfoil is
cambered towards its rear end, the higher its pitch
moment coefficient will be. This is called rear loading
Figure 28. Lift curve slope vs Mach number[58]
and is used in order to combine decent thickness with
good lift in transonic airfoils. Subsonic lift curve slope
It is essentially linear for the slope of the lift except As it is explained and shown in Raymer’s book, there
near the stall angle, allowing the lift coefficient below is a semi empirical formula for the complete wing lift
stall to be calculated simply as the lift curve slope curve slope (per radian), accurate up to the drag
times the angle of attack (relative to the zero lift divergent Mach number, and approximately accurate
angle). Maximum lift coefficient occurs in nonlinear almost to Mach one for a swept wing. Subsonic lift
such that angle which is greater than the linear value. curve slope’s formula is given as shown below.
There are some typical the effect of Mach number on 2𝜋×𝐴𝑅 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
the lift curve slope, for typical unswept with high 𝐶𝑙𝛼 = × 𝑆
× 𝐹 (261)
𝐴𝑅 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∧𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡
aspect ratio (thin airfoil and thick airfoil), and typical 2+√4+ 2 ×𝛽 2 ×(1+ )
𝜂 𝛽2
swept wings (high aspect ratio and low aspect ratio).
Where
There are reasons for why lift curve slope is needed
during conceptual design. First, to properly set the 𝛽 2 = 1 − 𝑀2 (262)
wing incidence angle, especially for transport aircraft 𝐶𝑙𝛼
which floor must be level during cruise. Affects the 𝜂= (263)
2𝜋/𝛽
afterward fuselage upsweep and/or landing gear length
∧𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡 is the sweep of the wing at the chord location
due to the wing incidence also influences the fuselage
where the airfoil is the thickest. It will be determined
angle of attack during takeoff and landing. Second, the
by using the formula below which had found from
methodology for calculating drag due to lift for high
international journal.
performance aircraft which uses the slope of lift curve.
Last one, for longitudinal stability analysis. Λ 𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡 = tan−1 [(1 − 𝜇) tan Λ 𝐿𝐸 + 𝜇 tan Λ 𝑇𝐸 ] (264)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∧𝐿𝐸 is the sweep angle which had determined
before from previous study 45 degrees. For 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∧ 𝑇𝐸
which had determined from solidworks 8.37 degrees
and 𝜇 is the location of maximum thickness as fraction
of chord, which is about 0.5 of the chords for high
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
speed airfoil. By substituting all these values into In transonic regime of the swept wing whose Mach
equation 4, it yields; number is roughly 0.85-1.2 initial estimation methods
for the slope of the lift curve are not vivid to be
Λ 𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡 = tan−1 [(1 − 0.5)] tan(45°) 0.5 tan(8.37°)
feasible. The transonic curve be smoothed to fair
= 29.83° (265) between subsonic and supersonic values.
𝜂, the airfoil efficiency has been revised in the Supersonic lift curve slope
Raymer’s book that can be safely approximated as
First of all, the aspect ratio is needed to be checked if
about 0.95 if the airfoil lift curve slope as a function of
the wing considered has high aspect ratio or not by
Mach number is not knows. F is the fuselage lift factor
using the formula below.
that accounts for the fact that the fuselage of dimeter
3
‘d’ creates some lift due to spill over of the lift from 𝐴𝑅 ≥ (𝐶 (273)
1 +1)×cos(∧𝐿𝐸 )
the wing. The formula is given as below.
𝑑
For C1 will be determined by using the graph below.
𝐹 = 1.07(1 + 𝑏 )2 (266)
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑=√ 𝜋⁄ (267)
4
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum cross sectional area of the

fuselage. This value is found from solidowrks which
yields 2.95m2. By putting this value into equation 7,
diameter of it can be estimated as below.
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 2.95
𝑑=√ 𝜋⁄ = √𝜋 = 1.9381𝑚 (268)
4 ⁄4
Figure 29. Taper ratio correction[59]
The value above will be putted into equation 6, where
the wingspan is 14.5m. According to the taper ratio that had before 0.2, it
shows that around 0.49 for C1 and 45 degrees for
𝑑 2 sweep angle that had before. By getting all these
𝐹 = 1.07 (1 + )
𝑏 values, aspect ratio can be checked as below.
1.9381 2 3
= 1.07(1 + 14.5
) = 1.3751 (269) 𝐴𝑅 ≥ (𝐶 , 3.12 ≥ 2.85 (274)
1 +1)×cos(∧ 𝐿𝐸 )
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , the exposed wing planform that is wing According that aspect ratio that gotten before 3.12
reference area less the part of the wing covered by the which is greater than 2.85. Then it is assumed that the
fuselage. This one found by subtraction of the area of aspect ratio is high for the aircraft according to the
outside the fuselage and inside the fuselage, which it equation 274 from Raymer which is portrayed above.
yields;
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 49.94𝑚2 (270)
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 67.4𝑚2 (271)
𝐴𝑅 = 3.12 (272)
𝛽, will be found by the iteration in MATLAB where
the Mach number is between 0.2-1.4. For the subsonic
it will be until 0.80 Mach number.
Finally, subsonic lift curve slope is obtained by
substituting all these values into equation 1 and will be
iterated in MATLAB to be able to find the slope of it. Figure 30. Wing supersonic normal force curve slope[60]
Transonic lift curve slope
For supersonic lift curve slope, figure 30 above will be
used according to the taper ratio 𝜆 = 0.2. In this chart,
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
it can be read that normal force slope, assume that 3
Low Aspect Ratio if 𝐴𝑅 ≤ (𝐶1 +1)(cos Λ𝐿𝐸 )
(276)
normal force is equal to lift force in this case. In order
to read the chart from left or right, must check the ratio
𝛽 From the figure 2 the 𝐶1 = 0.48 when the 𝜆 = 0.2
. This is abscissa on the left side of the chart. If
tan(∧𝐿𝐸 )
(277)
the value is less than 1, left side of the chart will be
used. If the ratio is greater than 1, then reciprocal of Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45 (278)
the ratio will be taken, and graph will be read from the
right side. To find which curve will be used in figure 𝐴𝑅 = 3.12 (279)
3, need to find or check and calculated as below.
3
𝐴𝑅 × tan(∧𝐿𝐸 ) = 3.12 × tan(45°) ≅ 3 (275) 3.12 ≤ (280)
(0.48+1)(cos 45)
Based on the value above, curve 3 in figure 3 will be
read. For each ratio, one must check the side of the The equation is not satisfied, so the wing is not low
chart, then read the lift curve slope from curve 3. This aspect ratio. The formula that is used for high-aspect
is done by using MATLAB. Since there is no good
theory for transonic region, continuum between ratio wing is equation 12.16 from Raymer book
subsonic and supersonic regime will be done visually.
𝐶𝐿 max
Finally, by inserting all the known values into 𝐶𝐿 max = 𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( )+ Δ𝐶𝐿 max (281)
𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
MATLAB script, Cl,alpha vs Mach number curve is
obtained as below. Table 35. ΔY for common airfoil[61]
Airfoil type ΔY
NACA 4 digit 26 t/c
NACA 5 digit 26 t/c
NACA 64 series 21.3 t/c
NACA 65 series 19.3 t/c
Biconvex 11.8 t/c
𝐶𝐿 max
To calculate 𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
the value of ΔY or leading edge
thickness parameter is needed, by using table 12.1

from Raymer book the value of ΔY or leading edge
Figure 31. Lift curve slope vs Mach number
thickness parameter can be obtained, since the airfoil
Clean configuration for Mach number 0.2 that been used are NACA 64 series, and the thickness
The maximum lift coefficient is usually describing of airfoil is 0.08 , so
how wide the wing are and very critical to determine
ΔY = 21.3 x 0.08 = 1.7 (282)
the aircraft weight, especially the take-off weight of
𝐶𝐿 max
the aircraft, it will affect the design mission. For clean To find , the graph of figure 12.8 from Raymer
𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
configuration or the wing without the function of flaps
book is taken as historical trend.
and other high-lift devices will usually about 90% of
the airfoil’s maximum lift coefficient from the 2-D
data of airfoil with the same Reynolds number.
First one, it should be determined if the wing is

considered as a low AR wing or not.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Clean configuration for Mach number 0.5
For approximation of maximum lift coefficient at
Mach number 0.5, the formula that us used is similar
with for Mach number 0.2, the figures 12.9 from
Raymer book take as historical trend table.
∆𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 for Mach number correction of High-aspect-
ratio wing.
Figure 32. Subsonic maximum lift of high aspect ratio wings[62]

𝐶𝐿 max
By taking the average value of 𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
of ΔY = 1.6 and
ΔY = 1.8 at Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45 (283)
Figure 34. Mach number correction for subsonic
𝐶𝐿 max
maximum lift of high aspect ratio wings[63]
The value of 𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
of ΔY = 1.7 is 1.015 (284)
Since the value ΔY = 1.7 and Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45 is not present,
By using DesignFoil software, 𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is obtained as it is a wise to use linear interpolation to get the
1.097 (285) accurate value at Mach number 0.5.
Table 36. ΔY for Λ𝐿𝐸 = 40, Λ𝐿𝐸 = 60

ΔY Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 40 Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 60
2 -0.095 0
3 -0.146 -0.034
1.7 -0.0797 0
the value of ∆𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 of ΔY = 1.7 at Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45 is -

0.0597 (299)
by inserting the value to the equation, it will be
𝐶𝐿 max = 1.097 × 1.015 − 0.0597 (300)

Figure 33. Coefficient of lift when Mach is 0.2
𝐶𝐿 max = 1.0533 (301)
By inserting the value to the formula, the result will be Usable lift coefficient between Mach number 0.2
𝐶 and Mach number 1.4
𝐶𝐿 max = 𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( 𝐶𝐿 max ) (286)
𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
For the usable lift coefficient, the formula is driven
𝐶𝐿 max = 1.097 𝑥 1.015 (287) from equation of lift.
𝐶𝐿 max = 1.113 (288) 1
𝐿=𝑊= 2
× 𝜌 × 𝑉∞2 × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝐿 (302)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2×𝑊 Table 37. Approximate lift contribution of high lift
𝐶𝐿 = 2 ×𝑆
𝜌 × 𝑉∞
(303)
devices[64]
The properties of density and speed of sounds at sea High-lift device

𝛥𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
level are
Flaps
𝜌 = 1.225 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (304)
Plain and split ---------------------------------- 0.9
𝑎 = 344 𝑚/𝑠 (305) Slotted ------------------------------------------- 1.3
Fowler -------------------------------------- 1.3 c’/c
And the parameter from the aircraft is take-off weight Double slotted ----------------------------- 1.6 c’/c
and wing span Triple slotted -------------------------------- 1.9 c’/c
𝑊0 = 24733 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 × 9.81 = 242630.73N (306)

Leading edge devices
𝑆 = 67.4 𝑚2 (307)
Fixed slot ---------------------------------------- 0.2
Since 𝑉 = 𝑀 𝑥 𝑎 the 𝐶𝐿 can be calculated in each Leading edge flap ------------------------------ 0.3
Kruger flap -------------------------------------- 0.3
Mach number. By inserting the value of Mach number Slat ------------------------------------------ 0.4 c’/c
between 0.2 and 1.4 in Excel, the graph is obtained as:
From table 37 leading and trailing edge flaps are
1.4 obtained as 0.9 and 0.3 respectively.
1.2
1
Trailing edge flaps
0.8
Cl
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
Mach number
Figure 35. Mach number vs lift coefficient
It is expected as when the Mach number is increasing

the maximum lift coefficient is decreasing.
Maximum lift coefficient with high lift devices
For initial design, equation 12.21 is used from Figure 36. Trailing edge flaps area demonstration
Raymer’s book. It is provided a reasonable estimate of
𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 25.6
the increase in maximum lift and the change in zero = 33,7 = 0.76 (309)
𝑆
lift angle for high lift during landing.
ΔCLmax = 0.9 × ΔClmax ×
𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑
× cos ∧ HL (308) ∧ HL = 15° (310)
𝑆
ΔCLmax = 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.76 × cos15° = 0.6 (311)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Leading edge flaps 1) For wing MDD, the preliminary estimation can be
calculated by using the following equation:
𝑀𝐷𝐷 = 𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐿=0 𝐿𝐹𝐷𝐷 − 0.05𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 (317)
Figure 37. Leading edge flaps area demonstration
From figure 37 leading edge area to wing area ratio is

obtained by using SolidWork from the below formula
Figure 38. Wing drag-divergence Mach number[65]
𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 18.95
= = 0.56 (312)
𝑆 33.7 The value of 𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐿=0 can be obtained by referring
∧ 𝐿𝑇 = 35° (313) graph in figure 1, using the quarter chord sweep angle.
𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.56 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠35° = 0.37 Λ 𝑐/4 = tan−1 [tan Λ 𝐿𝐸 − ((1 − λ)/𝐴(1 + λ))] (318)
𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥, 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 + 𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥, 𝑡𝑒 + 𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥, 𝑙𝑒 (314) From study 4, the value of 𝐴 (aspect ratio), Λ 𝐿𝐸
For M = 0.2: (leading edge sweep aangle) and λ (taper ratio) were
obtained as 3.12, 45˚ and 0.2, respectively. Thus,
𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.13 + 0.6 + 0.37 = 2.1 (315)
For M = 0.5: (1 − 0.2)
Λ 𝑐 = tan−1 [tan 45 − ( (1 + 0.2))]
4 3.12
𝛥𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.97 + 0.6 + 0.37 = 1.94 (316)
Drag divergence Mach number (Mdd) = 34.1˚ (319)
𝑡
Drag Divergence Mach Number is the Mach number Also, from study 3, thickness ratio was obtained as
𝑐
at which the formation of shock begins to substantially 0.05. (320)
affect the drag. The speed that considered as MDD is
arbitrary, and several definitions are used. According
to Boeing definition, MDD is where the drag reaches 20
counts. It is usually about 0.08 above critical Mach
number. On the other hand, according to Douglas
definition, MDD is determined when the rate of change
in parasite drag with Mach number first reached 0.10,
which is typically 0.06 Mach number above Boeing
MDD. Jet transport is usually cruise at about MDD
Boeing.
The value of MDD will be determined by using two
ways; body MDD and wing MDD. Calculation need to
be done for both of them, and the lower value will be
taken into account.
Figure 39. Lift adjustment for Mdd[66]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
From the graph in figure 38, by using these two section becomes essentially constant and d is the body
parameters, 𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐿=0 = 0.87. (321) diameter at that location.
Initially the 𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 can be assumed to be the same as

the lift coefficient at cruise, 𝐶𝐿𝐶
2𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝐶𝐿𝐶 = ρ𝑉𝑐2 𝑆
(321)
By taking the aircraft’s takeoff weight, W = (24 733)

