metals

Article
The Establishment of Surface Roughness as Failure
Criterion of Al–Li Alloy Stretch-Forming Process
Jing-Wen Feng 1,2,3 , Li-Hua Zhan 1,2,3, * and Ying-Ge Yang 1,2,3
Received: 17 December 2015; Accepted: 28 December 2015; Published: 7 January 2016
Academic Editor: Nong Gao
1 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, Hunan, China;
fengjingwen1@csu.edu.cn (J.-W.F.); 133711022@csu.edu.cn (Y.-G.Y.)
2 State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex Manufacturing, Central South University,
Changsha 410083, Hunan, China
3 2011 Collaborative Innovation Center, Central South University, Changsha 410083, Hunan, China
* Correspondence: yjs-cast@csu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-731-8883-0254

Abstract: Taking Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy as the study object, based on the stretching and deforming
characteristics of sheet metals, this paper proposes a new approach of critical orange peel state
characterizations on the basis of the precise measurement of stretch-forming surface roughness and
establishes the critical criterion for the occurrence of orange peel surface defects in the stretch-forming
process of Al–Li alloy sheet metals. Stretching experiments of different strain paths are conducted on
the specimens with different notches so as to establish the Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy, forming limit
diagram and forming limit curve equation, with the surface roughness of characteristic critical orange
peel structure as the stretch-forming failure criterion.

Keywords: Al–Li–S4 Al–Li alloy; stretch-forming; orange peel; forming limit; surface roughness

1. Introduction
Aircraft skin serves as the shape part of an aircraft and constructs the aerodynamic configuration
of the aircraft, featuring big size and direct contact with air. Therefore, it requires an accurate shape,
smooth streamline, and no surface defects, etc. [1]. As a relatively common aircraft skin-forming
approach in the field of aeronautics and astronautics manufacturing, the technology of stretch-forming
is widely used in the manufacturing of large-scale aircraft skin as part of aircraft aerodynamic
configuration [2–4]. In the stretch-forming process, the clamps of the stretch-forming machine clamp
both ends of the sheet metal and move along a certain track, or the die goes up to make the sheet
metal contact the stretch-forming die, creating uneven plane stretching strain to make the metal sheet
conform to the stretch-forming die so as to obtain the required part shape [5–7]. Compared with other
approaches to aircraft skin forming, the stretch-forming technology might cause surface defects such
as orange peel. Orange peel not only affects the appearance of the aircraft skin, but also damages its
surface integrity. Especially in the case of mirror skin, orange peel easily appears due to mirror skin’s
internal structure and polished surface, seriously affecting its service life, which is usually the main
reason for the scrapping of parts [8].
The defect of orange peel is a kind of rough orange peel-like morphology found on the surface of
shaped products. In general, coarse and unevenly structured grains on the alloy surface are considered
the reason of the orange peel defect appearing on the alloy surface during the stretch-forming process,
while the grain size of the alloy has a certain relation to the extent of the deformation. At a certain
temperature, when there are relatively small deformations, recrystallization usually does not appear in
the alloy and the grains maintain their original state; however, when deformation reaches a certain
degree, recrystallized grains will become very coarse. In the manufacturing process of aluminum alloy

Metals 2016, 6, 13; doi:10.3390/met6010013 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2016, 6, 13 2 of 10

skin sheet metal, there are usually multiple hot rolling and cold rolling processes as well as several
heat treatments including annealing, solution and aging. Because of the imperfection in the control
over cold deformation and the choice of heat treatment technology in the manufacturing process of
aluminum alloy sheet metal, recrystallized grain structure tends to be coarse and show different sizes,
resulting in the piling up of dislocation on large grains and the rapid increases of stress in the follow-up
stretch-forming process. Thus, the areas of large grains reach and exceed the elastic limit in advance;
the non-synchronous deformation between large grains and small ones gives rise to minor cracks on
the surface of the material, manifesting as the orange peel structure at the macro-level [9].
The forming limit of sheet metal is a criterion used to describe whether the sheet metal fails
to form or not. To identify the concept of forming limit, one should first determine the failure
criterion of sheet metal’s forming process. Al–Li alloy as a new type of aluminum alloy has shown
a wide application prospect in the fields of aeronautics and astronautics due to its good qualities
of low density, high specific strength, and high specific stiffness, and it has become a hot subject in
the research field of aluminum alloy materials, being regarded as one of the important candidate
materials of modern aeronautic and astronautic structures [10,11]. However, due to the high cost,
poor cold plasticity at ambient temperature, evident anisotropy and easy cracking in cold working
compared with other regular aluminum alloys, Al–Li alloy at present can only be processed into
relatively simple parts and faces great difficulty in the processing and manufacturing of more complex
structural parts. Therefore, some of its own attributes also limit Al–Li alloy’s application in structural
components [12–15]. Relevant researchers have conducted corresponding research on the formability
of Al–Li alloy, which, however, mainly focus on the study of the Al–Li alloy’s structure property
and the aspect of hot forming. Literature [16] explored the 2397-T87 Al–Li alloy with a thickness of
130 mm for the microstructure, stretching property and fracture toughness of layers with different
thicknesses and at different orientations. By the uniaxial tension test under different hot deformation
conditions, the forming limit test with cracking as a failure criterion, and the stretch-forming tests of
5A90 Al–Li alloy sheet metal, literature [17] built the Al–Li alloy forming limit model and determined
the technological parameters for Al–Li alloy to acquire good deformation performance.
Nevertheless, for aviation aircraft skin materials, cracking is not often taken as the criterion for
judging whether the skin fails to form or not, especially for Al–Li alloy, the reason of which usually lies
in that the forming failure is caused by the appearance of orange peel structure in the stretch-forming
process. Currently, there are relatively few studies on the forming limit caused by the defect of orange
peel in the stretch-forming process, and a forming failure criterion targeting the orange peel has not yet
taken shape. As the occurrence of the orange peel phenomenon is a slowly changing and accumulated
process, and all of the previous research on such a phenomenon was conducted by eye measurement,
the results have certain randomness.
In this paper, experimental research on the problem of orange peel in the stretch-forming process
of Al–Li alloy is conducted, and a novel approach of critical orange peel characterization is proposed
on the basis of the precise measurement of stretch-forming surface roughness. Furthermore, the
judgment criterion of the orange peel defect is analyzed and established, the stretching tests on
specimens of different strain paths are conducted combining the technology of optical deformation
measurement, and, ultimately, the stretch-forming limit diagram and its forming limit curve equation
are obtained with the surface roughness of orange peel structure with critical characteristics such as
the stretch-forming failure criterion.

