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Wayne's Word Gee-Whiz Trivia For February 1998

The Five Kingdoms Of Life

The Amazing Diversity Of Living Systems

L iving organisms are subdivided into 5 major kingdoms, including the

Monera, the Protista (Protoctista), the Fungi, the Plantae, and the
Animalia. Each kingdom is further subdivided into separate phyla or
divisions. Generally "animals" are subdivided into phyla, while "plants"
are subdivided into divisions. These subdivisions are analogous to
subdirectories or folders on your hard drive. The basic characteristics of
each kingdom and approximate number of species are summarized in
the following table:

Prokaryotic Cells Without Nuclei And Membrane-Bound

Organelles

 1.  Kingdom Monera [10,000 species]: Unicellular and colonial--

including the true bacteria (eubacteria) and cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae).

Eukaryotic Cells With Nuclei And Membrane-Bound Organelles:

 2.  Kingdom Protista (Protoctista) [250,000 species]: Unicellular

protozoans and unicellular & multicellular (macroscopic) algae
with 9 + 2 cilia and flagella (called undulipodia).

 3.  Kingdom Fungi [100,000 species]: Haploid and dikaryotic

(binucleate) cells, multicellular, generally heterotrophic,
without cilia and eukaryotic (9 + 2) flagella (undulipodia).

 4.  Kingdom Plantae [250,000 species]: Haplo-diploid life cycles,

mostly autotrophic, retaining embryo within female sex organ
on parent plant.

 5.  Kingdom Animalia [1,000,000 species]: Multicellular animals,

without cell walls and without photosynthetic pigments, forming
diploid blastula.
1. The five-kingdom system of classification for living organisms,
including the prokaryotic Monera and the eukaryotic Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia is complicated by the discovery of
archaebacteria. The prokaryotic Monera include three major
divisions: The regular bacteria or eubacteria; the cyanobacteria (also
called blue-green algae); and the archaebacteria. Lipids of
archaebacterial cell membranes differ considerably from those of
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, as do the composition of their
cell walls and the sequence of their ribosomal RNA subunits. In
addition, recent studies have shown that archaebacterial RNA
polymerases resemble the eukaryotic enzymes, not the eubacterial
RNA polymerase.

Archaebacteria also have introns in some genes, an advanced

eukaryotic characteristic that was previously unknown among
prokaryotes. In eukaryotic cells, the initial messenger RNA (M-RNA)
transcribed from the DNA (gene) is modified (shortened) before it
leaves the nucleus. Sections of the M-RNA strand called introns are
removed, and the remaining portions called exons are spliced
together to form a shortened (edited) strand of mature M-RNA that
leaves the nucleus and travels to the ribosome for translation into
protein. This process is known as "gene editing." Some authorities
hypothesize that eukaryotic organisms may have evolved from
ancient archaebacteria (archae = ancient) rather than from the
common and cosmopolitan eubacteria. The archaebacteria could
have flourished more than 3 billion years ago under conditions
previously thought to be uninhabitable to all known life forms.

Although many conservative references place the archaebacteria in

a separate division within the kingdom Monera, most authorities
now recognize them as a 6th kingdom--The kingdom Archaebacteria.
In fact, data from DNA and RNA comparisons indicate that
archaebacteria are so different that they should not even be
classified with bacteria. Systematists have devised a classification
level higher than a kingdom, called a domain or "superkingdom," to
accomodate the archaebacteria. These remarkable organisms are
now placed in the domain Archaea. Other prokaryotes, including
eubacteria and cyanobacteria, are placed in the domain Bacteria. All
the kingdoms of eukaryotes, including Protista (Protoctista), Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia, are placed in the domain Eukarya. The large
molecular differences between the majority of prokaryotes in the
kingdom Monera and the archaebacteria warrants a separation
based on categories above the level of kingdom. In other words, the
differences between the true bacteria and archaebacteria are more
significant than the differences between kingdoms of eukaryotes.

Guillaume Lecointre and Hervé Le Guyader (2006) have published a

remarkable book entitled The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic
Classification. The book includes the three major domains which are
in turn subdivided into numerous branches (clades). An
oversimplified 3-domain system of classification is shown in the
following table. The number of subdivisions listed by G. Lecointre
and H.L. Guyader for each domain are shown in parentheses.