(9.81) = 242630.73 N (322)
From study 4, the planform area: S = 67.4m2 (323)
As the aircraft is cruising with 0.8 Mach number on
the sea level, thus:
ρ = 1.225 kg/𝑚3 (324)
Figure 41. Distance from nose to constant fuselage
𝑉𝑐 = (0.8)(340.3) = 272.24 𝑚/𝑠 (325)
diameter
2(242630.73)
𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝐶𝐿𝐶 = (1.225)(272.24)2 (67.4) = 0.07 (326)
The obtained 𝐶𝐿 then can be used in the figure 12, so

𝐿𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 1 (327)
Thus,
𝑀𝐷𝐷 = (0.87)(1) − 0.05(0.07) = 0.86 (328)
2) For body MDD , it can be estimated by the Figure 42. Diameter of constant size at fuselage
following figure:
In figure 14 and 15, it shows that:

Ln = 4.78m (329)
d = (2)(0.6) = 1.2m (340)
Thus,
2𝐿𝑛 (2)(4.78)
𝑑
= 1.2
= 7.96 (341)
By referring these values to the graph in figure 3,

body MDD = 0.94 (342)
Comparing these two obtained results,
Wing MDD = 0.86 (343)
Figure 40. Body drag-divergent Mach number[67] Body MDD = 0.94 (344)
Where Ln is the length from the nose to the As the wing MDD is lower, so it will be selected.
longitudinal location at which the fuselage cross Parasite drag (CD0)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
There are two methods provided to do the estimation
of parasite drag; equivalent skin-friction method and 0.455
component buildup method. Equivalent skin-friction 𝐶𝑓 = (log 2.58 (1+0.144𝑀2 )0.65 (347)
10 𝑅𝑒)
method is based on the fact that for an aircraft cruising
Where,
in subsonic speed will have parasite drag that is mostly
ρ∞ ×𝑉∞ ×𝑐̅
skin-friction drag and a small separation pressure drag. 𝑅𝑒 = (348)
µ∞
This estimation is suitable for initial subsonic analysis.
For component buildup method, the solution is more 𝑉∞ = 𝑀∞ × 𝑎∞ (349)
detailed compared with the first method. Subsonic and 𝑙 = 𝑐̅(𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔) =
supersonic parasite drag will be calculated separately 5.335𝑚 = 17.5𝑓𝑡 (from study 4). (350)
and the total parasite drag will be calculated by adding
the drag components. By choosing the critical altitude of 10 000m
Estimation of subsonic parasite drag At critical altitudes:
The estimation will include the total of product of ρ∞ = 0.4135𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (351)

several components, which is the flat-plate skin- µ∞ = 1.458 × 10−5 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2 (352)
friction drag coefficient (Cf), form-factor (FF),
interference effects (Q), and the wetted area Swet. 𝑎∞ = 299.5𝑚/𝑠 (353)
There are also miscellaneous drags (CD misc) and drag By using these properties values;
that is contributed from leakages and protuberances 0.4135×𝑀×299.5×5.335
(CD L&P). All of the contributions are compiled into one 𝑅𝑒 = 1.458×10−5
= 4.5 × 107 × 𝑀 (354)
equation, as in equation 12.24 from Raymer’s ;
∑(𝐶𝑓𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑐 𝑄𝑐 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑐 )
(𝐶𝐷0 ) = In addition, if the surface is relatively rough, the
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 friction coefficient will be higher that the above
+𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 + 𝐶𝐷𝐿&𝑃 (345) equation. This is accounted for by the use of “cutoff
Reynolds number” which will be obtained by the
Estimation of supersonic parasite drag following equations:
The calculation is similar with subsonic drag, but with For subsonic region:
two exceptions. First, the supersonic skin-friction drag 𝑙 1.053
does not include adjustments for form factors or 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 × ( ) (355)
𝑘
interference effects, thus FF = Q = 1. Second, there is
For transonic and supersonic region:
an addition; wave drag. These changes of parameters
are shown in equation 12.42 from Raymer’s: 𝑙 1.053
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 44.62 × (𝑘) × M1.16 (356)
∑(𝐶𝑓𝑐 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑐 )
(𝐶𝐷0 ) = + 𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 It is assumed that is camouflaged by paint on
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓
aluminum. From the table below, the value of k can be
+𝐶𝐷𝐿&𝑃 + 𝐶𝐷𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (346) determined.
Determination of Cf, FF, Q and Swet Table 38. Skin roughness value (k)[68]
To make the calculation easier to be understood, the Surface k (ft)

determination of the parameters will be done
according to each parts of the aircraft. Camouflage paint on aluminium 3.30 x 10-5
Wing
Smooth paint 2.08 x 10-5
Flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient (Cf)
Production sheet metal 1.33 x 10-5
Since the aircraft is a type of high speed aircraft, it is
assumed that the flow is turbulent on the wing. For Polished sheet metal 0.50 x 10-5
turbulent flows, Cf is given in equation 12.27 from
Raymer’s:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
0.6
Smooth molded composite 0.17 x 10-5 𝐹𝐹 = [1 + (0.05) + 100(0.05)4 ]
0.5
By substituting the value of k = 3.30 x 10-5ft into those [1.34𝑀0.18 (cos 29.83)0.28 ] (367)
2 equations,
𝐹𝐹 = 1.36 × 𝑀0.18 (368)
For subsonic region:
Interference effects (Q)
1.053
17.5 Parasite drag is increased due to the mutual
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 × ( )
3.3 × 10−5 interference between components. According to
= 4.07 × 107 (357) Raymer’s, for mid-wing configuration, the
interference will be negligible, so the Q factor will be
For supersonic region:
about 1.
17.5 1.053
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 44.62 × (3.3×10−5 ) × M1.16 = 𝑄=1 (369)
4.76 × 107 × 𝑀1.16 (358) Wetted area (Swet)
According to Raymer’s, by comparing the actual and From study 3 it is obtained that wetted aspect ratio is
cutoff value of Re, the smaller one will be selected in 1.6 and from study 4 the wing span in obtained as
the calculation of Cf. 14.5m.
Form factors (FF) 𝑏2
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡
= 1.6 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 3) (370)
Form factors for subsonic-drag estimation can be
14.52
obtained from the following equation: 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 1.6
= 131.4𝑚2 = 1414.4𝑓𝑡 2 (371)
0.6 𝑡 𝑡 4 Fuselage
𝐹𝐹 = [1 + 𝑥 ( ) + 100 ( ) ]
(𝑐 ) 𝑐 𝑐 Flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient (Cf)
𝑚
0.455
[1.34𝑀0.18 (cos Λ 𝑚 )0.28 ] (359) 𝐶𝑓 = (log 𝑅𝑒) 2.58 (1+0.144𝑀2 )0.65 (372)
10
Where, Where,
𝑥 ρ∞ ×𝑉∞ ×𝑙𝑓
(𝑐 ) is the chordwise location of the airfoil maximum 𝑅𝑒 = (373)
𝑚 µ∞
thickness point, which is about 0.5 of the chord for
𝑙𝑓 = 16.10𝑚 = 52.8𝑓𝑡 (374)
high speed airfoil.
Λ 𝑚 is the sweep of the maximum-thickness line. Again, by using the critical altitude properties,
0.4135×𝑀×299.5×16.10
Thus, 𝑅𝑒 = = 13.6 × 107 × 𝑀 (375)
1.458×10−5
𝑥
(𝑐 ) ≅ 0.5 (360) Cutoff Re for subsonic region,
𝑚
52.8 1.053
𝑡
= 0.05 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 3) (361) 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 × (3.3×10−5 ) = 13.0 × 107
𝑐
(376)
Λ 𝑚 = tan−1 [(1 − 𝜇) tan Λ 𝐿𝐸 + 𝜇 tan Λ 𝑇𝐸 ] (362)
Cutoff Re for transonic and supersonic region,
Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45° (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 3) (363)
52.8 1.053
Λ 𝑇𝐸 = 8.37° (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠) (364) 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 44.62 × (3.3×10−5 ) × M1.16 =
15.22 × 107 × 𝑀1.16 (377)
𝜇 = location of maximum thickness as fraction of
chord ≅ 0.5 (365) Form factors (FF)
Λ 𝑚 = tan−1 [(1 − 0.5) tan 45 + 0.5 tan 8.37] = For fuselage, the form factors of the fuselage is as
29.83° (366) follow:
60 𝑓
Substitute into the equation, 𝐹𝐹 = (1 + 𝑓3 + 400) (378)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Where, 10.2 1.053
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 × (3.3×10−5 ) = 2.3 × 107
𝑙 𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑓=𝑑= (379) (394)
√(4⁄𝜋)𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
Cutoff Re for transonic and supersonic region,
1.053
𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 52.8𝑓𝑡 (380) 10.2
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 44.62 × ( ) × M1.16
2
3.3 × 10−5
𝜋𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4
(381) = 2.70 × 107 × 𝑀1.16 (395)
From study 4 the maximum fuselage diameter is Form factors (FF)
obtained as 1.23m = 4.03ft. Thus,
The form factor for horizontal tail is the same as for
𝜋(4.03)2 the wing.
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4
= 12.75𝑓𝑡 2 (382)
Thus, 0.6 𝑡 𝑡 4
𝐹𝐹 = [1 + 𝑥 ( ) + 100 ( ) ]
𝑓=𝑑=
𝑙 52.8
= 13.1 (383) (𝑐 ) 𝑐 𝑐
√(4⁄𝜋)12.75 𝑚
[1.34𝑀0.18 (cos Λ 𝑚 )0.28 ] (396)
By substituting the 𝑓 value into the main equation, Where,

𝑥
60 13.1
𝐹𝐹 = (1 + (13.1)3 + 400 ) = 1.06 (384) ( ) ≅ 0.5 (397)
𝑐 𝑚
Interference effects (Q) In study 4, for tail, airfoil with 6% 64A-006 thickness
is used. Then,
According to Raymer’s the fuselage has a negligible 𝑡
interference factor Q = 1.0 (385) = 0.06 (398)
𝑐
Wetted area (Swet) Λ 𝑚 is the sweep of the maximum-thickness line.

𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 2𝜋 × 𝑟 2 + 2𝜋 × 𝑟𝑙 (386) 𝜇 = location of maximum thickness as fraction of
𝑟 = 0.615𝑚 = 2𝑓𝑡 (387) chord ≅ 0.5 (399)
𝑙 = 52.8𝑓𝑡 (388) Λ 𝑚 = tan−1 [(1 − 𝜇) tan Λ 𝐿𝐸 + 𝜇 tan Λ 𝑇𝐸 ] (340)
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 2𝜋 × 22 + 2𝜋 × 2 × 52.8 = 676𝑓𝑡 2 (389) Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 50° (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 4) (341)
Horizontal tail Λ 𝑇𝐸 = 0° (342)
Flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient (Cf) Λ 𝑚 = tan−1 [(1 − 0.5) tan 50] = 30.8° (343)
0.455 By substituting these values,
𝐶𝑓 = (log (390)
10 𝑅𝑒)2.58 (1+0.144𝑀2 )0.65
0.6
Where, 𝐹𝐹 = [1 + (0.06) + 100(0.06)4 ]
0.5
ρ∞ ×𝑉∞ ×𝑐̅𝐻𝑇 [1.34𝑀0.18 (cos 30.8)0.28 ] = 1.37𝑀0.18 (344)
𝑅𝑒 = (391)
µ∞
Interference effects (Q)
𝑐̅𝐻𝑇 = 3.1𝑚 = 10.2𝑓𝑡 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 4) (392)
According to Raymer’s, for conventional tail, the
By using the properties at critical altitude,
interference is assumed to be about five percent.
0.4135×𝑀×299.5×3.1
𝑅𝑒 = 1.458×10−5
= 2.63 × 107 × 𝑀 (393) Q = 1.05 (345)
Wetted area (Swet)
Cutoff Re for subsonic region, As the aircraft’s horizontal tail t/c = 0.06 > 0.05, then
(346)
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 [1.977 + 0.52(𝑡/𝑐)] (347)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 22.46𝑚2 Λ 𝑚 = tan−1 [(1 − 𝜇) tan Λ 𝐿𝐸 + 𝜇 tan Λ 𝑇𝐸 ] (360)

= 241.8𝑓𝑡 2 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 4) (348) Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45° (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠) (361)
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 241.8[1.977 + 0.52(0.06)] Λ 𝑇𝐸 = 39° (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠) (362)
= 485.6𝑓𝑡 2 (349) Λ 𝑚 = tan−1 [(1 − 0.5) tan 45 + 0.5 tan 39] = 42.1°
(363)
Vertical tail
By substituting these values,
Flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient (Cf)
0.6
𝐶𝑓 = (log
0.455
(350) 𝐹𝐹 = [1 + (0.06) + 100(0.06)4 ]
10 𝑅𝑒)2.58 (1+0.144𝑀2 )0.65 0.5
Where, [1.34𝑀0.18 (cos 42.1)0.28 ] = 1.3𝑀0.18 (364)
𝑅𝑒 =
ρ∞ ×𝑉∞ ×𝑐̅𝑉𝑇
(351) Interference effects (Q)
µ∞
According to Raymer’s, for conventional tail, the
Where 𝑐̅𝑉𝑇 is the mean chord of the vertical tail. interference is assumed to be about five percent.
𝑐̅𝑉𝑇 = 1.73𝑚 = 5.67𝑓𝑡 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 4) (352) Q = 1.05 (365)
By using the properties at critical altitude, Wetted area (Swet)
0.4135×𝑀×299.5×1.73
𝑅𝑒 = = 1.5 × 107 × 𝑀 (353) 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 [1.977 + 0.52(𝑡/𝑐)] (366)
1.458×10−5
Cutoff Re for subsonic region, 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 10.68𝑚2