2. Experiments

2.1. Instrument and Methods

In order to conduct synchronization tests on stress-strain and orange peel surface defect in
the stretch-forming process of Al–Li alloy, a stretch-forming test and testing system are established
to obtain the critical strain state of orange peel of the product, in which the optical deformation
Metals 2016, 6, 13 3 of 10
Metals 2016, 6, 13 3 of 10
Metals 2016, 6, 13 3 of 10
measurement instrument and the universal testing machine operate in collaboration, as shown in
Figure 1.
measurement instrument and the universal testing machine operate in collaboration, as shown in
measurement instrument and the universal testing machine operate in collaboration, as shown in
FigureThe
1. optical deformation measurement instrument used in the experiment adopts the
Figure 1.
deformation measurement system based on computer visionused
technology
The optical deformation measurement instrument in thedeveloped
experiment by the German
adopts the
The optical
company GOM deformation
for measurementdeformation
three-dimensional instrument used in the experiment
analysis. By adopts
controlling thethesynchronized
deformation
deformation measurement system based on computer vision technology developed by the German
measurement
operation of system
the based
optical on computer
deformation vision technology
measurement developed
instrument andBytheby the German
universal company
testing GOM
machine, the
company GOM for three-dimensional deformation analysis. controlling the synchronized
for three-dimensional
complete of monitoring deformation analysis. By controlling the synchronized operation of the optical
operation the opticalofdeformation
the total stretch-forming deformation
measurement instrument andprocess of thetesting
the universal specimens can the
machine, be
deformation
achieved and measurement
the computer instrument
image and thesystem
processing universal
can testing
be machine,
further the
utilized tocomplete
obtain themonitoring
true strain
complete monitoring of the total stretch-forming deformation process of the specimens can be
of the total
change stretch-forming
rules deformation
theprocess of the specimens can bethe achieved and the computer
achieved andat different
the computer positions
image on specimen
processing system surface
can bethroughout
further utilizedstretch-forming process.
to obtain the true strain
image processing system can be further utilized to obtain the true strain change rules at different
change rules at different positions on the specimen surface throughout the stretch-forming process.
positions on the specimen surface throughout the stretch-forming process.

Figure 1. The stretching and testing system.

Figure 1. The
Figure 1. The stretching
stretching and
and testing
testing system.
system.
Compared with the stretch-forming mechanism, this experimental mechanism is to some extent
simplified,
Compared
Compared in particular
with thewith
with the the top die removed.
stretch-forming
stretch-forming mechanism,
mechanism, However,
this in the actual
this experimental
experimental stretch-forming
mechanism
mechanism is to
is to someprocess
some extent
extentof
the sheet
simplified, in
simplified, metal, with
in particular the
particular with stretch-forming
with the the top die
top die removed. going up,
removed. However, the
However, in sheet metal
in the gradually
the actual stretch-formingbends to
stretch-forming process attach
process of to
of
the sheet
the
the die as
sheet shown
metal,
metal, with inthe
with Figure 2. Due to the
thestretch-forming
stretch-forming existence
die
die going
going of the
up,up,
the friction,
sheet
sheet the
metal
metal material
gradually
gradually flow oftothe
bends
bends to attaching
attach
attach to
to the
segment
the
die as asAA′
dieshown intends
shown in to
Figure 2.beDue
Figure limited theto
2.toDue to athe
relatively
existenceexistence small deformation,
of friction,
of friction, the whereas
the material
material flow flow
of the theoffree
attachingthe segments
attaching
segment
without
AA 1
segment contact
tendsAA′ with
to betends
limited the
to to die AB
bea limited
relativelyand A′B′
tosmall tend
a relatively to have relatively
small whereas
deformation, deformation, greater
the free deformation
whereas
segments thewithout
freewithout
segments the
contact
restriction
without
with the die ofAB
friction.
contact with
and A1Therefore,
B1 tend
the die to the
ABhaveandorange peelgreater
A′B′ tend
relatively structure
to have usually appears
relatively
deformation withoutfirst
greater the on the free
deformation
restriction segments
without
of the
friction.
between
Therefore, the
restrictionthe chucks
of friction. and
orange peel the
Therefore, die
structure corners,
theusually and
orangeappearsthen slowly
peel structure spreads
first on usually toward
the free appears the
segmentsfirst forming
on thethe
between surface
free segments
chucks that
and
attaches
between
the to
thethe
die corners, die.
andThus,
chucks then it can
and slowly
the diebe seen that
corners,
spreads andthethen
toward deformation
theslowly
forming of the free
spreads
surface thatsegments
toward onthe
the forming
attaches to thedie.
sheet
surface metal
Thus,that
it
is
canthe
attaches principal
be seento the factor
thatdie. affecting
Thus, it can be
the deformation the appearance
seenfree
of the that of orange
the deformation
segments peel
on the sheet structure.
of the
metal As
freeissegmentsthe deformation
the principalon the
factorsheet of the
metal
affecting
free
is
thethe segments
principalon
appearance of the
factor sheet
orange peelmetal
affecting theis appearance
similar
structure. to its
As the ofstretch-forming,
orange peel
deformation the conventional
structure.
of the free As theon
segments stretching
deformation
the sheet metaltest
of theof
is
sheetsegments
free
similar metal canonbe theused
sheetinmetal
to its stretch-forming, the conventional
the research
is similaron the influence
tostretching test of
its stretch-forming, the the
of sheet orange peelbephenomenon
conventional
metal can usedstretching on
testthe
in the research of
stretch-forming
sheet
on the metal can of
influence bethe
of used
the materials.
in the
orange peelresearch
phenomenonon theon influence of the orange
the stretch-forming peelmaterials.
of the phenomenon on the
stretch-forming of the materials.