Three Domains (Superkingdoms) Of Living Organisms

  I.  Bacteria (19): Most of the Known Prokaryotes

Kingdom: Eubacteria (True Bacteria)

Division (Phylum) Proteobacteria: N-Fixing Bacteria

Division (Phylum) Cyanobacteria: Blue-Green Bacteria
Division (Phylum) Eubacteria: True Gram Posive Bacteria
Division (Phylum) Spirochetes: Spiral Bacteria
Division (Phylum) Chlamydiae: Intracellular Parasites

 II.  Archaea (16): Prokaryotes of Extreme Environments

Kingdom Crenarchaeota: Thermophiles

Kingdom Euryarchaeota: Methanogens & Halophiles
Kingdom Korarchaeota: Some Hot Springs Microbes

III.  Eukarya (35): Eukaryotic Cells

Kingdom Protista (Protoctista)

Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia

See Archaebacteria: Life On Mars?

2. The kingdom Protista includes a diverse array of organisms, from

minute flagellated cells to macroscopic kelp. The smallest
microscopic organisms are termed protists, consequently some
biologists prefer to call this kingdom the Protoctista rather than
Protista. All members of this vast phylum have nucleated cells and
live in aquatic habitats (freshwater and marine). According to Lynn
Margulis, K.V. Schwartz and M. Dolan (1994), the cells of all
Protoctista originally formed by bacterial symbioses
(symbiogenesis).

Symbiogenesis: Genetic Mergers Forming New Species

Members of the kingdom Protoctista are not animals, which develop

from an embryo called a blastula; they are not plants, which develop
from an embryo that is not a blastula but is retained in the mother's
tissue; they are not fungi which develop from spores and lack cilia
and flagella (called undulipodia) at all stages of development; they
are not monerans, which have prokaryotic cells.

The Structure Of 9 + 2 Cilia & Flagella (Undulipodia)

A Simple Comparison Between Animal & Plant Cells

Fossil protoctists, with thick-walled resting stages or cysts, can be

extracted from shale treated with hydroflouric acid. One of the
richest sources of bizarre fossil protoctists was discovered in
southern Australia during the late 1950s. Known as the Ediacaran
biota, these deposits date back 600 million years ago. Some of these
ancient protoctists may have been ancestral to certain animal and
plant phyla. In fact, some flattened protoctists discovered in the
Ediacaran biota had characteristics resembling lichens. [Lichens are
organisms resulting from genetic mergers betweeen protists and
fungi.] All the Ediacaran biota became extinct by about 530 million
years ago and were replaced be shelled Cambrian animals.

The Evolution Of Land Plants From Ediacaran Life

Some general biology textbook authors place the microscopic,

unicellular green algae (Division Chlorophyta) in the Kingdom
Protista, and place the larger, multicellular (macroscopic) green
algae (Division Chlorophyta) in the Kingdom Plantae. They also place
the macroscopic, multicellular brown algae (Division Phaeophyta)
and red algae (Division Rhodophyta) in the Kingdom Plantae. In fact,
some authors place all of the algae divisions in the Kingdom Plantae.
Although the Kingdom Protista includes mostly unicellular
organisms, the WAYNE'S WORD staff feels that these algal divisions
belong in the Kingdom Protista (Protoctista) rather than the Kingdom
Plantae.

See The Amazing Algae Causing Pink Snow

See The Bacteria Causing Pink Salt Lakes

3. Some members of the Kingdom Fungi (in the fungal classes

Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) are associated with algal cells of
the Kingdom Protista (in the algal division Chlorophtya) and/or
prokaryotic cyanobacteria of the Kingdom Monera. This complex
symbiotic, mutualistic relationship is called lichen. Lichens are
essentially lichenized fungi containing unicellular monerans and/or
protists.

See The Amazing Kingdom of Fungi

See Desert Varnish and Lichen Crust

4. There are approximately 1.6 million species of living organisms on

earth. This number may be much higher because new species are
continually being discovered each day, particularly insects and
nematodes in remote tropical regions. However, at the present rate
of destruction, most of the virgin tropical rain forest will be
annihilated by the end of the 20th century, so many species will
never be known to humans. It is estimated that 99 percent of all the
species that have ever lived on earth were already extinct before
humans ever walked on this planet. Although humans have a
phenomenal impact on the ecology of earth, they are relative
newcomers on this great planet. It is estimated that the earth is over
4.5 billion years old, and ancient life forms (such as the
cyanobacteria) appeared about 2-3 billion years ago. If the geologic
history of the earth is compared to a 24-hour time scale, the first
multicellular organisms do not appear until just after 8:00 P.M. and
humans are not on the scene until less than a minute before
midnight.