5.67 1.053 = 115𝑓𝑡 2 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 4) (367)
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 × ( −5 ) = 1.2 × 107
3.3×10
(354) 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 115[1.977 + 0.52(0.06)] = 231𝑓𝑡 2 (368)
Cutoff Re for transonic and supersonic region, Inlet
5.67 1.053 Flat-plate skin-friction drag coefficient (Cf)

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 44.62 × ( ) × M1.16 0.455
3.3 × 10−5 𝐶𝑓 = (log 2.58 (1+0.144𝑀2 )0.65 (369)
10 𝑅𝑒)
7 1.16
= 1.45 × 10 × 𝑀 (355)
Where,
Form factors (FF) ρ∞ ×𝑉∞ ×𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑅𝑒 = (370)
The form factor for vertical tail is the same as for the µ∞
wing. 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 2.99𝑚 = 9.8𝑓𝑡 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠) (371)
0.6 𝑡 𝑡 4 By using the properties at critical altitude,

𝐹𝐹 = [1 + 𝑥 ( ) + 100 ( ) ] 0.4135×𝑀×299.5×2.99
(𝑐 ) 𝑐 𝑐 𝑅𝑒 = = 2.5 × 107 × 𝑀 (372)
𝑚 1.458×10−5
[1.34𝑀0.18 (cos Λ 𝑚 )0.28 ] (356)

Where, Cutoff Re for subsonic region,
𝑥 9.83 1.053
(𝑐 ) ≅ 0.5 (357) 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 38.21 × (3.3×10−5 ) = 2.2 × 107
𝑚
(373)
In study 4, for tail, airfoil with 6% 64A-006 thickness
is used. Cutoff Re for transonic and supersonic region,
𝑡 1.053
= 0.06 (358) 9.8
𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 44.62 × ( ) × M1.16
3.3 × 10−5
Λ 𝑚 is the sweep of the maximum-thickness line.
= 2.6 × 107 × M1.16 (374)
𝜇 = location of maximum thickness as fraction of
Form factors (FF)
chord ≅ 0.5 (359)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Form factor of inlet can be calculated from the zone. Protuberance include antenna, lights and some
following equation: of manufacturing defects. Usually these drag
0.35 increments are estimated as a percent of the total
𝐹𝐹 = 1 + ( 𝑓
) (375) parasite drag. For current-design fighters, the value
ranges between 10-15%.
Where,
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 In this analysis, 10% from the total parasite drag will
𝑓= = (376) be taken into account.
𝑑 √(4⁄𝜋)𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 2.99𝑚 = 9.8𝑓𝑡 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠) (377) Supersonic wave drag (CD wave)
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 0.828𝑚2 = 8.6𝑓𝑡 2 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 4)(378) Wave drag is a pressure drag due to shocks, and the
9.8
value is often be greater than all the other drag put
𝑓= = 2.9 (379) together. It can be calculated by using the following
√(4⁄𝜋)8.6
equation from Raymer’s:
0.35
𝐹𝐹 = 1 + ( 2.9 ) = 1.12 (380)
(𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸𝑊𝐷 [1 − 0.386(𝑀 − 1.2)0.57
Interference effects (Q) 𝜋Λ0.77
𝐿𝐸−𝑑𝑒𝑔
(1 − 100
)](𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠−𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑘 (388)
As the inlet is mounted less than about one diameter
away, Q = 1.3 (381) Defining the equation for wave drag of Sears-Haack
Wetted area (Swet) body,
2
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 = 11.37𝑚2 (𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠−𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑘 =
9𝜋
(
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
) (389)
2 𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
2
= 122.4𝑓𝑡 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠) (382)
where this is the minimum possible wave drag for any
Miscellaneous drag (CDmisc) closed-end body.
The miscellaneous drag is determined from Raymer 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum cross sectional area of fuselage
book without including the inlet capture area.
From the study 2, the aircraft carries 2 bombs, 7 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12.75𝑓𝑡 2 (390)
missiles and 1 canon
𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 52.8 − 29.9 = 22.9𝑓𝑡 (391)
Drag from the bomb on wing:
The length of aircraft that is used in the calculation
𝐷 2 2 2 should be subtracted with the portion that have the
𝑞
= 0.2𝑓𝑡 = 0.018𝑚 𝑥 2 = 0.036𝑚 (383)
constant cross sectional area, which is 9.14m (29.9ft)
Drag of the missiles: which is obtained with the help of SolidWorks.
𝐷 Thus,
𝑞
= 0.15𝑓𝑡 2 = 0.014𝑚2 𝑥 7 = 0.098𝑚2 (384)
9𝜋 12.75 2
(𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠−𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑘 =
2
( 22.9 ) = 4.38𝑓𝑡 2 (392)
Drag of gun on fuselage:
𝐷 EWD is an empirical wave-drag efficiency factor and is
𝑞
= 0.25𝑓𝑡 2 = 0.023𝑚2 (385) the ratio between actual wave drag and the Sears-Hack
value. According to Raymer’s, the typical supersonic
Therefore, total of the drag is 0.157m2. By taking the fighter has an EWD of about 1.4 – 2.0. A poor
wing as the reference area, (386) supersonic design with a very bumpy volume
0.157 distribution can have an EWD of 2.0 – 3.0. In this case,
𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 = = 2.3 × 10−3 (387)
67.4 a value of 2.5 will be chosen considering the aircraft’s
Leakage and protuberance drag (CD L&P) design itself.
Leaks and protuberance add drag that is difficult to Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45° (from previous study) (393)
predict by any method. Leakage drag is due to the Therefore,
tendency of an aircraft to ‘inhale’ through holes in
high pressure zones and exhale into the low pressure
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
(𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = (2.5)[1 − 0.386(𝑀 − 1.2)0.57 causing the outer part of the wing to fly in an effective
𝜋(45)0.77
downwash.
(1 − 100
)]4.38 (394)
Oswald span efficiency method is the first of the
two is the classical method based upon on the
Oswald span efficiency factor. Methods are presented
(𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = (10.95)[1 − 0.386(𝑀 − 1.2)0.57
for subsonic monoplanes along with an empirical
(0.41)]𝑓𝑡 2 (395) equation for supersonic speed.
Uncambered:
To get the result as wave drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 , the 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + K𝐶𝐿2 (397)
obtained (𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 will be divided by wing Cambered:
reference area 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 , which is 67.4m2 (725.5ft2) (396)
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 + K(𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 )2 (398)
By setting all of the parameters in MATLAB, the
values of CD0 as a function of Mach number are The drag polar also has a parabolic shape but is offset
obtained, and the result then is plotted by using excel. vertically as defined by cambered equation. For wings
of moderate camber this offset is usually small, which
implies that 𝐶𝐷0 approximately equals 𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 and that
uncambered equation may be used.
0.03
0.025 For subsonic speeds,
0.02 Form factor is given by Equation 12.48 in Raymer:
0.015 1
0.01 𝐾 = 𝜋∗𝐴𝑅∗𝑒 (399)
0.005
Where 𝑒 is given in Equation 12.50 in Raymer as
0
Oswald span efficiency factor (for swept-wing
0 0.5 1 1.5
Aircraft):
Figure 43. Mach number vs Cd,0(parasite drag) e = 4.61(1 - 0.045𝐴𝑅 0.68)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∧𝐿𝐸 )0.15- 3.1 (400)
Drag due to lift (induced drag) = 4.61(1-0.045∗ 3.120.68 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠0.7853)0.15 − 3.1
The induced drag also called drag due to lift will be =0.95
investigated for general aviation aircraft. This type of 1
Therefore, 𝐾 = 𝜋∗3.12∗0.95 = 0.1074 (401)
drag is proportional to the square of the lift coefficient,
but with a drag due to lift factor K. This factor can be At supersonic speeds, the drag-due-to lift factor (K)
approximated in two ways, the first way is based on experiences a substantial increase. In terms of Oswald
the Oswald span efficiency and the second way is the efficiency factor, e is reduced to approximately 0.3-
concept of leading edge suction. The first method is 0.5 at Mach 1.2. the below equation provides a Form
assuming that a wing has elliptical lift distribution, but factor is given by Equation 12.52 in Raymer as a quick
this is not satisfied in reality by all wings and wing estimation of K at supersonic speeds.
separation drag is not included in this assumption. The 𝐴𝑅(𝑀 2 −1)
Oswald span efficiency factor e is generally around 𝐾= 𝑐𝑜𝑠⋀𝐿𝐸 (402)
4𝐴𝑅√𝑀 2 −1−2
0.7-0.85, but formulas for swept wing aircraft are
present and are also somewhat more accurate.
The induced drag due to the circulation about the
airfoil that is for a three-dimensional wing, produces
vortices in the airflow behind the wing. Also, for
Another way to look at induced drag is that the higher-
pressure air under the wing escapes around the wingtip
to upper surface of the wing, reducing the lift and
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
K for supersonic speeds is calculated in MATLAB 𝐾 = 𝑆𝐾100 + (1 − 𝑆)𝐾0 (407)
with respect to different Mach Numbers, and the graph The percent of Leading-edge suction a wing attains(S)
of Mach Number vs Induced Drag is obtained as: varies between 0.85 and 0.95. So, S is selected as
0.9,and equation becomes:
Therefore,
𝐾=0.9×0.107178+(1−0.9) × 𝐾0 (408)
After all these calculations done in MATLAB, the
graph of induced drag factor, K vs Mach Number is
obtained as:
Figure 44. Induced Drag Factor using Oswald efficiency
Leading-edge suction method is the second Method

for the estimation of K is based upon the concept of
leading-edge suction and provides, for high-speed
designs, a better estimate of K, one that includes the
Figure 45. Induced Drag Factor using leading edge suction
effects of the change in viscous separation as lift co-
efficient on the drag due to lift at different lift co- The figure below shows the relation of K at various
efficient. regions. The 100% K value in subsonic flight is the
Induced drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷𝑖 is given by Equation inverse of the aspect ratio times pi.
12.56 in Raymer:
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐾𝐶𝐿 2 ≅ 𝑎𝐶𝐿 (403)
K includes two value which are 𝐾0 and 𝐾100 :
𝑎𝐶𝐿 𝑎 1
𝐾0 = 𝐶𝐿 2
=𝐶 =𝐶 (404)
𝐿 𝐿𝛼
𝐾0 is valid for all speeds which are subsonic, transonic