Figure 2. The schematic diagram of stretch-forming die.

Figure 2. The schematic diagram of stretch-forming die.
Figure 2. The schematic diagram of stretch-forming die.
Metals 2016, 6, 13 4 of 10

Metals 2016, 6, 13 4 of 10
2.2. Experimental Design
2.2. Experimental Design
2.2.1. Experiment Design of Critical State Criterion of Orange Peel Defect
2.2.1. Experiment Design of Critical State Criterion of Orange Peel Defect
The experimental material was the Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy which was used for aircraft skin
The experimental material was the Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy which was used for aircraft skin
with awith
thickness of 2 mm. See Figure 3 for the structure and size of the stretched specimens. The
a thickness of 2 mm. See Figure 3 for the structure and size of the stretched specimens. The
experimental specimens
experimental specimens were polished
were polishedto to
make
makethe
thesurfaces brightand
surfaces bright andwithout
without obvious
obvious scratches.
scratches.
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,in order to establish
in order the
to establish thesame
sameinitial
initial surface statefor
surface state forallall specimens,
specimens, the the roughness
roughness
of polished specimens
of polished specimenswaswas
measured
measured ononthetheoptical
opticalsurface profilometer
surface profilometer to to ensure
ensure similar
similar polishing
polishing
effects for all the specimens.
effects for all the specimens.

Figure
Figure 3. The
3. The shapeand
shape andsize
size of
of stretched
stretched specimen.
specimen.

Stretching tests of different strains were conducted on polished specimens to investigate the
Stretching tests of different strains were conducted on polished specimens to investigate the
evolution situation of the orange peel phenomenon on material surfaces under the condition of
evolution situation
different of the orange
deformations. peel phenomenon
See stretching strains in Table on material surfaces
1. Additionally, under
tests were also the condition
conducted at of
different
fourdeformations.
different strain See stretching
speeds strains
on T8 alloy in Table the
to investigate 1. Additionally, tests deforming
impacts of different were alsospeeds
conducted
on at
four different
the orangestrain
peel speeds on T8on
phenomenon alloy to investigate
specimen surfaces in thetheimpacts of different
experiment. deforming
By contrasting speeds on
the surface
the orange peel phenomenon
morphology and true strainon specimen
of the specimen surfaces in the
at different experiment.
speeds, when tiny By contrasting
orange the surface
peel phenomena
appear on the surface at different strain speeds, the true strain of the
morphology and true strain of the specimen at different speeds, when tiny orange peel Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy metal
phenomena
sheet can be measured with the results shown in Table 2. It is observed from
appear on the surface at different strain speeds, the true strain of the Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloythe table that when themetal
strain speed is 0.0005/s, the strain at the sampling point is the greatest when tiny orange peel
sheet can be measured with the results shown in Table 2. It is observed from the table that when the
structure on the specimen surface appears. Thus, in actual stretch-forming treatment of aircraft skin,
strain speed is 0.0005/s, the strain at the sampling point is the greatest when tiny orange peel structure
the said speed can be employed to alleviate the appearance of the orange peel phenomenon.
on the specimen surface appears. Thus, in actual stretch-forming treatment of aircraft skin, the said
speed can be employed to alleviate the Tableappearance
1. Stretching of the of
strains orange peel phenomenon.
samples.

Experiment Batch No. 1 2 3 4 5

Table 1. Stretching strains of samples.
Stretching Strain 0% 3% 6% 9% 12%
Experiment Batch No. 1 2 3 4 5
Table 2. Critical strain and roughness of samples.
Stretching Strain 0% 3% 6% 9% 12%
Specimen No. Strain Speed/s−1 Critical Strain/% Roughness Ra/nm
1 0.0001 strain and roughness
Table 2. Critical 1.78 of samples. 841
2 0.0005 1.87 827
3
Specimen No. 0.001
Strain Speed/s ´1 1.14
Critical Strain/% 973
Roughness Ra /nm
4 0.0015 1.19 1002
1 0.0001 1.78 841
2 0.0005 1.87 827
After the stretching
3 tests, both sides
0.001 of the specimens
1.14were cleaned again,
973 and the side used for
surface morphology4 observation was placed under the
0.0015 1.19optical profilometer
1002 for surface analysis,
obtaining the morphology, nephogram and roughness of the specimen surfaces. Combined with the
criterion of the orange peel defect obtained by the experiment, the areas in which critical orange peel
After the stretching tests, both sides of the specimens were cleaned again, and the side used
structure occurred were found on the specimens, and the strain state of the areas can be also found at
for surface morphology observation was placed under the optical profilometer for surface analysis,
obtaining the morphology, nephogram and roughness of the specimen surfaces. Combined with the
criterion of the orange peel defect obtained by the experiment, the areas in which critical orange peel
structure occurred were found on the specimens, and the strain state of the areas can be also found at
Metals 2016, 6, 13 5 of 10
Metals 2016, 6, 13 5 of 10
Metals 2016, 6, 13 5 of 10