5. There are more than one million species of animals (Kingdom

Animalia), more than all the other kingdoms combined. More than
half of all animal species are insects (800,000 species), and beetles
(300,000 species) comprise the largest order of insects (one fifth of all
species--using a total of 1.5 million). In fact, if all the species of plants
and animals on earth were lined up at random, every 5th species
would be a beetle.
 See The Wild And Wonderful World Of Beetles

6. Viruses: Viruses do not belong to the above 5 kingdoms of life.

They are much smaller and much less complex than cells. They are
macromolecular units composed of DNA or RNA surrounded by an
outer protein shell. They have no membrane-bound organelles, no
ribosomes (organelle site of protein synthesis), no cytoplasm (living
contents of a cell), and no source of energy production of their own.
They do not exhibit autopoiesis--i.e. they do not have the self-
maintenance metabolic reactions of living systems. Viruses lack
cellular respiration, ATP-production, gas exchange, etc. However,
they do reproduce, but at the expense of the host cell. Like obligate
parasites, they are only capable of reproduction within living cells.
In a sense, viruses hijack the host cell and force it to produce more
viruses through DNA replication and protein synthesis. Outside of
their host cells, viruses can survive as minute macromolecular
particles. Viruses may attack animals and plants. Infectious human
viruses can be dispersed though the air (airborne viruses) or body
fluids (HIV virus). Epidemic viruses (such as HIV) that are passed
from person to person via sexual conjugation are remarkably
similar to computer viruses. Unfortunately in humans there is no
resident antivirus program to alert you of a potential infection, or to
quickly scan your body and delete the invader once it has entered
your system. Humans must rely on their amazing antibody and cell-
mediated immune response, one of the most complex and
remarkable achievements in the evolution of living systems.

The discovery of a virus called "mimivirus" in 1992

complicates the placement of viruses in the overall
classification scheme for living organisms. Whether
mimivirus should be placed in an existing domain
(superkingdom), or in its own domain, remains to be seen.
Prior to this discovery, viruses were generally considered
nonliving until they hijack a living cell. Officially, this virus
got its name because it mimics bacteria in size and
complexity. Mimivirus was found inside an amoeba within a
cooling tower in Bradford, UK. [The cooling tower was being
investigated as the source of an influenza outbreak.]
Mimivirus is the largest known virus, about 0.8 micrometers
(800 nanometers) across. In fact it is larger than the
bacterium causing gonorrhea. The virus genome contains
1.2 million bases, more than many bacteria. The bases make
up 1,260 genes, which makes it as complex as some bacteria.
 Most viruses use either DNA or RNA to carry their genetic
information, but mimivirus has both of these nucleic acids.
In addition, mimivirus can make about 150 of its own
proteins, and can even repair its own DNA if it gets
damaged. Normal viruses are not capable of protein
synthesis or DNA repair on their own, they must rely on the
organelles of their host cells for these activities.

For more information, see D. Raoult, et al. "The 1.2-Mb

Genome Sequence of Mimivirus." Science Published On-line,
DOI: 10.1126/Science.1101485 (2004); B. La Scola et al. "A
Giant Virus in Amoebae." Science 299 (5615): 2033 (2003).

More Information About the Mimivirus

See The WAYNE'S WORD Virus Article

T he most morphologically and biochemically diverse, non-animal

kingdom is the Plantae or Plant Kingdom. It is subdivided into the
following 10 phyla or divisions. Note: These names vary considerably,
depending on which botany reference you are using.

Categories Within The Kingdom Plantae

Nonvascular Plants: No water-conducting cells (xylem).

1. Division Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts).

Vascular plants: Xylem tissue, true roots, stems & leaves.