and supersonic. The value of 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 is taken from section
1 (Finding lift curve slope) of this study and used it in
MATLAB code.
The value of 0% K value is the inverse of the slope lift
curve as displayed in the below equation (405).
𝑙 𝑙
𝑓=𝑑= 4
(405)
√( )𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜋
Figure 46. Induced Drag Factor and Mach Relation[69]
1 1
𝐾100 =
𝜋∗𝐴𝑅
=
𝜋∗3.12
= 0.102 (406) Performance analysis of the aircraft
Calculation of maximum speed with afterburner
𝐾100 is valid for only subsonic speeds. It cannot be
used for transonic and supersonic speeds. Therefore, The engine has been choosing out of 7 aircraft
nothing is written for transonic and supersonic region according to it capability of carrying the aircraft as
for𝐾100 in MATLAB. At the end, total K is given by F135-PW-100 which provide 190 KN thrust with after
Equation 12.58 in Raymer: burner and 125 KN without after burner to calculate
maximum speed of the aircraft first combat weigh is
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
calculated then using the 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 formula in Anderson s 2×196,674.71
𝐶𝐿 = 0.4135×67.4×419.32 = 0.0803 (435)
book, maximum velocity has to obtained
𝐶𝐿 = (0.017 + 0.359 × 0.08032 ) = 0.0199 (436)
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡 = 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 + 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
At Mach 1.4, 0.0803 lift coefficient is required.
+𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓,40% (409)
𝑇𝑅 = 0.5 × 1.4 × 419.3 × 67.4 × 0.0199 (437)
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡 = 15581.79 + 170
𝑇𝑅 = 48,802 𝑁 (438)
+1131 + 3165.6 (410)
This is the required thrust for this aircraft to achieve
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡 = 20,048.39 𝑘𝑔 = 196,674.71 𝑁 (411) 1.4, Mach speed since𝑇𝐴 > 𝑇𝑅 , this aircraft satisfies
Using equation 5.50 in Anderson’s book: the maximum speed requirement with afterburner.
Calculation of maximum speed without
𝑊 𝑊 √ 𝑇𝐴⁄ 2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √(𝑇𝐴 ⁄𝑊) ⁄𝑆 + ⁄𝑆× ( 𝑊) − 4𝐶𝐷,0 𝐾 (412)
afterburner
𝜌∞ ×𝐶𝐷,0
From F135-PW-100 engine data, dry thrust is
𝐶𝐷,0 = 0.017 (at Mach 1.4) (413) obtained as 125 KN, using equation 186, 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
without afterburner is obtained as follows:
K = 0.359 (at Mach 1.4) (414)
𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =125 × 0.9 = 112.5 𝐾𝑁 = 11,250𝑁 (439)
Maximum thrust is:
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =1.47 (without afterburner) (440)
𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 190 𝐾𝑁 (415)
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡
All these calculations are in the MATLAB code.
𝑆
= 2918.02 𝐾 ⁄𝑚2 (416)
Range calculation with full payload and without
The loss of thrust available is 10,000 is calculated as payload
follows: For calculating the range, the requirement is at sea
𝑇𝐴,10,000𝑚 𝜌 level altitude with maximum takeoff gross weight, full
𝑇𝐴,𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
= (𝜌 10,000𝑚 )2 = 80212 𝑁 (417)
𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 payload and without payload, and all fuel needs to be
At which air density is: consumed for this mission. Range formula from
Anderson’s book will be used.
𝜌10,000𝑚 = 0.4135 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 (418)
1
⁄
2 2 𝐶𝐿 2 1⁄ 1⁄
𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 1.225 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 (419) 𝑅= √ (𝑊2 2 − 𝑊3 2
) (441)
𝑐𝑡 𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
When n = 0.6, for general turbofan engines, since there
Equation 1 is a simplified range equation for a jet
will be installation losses, since there will be
propelled airplane. From this equation, the flight
installation losses occur when the engines is on the
condition for maximum range for a jet propelled
aircraft 𝑇𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is multiplied by the factor of 0.9, all the ⁄ 1
𝐶𝐿 2
calculation shown in Matlab code when all the values airplane are fly at maximum , have the lowest
𝐶𝐷
are inserted in to equation in the code,
possible thrust specific fuel consumption, fly at high
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.8712 (420) altitude, where 𝜌∞ is small, and carry a lot of fuel.
Now let check for the steady level flight for 𝑇𝑅 = D, Since not all of these condition same as the mission,
what if this fighter proves the availability of reaching there will be a difference.
mach 1.4. To be able to find out the range at sea level, need to
1⁄
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = (1.4)(299.5) = 419.3 𝑚⁄𝑠 (421) 𝐶𝐿 2
determine the value of 𝐶𝐷
by using the formula
1 2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = × 𝜌∞ × 𝑉∞ × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝐷 (422) below.
2
⁄1
𝐶𝐷 = (𝐶𝐷,0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 ) (433) (
𝐶𝐿 2
)
3
= (
1 1⁄
3 )
4 (442)
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 4 3𝐾𝐶𝑑,0
𝐶𝐿 at 10,000m, M=1.4 is calculated as:
2 ×𝑊
For the zero lift drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑,0 was found before
𝐶𝐿 = 𝜌×𝑆×𝑉 2 (434) 0.0176 (according to the calculation in induced drag
∞
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1⁄
𝐶𝐿 2
factor) and K is 0.158. Where is a maximum 2 2
𝐶𝐷 𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 = √ 27.7790
0.8 1.225 × 67.4
range, the zero lift drag equals 3 times the drag due to 3600
lift. Insert all these values into equation 2, then it can 1⁄ 1⁄
be found as below. (222,340 2 − 144,710 2)
1⁄ 1⁄
𝐶 2 3 1 4 = 2728.92𝑘𝑚 (453)
( 𝐿 ) = ( 3 )
𝐶𝐷 4 3𝐾𝐶𝑑,0 Endurance calculation for full payload
𝑚𝑎𝑥
For jet-driven aircraft the formula that is used is
3 1 1⁄
= 4 (3×0.158×0.01763 ) 4 = 18.706 (443) 1 𝐿 𝑊𝑖
𝐸= 𝑐𝑡
× 𝐷
× 𝑙𝑛 𝑊 (454)
𝑖+1
Since W2 and W3 are needed, which is in cruise
segment, it can be determined as below. Where 𝑊0 = 24733𝑘𝑔 and 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 7914𝑘𝑔 and c
𝑊2 𝑊 𝑊 = 0.8 is taken from study 2 (455)
𝑊0
= 𝑊1 × 𝑊2 (444)
0 1 For calculating the L/D maximum the formula is
𝑊1 𝑊2
𝑊2 = 𝑊0
× 𝑊1
× 𝑊0 (445) 𝐿 1
𝐷
= √4×𝐶 (456)
𝐷,0 ×𝐾
Where
Where the value of 𝐶𝐷,0 = 0.0176 and K = 0.158 is
𝑊1 𝑊2
𝑖𝑠 0.97(𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓), 𝑖𝑠 0.99(𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏), taken from study 4. (457)
𝑊0 𝑊1
The L/D max is obtained as 9.48 (458)
𝑊0 𝑖𝑠 242,630𝑁 (446)
Since the loiter is performed after take-off and
𝑊2 = 0.97 × 0.99 × 242,630 = 233,000𝑁 (447)
climbing, the calculation of weight initial will be
𝑊3 = 𝑊2 − 𝑊𝑓 = 233,000 − 77,636
The weight ratio of take-off and climbing is taken
= 155,360𝑁 (448) from study 2 based on Raymer book
𝑊1
After finding all these values, then insert it into For take-off 𝑊0
= 0.97 (459)
equation 1 where specific fuel consumption is 0.7/h,
𝑊2
planform area is 67.4m, and density is 1.225 kg/m3. For climbing = 0.99 (460)
𝑊1
2 2 Endurance between 𝑊2 − 𝑊3 is estimated as

𝑅= √ 27.7790
0.8 1.225 × 67.4 𝑊2 = 23743𝑘𝑔 × 9.81 = 232918.83𝑁 (461)
3600
1⁄ 1⁄ 𝑊3 = 𝑊0 − 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (462)
(233,000 2 − 155,360 2) = 2651.4𝑘𝑚 (449)
𝑊3 = 16819kg × 9,81 = 164994.39N (463)
For the range without payload, maximum takeoff
gross weight is needed to be subtracted by payload, By inserting the values, the equation will be
which yields; 1 232918.83𝑁
𝐸= 0.8/3600
× 9.48 × 𝑙𝑛 164994.39N (464)
𝑊0,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 242,630 − 11,095 = 231,540𝑁 (450)
𝐸 = 14708𝑠 = 4.08 ℎour (465)
𝑊2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 222,340𝑁 (451)
The aircraft can fly with full payload in 4.08 hour
𝑊3,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 144,710𝑁 (452)
Endurance calculation without payload
Substituting these into the same formula into equation
The approach of this problem is similar with previous
1, which yields;
one, but rather than using the full takeoff weight, the
takeoff weight is subtracted by the payload weight
𝑊0(𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) = 𝑊0(𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑)
− 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑎𝑜𝑑 (466)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Since the 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑑 = 1131𝑘𝑔, 𝑊0 = 23602𝑘𝑔 (467) inserting the parameters in Excel, the graph and plot
will be:
And estimation weight after take-off and climbing
will be Table 39. Rate of climb in different altitude
𝑊2 = 22665𝑘𝑔 × 9.81 = 222343.65𝑁 (468) Altitude (m) Density (kg/m3) Maximum rate of
climb (m/s)
𝑊3 = 𝑊2 − 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (469) 0 1.225 198.07
1000 1.112 180.40
𝑊3 = 15688kg × 9.81 = 153899.28N (470) 2000 1.007 162.73
By inserting the value to the formula 3000 0.9093 145.06
4000 0.8194 127.39
1 222343.65𝑁 5000 0.7364 109.72
𝐸= 0.8/3600
× 9.48 × 𝑙𝑛 153899.28N
(471)
6000 0.6601 92.05
𝐸 = 15695𝑠 = 4.35 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (472) 7000 0.59 74.39
8000 0.5258 56.71
Service ceiling and absolute ceiling 9000 0.4671 39.04
10000 0.4135 21.37
The service ceiling and absolute ceiling depend on the 11053.5 - 5
properties of maximum climb rate and the altitude of 11583.26 - 0
aircraft. When the aircraft reach the altitude where the
14000
maximum climb rate is zero or the highest altitude
achieved in steady level flight, this altitude is 12000
10000
Altitude (m)
determined as absolute ceiling, and for another
parameter service ceiling where the altitude when the 8000
aircraft reach the upper limit for steady level flight. 6000
4000
To find the service ceiling and absolute ceiling the plot
2000
between (𝑅⁄𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 for every altitude needs to be
0
deployed, and by draw a line in parameter it is be able
0 50 100 150 200 250
to find the altitude where it is located
Maximum Rate of Climb (m/s)
(𝑅⁄𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0 (for absolute ceiling) (473)
(𝑅⁄𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 (for service ceiling) (474) Figure 47. Maximum rate of climb vs altitude
By using the equation of (𝑅⁄𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 from Anderson Rate of climb (R/C)
book
1/2
(𝑊⁄𝑆)𝑍 𝑇 𝑍
(𝑅/𝐶)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [3 𝜌 ] (𝑊)1/2 [1 − −
∞ 𝐶𝐷,0 6
3
2 ] (475)
2(𝑇⁄𝑊)2 (𝐿⁄𝐷) 𝑍
𝑚𝑎𝑥
And
3
𝑍 =1+ √ 𝑇 2 𝐿
2 (476)
( ⁄ 𝑊) ( ⁄𝐷) 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Parasite drag at Mach 0.8 has taken for this equation,

Figure 48. Force and velocity diagrams for climbing
since the L/D hit the maximum value when the flight[70]
parasite drag is at the lowest point with the value of
L/D maximum is 9.58 and parasite drag is 0.0176, The An aircraft must be able to provide some special duties
other parameter has been written in previous number, which depend on the ability performance of the
all parameter has been known for this case. By aircraft. Encountering a major obstacle ahead such as
a large building, a hill, a mountain, encountering bad
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
weather conditions or turbulence at some altitudes by 𝑅 190∗103
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐶 = 333.1427 (24733∗9.81)
climbing rapidly to higher height, scrambling of a
military aircraft to take off and intercepting a target at
1.225 × 333.14273 × 0.0165
some prescribed altitude and the time during targeting −
24733 × 9.81
are reasons that are based on the climbing 2( )
67.4
characteristics of the airplane. For these and other
reasons, the climb performance of an airplane is an 2 × 0.1506 24733 × 9.81
essential part of the overall performance scenario.26 − ( )
1.225 × 333.1427 67.4
For the case where it is needed to determine the rate of 𝑚
climb, the focus to the aircraft will be according to the = 192.05 (480)
𝑠
steady, unaccelerated climbing flight conditions, not
steady, level flight properties as done before. The rate of climb equation demonstrates that the thrust
to weight ratio plays an important role in determining
The Figure 21 demonstrates a vector diagram that R/C. Also, it is important to note that an increase in
contains the velocity of the airplane 𝑉∞ into its vertical wing loading increases not only the R/C but also the
and horizontal components that are respectively velocity. Finally, it can have noted that although
symbolized as 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑉𝐻 . The vertical component is velocity increases with increase in altitude, R/C being
accepted as the rate of climb of the aircraft which is dominated by T/W decreases with increasing altitude.
denoted as 𝑉∞ ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 where 𝜃 is known as the
climb angle.
For a jet aircraft, the thrust is essentially constant with Stall speed
velocity, the climb equations can directly be
The stall speed can be calculated directly by the
maximized for best climb conditions. Since T/W term
maximum lift coefficient and the wing loading.
is constant with velocity, the velocity for best L/D
Increasing the stall speed is affecting to the aircraft,
should be selected to maximize climb angle.
high stall speed is very dangerous to the aircraft and
W stall speed has greatly contributed to the safety of an
T T 2
VH = √ 3ρCS [W + √(W) + 12CD0 K] (477) aircraft. Requirements should be performed by
D0
maximum take-off weight and sea level conditions.
24733∗9.81
From the previous study as the design requirements
190∗103 190∗103 2
𝑉𝐻 = √ 67.4
[ + √( ) + 12 ∗ 0.0165 ∗ 0.158] the stall speed should be less or equal to 73.73 m/s,
3∗1.225∗0.0165 24733∗9.81 24733∗9.81
With or without high lift device can be calculated the
𝑚
stall speed.
= 333.20 𝑠
(478)
2 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑛
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =√𝜌 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
(481)
Hence, in order to satisfy this requirement of rate of ∞
climb, by using the previous equations as by putting Taking value for maximum clean lift coefficient from
all the values inside the equation above, R/C can be the above study, thus, maximum clean lift coefficient
found using the calculations inside MATLAB. (without high lift devices) is obtained as 1.113 at 0.2
𝑅 𝑇−𝐷 M and 1.0533 at 0.5 M at sea level conditions.
𝑉𝑉 = = 𝑉( )=
𝐶 𝑊 Without high lift devices (clean configuration)
𝑇 𝜌𝑉 3 𝐶𝐷0 2𝐾 𝑊
𝑉 (𝑊) − 𝑊 − 𝜌𝑉 ( 𝑆 ) (479) 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 : maximum takeoff gross weight can be
2( )
𝑆
calculated as maximum take-off weight ×
The equation given below is used by using the value gravitational force × take-off weight fraction
of 𝑉𝐻 to calculate the rate of climb as shown: S: planform area which is equal to 67.4 m2 (482)
𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 24733 × 9.81 ×0.97
𝑆
= 67.4
= 3491.86 N/m2 (483)
For steady level flight, n is equal to 1. And density at

sea level 𝜌∞ = 1.225 kg/m3 (484)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
For M = 0.2 which is 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 1.113, 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 can be 2 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑛
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎℎ𝑙𝑑 =√𝜌 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
obtained as: ∞
2 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑛 2 1
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑑 =√𝜌 = √1.225 × 3491.86 × 1.94
∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
2 1 = 54.209 m/s (490)