thethe same
same positionsononthe
positions theother
otherside
sideof
ofthe
the specimens,
specimens, which
whichactually
actuallyisisthe
thecritical
criticalstrain state
strain of of
state thethe
the same positions
appearing orange on the
peel other side of the specimens, which actually is the critical strain state of the
defect.
appearing orange peel defect.
appearing orange peel defect.
2.2.2.
2.2.2. ExperimentDesign
Experiment DesignofofStretch
StretchForming
Forming Limit
Limit Diagram
Diagram
2.2.2. Experiment Design of Stretch Forming Limit Diagram
During
During thestretch-forming
the stretch-formingprocess
process of of aircraft
aircraft skin,
skin, the
the strain
strainstate
stateofofsheet
sheetmetals mainly
metals mainlyfellfell
During
betweenuniaxialthe stretch-forming
uniaxialstretching
stretchingand process
andplane of
plane strainaircraft
strain with skin, the strain
with approximately state
approximately linear of sheet metals mainly fell
between linearstrain
strainpaths
paths[18].
[18].Thus,
Thus,
between uniaxial
stretch-forming stretching
specimens and
that plane
could strain
implement with approximately
different strain linear
paths strain
were paths
designed[18]. Thus,
with the
stretch-forming specimens that could implement different strain paths were designed with the typical
stretch-forming
typical specimenspecimens
structure that size
and couldgiven
implement different strain pathsthewere designed stretched
with the
specimen
typical structure
specimen and size given
structure and in Figure
size given 4,in
in
Figure
among
Figure
4, among
which
4, among
which
the straight-edge
which the
straight-edge
stretched specimen
straight-edge stretchedwas
specimen was close to the uniaxial stretching state of strain, while the R = 10 notched specimen was
close to the uniaxial
specimen stretching state ofstretching
strain, while
statethe R = 10 while
notchedthespecimen was close to thewas
plane
close to thewas close
plane to the
state uniaxial
of strain [19]. of strain, R = 10 notched specimen
state of strain [19].
close to the plane state of strain [19].

Figure4.4.Size
Figure Size of
of samples
samples with
with different
differentstrain
strainpaths.
paths.
Figure 4. Size of samples with different strain paths.
In order to conduct observation and analysis of the surface morphology and strain state of the
In In
order totoconduct
orderboth conduct observation andand analysisofofthethe surface morphology and strain state of
specimens, sides ofobservation
the specimens analysis
were polished surface morphology
until without and strain
an obvious state and
scratch, of thea
thespecimens,
specimens,both bothsides
sidesofofthe
thespecimens
specimens were
were polished until
polishedtountil without
without an obvious
anpolishing
obvious effects scratch,
scratch,forand and a
profilometer was used to measure the surface roughness achieve similar eacha
profilometer
profilometer was
was used
usedtotomeasure
measure the
thesurface
surface roughness
roughness to achieve
achievesimilar
similarpolishing
polishing effectsforfor each
specimen. The specimens with ethanol were cleaned aftertopolishing. As shown in Figure effects
5, the each
black
specimen.
specimen. The
Thespecimens
specimens with
with ethanol
ethanol were
were cleaned
cleaned after
after polishing.
polishing. As
As shown
shown inin Figure
Figure
and white speckle patterns were sprayed on half of one side of the specimens, so as to analyze the 5, 5,
thethe black
black
andandwhite
true white
strainspeckle
speckle patterns
on specimenpatterns were
weresprayed
surfaces sprayed
during on half of one
onstretching
the one sideof
side
process; of thespecimens,
the specimens,
another half was so soasasto
used toto analyze
analyze
observe thethe
the
true
true strainononof
strain
evolvement specimen
specimen
the orange surfaces
surfaces during
duringthe
peel phenomenonthestretching
stretchingprocess;
on specimenprocess;another halfhalf
another
surfaces during was used
the was to observe
used
stretching to the
observe
process.
evolvement
theMeanwhile, ofofthe
evolvementanother theorange
orange peel
peelphenomenon
phenomenon on specimen
on specimen surfaces during
surfaces duringthe stretching
the stretching
side, only polished, was used to measure surface morphology and roughness process.
process.
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
with anotherside,
another
the profilometer. side,only
onlypolished,
polished, was
was used
used to
to measure
measure surface
surfacemorphology
morphologyand androughness
roughness
with the profilometer.
with the profilometer.