[The following divisions are often placed in Division Tracheophyta]

   Pteridophytes: Spores but no seeds

2. Division Psilophyta (Psilotum or whisk fern.)

3. Division Lycophyta (club mosses).
4. Division Sphenophyta (horsetails).
5. Division Pterophyta (ferns).

   Spermatophytes: Seed Plants

Gymnosperms--Naked Seeds

6. Division Cycadophyta (cycads).

7. Division Ginkgophyta (maidenhair tree).
 8. Division Gnetophyta (mormon tea & Welwitschia).
9. Division Coniferophyta (Pinophyta: conifers).

Angiosperms--Seeds Enclosed In A Fruit

10. Division Anthophyta (flowering plants)

E ach of the plant divisions in the above table are further subdivided
into successively smaller and smaller subcategories. The complete
hierarchal breakdown is Kingdom-Phylum (Division)-Class-Order-Family-
Genus-Species. To remember this sequence, the following mnemonic
device is often helpful:

King--Phillip--Came--Over--For--Good--Soup

A Biological and Military (Army) Organizational Hierarchy Compared:

Biological Organization Military Organization

   Kingdom (one or more phyla)   Brigade (two or more regiments)

  Regiment (two or more

   Phylum (one or more classes)
battalions)

  Battalion (two or more

   Class (one or more orders)
companies) 

   Order (one or more families)   Company (two or more platoons)

   Family (one or more genera)   Platoon (two or more squads)

   Genus (one or more species)   Squad (a group of 12 soldiers)

   Species (a distinct kind or

  Soldier (a distinct kind or unit)
unit)   

T he following table compares the complete taxonomic hierarchy of a

marine lichen of the rocky Pacific coast Verrucaria maura with the
minute aquatic flowering plant Wolffia borealis:
 Kingdom Fungi Plantae

Phylum Eumycota Tracheophyta

Class Ascomycetes Angiospermae

Order Pyrenulales Arales

Family Verrucariaceae Lemnaceae

Genus Verrucaria Wolffia

Species maura borealis

T he plant kingdom includes nonvascular and vascular plants.

Nonvascular plants lack a water-conducting system of tubular cells
(called xylem tissue), and do not have true roots, stems and leaves. Like
algae and fungi, the plant body of some nonvascular plants is often called
a thallus. Nonvascular plants are all placed in the Division Bryophyta,
including the mosses and liverworts. The vast majority of the plant
kingdom are vascular, with tubular, water-conducting cells called xylem
tissue. Like a microscopic pipeline system, they are arranged end-to-end
from the roots to the leaves. Unlike nonvascular plants, they have true
roots, stems and leaves. Some references place all the vascular plants in a
separate phylum or division called the Tracheophyta. Most botanists
now subdivide vascular plants into 9 divisions. More primitive vascular
plants that reproduce by spores, but without seeds, are called
pteridophytes, and include the 4 divisions Psilophyta (whisk ferns),
Lycophyta (club mosses), Sphenophyta (horsetails), and Pterophyta
(ferns). Seed-bearing vascular plants are called spermatophytes and
include the primitive gymnosperms (with immature seeds or ovules
naked and exposed directly to pollen) and the more advanced
angiosperms (with ovules enclosed in an ovary that ripens into a fruit).
Gymnosperms include the 4 divisions Cycadophyta (cycads),
Ginkgophyta (maidenhair tree), Gnetophyta (mormon tea & the bizarre
South African Welwitschia), and the Coniferophyta (conifers). The
angiosperms are placed in the single division Anthophyta which
includes all the flowering plants and 90 percent of all the plant kingdom.

See The Amazing Welwitschia Plant

See Diversity In Flowering Plants
 Twenty of the more than 100 species of Pinus on earth. All of these
pines are native to the state of California, USA. 1. Monterey Pine (P.
radiata), 2. Bishop Pine (P. muricata), 3. Santa Cruz Island Pine (P.
remorata), 4. Whitebark Pine (P. albicaulis), 5. Limber Pine (P.
flexilis), 6. Beach Pine (P. contorta), 7. Lodgepole Pine (P.
murrayana), 8. Western White Pine (P. monticola), 9. Knobcone
Pine (P. attenuata), 10. Bristlecone Pine (P. longaeva), 11. Foxtail
Pine (P. balfouriana), 12. Four-Leaf Pinyon (P. quadrifolia), 13.
Two-Leaf Pinyon (P. edulis), 14. One-Leaf Pinyon (P. monophylla),
15. Ponderosa Pine (P. ponderosa), 16. Coulter Pine (P. coulteri),
17. Digger Pine (P. sabiniana), 18. Torrey Pine (P. torreyana), 19.
Jeffrey Pine (P. jeffreyi), 20. Sugar Pine (P. lambertiana).
Note: In the Jepson Flora of California (1993),
Pinus remorata is now considered a synonym of P.
muricata. Another species (left image) called the
Washoe Pine (P. washoensis), with cones similar to
a miniature Jeffrey Pine, is now recognized for
California. In addition, the Beach and Lodgepole
Pines are now recognized as subspecies of P.
contorta, rather than separate species.