= √1.225 × 3491.86 × 1.113
Thus, the value of stall speed at 0.2 M and 0.5 M which
= 71 .569 m/s (485) are equal to 52.103 m/s and 54.209 m/s respectively,
they are less than stall speed from design requirements
For M = 0.5 which is 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 1.0533, 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 can
therefore, 52.103 m/s and 54.209 m/s < 73.73 m/s,
be obtained as: requirement is satisfied.
2 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑛 Takeoff distance
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑑 =√𝜌 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
∞
The take-off distance is the ground where the airplane
2 1
= √1.225 × 3491.86 × touch before flight. The liftoff speed for a normal take-
1.0533
off procedure is 1.1 times the stall speed. The obstacle
= 73.569 m/s (486) clearance distance is the distance required from brake
release until the aircraft has reached some attitude
Therefore, for both stall speed at 0.2 M and 0.5 M
specifically. This is usually 50 ft for military or small
which are equal to 71 .569 m/s and 73.569 m/s
civil aircraft and 35 ft for commercial aircraft. For
respectively, they are less than stall speed from design
design requirement the takeoff distance should be 350
requirements so, 71 .569 m/s and 73.569 m/s < 73.73
m (1148.29 ft) To sum up, calculate in terms of
m/s, requirement is satisfied.
maximum take-off gross weight, take-off distance is
With high lift devices calculated from the following formula.
Stall speed can be obtained as an above formula:
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎℎ𝑙𝑑 = √ (487)
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥,ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
From the previous study, maximum clean lift

coefficient (with high lift devices) is calculated so,
maximum clean lift coefficient (with high lift devices)
are obtained as 2.1 at 0.2 M and 1.94 at 0.5 M at sea
level conditions.
𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓
By taking value from above study for 𝑆
which
2
is equal to 3491.86 N/m and as well as planform area
(S) equal to 67.4 m2 and again at steady level flight n
= 1, and density at sea level 𝜌∞ = 1.225 kg/m3 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 Figure 49. Takeoff distance estimation[71]
can be calculated as follows;
From above figure, take off parameters can be
calculated from the following formula.
For M = 0.2, 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎℎ𝑙𝑑 = 2.1 (488) 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 /𝑆
TOP = 𝜎×𝐶 (491)
𝐿𝑇𝑂 ×(𝑇/𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 )
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎℎ𝑙𝑑 =√𝜌 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
∞ Take off parameter (TOP) is the take0ff wing loading
divided by multiplication of density ratio (𝜎), take off
2 1
=√ × 3491.86 × lift coefficient (𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑂 ) and takeoff thrust-to-weight
1.225 2.1
ratio.
= 52.103 m/s (489)
The density ratio (𝜎) can be calculated as simply the
For M=0.5, 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎℎ𝑙𝑑 = 1.94 air density (𝜌) at the takeoff altitude divided by the sea
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
level density which is equal to 1.225 kg/m3 (0.00238 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 /𝑆
TOP = 𝜎×𝐶
slugs/cubic ft). 𝐿𝑇𝑂 ×(𝑇/𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 )
72.929
Since the takeoff required altitude is at sea level. The =1×1.15×0.935 = 74.335 lb/ft2 (495)
𝜌
density ratio (𝜎) is equal to 1, which is 𝜌𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1.
𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 According to above figure, corresponds to takeoff
Maximum takeoff gross weight to wing area was parameter, takeoff distance approximately found as
1100 ft
calculated from stall speed section, which is
𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒−𝑜𝑓𝑓 24733 × 9.81 ×0.97 Therefore, take-off distance, 1100 ft < 1148.29 ft
𝑆
= 67.4 requirement is satisfied.
= 3491.86 N/m2 = 72.929 lb/ft2 (492) And one more way that can be calculated takeoff
distance while discussing in the classroom.
From the previous study, as competitor data obtained 𝑊
before, average T/W ratio is found as follows: 1.21 ( )
𝑆
Sg = 𝑇
𝑔 × 𝜌∞ × 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ×( )
𝑊
Table 40. Thrust to Weight ration of seven
competitors’ aircraft 1.21 × 3491.86
=9.81 × 1.225 × 1.395×0.935 = 269.557 m (496)
Competitor Aircraft Typical Installed T/W Again, take off distance (Sg) which is equal to
269.557 m < 350 m (design requirement) is satisfied.
Dassault Mirage 2000B 0.7
Landing distance
KAI T-50 Golden Eagle 0.92
The analysis for landing performance is the same as
Chengdu J-10S 1.15 takeoff, only in reverse. And it has been referred to
many several values. Landing ground roll is the most
Chengdu / PAC JF-17B 0.82 precise distance for the aircraft which travels from the
time when the wheels firstly touch to the ground or the
F-16D Block 52 1.095 distance that the airplane rolls on the ground when the
wheel first touch to the ground until the velocity of an
JAS 39F Gripen 0.97 aircraft become zero. From design requirement the
landing distance should be 650 m (2132.55 ft) or less.
Mitsubishi F-2 series B 0.89 Landing distance can be calculated as the equations
that are given below.
By using above table. Average of thrust to weight ratio
𝑇
is determined as: 𝑊 = 0.935 (493)
0
The takeoff lift coefficient (𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑂 ) is the actual lift

coefficient at takeoff, not the maximum lift coefficient
as used for stall calculation. The air craft takes off at
about 1.1 times the stall speed, so the takeoff lift
coefficient is the maximum takeoff lift coefficient
divided by 1.21.
According to table 16, from table 5 airfoil list 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
can be obtained as 1.395
Thus, 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑂 = 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 /1.21 = 1.395/1.21 = 1.15 (494) Figure 50. Landing path and landing distance[72]
Since the unknown variables are solved here so, take
some parameters from the figure should be considered.
off parameter (TOP) can be calculated as follows;
𝑉𝑓 : Average flight velocity during flare. (1.23Vstall for
commercial aircraft and 1.15Vstall for military aircraft)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑉𝑇𝐷 : Touchdown velocity (1.15Vstall for commercial The approach distance (𝑠𝑎 ) to clear a 50 ft (15.24 m)
aircraft and 1.1Vstall for military aircraft) obstacle is:
R: Flight path radius during flare. 15.24 − ℎ𝑓 15.24 − 3.7752
𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑎
= 𝑇𝑎𝑛(3)
= 218.7611 m (503)
𝜃𝑎 : Approach angle
The flare distance (𝑠𝑓 ) is:
ℎ𝑓 : The flare height
𝑠𝑓 = R×sin(3)
𝜇𝑟 : Friction constant (at dry asphalt condition 0.4)
From table 6.1 Anderson = 2754.639 × sin(3) = 144.1698 m (504)
TREV: Reverse thrust (for fighters is taken as 0) The ground roll is approximate by:
𝑆𝑎 : Approach distance 2 𝑤 1
𝑠𝑔 = 𝑗𝑁√
𝑆𝑓 : Flare distance 𝜌∞ 𝑠 (𝐶𝐿 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑤
𝑆𝑔 : Ground roll distance 𝑗2 ( )
𝑠
+ 𝑇 𝐷 𝐿 (505)
𝑔𝜌∞ (𝐶𝐿 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 [ 𝑟𝑒𝑣 + + 𝜇𝑟 (1− )]0.7𝑉𝑇𝐷
Those area all parameters that need to be considered. 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
Before calculating the landing distance, 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 should Where j = 1.15 for commercial aircraft, j = 1.1 for
be obtain by the following equation and for density at military aircraft. N = 3 s (discussing in class),
sea level, maximum takeoff gross weight and 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
1.395 (From above study) can obtain, 𝜇𝑟 : Friction constant (at dry asphalt condition 0.4)
From table 6.1 Anderson
2 𝑊 1 2 1
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √ =√ × 3491.86 × 𝑠𝑔 = 209.6744 m (506)
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.225 1.395
= 63.927 m/s (209.734 ft/s) (497) Total distance equal to Flare distance (𝑠𝑓 ) + Ground
Roll distance (𝑠𝑔 ) + Approach distance (𝑠𝑎 )
For military aircraft, the average flight velocity during
flare (𝑉𝑓 ) is: = 144.1698 + 209.6744 + 218.7611
𝑉𝑓 = 1.15𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1.15×63.927 = 572.6052 m (507)
= 73.516 m/s (241.194 ft/s) (498) Again, Landing distance (Sg) which is equal to
572.6052 m < 650 m (design requirement) is satisfied.
And the touch down velocity (𝑉𝑇𝐷 ) is:
Instantaneous turn rate and V-n diagram
𝑉𝑇𝐷 = 1.1𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
Instantaneous turn rate is given by the formula below.
= 1.1×63.927 = 70.319 m/s (230.705 ft/s) (499)
𝑔√𝑛2 −1
𝜔= (508)
For the flight path radius during flare (R) is given: 𝑣∞
𝑉𝑓2 From equation 1, to obtain the largest possible turn

R = 0.2×𝑔
rate, it should have the highest possible load factor and
(73.516)2 the lowest possible velocity. 𝜔 depends only on 𝑣∞
= 0.2×9.81
= 2754.639 m (9037.529 ft) (500) and n design characteristics such as W/S, T/W, and the
𝜃𝑎 : Approach angle can be calculated from the drag polar, as well as altitude, do not appear explicitly.
following equations; Even though the expressions for 𝜔 in general contains
only 𝑣∞ and n, there are specific constraints on the
1 𝑇
sin(𝜃𝑎 ) = 𝐿/𝐷
− 𝑊 and 𝜃𝑎 can be estimated around 3 values 𝑣∞ and n for a given aircraft, and these
degrees (501) constants do depend on the design characteristics and
altitude.
For the flare height (ℎ𝑓 ) is given:
Before calculating instantaneous turn rate, maximum
ℎ𝑓 = R(1-cos𝜃𝑎 ) load factor is needed to be found, where the load factor
is the ratio of lift to weight.
= 2754.639(1-cos(3)) = 3.7752 m (502)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝐿 𝐿 𝐷 𝐿 𝑇 and maximum bank angle versus flight velocity will
𝑛 ≡ 𝑊 = 𝐷𝑊 = 𝐷𝑊 (509)
be found by MATLAB as below.
To be able to calculate load factor, V-n diagram must
From figure above, maximum load factor is 8.34.
be obtained where this diagram includes two parts
which are stall region(1) and excess power region(2). In stall speed L=W, therefore 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 in stall speed.
In stall region, 𝐶𝐿 is the most power of aircraft
consumed, and 𝐶𝐿 is dominant character in that region.
It is different from excess power region, where this
region consumes the most power by 𝑣∞ which means
𝑣∞ is dominant in this region. There will be two
formulas according to the region which will be used to
determine the diagram.
1 2 𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1) = 2 × 𝜌∞ × 𝑣∞ × 𝑊⁄ (510)
𝑆
1 0.5
𝜌 𝑣2
𝑇 1 𝐶 Figure 51. Thrust and maximum lift coefficient
2 ∞ ∞
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 (2) = {𝐾(𝑊 [(𝑊)𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜌 𝑣 2 𝐷,0 ]}
2 ∞ ∞ 𝑊⁄𝑆
⁄𝑆) constraints on maximum load factor and maximum bank
(511) angle versus flight velocity
Since for instantaneous turn rate will be used and Stall speed at sea level is 73.73. But at 3000m is
should be calculated in combat region, where at calculated as below.
3000m. all the values are given as below.
2 × 𝑊(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡) × 𝑛
𝑘𝑔⁄ 𝑣𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = √
𝜌∞ (𝑎𝑡 3000𝑚) = 0.9093 (512) 𝜌∞ (3000𝑚) × 𝑆 × 𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1.395)
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔⁄ = 126.67 𝑚⁄ 2 (522)
𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 1.225 (513) 𝑠
𝑚3
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡 = 196674.71𝑁 (514) When it is checked, from figure above, it is seen that
is correct.
𝑆 = 67.4𝑚2 (515)
For the excess power region, for that maximum load
𝑊⁄ = 2918.02 𝑁⁄ (516)
𝑆 𝑚2 factor is 8.34, it can be checked using the formula
𝑇𝐴,3000𝑚 𝜌3000𝑚 2 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 below.
=( ) → 𝐿 𝑇
𝑇𝐴,𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑛𝑀 = ( ) ( )
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥
0.9093 2
𝑇𝐴,3000𝑚 = 190,000 ( 1.225 ) = 158,889𝑁 (517)
1 𝑇
𝑇 158,889 =√ ( )
(𝑊)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 190000
= 0.8 (518) 4𝐶𝑑,0 𝐾 𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥
At 3000m, where 𝑎 = 328.6𝑚/𝑠 and V was given as