Figure 5. Sample appearances along different strain paths after surface treatment.
Figure5.5.Sample
Figure Sampleappearances
appearances along
along different strain
strainpaths
pathsafter
aftersurface
surfacetreatment.
treatment.
 Metals 2016, 6, 13 6 of 10
Metals
Metals 2016,
2016, 6, 13
6, 13 6 of 10 10
6 of
3. Results and Analysis
3. Results and Analysis
3. 3.1.
Results and Analysis
The Equilibrium Diagram of Tensile Specimen before Deformation
3.1. The Equilibrium Diagram of Tensile Specimen before Deformation
3.1. TheThe
Equilibrium
grain sizeDiagram
grade of of the
Tensile Specimen
specimen canbefore Deformation
be measured in accordance with the Metal Methods
The grain size grade of the specimen can be measured in accordance with the Metal Methods
for Estimating the Average Grain Size, as shown in Table 3 below. From the measured grain size
forThe grain size
Estimating thegrade of the
Average specimen
Grain Size, ascan be measured
shown in Table in accordance
3 below. Fromwith the Metal Methods
the measured grain sizefor
grades, as shown in Figures 6 and 7, it is observed that the average grain size of the specimen is
grades, asthe
Estimating shown
Averagein Figures 6 andas7,shown
Grain Size, it is observed
in Tablethat the average
3 below. From thegrain size of the
measured specimen
grain is
size grades,
60–80 μm, suggesting that the specimen has already fallen into the category of open grain structure.
as 60–80
shown μm,
in suggesting
Figures 6 that7the
and it specimen
is observed hasthat
already
the fallen into
average the category
grain size of of specimen
the
Meanwhile, judging from the equilibrium diagram, the grain structure of the specimen is extremely
open grainisstructure.
60–80 µm,
Meanwhile,
suggesting judging
thatathe from
specimen the equilibrium
hasinalready diagram,
fallen the the
intolarge grain
the categorystructure
ofsmallof the
opengrains. specimen
grain structure. is extremely
Meanwhile,
uneven with large difference size between grains and It is also discovered
uneven
judging withthe
a large difference in size between thestructure
large grains andspecimen
small grains. It is also discovered
from the measurement that the size of the large grains is over 100 μm, but that of the small oneswith
from equilibrium diagram, the grain of the is extremely uneven is
from
a large the measurement
difference inμm. that
sizeThus, the size
between theoflarge
the large
grains grains issmall
andcan over grains.
100 μm,Itbutis that
also of the small ones
discovered isthe
fromin
merely around 10 the equilibrium diagram explain the appearance of orange peel
merely around
measurement 10 μm. Thus, the equilibrium diagram can explain the appearance of orange peel in
the process. that the size of the large grains is over 100 µm, but that of the small ones is merely
the process.
around 10 µm. Thus, the equilibrium diagram can explain the appearance of orange peel in the process.

Figure 6. The exact

exact location on the sample.
Figure6.6.The
Figure The exact location onthe
location on thesample.
sample.

（1） （2） （3） （4）

（1） （2） （3） （4）

（5） （6） （7）

（5） （6） （7）

Figure 7. The
Figure equilibrium
7. The equilibrium diagram
diagramof tensile specimen
of tensile specimenbefore
beforedeformation. (1)(1)
deformation. is correspondence
is correspondencewith
1 inFigure 7.6;The equilibrium
is diagramwith
correspondence of tensile
2 in specimen
Figure 6; (3)before
is deformation. with
correspondence (1) is3correspondence
with 1 in Figure 6; (2) is correspondence with 2 in Figure 6; (3) is correspondence with 3 in Figure 6; is
Figure (2) in Figure 6; (4)
with 1 in Figure
correspondence 6; (2)
with 4 inis Figure
correspondence with 2 in Figurewith
6; (3)5 is
incorrespondence with 3 in Figure with
6;
(4) is correspondence with 46;in(5)Figure
is correspondence
6; (5) is correspondence Figurewith
6; (6)5isincorrespondence
Figure 6; (6) is
(4) is correspondence
6 incorrespondence
Figure 6; (7) iswith with
correspondence 4 in Figure 6; (5) is correspondence with 5 in Figure 6; (6) is
6 in Figure 6;with
(7) is7correspondence
in Figure 6. with 7 in Figure 6.
correspondence with 6 in Figure 6; (7) is correspondence with 7 in Figure 6.
Table3.3.Grain
Table Grainsize
size analysis
analysis of tensile specimen.
of tensile specimen.
Table 3. Grain size analysis of tensile specimen.
Sampling Point
Heat Treatment Condition Type of Analysis Sampling Point Average
Heat
Heat Treatment
Treatment Condition
Condition Type
Type of of Analysis
Analysis 1 2 3 Sampling
4 Point5 6 7 Average
Average
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 66 77
Grain Size Grade 5.02 5.13 4.51 4.38 4.985 4.62 4.56 4.7
T8 Grain Size Grade m 5.02
T8 Average Diameter/µ
Grain Size Grade 62 5.02 5.13
59 5.13 4.51
76 4.51 4.38
77 4.38 4.98
704.98 4.62
75
4.62
4.56
75
4.56
4.7
71
4.7
T8 Average Diameter/µ m 62 59 76 77 70 75 75 71
Average Diameter/µm 62 59 76 77 70 75 75 71
3.2. The Establishment of the Criterion for Critical State of Orange Peel Defect
3.2. The Establishment of the Criterion for Critical State of Orange Peel Defect
3.2. The The
Establishment
specimensofwere
the Criterion for Critical
cleaned after stretchState of Orange
processing withPeel Defectand surface observation and
ethanol,
The specimens were cleaned after stretch processing with ethanol, and surface observation and
analysis on the optical
The specimens profilometer
wereprofilometer
cleaned after were conducted.
stretch The photographed
processing morphology
with ethanol, and can be seen in
surface observation and
analysis on the optical were conducted. The photographed morphology can be seen in
Figure
analysis 8, which shows that when the strain is 3%, the specimen surface starts to grow rough and
Figure on the optical
8, which showsprofilometer
that when the were conducted.
strain is 3%, theThe photographed
specimen morphology
surface starts can beand
to grow rough seen
form a kind of evenly frosted surface morphology, but without evident minor cracks or significant
in form
Figure 8, which shows that when the strain is 3%, the specimen surface starts to grow
a kind of evenly frosted surface morphology, but without evident minor cracks or significant rough and
form a kind of evenly frosted surface morphology, but without evident minor cracks or significant
orange peel phenomenon; when the strain reaches 6%, light black strip areas appear on the surface,
 Metals
Metals 2016,
2016, 6, 6,
1313 77
ofof
1010