According to R.M. Lanner (Conifers of California, 1999), there may be

other significant changes in the pines of California. Allozyme studies
in two-leaf pinyons (Pinus edulis) of the New York Mountains
indicate that these populations are biochemically (and genetically)
consistent with nearby one-leaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla), and
that P. edulis may not occur in California. The unusual New York
Mountains population appears to be a 2-needle variant of P.
monophylla. The four-leaf or Parry pinyon of San Diego County (P.
quadrifolia) may be a hybrid between P. monophylla and Sierra
Juárez pinyon (P. juarezensis) of northern Baja California.
According to Lanner, the latter species has five needles per fascicle
and occurs in San Diego County. The hybrid hypothesis might
explain the perplexing variation in needle number for P.
quadrifolia, with clusters of three, four and five.

See A Giant Coulter Pine Cone

Foxtail pines (Pinus balfouriana) on the 11,000 ft (3353 m) slopes

of Alta Peak. The 13,000 ft. (3962 m) crest of the Great Western
Divide of the Sierra Nevada can be seen in the distance.

Selection & Genetic Drift In California Cypress

M illions of years ago, cypress woodlands containing one or more

ancestral species of the cone-bearing genus Cupressus once dominated
vast areas of California. During the past 20 million years, as mountains
were uplifted and the climate became increasingly more arid, most of
these extensive cypress woodlands vanished from the landscape. In some
areas, the cypress were probably unable to compete with more drought
resistant, aggressive species, such as impenetrable chaparral shrubs and
desert scrub. Although cypress are fire-adapted with serotinous seed
cones that open after a fire, they are vulnerable if the fire interval occurs
too frequently, before the trees are old enough to produce a sufficient
cone crop. Chaparral shrubs quickly resprout after a fast-moving brush
fire from well-established subterranean lignotubers. This may explain
why some cypress groves occur in very rocky, sterile sites with poor soils
where the chaparral shrubs can't compete as well.

See Article About Brush Fires In California

T oday this fascinating genus is represented by 10 species (or 8 species

and 2 subspecies), confined to isolated groves scattered throughout the
coastal and inland mountains, from the Mexican border to Oregon.
Because some of these populations became isolated into "arboreal
islands," gradual genetic changes over millions of years resulted in the
present-day species and subspecies. This is somewhat analogous to the
evolution of Darwin's finches on the Galapagos Islands. It is quite likely
that natural selection played a role in cypress speciation. Cypress of arid
inland mountains and valleys (such as Piute cypress, Macnab cypress,
Cuyamaca cypress, and Arizona cypress) have glandular (resinous)
foliage and are more drought resistant. Coastal species (such as Monterey
cypress, Gowen cypress, Santa Cruz cypress and Mendocino cypress) are
generally nonglandular without resin glands on the leaf surfaces. Some
phenotypic variability, particularly between different isolated groves of
the same species may be due (in part) to genetic drift. These differences
include slight variations in foliage, bark characteristics (exfoliating vs.
persistent), and the general shape of seed cones. These differences
attributed to genetic drift are analogous to racial differences in people,
such as different blood type percentages and facial characteristics.