180m/s2. And Mach number will yield. 1
=√ × 0.8
𝑣 40 × 0.0148 × 0.158
𝑀 = 𝑎 = 0.547 (219)
≅ 8.3 (523)
According to Mach is equal to 0.547, Cd,0 and K is
found as follow. Where 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) ≅ 𝑛𝑀
𝐶𝑑,0 = 0.0148 (520) Now, instantaneous turn rate can be determined as

below.
𝐾 = 0.158 (521)
𝑔√𝑛2 − 1 9.81√8.342 − 1
According to all these values, Thrust and maximum 𝜔= =
𝑣 180
lift coefficient constraints on maximum load factor
= 0.45 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 25.85 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (524)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
A V-n diagram is a type of flight envelope for a given according to the type of engine that is used which has
aircraft illustrates both aerodynamic and structural capability to reach 1.87 Mach with afterburner).
limitations and it is a plot of load factor versus flight
The below one, which is red (point 0-8) is when an
velocity. For any aircraft there are structural
aircraft (and its occupants) experiences a force less
limitations on the maximum load factor allowed under
than its weight. In an extreme maneuver in bunt (for
two categories as limit load factor and ultimate load
example developing – negative g in a nose-down
factor. Limit load factor is the boundary associated
curved trajectory), the centrifugal force pointing away
permanent structural deformation of one or more parts
from the center of the earth can cancel the weight
of aircraft. In case the n value is less than the limit load
when the pilot feels weightless during the maneuver.
factor of the given aircraft, structure will return to its
The corner points follow the same logic of the positive
original shape even it deflects during a maneuver. In a
load description except that the limit load of n is on the
case where the load factor is greater than the limit load
negative side, which is lower because it is not in the
factor, the aircraft will face a permanent structural
normal flight regime. It can occur in an aerobatic
deformation. Ultimate load factor is the boundary
flight, in combat, or in an inadvertent situation caused
associated with outright structural failure. In a case
by atmospheric gusts. The purple color1 (point 5-6)
where the load factor is greater than the ultimate limit
shows the negative ultimate load factor where if the
load factor, parts of the aircraft will break.
aircraft flew at this region, structural failure will occur
like at positive limit load factor. To be able to obtain
A 3 the negative and positive ultimate load factors values,
2
by multiplying negative and positive limit load factors
1 B 4 by 1.5 (factor of safety).
The corner velocity at first dot green color (point 1)
and dot purple color (point 5) can be found using the
0 formula below or by seeing in the graph.
D 2(𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑊
5
8 𝑣 ∗ = √𝜌 (525)
∞ (𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑆
6 C 7
Stability and control
Pitch stiffness derivative and static margin
Figure 52. V-n diagram For static stability to be present, any change in angle
of attack must generate moments which oppose the
In figure 52 curve in blue colors represents the change. In other words the derivative of pitching
aerodynamic limit on load factor obtained from plot of moment with respect to angle of attack must be
the equation 511 above. Region above the curve in negative. The magnitude of the pitching moment
blue color until green color (point 0-3) is the stall derivative changes with c.g location. For any aircraft
region. The first dot green color (point 1) is where the there is a c.g location that provides no change in
maximum load factor. However, maximum load factor pitching moment as angle of attack is varied. This is
at that dot cannot be allowed to increase indefinitely. the aircraft’s “aerodynamic center or neutral point”
It is constrained by the structural limit load factor, 𝑋̅𝑛𝑝 and it represents neutral stability and is the most-
given by at dot green color (point 1-3). The horizontal aft c.g location before the aircraft becomes unstable. If
line between dot green color and dot blue color (line the c.g is ahead of the neutral point (positive static
A and line B) is the positive limit load factor and the margin), the pitching-moment derivative is negative
flight velocity at dot green color is designed as corner so the aircraft is stable.
velocity. If the aircraft flew to the second dot green
color (point 2), then the structural damage or possibly Pitch stiffness derivative, 𝐶𝑚𝛼 can be calculated with
structural failure will occur. The right hand side of the the following equations:
diagram is high speed limit. If the aircraft flew higher 𝐶𝑚𝛼 = −𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝑋̅𝑛𝑝 − 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 ) (526)
than the limit, then the dynamic pressure is higher than
the design range for the aircraft (where this limit
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑆ℎ 𝜕𝛼ℎ 𝐹𝑝 𝜕𝛼𝑝
𝐶𝐿𝛼 ̅
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑤 −𝐶𝑚𝛼 +𝜂ℎ
𝑆𝑤
𝐶𝐿𝛼
ℎ 𝜕𝛼
𝑋𝑎𝑐ℎ + 𝛼
̅
𝑞𝑆𝑤 𝜕𝛼
̅
𝑋𝑝 To obtain 𝐾𝑓 , the following figure can be used:
𝑋̅𝑛𝑝 =
𝑓𝑢𝑠
𝑆ℎ 𝜕𝛼ℎ 𝐹𝑝𝛼 (527)
𝐶𝐿𝛼 +𝜂ℎ 𝐶𝐿𝛼 +
𝑆𝑤 ℎ 𝜕𝛼 𝑞𝑆𝑤
Where 𝑋̅𝑛𝑝 − 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 is defined as static margin.

(Consider the term to be divided with wing chord, 𝑋̅ =
𝑋 ⁄𝑐 )
𝐶𝐿𝛼 and 𝐶𝐿𝛼 are obtained with respect to different
ℎ
mach number by using MATLAB.
𝑋𝑐𝑔 (most forward):
11.12 - 0.96 (18% MAC) = 10.16m (528)
𝑋𝑐𝑔 (most aft):
11.12 + 0.16 (3% MAC) = 11.28m (529) Figure 53. Position of quarter root chord[73]
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑤 is the location of the wing aerodynamic center. From figure above, by determining the position of ¼
For a high-aspect-ratio wing the subsonic chord root in percentage of fuselage length, Kf can be
aerodynamic center will be located at the percent of estimated.
the airfoil aerodynamic center. For subsonic region it
is the quarter-chord point. At supersonic speeds the In study 4, the length of fuselage is obtained as 16.10
wing aerodynamic center typically moves to about meter.
45% MAC. Root chord, Cr = 7.74m (from study 4) (538)
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑤 (subsonic-transonic region): ¼ chord root = 1.935m (539)
0.25 x 5.334 (MAC of wing) = 1.335m (530) Distance from nose to leading edge of the root chord
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑤 (supersonic region): = 7.1032 (from study 4) (540)
0.45 x 5.334 (MAC of wing) = 2.4m (531) Thus, the position of ¼ chord root from nose
𝑋𝑎𝑐ℎ (subsonic-transonic region): = 7.1032 + 1.935 = 9.04m (541)
0.25 x 3.08 (MAC of h.tail) (532) In terms of fuselage length,
𝑋𝑎𝑐ℎ (supersonic region): (9.04/16.10) x 100 = 56% (542)
0.45 x 3.08 (MAC of h.tail) (533) Thus,
𝑆ℎ = 67.4m2 (534) 𝐾𝑓 = 0.039 (543)
𝑆𝑤 = 22.45m2 (535) 𝑊𝑓 = 1.23𝑚 (from study 4) (544)

𝑆ℎ
= 0.33 (536) 𝐿𝑓 = 16.1𝑚 (from study 4) (545)
𝑆𝑤
Substituting these values, it yields
The pitching-moment contributions of the fuselage
and nacelles can be approximated from NACA TR 𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 0.002642 (546)
𝑓𝑢𝑠
711:
𝜂ℎ is the ratio between dynamic pressure and free
𝐾𝑓 ×𝑊𝑓2 ×𝐿𝑓
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = (537) stream dynamic pressure, and the typical value of 0.9
𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑆𝑤
is used for the proceeding calculation.
Where
𝐹𝑝𝛼 is the normal force due to the turning of the air at
𝐾𝑓 : the empirical pitching moment factor the inlet front face and it is calculated from momentum
consideration as:
𝑊𝑓 : the fuselage maximum diameter
𝐹𝑝𝛼 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 2 × 𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 (547)
𝐿𝑓 : fuselage length
𝜌 = 1.225𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (548)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 0.828𝑚2 (549) 1
Pitch stiffness (rearward c.g)

Behind the wing, the flow has a downward direction
theoretically equal to the wing angle of attack. The 0.5
downwash angle diminishes aft of the wing to a value
of approximately half the wing angle of attack at the 0
tail of a typical aircraft. The resulting angle of attack 0 0.5 1 1.5
considering the effect of downwash is determined by -0.5
subtracting the downwash from angle of attack. The
angle of attack derivative then is expressed like below:
-1
𝜕𝛼ℎ 𝜕∈ Mach number
𝜕𝛼
=1− 𝜕𝛼
(550)
Where the downwash angle (∈) derivative can be Figure 56. Pitch stiffness (rearward c.g) vs Mach number
found as follow,
𝜕∈ 1.62𝐶𝐿𝛼 0.2
= (551)
Static margin (rearward

𝜕𝛼 𝜋𝐴𝑅
0.15
All the parameters above will be entered excel to 0.1
calculate the neutral point (XNP), and thus obtain the 0.05
c.g)
pitching stiffness derivative (Cma). These two 0
elements will be calculated with respect to most
-0.05 0 0.5 1 1.5
forward and most aft cg position.
-0.1
0 -0.15
Mach number
Pitch stiffness (forward c.g)
0 0.5 1 1.5
-0.5
Figure 57. Static margin (rearward c.g) vs Mach number
-1
Cost analysis
-1.5
The performance of aircraft from design requirement
-2 play the major role to attract the consumer, but there
is another problem when the aircraft manufacturers
-2.5 give the proposal to costumers, even when the
Mach number
requirement is already fulfilled. The costumers also
consider other criteria rather than only the
Figure 54. Pitch stiffness (forward c.g) vs Mach number performance to select the profitable proposal. While
the properties of technical credibility, data
0.4 substantiation, and design qualities may be different,
Static margin (forward c.g)
0.35 the best selection for contractor is mostly depend on

0.3 the final price for the aircraft.
0.25
0.2 Cost estimation method
0.15
The final cost varies depending on the maximum
0.1
0.05
speed, avionic sophistication, production rate, and
0 many other factors, but the weight of aircraft is
0 0.5 1 1.5 important factor to give the final value of the aircraft’s
Mach number price. The cost estimation method for full-scale
production of aircraft is based on the tasking of
designing, testing and the final is producing aircraft.
Figure 55. Static margin (forward c.g) vs Mach number
The main financial formula for aircraft design is based
on the return of investment (ROI) to the manufacturer
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
company. The RDT&E approach are used in this Where the work time is depending on the empty
method. This method is very useful for prototype cost weight, and maximum velocity, and quantity of the
estimation. The RDT&E is the most simply approach aircraft that is produced. The formula is:
to estimate the cost rather than other way from the
Engineering hours:
design book of historical analysis.
To estimate the cost of the aircraft, “Development and 𝐻𝐸 = 4.86𝑊𝑒0.777 𝑉 0.894 𝑄 0.163
Procurement Costs of Aircraft (DPACA)” model is = 6506926.335 (553)
used. DAPCA assumes that the cost of engine is
known and has been included for the engine cost is Tooling hours:
unknown. The DAPCA equation is as following:
𝐻𝑇 = 5.99𝑊𝑒0.777 𝑉 0.696 𝑄 0.263
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝐻𝑇 𝑅𝑇 + 𝐻𝑀 𝑅𝑀 + 𝐻𝑄 𝑅𝑄
= 2127223.759 (554)
+𝐶𝐷 + 𝐶𝐹 + 𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑒𝑛𝑔 Manufacturing hours:
+ 𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 (552) 𝐻𝑀 = 7.37𝑊𝑒0.82 𝑉 0.484 𝑄 0.641
Where = 2836616.878 (555)
𝑊𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ (15581𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 34350.225𝑙𝑏) QC hours:
𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (814.47𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠) 𝐻𝑄 = 0.076 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (556)
𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐻𝑄 = 0.133 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (557)
𝐹𝑇𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 (4) Devel support cost:
𝑁𝑒𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝐷 = 45.42𝑊𝑒0.630 𝑉 1.3
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 199076679.8 (558)

(1) Flight test cost:
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (42173.70𝑙𝑏) 𝐶𝐹 = 1243.03𝑊𝑒0.325 𝑉 0.822 𝐹𝑇𝐴1.21
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (1.87) = 49424352.1 (559)
𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 Manufacturing material cost:
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (6971 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒) 𝐶𝑀 = 11.0𝑊𝑒0.921 𝑉 0.621 𝑄 0.799
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 10917301.83 (560)
For the avionic cost that is written in Raymer book is Engineering production cost:
$2000 in 1986, by calculating the inflation the cost in
2019 will be $4599.23 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑔 = 1548[0.043𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 243.25𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
The same method for calculating the wrap rates, +0.969𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 − 2228]
including engineering, tooling, quality control, and
manufacturing. = 10519040.19 (561)
Table 41. Wrap rates 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙=$501,006,210.33 (562)
Wrap rates 1986 ($) 2019 ($) Table 42. Cost per aircraft
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑅𝐸 ) 59.10 135.91 Quantity Total Cost/aircraft
𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑅𝑇 ) 60.70 139.59
1 501006210.3 $501,006,210.33
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑅𝑀 ) 55.40 127.40
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 (𝑅𝑄 ) 50.10 115.21 5 775086770.4 $155,017,354.08
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
10 989067511.8 $98,906,751.18 Table 43. Results of parameters and given requirements
25 1465406981 $58,616,279.22 Performance

50 2098780192 $41,975,603.84 Parameters Requirements Results
Vmax 1.4 Mach 1.87 Mach
100 3179430284 $31,794,302.84 Rate of
Climb 190 m/s 192.05 m/s
This estimation is for production of the one aircraft. Service
When number of the production of the aircraft is Ceiling 14000 m 11053.5 m
increased, the total cost of unit aircraft is decreased. Take-off
This is shown with learning curve as given in Distance 350 m 269.557 m
following figure: Landing
Distance 650 m 572.6052 m
$600,000,000.00
$500,000,000.00
G-limit +8.5/-3.5 +7.6/-3.3
Cost in USD
$400,000,000.00
$300,000,000.00
References
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Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer, Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer,
American Institute of Aeronautics and American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2018, pp. 273. Astronautics, Inc., 2018, pp. 88.
[60] “AERODYNAMICS” Aircraft Design: A [72] Anderson JD. Aircraft Performance and
Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Design 1st ed. University of Maryland:
Astronautics, Inc., 2018, pp. 268. WCB/McGraw-Hill 1999, pp.368.
[61] “AERODYNAMICS” Aircraft Design: A [73] “THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO AND

Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer, WING LOADING” Aircraft Design: a
American Institute of Aeronautics and Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer,
Astronautics, Inc., 2018, pp. 271. American Institute of Aeronautics and
[62] “AERODYNAMICS” Aircraft Design: A
Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Appendix
[63] “AERODYNAMICS” Aircraft Design: A Nomenclature
Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer, AR Aspect Ratio
American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2018, pp. 272. Re Reynold Number
[64] “AERODYNAMICS” Aircraft Design: A 𝑀∞ Mach Number