orange peel phenomenon; when the strain reaches 6%, light black strip areas appear on the surface,
which
which areare
shallow grooves,
shallow andand
grooves, an embryonic
an embryonic form form
of orange peel structure
of orange can be roughly
peel structure observed.
can be roughly
observed.
When When
the strain the strain
reaches reaches
9%, there are9%,
clearthere
cracksareappearing
clear crackson appearing
the specimen on the specimen
surface, whichsurface,
is rather
which is rather severe despite the fact that they are relatively decentralized and
severe despite the fact that they are relatively decentralized and independent; at the macro-level, independent; at the a
macro-level,
very significant a very
orangesignificant orange peel is
peel phenomenon phenomenon
manifested.isAt manifested.
this stage,At this
the stage, peel
orange the orange peelon
structure
thestructure
materialon the material
surface not only surface
affectsnot
theonly affects the
appearance appearance
of the of the stretch-forming
stretch-forming parts, but
parts, but also exerts great
also exerts great influence on the performance and service life of the specimen,
influence on the performance and service life of the specimen, whereas the minor cracks on the surfacewhereas the minor
cancracks
easilyongive
therise
surface can easily
to stress give riseand
concentration to stress concentration
gradually evolve into andgreater
gradually
cracksevolve
afterinto greater
stress. When
cracks after stress. When the strain amounts to 12%, the surface morphology
the strain amounts to 12%, the surface morphology of the specimen further deteriorates with more of the specimen further
anddeteriorates with more
deeper cracks, havingand deeperformed
already cracks, gully-like
having already formed gully-like shapes.
shapes.

（a）
（a） (b)
(b) (c)
(c)

50μm
50μm 50μm
50μm 50μm
50μm

(d)
(d) (e)
(e)

50μm
50μm 50μm
50μm

Figure
Figure8. 8.Surface
Surfacemorphology
morphologyofofstretched
stretchedspecimens
specimenswith
with different
different strain
strain variables:
variables: (a) 0%;
0%; (b)
(b)3%;
3%;(c)
6%; (d) 9%; (e) 12%.
(c) 6%; (d) 9%; (e) 12%.

It It
cancanbebeseen
seenfrom
fromthetheanalysis
analysisresults
results that
that when
when the
the strain
strain reaches
reachesaround
around6%, 6%,the
thespecimen
specimen
surface starts to form the orange peel defect in a real sense, but as the gap between
surface starts to form the orange peel defect in a real sense, but as the gap between the strain variables the strain
variables is relatively large, it is impossible to determine that the specimen is in the critical
is relatively large, it is impossible to determine that the specimen is in the critical orange peel state orange
peelthe
when state when
strain is the
6%.strain
Thus,ison6%.theThus,
basison the previous
of the basis of the previous
research, research,
strain strain
variables ofvariables
5% and 7% of were
5%
and 7%
added to awere
newadded
test to to a new their
observe test to observe
surface their surface
morphology morphology
after stretching,after
withstretching,
the resultswith thein
given
results given in Figure 9. When the strain was 5%, the specimen surface had not yet formed clear
Figure 9. When the strain was 5%, the specimen surface had not yet formed clear grooves, but through
grooves, but through comparing the stretched specimens of 6% and 7%, it could be found that,
comparing the stretched specimens of 6% and 7%, it could be found that, though with roughly the
though with roughly the same surface morphology, the scanning image of the stretched specimen
same surface morphology, the scanning image of the stretched specimen with 7% strain clearly showed
with 7% strain clearly showed darker grooves with relatively deep cracks starting to develop.
darker grooves with relatively deep cracks starting to develop.

（a）
（a） （b）
（b） （c）
（c）

50μm
50μm 50μm
50μm 50μm
50μm

Figure
Figure 9. 9. Surface
Surface morphology
morphology of stretched
of stretched specimens
specimens with with different
different strain strain variables:
variables: (a) 5%;(a)
(b)5%;
6%;(b)(c)6%;
7%.
(c) 7%.
On this basis, the roughness of specimen surfaces with different strain variables is measured,
theOn
results
this of which
basis, theare as shownofinspecimen
roughness Figure 10,surfaces
where Rwith
aa is the arithmetic
different mean
strain of the is
variables absolute value
measured, the
results of which are as shown in Figure 10, where Ra is the arithmetic mean of the absolute value of
Metals 2016, 6, 13 8 of 10
Metals 2016, 6, 13 8 of 10