T he relatively short period of isolation for Cupressus (cypress) species

may be one of the reasons taxonomists disagree on the total number of
species native to North America. In 1948, Carl B. Wolf published his
"Taxonomic and Distributional Studies of the New World Cypresses" (El
Aliso 1: 1-250). Dr. Wolf listed a total of 15 species, one in Baja California,
one on Guadalupe Island off the coast of Baja California, one in Mexico
and Central America, two in Arizona, and 10 in California. In 1953, the
number of U.S. species was reduced to six by Dr. Elbert Little, Jr. in his
Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees of the United States
(USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 41). These numbers have fluctuated
greatly in subsequent publications. In addition, the nursery trade has
added several cultivated varieties, including at least four different
cultivars for the Arizona cypress.
N ew evidence from DNA sequencing has further complicated the
number of cypress species, including the transfer of other conifer genera
into the genus Cupressus. For example, the Jepson Manual of California
Plants lists ten species; however, two of these C. nootkatensis (Alaska
cedar) and C. lawsoniana (Port Orford cedar) were formerly placed in
the genus Chamaecyparis. It is possible that some of the isolated species
of Cupressus in California and Arizona have not been isolated long
enough to warrant the status of a species. In fact, this is why most
modern floras have consolidated four species into subspecies of the
Arizona cypress (C. arizonica). These species have been isolated long
enough for genetic drift to occur, but perhaps not long enough for the
development of distinct species populations.

Left: Seed cones of cypress (Cupressus) from groves in southern

California. A. Tecate cypress (C. forbesii), B. Sargent cypress (C.
sargentii), C. Piute cypress (C. nevadensis) [Syn. C. arizonica ssp.
nevadensis], D. Cuyamaca cypress (C. stephensonii) [Syn. C.
arizonica spp. stephensonii], E. Smooth-bark Arizona cypress (C.
glabra) [Syn. C. arizonica ssp. glabra], F. Rough-bark Arizona
cypress (C. arizonica) [Syn. C. arizonica ssp. arizonica]. Right:
Seed cones of cypress from groves in central and northern
California. G. Monterey cypress (C. macrocarpa), H. Gowen cypress
(C. goveniana) [Syn. C. goveniana ssp. goveniana], I. Santa Cruz
cypress (C. abramsiana), J. Sargent cypress (C. sargentii), K.
Mendocino cypress (C. pygmaea) [Syn. C. goveniana ssp.
pigmaea], L. Macnab cypress (C. macnabiana), M. Modoc cypress
(C. bakeri).

Male (pollen) cones of the Piute cypress (Cupressus nevadensis)

[syn. C. arizonica ssp. nevadensis). Each scalelike leaf bears a
dorsal gland that exudes a resin droplet (red arrow). Interior
cypress species such as this one typically have glaucous, resinous
foliage, presumably an adaptation to dry, arid habitats.

A. Foliage and pollen cones of the Smooth-bark Arizona cypress

(Cupressus glabra) [Syn. C. arizonica ssp. glabra]. B. Foliage of the
Tecate cypress (C. forbesii). The scalelike leaves of Arizona cypress
are glaucous and very glandular (sticky). The scalelike leaves of
Tecate cypress are green and without dorsal resin glands.
Left: Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) in Point Lobos
State Park on the coast of central California. Right: Grove of Piute
cypress (C. nevadensis) in the Piute Mountains, with Lake Isabella
and the snow-covered Sierra Nevada in the distance. The Piute
cypress are more drought resistant, with gray (glaucous), glandular
(resinous) foliage similar to the Arizona cypress. In fact, some
botanists now consider the Piute cypress to be a subspecies of the
Arizona cypress and have named it C. arizonica ssp. nevadensis.

A grove of Sargent cypress (Cupressus sargentii) in the San Rafael

Mountains of Santa Barbara County, California. This species
typically grows on outcrops of serpentine in the Coast Ranges of
central and northern California. Serpentine is a shiny rock with a
waxy luster and feel. It varies in color from creamy white and
shades of green to black. In California, many species of rare and
endangered plants are endemic to serpentine outcrops. Genetic
drift has undoubtedly occured in isolated cypress groves such as
this one, which are often referred to as "arboreal islands."