Conceptual Approach, by Daniel P. Raymer, 𝑀𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 Mach critical
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝜌∞ Air Density 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Landing Distance
𝑉∞ Free Stream Velocity Λ 𝐻.𝐿 Hinge Line Angle
c Airfoil Chord Length 𝐶𝐷0 Zero Lift Drag Coefficient
𝐶𝑙 Lift Coefficient of Airfoil π pi
𝐶𝑑 Drag Coefficient of Airfoil e Oswald Span Efficient
𝐶𝑚 Moment Coefficient of Airfoil K Drag polar
α Angle of Attack 𝐶𝑓𝑒 Skin Friction Coefficient
𝐶𝐿 Lift Coefficient of Wing 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 Wetted Area
𝑎∞ Speed of Sound n Load Factor
S Wing Area g Acceleration of gravity
t/c Thickness Ratio 𝑊𝑓 Fuel Weight
𝜇∞ Kinematic Viscosity 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 Air to ground missile weight
𝑞∞ Dynamic Pressure 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡 Combat Weight
𝐶𝑝 Pressure Coefficient 𝑊𝑒 Empty weight
𝑎0 Lift slope 𝑊𝑜 Loaded weight
γ Ratio of Specific Heat Coefficients Wf Fuel weight
Λ Sweep Angle 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 Crew weight
∧𝑐/4 Quarter chord sweep angle 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Payload weight
𝜆 Taper Ratio 𝑊𝑒
Empty weight fraction
𝑊0
W Weight
𝐾𝑣𝑠 Variable sweep constant
L Lift
R Range
𝑞𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 Stall Dynamic Pressure
C Specific Fuel Consumption
S Wing Area
𝐿
Lift to drag Ratio
𝐶𝐿 Wing Lift Coefficient 𝐷
𝐿
𝜌 Density 𝐷
)𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum lift to drag ratio
𝑇
𝑤
Thrust to Weight Ratio E Endurance
(𝐶) Specific fuel consumption n Load factor

𝑤 d Duration of doing dogfight
Wing Loading
𝑠
𝑊𝑜
𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 Flapped Area 𝑆
Take off distance Wing Loadings
𝑊
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 Reference Area (𝑆) Landing distance Wing Loadings
𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
TOP Takeoff Parameter 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Weight during landing
𝜎 Density Variation Ratio with
Vstall Stall speed
Altitude
𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum lift coefficient
𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑂 Takeoff Lift Coefficient Swet
Wetted aspect ratio
Sref
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝐶𝐷 0 Parasite drag (CD L&P) Leakage and protuberance drag
𝑊
(𝑆) Instantaneous Turn Ratio Wing (CD wave) Supersonic wave drag
𝑖𝑛𝑠
(𝐷⁄𝑞 )𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 Wave drag
Loadings
(𝐷 ⁄𝑞 )𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠−𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑘 Wave drag of Sears-Haack body
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡 Sustained weight
EWD Empirical wave-drag efficiency
𝑊
(𝑆) Cruise Wing Loadings factor
𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑇 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum velocity
(𝑊) Thrust to weight in sustained
𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 Range without payload
∀𝑓 Fuel volume
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑑 Stall speed without high lift devices
(𝜃𝑠𝑏 ) Seatback angle
𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑂 Maximum takeoff lift coefficient
𝑆𝑤 Wing area
Sg Take off distance
̅
𝐶𝑊 Wing mean chord
𝑉𝑓 Average flight velocity during flare
𝐶𝑙𝛼 Lift curve slope
𝑉𝑇𝐷 Touchdown velocity
∧𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡 Sweep of the wing at the chord
R Flight path radius during flare.
location where the airfoil is the
thickest 𝜃𝑎 Approach angle
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum cross-sectional area of the ℎ𝑓 The flare height
fuselage 𝜇𝑟 Friction constant (at dry asphalt

condition 0.4)
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 Exposed wing planform that wing
reference area less the part of the TREV Reverse thrust (for fighters is taken as
wing covered by the 0)
fuselage. 𝑆𝑎 Approach distance
Sflapped Trailing edge flaps area 𝑆𝑓 Flare distance
𝑀𝐷𝐷 Drag divergence Mach number 𝑆𝑔 Ground roll distance
𝐶𝐿𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 Design lift coefficient
𝜔 Instantaneous turn rate
Ln Length from the nose to the 𝑛𝑀 Maximum load factor
longitudinal location
𝑣∗ Corner velocity
Cf Flat-plate skin-friction drag
coefficient 𝐶𝑚𝛼 Pitch stiffness derivative
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 Cutoff Reynolds number 𝑋̅𝑛𝑝 Neutral point
𝐹𝐹 Form factors 𝐶𝐿𝛼 Lift curve slope (horizontal tail)