of the
the distance
distance between
between thethe dot
dot ononthetheprofile
profileand
andthe thebaseline;
baseline;RR q is the root mean square error of the
q is the root mean square error of the
profile, i.e.,
profile, i.e., the
theroot
rootmean
meansquare
square value
value of of
thethe profile’s
profile’s offsetoffset distance
distance withinwithin the sampling
the sampling range;range;
Rz is
R is the micro-irregularity on the material surface, i.e., the sum of the average
the micro-irregularity on the material surface, i.e., the sum of the average of the five greatest profile
z of the five greatest
profileand
peaks peaks and theofaverage
the average the five of the five
smallest smallest
profile valleys profile
withinvalleys withinlength.
the sampling the sampling
Combined length.
with
Combined
the surface with the surface
morphology morphology
measured by themeasured
profilometer, by the profilometer,
it can been seen it canatbeen
that, the seen
stagethat, at the
of 0%~5%
stage of
strain, the0%~5% strain,was
main change the that
mainthechange
specimen was that the
surface began specimen
to wrinkle,surface
withbegan
dispersedto wrinkle,
convexeswithand
dispersedappearing
concaves convexes as and concaves
well as a rapid appearing
change of assurface
well asroughness;
a rapid change at the of surface
stage roughness;
of 5%~6% strain,atthere
the
stage of 5%~6% strain, there was little change in the surface roughness,
was little change in the surface roughness, but dispersed convexes and concaves started to gather tobut dispersed convexes and
concaves
form lumps started
whiletogrooves
gather to form lumps
appeared while grooves
and started to develop appeared and started
into cracks, whichto is develop into cracks,
also the major stage
which
of is also the
qualitative major
change stage of on
appearing qualitative change
the material appearing
surface; at the onstagetheofmaterial
6%~12%surface; at the stage
strain, cracks rapidlyof
6%~12% strain, cracks rapidly developed, gradually grew deeper, and
developed, gradually grew deeper, and joined with each other to form the gully-like morphology, joined with each other to form
the gully-like
resulting in the morphology,
rapid increase resulting
in Rz ofinthe
thespecimens.
rapid increase in Rz of the specimens.

10

9
Ra
8
Rq
7
Rz
6
roughness/μm

-1
0 3 5 6 7 9 12
strain/%

Figure 10. Changing trend of stretched sample surface roughness.

Based on
Based on the
the above
above experimental
experimental analyses,
analyses, it
it can be assumed
can be assumed that
that when
when aa morphology
morphology similar
similar
to that
to that of
of the
the stretched
stretched specimen
specimen withwith 6%
6% strain
strain appears
appears on
on the
the specimen
specimen surface,
surface, the
the orange
orange peel
peel
phenomenon comes to a critical state. Thus, a roughness of Ra = 700 ± 50 nm and Rz = 5.5 ± 0.5 μm can
phenomenon comes to a critical state. Thus, a roughness of Ra = 700 ˘ 50 nm and Rz = 5.5 ˘ 0.5 µm can
be taken
be taken as
as aa reference
reference standard
standard forfor judging
judging whether
whether the
the orange
orange peel
peel structure
structure on
on aa material
material surface
surface
reaches aa critical
reaches critical state.
state.

3.3. The Establishment of Stretch-Forming Limit Diagram

On thethe basis
basisofofobtaining
obtainingthe
thecorresponding
corresponding strain
strain state
state andand surface
surface roughness
roughness of orange
of the the orange
peel
peel structure on the standard specimens, the research on the stretch-forming limit under
structure on the standard specimens, the research on the stretch-forming limit under different strain different
strain is
paths paths is further
further conducted,
conducted, throughthrough whichdata
which strain strain data of different
of different strain
strain paths paths is measured
is measured with the
with theroughness
surface surface roughness of the characteristic
of the characteristic critical
critical orange peelorange peelasstructure
structure as the
the forming forming
failure failure
criterion, as
criterion,
shown in as shown
Table 4. in Table 4.

Table 4.
Table Strain state
4. Strain state of
of critical
critical orange
orange peel
peel structure
structure of
of specimens
specimens under
under different
different strain
strain paths.
paths.

Acquisition
Acquisition Acquisition
Acquisition Acquisition Acquisition
Acquisition AcquisitionAcquisition
Acquisition
Sample
Sample Point 1 1
Point Point
Point2 2 Point3 3
Point Point
Point 4 4 Point Point
5 5
ε1/% ε1 /%ε2/%ε2 /% ε
ε1/%1 /% /%
εε22/% εε11/%
/% ε2 /%
ε2/% ε1 /%ε1/%ε2 /% ε
ε2/%1 /% ε
ε1/%
2 /% ε2/%
Straight edge edge6.29 6.29−1.94
Straight ´1.94 6.35
6.35 −1.98
´1.98 6.31
6.31 −2.08
´2.08 6.256.25´1.84−1.84
6.33 6.33
´1.88 −1.88
R = 10R = 10 3.17 3.17 ´0.21
−0.21 3.17
3.17 ´0.18
−0.18 2.65
2.65 ´0.15
−0.15 2.762.76´0.13−0.13
3.17 ´0.15 −0.15
3.17
R = 15 2.95 ´0.19 3.04 ´0.13 3.27 ´0.12 3.31 ´0.23 3.09 ´0.08
R = 15 2.95 −0.19 3.04 −0.13 3.27 −0.12 3.31 −0.23 3.09 −0.08
R = 30 3.31 ´0.55 3.76 ´0.58 3.64 ´0.77 3.72 ´0.57 3.30 ´0.55
R = 30R = 40 3.31 4.49−0.55 ´1.20 3.76
4.82 −0.58
´1.59 3.64
4.66 −0.77
´1.27 3.92 3.72
´1.04−0.57
4.20 3.30
´1.23 −0.55
R = 40 4.49 −1.20 4.82 −1.59 4.66 −1.27 3.92 −1.04 4.20 −1.23
Metals 2016, 6, 13 9 of 10
Metals 2016, 6, 13 9 of 10

Quadratic-multinomial fitting is conducted on measured data so as to establish the forming limit

Quadratic-multinomial fitting is conducted on measured data so as to establish the forming
diagram of the orange peel phenomenon on the aluminum alloy surface with the results shown in
limit diagram of the orange peel phenomenon on the aluminum alloy surface with the results shown
Figure 11 and the quadratic-multinomial fitting results given in Table 5. It can be seen from the figure
in Figure 11 and the quadratic-multinomial fitting results given in Table 5. It can be seen from the
that the orange peel structure on the aluminum alloy surface is correlated with the strain state of
figure that the orange peel structure on the aluminum alloy surface is correlated with the strain state
the materials; meanwhile, the materials at the plane state of strain more easily develop orange peel
of the materials; meanwhile, the materials at the plane state of strain more easily develop orange
structure than those at the uniaxial stretching strain state.
peel structure than those at the uniaxial stretching strain state.
Table 5. Binomial fitting results.
Table 5. Binomial fitting results.