Other Members Of The Division Coniferophyta

Podocarpus gracilior, a member of the Podocarpaceae native to
eastern Africa. Although it is sometimes called "fern pine" it does
not belong to the genus (Pinus); however, like pines and other
cone-bearing species, it does belong to the Division Coniferophyta.
Minute female cones are composed of 2-4 reduced scales, but
usually only one scale bears an ovule that matures into a seed.
There is little resemblance to a cone in the mature seed. The seed
has a hard coat surrounded by a fleshy outer layer (aril). The
drupelike seed often sits on a fleshy red or purple base or cone axis
that is called an aril in some references. The seeds are similar to the
California nutmeg (Torreya californica) and Pacific yew (Taxus
brevifolia), members of the closely-related Yew Family (Taxaceae).
In the latter species, the naked seed sits partially exposed in a red,
cup-shaped aril. Podocarpus seeds are often referred to as fleshy
fruits called drupes, but this is incorrect because drupes develop
from the ovaries of flowering plants. Another group of conifers
with fleshy seed-bearing structures are the junipers (Juniperus) in
the Cypress Family (Cupressaceae). Junipers actually produce small
cones with fleshy, fused scales bearing one-several seeds.
Podocarpus is a dioecious species, with separate male and female
trees in the population. Podocarpus has an ancient lineage dating
back to distant relatives that lived during the Jurassic Period 170
million years ago.
California nutmeg (Torreya californica), a member of the Division
Coniferophyta, Order Taxales, Family Taxaceae. Like Podocarpus,
the "naked" seed is enclosed in a fleshy, outer layer (called an aril)
which superficially resembles a one-seeded fruit of an angiosperm.
The name "nutmeg" is derived from its superficial resemblance to
the fruit of the true nutmeg (Myristica fragrans).

Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), another member of the Division

Coniferophyta, Order Taxales, Family Taxaceae that occurs in
northern California, Oregon and Washington. Unlike the California
nutmeg, the naked seed is not completely enclosed by the fleshy
aril. Instead, the seed sits in a cup-shaped aril. Since this species is
native to regions of the Pacific northwestern United States
containing the timber tree Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), it
was once considered a weedy species when areas of the forest were
logged. Luckily, the Pacific yew still survives because it is now
considered to be an exceedingly valuable species. An extract from
the bark (and needles) called taxol has been found to be a very
effective treatment for ovarian and breast cancers. It is very
important to preserve natural, old growth forests with a diversity
of species, some of which may prove to be valuable medicines for
the treatment of diseases.

Santa Lucia Fir (Abies bracteata)

The Santa Lucia or bristlecone fir (Abies bracteata) has a tall,

slender, steeple-like crown. Seed cones are produced near the top
of the slender spire, and they are some of the most unusual cones
of all cone-bearing trees on earth. Long, spine-like bracts extend
outwardly from between the cone scales, and resemble the
antennae of a space satellite. This uncommon and remarkable fir
tree is endemic to steep, rocky slopes in the Santa Lucia Range of
California's Coast Ranges.
 Santa Lucia fir (Abies bracteata), a remarkable California endemic.

See Conifers Of The Araucaria Family

U sing fossil evidence and computerized cladistic analyses, it is

generally concluded that evolution in the plant kingdom proceeded from
nonvascular, spore-bearing ancestors to vascular, seed-bearing,
flowering plants, as more and more advanced morphological and
biochemical traits gradually appeared along the geologic time scale. This
is somewhat analogous to the evolution of Microsoft; however, unlike
Microsoft, the phenomenal success of flowering plants is based on
natural selection rather than timely, strategic decisions by brilliant top
level executives such as Bill Gates.

See Evolution of Microsoft vs. Natural Selection of Antlions

See Ancient Seed Plants "Living Fossils" At Palomar College
Ancient Plants That Lived When Dinosaurs Roamed The Earth
See The Demise of Dinosaurs and The Rise of Flowering Plants

References

1. Armstrong, W.P. 1978. "Southern California's Vanishing

Cypresses." Fremontia 6 (2): 24-29.
2. Armstrong, W.P. 1977. "The Close-Cone Pines and Cypresses"
(Chapter 9, pp. 295-358). In: Terrestrial Vegetation of
California, John Wiley & Sons.

3. Hickman, J.C. (Editor). 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher

Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley.

4. Lecointre, G. and H.L. Guyader. [Illustrated by D. Visset &

Translated by K. McCoy.] 2006. The Tree of Life: A
Phylogenetic Classification. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.

5. Margulis, L., K.V. Schwartz, and M. Dolan. 1994. The

Illustrated Five Kingdoms: A Guide To The Diversity Of Life
On Earth. HarperCollins College Publishers, New York.

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