ℎ
𝑥
(𝑐 ) Chordwise location of the airfoil 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 Center of gravity
𝑚
maximum thickness point 𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑤 Wing aerodynamic center
Λ𝑚 The sweep of the maximum- 𝑋𝑎𝑐ℎ Horizontal tail aerodynamic center
thickness line
𝐶𝑚𝛼 The pitching-moment contributions
𝑓𝑢𝑠
(Q) Interference effects of the fuselage
CDmisc Miscellaneous drag
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
𝐾𝑓 The empirical pitching moment ammo = 200;
factor air_to_air = 85*2 + 157; %2 gukdogan and 1
buzdogan
𝑊𝑓 The fuselage maximum diameter air_to_ground = 150; %4 L-Umtas
wpayload = bombs + ammo + air_to_air +
𝐿𝑓 Fuselage length
air_to_ground;
𝜂ℎ Ratio between dynamic pressure and wcanon = 100; %inside empty weight
free stream dynamic pressure wcrew = 170;
speed_of_sound1 = 314.05;
𝐹𝑝𝛼 The normal force due to the turning of %Given
the air at the inlet front face roc_mach1 = 0.3;
𝜕𝛼ℎ
roc_mach2 = roc_max_avg / speed_of_sound1;
Angle of attack derivative (horizontal sfc_cruise = 0.8 / 3600;
𝜕𝛼
tail) sfc_loiter = 0.7 / 3600;
sfc_afterburner = 1.28 / 3600;
𝜕∈
𝜕𝛼
Downwash angle derivative LD_max = 18;
range = 1500;
𝑄 Product quantity endurance = 3600;
𝐹𝑇𝐴 Number of flight test aircraft duration = 600;
%segments mission profile
𝑁𝑒𝑛𝑔 Total production quantity times %take-off
number of engines of aircraft take_off = 0.99; %Cst
%climb 1 and 2
𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏,𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 Turbine inlet temperature climb1 = 1.0065 - 0.0325*roc_mach1;
𝐶𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 Avionic cost climb2 = 0.991 - 0.007*roc_mach2 -
0.01*roc_mach2^2;
𝐻𝐸 Engineering hours %cuirse 1 and 2
cruise1 = exp(-(range * 1000 * sfc_cruise) / (velocity
𝐻𝑇 Tooling hours
* LD_max * 0.866));
𝐻𝑀 Manufacturing hours cruise2 = exp(-(range * 1000 * sfc_cruise) / (velocity
* LD_max * 0.866));
𝐻𝑄 QC hours %descent
𝐶𝐷 Devel support cost descent = 0.995; %Cst
%lioter
𝐶𝐹 Flight test cost loiter = exp((-endurance * sfc_loiter) / LD_max);
%dogfight
𝐶𝑀 Manufacturing material cost
dogfight = 1 - (sfc_afterburner * (n/LD_max) *
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑔 Engineering production cost duration);
%landing
landing = 0.99;
MATLAB code (weight estimation) %fuel weight fraction
%from 0 to 5
clc weight_05_ = vpa((take_off * climb1 * cruise1 *
format long; descent * loiter));
syms w0; %weight at point 5
%initial value for w0 weight_5 = vpa(take_off * climb1 * cruise1 * descent
w_initial = 16965.71; * loiter) * w0;
w_initial(1) = w_initial; %weight at point 6 when dropped bombs and air to
w_initial(2) = 20000; groud missile
%Competitors a/c data weight_6 = vpa(weight_5 - bombs - air_to_ground);
roc_max_avg = 251.64; %weight ratio 6 over 5
velocity = 252.72; weight_6over5 = vpa(weight_6 / weight_5);
n = 8.5; % %fuel for combat
%Constant values % fuel_weight_combat = vpa(((dogfight) *
bombs = 227 + 227; %2 Mk 82 (weight_6)) / w0);
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
%from 7 to 11 error(i);
weight_711 = vpa((climb2 * cruise2 * descent *
MATLAB code (lift curve slope)
landing));
%weight at point 7 clc
weight_7 = vpa(dogfight); %lift curve slope
%new weight at point 7 when dropped air to air %subsonic region
missile and ammo M(1) =0.1;
new_weight_7 = vpa((weight_7 * weight_6) - pi=3.141516;
air_to_air - ammo); perradian = 57.3;
weight_7over6 = vpa(new_weight_7 / weight_6); for i = 1:29
wfw0_ = vpa(1.06*(1 - (weight_05_* weight_6over5 beta(i) = sqrt(1-M(i)^2);
* weight_7over6 * weight_711) - (wpayload / w0))); %afeff=Cla1/(2*pi/B)
wfw0 = vpa(wfw0_); afeff=0.95; %airfoil efficiency
%empty weight fraction amax = 2.95; %max cross section area
A = 2.34; d = sqrt(amax/(pi/4));
C = -0.13; b = 14.5; %length of the wing
K = 1.0; AR = 3.12; %aspect ratio of the wing
wew0_ = A * w0^C * K; Sexp = 99.88/2 %exposed area of the wing
wew0 = vpa(wew0_); S = 67.4; %planform area
%secant method xc = 0.5; %chordwise location of the airfoil
f = vpa(((wpayload + 157 - 227 + wcrew)/(1 - wfw0 - maximum thickness point
wew0)) - w0); tanLE = tan(45/perradian);
f1 = vpa(f); tanTE = tan(8.37/perradian);
func = inline(f1); sweepmaxt = atan(((1-xc)*tanLE+(xc*tanTE)));
f2 = diff(f1); F = 1.07*(1+d/b)^2;
df = inline(f2); clalpha(i) = (2*pi*AR)/(2+ sqrt(4+
f3 = inline(wfw0); AR/(afeff^2))*beta(i)^2*(1+(tan(sweepmaxt)^2)/beta
f4 = inline(wew0); (i)^2))*Sexp/S*F;
tolerance = 10^-4; if i == 29;
func1 = subs(f, w0, w_initial(1)); i = i-1;
func2 = subs(f2, w0, w_initial(1)); end
func3 = subs(wfw0, w0, w_initial(1)); i = i+1;
func4 = subs(wew0, w0, w_initial(1)); M(i) = round(M(i-1)+0.025,3)
for i=1:100 end
w_initial(i+2)=w_initial(i+1)- %transonic region
((func(w_initial(i+1))*(w_initial(i+1)- for i = 30:45
w_initial(i))))/(func(w_initial(i+1))- M(i) = round(M(i-1)+0.025,3);
func(w_initial(i))); end
func3(i+2) = vpa(f3(w_initial(i+2))); clalpha(30) = 5.2856;
func4(i+2) = vpa(f4(w_initial(i+2))); clalpha(31) = 5.4244;
error(i) = abs((w_initial(i+2)- clalpha(32) = 5.5632;
w_initial(i+1))/w_initial(i+2)); clalpha(33) = 5.702;
if(func(w_initial(i+1))>func(w_initial(i))) clalpha(34) = 5.8408;
w_initial(i+1)=w_initial(i); clalpha(35) = 5.9796;
w_initial(i)=w_initial(i+2); clalpha(36) = 6.1184;
else clalpha(37) = 6.2572;
if(error(i)<tolerance) clalpha(38) = 6.346;
break clalpha(39) = 6.4548;
end clalpha(40) = 6.5544;
w_initial(i) clalpha(43) = 6.6929;
func3(i) clalpha(44) = 6.7030;
func4(i) %supersonic region
iter = i; ARtanLE = AR*tanLE;
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
chart(45) = 4.38; Cf_ht =
chart(46) = 4.25; (0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65));
chart(47) = 4.18; HT=Cf_ht*FF_ht*Q_ht*Swet_ht;
chart(48) = 4.1; %vertical tail
chart(49) = 3.97; Re_vt=1.5*10^7*M;
chart(50) = 3.95; FF_vt=1.3*M^0.18;
chart(51) = 3.90; Q_vt=1.05;
chart(52) = 3.85; Swet_vt=231;
chart(53) = 3.80; Y=log10(Re_vt);
for i = 45:53 Cf_vt =
beta(i) = sqrt(M(i)^2-1); (0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65));
betatanLE(i) = beta(i)/tanLE; VT=Cf_vt*FF_vt*Q_vt*Swet_vt;
tanLEbeta(i) = 1/betatanLE(i); %inlet
clalpha(i) = chart(i)/beta(i); Re_i=2.5*10^7*M;
if i == 53 FF_i=1.12;
i = i-1; Q_i=1.13;
end Swet_i=122.4;
i = i+1; Y=log10(Re_i);
M(i) = round(M(i-1)+0.025,3); Cf_i =
end (0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65));
plot(M,clalpha); I=Cf_i*FF_i*Q_i*Swet_i;
xlabel('Mach number') %Summation
ylabel('Cl_a_l_p_h_a_(_p_e_r_ _r_a_d_i_a_n_)') Sum_nom = W+F+HT+VT+I;
axis([0 3 0 10]) Sref=725.5; %of wing
Cd_misc = 2.3*10^-3;
MATLAB code (parasite drag)
Cd_lp = 0.10*(Cd_misc + (Sum_nom/Sref));
clear;
clc; Cd_0subsonic = (Sum_nom/Sref) + Cd_misc +
M=0.1 Cd_lp
while M < 0.8 M=M+0.1
Re_w=4.5*10^7*M; end
FF_w=1.36*M^0.18; M = 1.2
Q_w=1; while M < 1.5
Swet_w=1414.4; %wing
Y=log10(Re_w); Re_w=4.5*10^7*M;
Cf_w = Swet_w=1414.4;
(0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65)); Y=log10(Re_w);
W=Cf_w*FF_w*Q_w*Swet_w; Cf_w =
%fuselage (0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65));
Re_f=13.6*10^7*M; W=Cf_w*Swet_w;
FF_f=1.06; %fuselage
Q_f=1; Re_f=13.6*10^7*M;
Swet_f=676; Swet_f=676;
Y=log10(Re_f); Y=log10(Re_f);
Cf_f = Cf_f =
(0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65)); (0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65));
F=Cf_f*FF_f*Q_f*Swet_f; F=Cf_f*Swet_f;
%Horizontal tail %Horizontal tail
Re_ht=2.63*10^7*M; Re_ht=2.63*10^7*M;
FF_ht=1.37*M^0.18; Swet_ht=485.6;
Q_ht=1.05; Y=log10(Re_ht);
Swet_ht=485.6; Cf_ht =
Y=log10(Re_ht); (0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65));
HT=Cf_ht*Swet_ht;
%vertical tail
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Re_vt=1.45*10^7*(M^1.16); clalpha(4) = 3.587595687;
Swet_vt=231; clalpha(5) = 3.601950122;
Y=log10(Re_vt); clalpha(6) = 3.618656328;
Cf_vt = clalpha(7) = 3.637778361;
(0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65)); clalpha(8) = 3.659390621;
VT=Cf_vt*Swet_vt; clalpha(9) = 3.683578599;
%inlet clalpha(10) = 3.710439757;
Re_i=2.5*10^7*M; clalpha(11) = 3.740084546;
Swet_i=122.4; clalpha(12) = 3.772637608;
Y=log10(Re_i); clalpha(13) = 3.808239154;
Cf_i = clalpha(14) = 3.847046587;
(0.455)/((Y^2.58)*((1+0.144*(M^2))^0.65)); clalpha(15) = 3.88923637;
I=Cf_i*Swet_i; clalpha(16) = 3.935006207;
%Summation clalpha(17) = 3.984577586;
Sum_nom = W+F+HT+VT+I; clalpha(18) = 4.038198738;
Sref=725.5; %of wing clalpha(19) = 4.096148114;
Cd_misc = 2.3*10^-3; clalpha(20) = 4.158738449;
Cd_lp = 0.10*(Cd_misc + (Sum_nom/Sref)); clalpha(21) = 4.226321567;
Cd_wave = ((10.95)*(1-0.386*((M- clalpha(22) = 4.299294048;
1.2)^0.57)*(0.41)))/Sref; clalpha(23) = 4.378103963;
Cd_0supersonic = (Sum_nom/Sref) + Cd_misc + clalpha(24) = 4.463258912;
Cd_lp + Cd_wave clalpha(25) = 4.555335643;
M=M+0.1 clalpha(26) = 4.654991664;
end clalpha(27) = 4.762979297;
clalpha(28) = 4.880162828;
MATLAB code (induced drag factor)
clalpha(29) = 5.007539559;
% OSE method clalpha(30) = 5.146265832;
clc clalpha(31) = 5.2856;
AR = 3.12; clalpha(32) = 5.4244;
perradian = 57.3; clalpha(33) = 5.5632;
pi = 3.141516; clalpha(34) = 5.702;
ALE = 45/perradian; clalpha(35) = 5.8408;
e = 0.95; %(4.61*(1- clalpha(36) = 5.9796;
(0.045*AR^(0.68)))*(cos(ALE))^0.15)-3.1 clalpha(37) = 6.1184;
M(1) = 0.2; clalpha(38) = 6.2572;
K(1) = 0.158; %1/(pi*AR*e) clalpha(39) = 6.346;
for i = 1:9 clalpha(40) = 6.4548;
M(i+1) = M(i)+0.1 clalpha(41) = 6.5544;
K(i+1) = 0.158 clalpha(42) = 6.6317;
clalpha(44) = 6.6929;
for i = 9:12 clalpha(45) = 6.703;
M(i+1) = M(i)+0.1 clalpha(46) = 6.603098446;
K(i+1) = (AR*(M(i+1)^2 - clalpha(47) = 6.006654653;
1)*cos(ALE))/(4*AR*sqrt(M(i+1) - 1)-2) clalpha(48) = 5.573333333;
end clalpha(49) = 5.183544238;
subplot(2,1,1); clalpha(50) = 4.779318368;
plot(M,K); clalpha(51) = 4.544058737;
xlabel('Mach number') clalpha(52) = 4.300279202;
ylabel('Induced drag factro, K(method 1)') clalpha(53) = 4.07955966;
axis([0 2 0 0.5]) clalpha(54) = 3.878358759;
%LES method m(1) = 0.2;
clalpha(1) = 3.56573398346264; for i = 1:53
clalpha(2) = 3.565733983; m(i+1) = m(i)+0.025;
clalpha(3) = 3.575538688; end
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
for i = 1:54 S_g =
k(i) = 1/clalpha(i); j*N*Vstall+(j^2)*W/S/(g*pho*C_lmax*[D/W+myu*
end (1-L/W)]*0.7*Vtd)
k100 = 1/(pi*3.12); total_landing_distance = S_a+S_f+S_g
%takeoff distance
S = 0.9; %S_gtakeoff=1.2*W/S/(g*pho*C_lmax*T/W)
for i = 1:54
MATLAB code (Thrust and maximum lift coefficient
ktot(i) = S*k100+(1-S)*k(i); constraints on maximum load factor and maximum
end bank angle versus flight velocity)
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(m,ktot); clc
xlabel('Mach number') %instantaneous rate
ylabel('Induced drag factro, K(method 2)') density3000 = 0.9093;
axis([0 2.5 0 0.2]) densitysealevel = 1.225;
wcombat = 196674.71; %newton
MATLAB code (landing distance) s = 67.4;
clc ws = wcombat/s;
T = 190000; n = 0.6;
pho = 1.225; tsealevel = 190000; %%thrust engine with
W = 24733*9.81*0.97; afterburner
S = 67.4; t3000 = tsealevel*(density3000/densitysealevel)^n;
C_lmax = 1.395; tw = t3000/wcombat; %T/W maximum
tetha = 13.5; a = 328.6; %speed of sound at 3000m
j = 1.1; v(1) = 0;
N = 3; vnew(1) = 0;
myu = 0.4; % v = 180;
g = 9.81; % npmaxep(1) = 0;
D = T+W*sind(13.5); % M = v/a;
L = 3.1888e+06; k = 0.158;
AR = 3.12; cd0 = 0.0148;
perradian = 57.3; for i = 1:23
ALE=45/perradian; v(i+1) = v(i)+25;
e = 0.95 %(4.61*(1- nmaxep(i+1) =
(0.045*AR^(0.68)))*(cosd(ALE))^0.15)-3.1; (((0.5*density3000*v(i+1)^2)/(k*ws))*(tw-
K = 0.158 %1/(pi*AR*e); (0.5*density3000*v(i+1)^2)*(cd0/ws)))^0.5;
Cd0 = 0.0165; end
LID = 1/(4*K*Cd0)^0.5 ldmax = sqrt(1/(4*cd0*k));
%sind=1/(LID)-(T/W) nM = ldmax/tw; %compare to this one, which is
Vstall = ((2/pho)*W/S * (1/C_lmax) )^0.5 consistent with the value of n max at local maximum
Vtd = 1.1*Vstall point
%For military aircraft, the average flight velocity clmax = 1.395;
during flare (V_f) is: for i = 1:15
V_f = 1.15*Vstall vnew(i+1) = vnew(i)+25;
%For the flight path radius during flare (R) is given: nmaxstall(i+1) =
R = (V_f^2)/(0.2*g) 0.5*density3000*vnew(i+1)^2*(clmax/ws);
%For the flare height (h_f) is end
h_f= R*(1-cosd(tetha)) for i = 1:23
%The approach distance (S_a) to clear a 50 ft v(i+1) = v(i)+25;
obstacle is: bankangle(i+1) = acos((1/nmaxep(i+1)))*57.3;
S_a = (15.24 - h_f)/(tand(tetha)) end
%The flare distance (S_f) is: yyaxis left
S_f = R*sind(tetha); plot(v,nmaxep)
%ground roll s_g xlabel('Velocity(m/s)')
%S_g=j*N*Vstall+(j^2)*W/S/(g*pho*C_lmax*myu) ylabel('Maximum load factor')
axis([0 800 0 10])
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
hold on w1w0 = 0.97; %w1/w0 at take off
yyaxis left w2w1 = 0.99; %w2/w1 at climb
plot(vnew,nmaxstall) w2 = w1w0*w2w1*w0;
xlabel('Velocity(m/s)') w3 = w2-wf;
ylabel('Maximum load factor') %calculate (cl^1/2 / cd)max
axis([0 800 0 10]) K = 0.158; %from previous study
hold on cd0 = 0.0176; %zero lift drag coeff
yyaxis right clcd = 3/4*(1/(3*K*cd0^3))^0.25 %(cl^1/2 / cd)max
plot(v,bankangle) r = (2/c)*sqrt(2/(density*s))*clcd*(w2^0.5 - w3^0.5)
xlabel('Velocity(m/s)') %without payload
ylabel('Maximum bank angle(degree)')
Drawing
axis([0 800 0 100])
hold off
MATLAB code (Maximum velocity)
clc
taaftburner = 190000*0.9 %thrust engine with
afterburner
tawoaftburner = 125000*0.9 %installation lose
q10000 = 0.4135;
s = 67.4;
qsealevel = 1.225;
n = 0.6;
TAAB = taaftburner*(q10000/qsealevel)^n *0.9
TAWOAB = tawoaftburner*(q10000/qsealevel)^n
Figure 59. Isometric view of 3D drawing
*0.9
wcombat = 196674.71; %newton
ws = wcombat/s; %wing loading @combat condition
cd0 = 0.0176;
K = 0.36;
a = 299.5;
Vmax1 =
((TAAB/wcombat*ws+ws*sqrt((TAAB/wcombat)^2
-4*cd0*K))/(q10000*cd0))^(1/2)
Mmax1 = Vmax1/a
Vmax2 =
((TAWOAB/wcombat*ws+ws*sqrt((TAWOAB/wco
mbat)^2-4*cd0*K))/(q10000*cd0))^(1/2)
Mmax2 = Vmax2/a
vmaxreq = 1.4*a; Figure 60. Main landing gear 3D view
cl = (2*wcombat)/(q10000*s*vmaxreq^2)
cd = (cd0+K*cl^2)
tr = 0.5*q10000*vmaxreq^2*s*cd
MATLAB code (Range)
clc
%with payload
%propeties at sea level
density = 1.225;
s = 67.4; %planform area of the wing
c = 0.7/3600; %specific fule consumption
%at beginning cruise
wf = 7914*9.81 %fuel weight in newton
w0 = 24733*9.81; %maximum takeoff gross weight Figure 61. Nose landing gear 3D view
in newton

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Aircraft Design Project

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Aircraft Design Project 1

Conceptual design of a supersonic multifunctional military aircraft

Instructor, Asst. Prof. Durmuş Sinan KÖRPE

Table 3. Weight estimation

Flying boat 1.09 -0.05

Table 4. Empty weight fraction vs W0[24] 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Calculation and estimation of the aircraft’s takeoff

F-16D Block 1300 8700 Then,

Mitsubishi F-2 1358.28 n/a

Average 2312.43 9150

From these average values, the velocity can be

This velocity will be used to calculate the weight

Where E is endurance or loiter time. The loiter time is Droping segment

Pitching moment coefficient

Airfoil Cl,max Cd,min Cm,max (L/D) Mcrit -10 0 10 20 30

NACA64-206 NACA64-208 Twin 9.2

Jet fighter 4.110 -0.622

Figure 12. Quarter chord sweep-degrees vs. taper ratio[33]

𝑇 Wing loading and thrust to weight ratio must be

maximum lift coefficient. 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑊𝑜 − 0.5𝑊𝑓 (81)

From study before, the fuel weight and payload weight

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 29594.06 − (3957 + 804)

Then T/W ratio of it can be solved by the formula 𝜆 = 0.2 (136)

𝑥𝑎𝑐 = 4.153 𝑚 (168) Airplane Model Length (m)

No. Functions and features Description

Figure 18. Radar location[46]

𝑥 = (𝑥𝑎𝑐 )𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑀. 𝐴. 𝐶𝑎.𝑐.

Where 𝐻𝑓 is the fuselage height, and AB is the aft

Nose wheel Weight of the aircraft

Figure 26. Side detailed view

Table 34. Summary of important parameters

Parameter Value Description

𝑥̅ 11.12 m Location of center of gravity from the nose of the fuselage

𝑙𝑓 16.10 m The length of the fuselage

𝑏 14.5 m The span of the main wing

ℎ𝑣𝑡 2.84 m Height of the vertical tail

𝑏ℎ𝑡 8.23 m The span of the horizontal tail

𝑐𝑟,ℎ𝑡 4.5 m Root chord of horizontal tail

𝑐𝑡,ℎ𝑡 1.6 m Tip chord of horizontal tail

𝑆𝑣𝑡 10.68 m2 Planform area of the vertical tail

𝑆ℎ𝑡 22.46 m2 Planform area of the horizontal tail

𝑐̅ 5.332 m The mean chord of the main wing

𝐶𝑡 1.548 m The tip chord of the main wing

𝐶𝑟 7.74 m The root chord of the wing

𝐴𝑅 3.12 Aspect ratio of the main wing

𝑆 67.4 m2 Planform area of the main wing

𝐻𝑓 1.06 m Height of landing gear

HLG 1.37 m Height of landing gear with clearance

𝛼𝑡𝑏 34.9˚ + 5˚ Tip back angle

𝛼𝐶 15.3˚ Take-off rotation clearance requirement

B 9.3 m Wheel base

ΦOT 37.1˚ Overturn angle

Dm 0.8382 m Diameter of main wheel

Wm 0.27178 m Width of main wheel

Dn 0.72898 m Diameter of nose wheel

Wn 0.1905 m Width of nose wheel

T 4.94 m Distance of each other of the main wheel

Aerodynamic parameters estimation

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum cross sectional area of the

thickness parameter is needed, by using table 12.1

First one, it should be determined if the wing is

Figure 32. Subsonic maximum lift of high aspect ratio wings[62]

Table 36. ΔY for Λ𝐿𝐸 = 40, Λ𝐿𝐸 = 60

the value of ∆𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 of ΔY = 1.7 at Λ 𝐿𝐸 = 45 is -