Expression
Expression AA BB CC
yy==AA ++ Bx + Cx
Bx + Cx22 2.99
2.99 −0.389
´0.389 0.652
0.652

7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
e1/%

3.5
3.0
2.5 Straight sided specimens
2.0 R=40 Notched specimens
1.5 R=30 Notched specimens
R=15 Notched specimens
1.0
R=10 Notched specimens
0.5
fitting curve
0.0
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0
e2/%

Figure 11. Stretch-forming

Figure 11. Stretch-forming limit
limit diagram
diagram of
of Al–Li
Al–Li alloy
alloy at
at the
the condition
condition of
of Al–Li–S4–T8.
Al–Li–S4–T8.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
(1)
(1) A stretch-forming experiment and testing system with with the
the optical
optical deformation
deformation measurement
measurement
instrument and the universal testing machine operating in collaboration collaboration are constructed, the
are constructed, the
surface morphology
morphologychangechange rule of stretched
rule specimens
of stretched with different
specimens strain variables
with different is analyzed,
strain variables is
and the corresponding
analyzed, relation between
and the corresponding relationcritical orange
between peel defect
critical orangeandpeelthe surface
defect androughness of
the surface
specimens is
roughness ofobtained.
specimens It is discovered
obtained. Itthat when critical
is discovered orange
that when peel defectorange
critical appears on defect
peel Al–Li
alloy sheet
appears onmetal
Al–Liatalloy
the condition
sheet metal of Al–Li–S4–T8, the surface
at the condition roughnessthe
of Al–Li–S4–T8, is Rsurface
a = 700 ˘ 50 nm and
roughness is
Rza ==700
5.5 ˘ 0.5nm
± 50 µm.and Rz = 5.5 ± 0.5 μm.
(2) By processing different notched specimens, the stretch-forming limit tests with
(2) with different
different strain
strain
paths are conducted to obtain the forming forming limit
limit diagram
diagram andand forming
forming limit
limit curve
curve equation
equation
ε11 == 2.99
2.99 −´ 0.389ε 0.652ε222 2for
0.389ε22 ++ 0.652ε for Al–Li–S4–T8
Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–LiAl–Li alloy,
alloy, with the surface roughness
roughness of of
characteristic critical orange peel structure as the forming failure failure criterion.
criterion.

Acknowledgments: This research was financially supported by the National Basic Research Program of China
Acknowledgments: This research was financially supported by the National Basic Research Program of China
(2014CB046602) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51235010).
(2014CB046602) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51235010).
Author Contributions:
Author Contributions:Jing-Wen
Jing-Wen
FengFeng and Li-Hua
and Li-Hua Zhan conceived
Zhan conceived and
and designed thedesigned theJing-Wen
experiments; experiments;
Feng
and Ying-GeFeng
Jing-Wen Yang and
performed
Ying-Gethe experiments; Jing-Wen
Yang performed theFeng analyzed the
experiments; data; Jing-Wen
Jing-Wen Feng Feng wrote the paper.
analyzed data;
Jing-Wenof
Conflicts Feng wroteThe
Interest: the authors
paper. declare no conflict of interest.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Wang, K.; Wan, M.; Hua, C.; Shao, X.F. Determination and application of coarse-grain critical pre-strain
curve to aluminum alloy stretch forming. J. Beijing Univ. Aeronaut. Astronaut. 2013, 39, 508–511.
Metals 2016, 6, 13 10 of 10

References
1. Wang, K.; Wan, M.; Hua, C.; Shao, X.F. Determination and application of coarse-grain critical pre-strain
curve to aluminum alloy stretch forming. J. Beijing Univ. Aeronaut. Astronaut. 2013, 39, 508–511.
2. Han, Z.R.; Dai, L.J.; Zhang, L.Y. Current status of large aircraft skin and panel manufacturing technologies.
Aeronaut. Manuf. Technol. 2009, 25, 64–66.
3. Araghi, B.T.; Manco, G.L.; Bambach, M.; Hirt, G. Investigation into a new hybrid forming process:
Incremental sheet forming combined with stretch forming. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 2009, 58, 225–228.
[CrossRef]
4. Kurukuri, S.; Miroux, A.; Wisselink, H.; Boogaard, T.V.D. Simulation of stretch forming with intermediate
heat treatments of aircraft skins: A physically based modeling approach. Int. J. Mater. Form. 2011, 4, 129–140.
[CrossRef]
5. General Editorial Board of “The Manual of Aeronautical Manufacturing Engineering”. In The Aviation
Manufacturing Engineering Handbook—Aircraft Sheet Metal Process; Aviation Industry Press: Beijing,
China, 1992.
6. Hu, S.G.; Chen, H.Z. Manufacturing Technology of Aircraft Sheet Metal Parts; Beijing University of Aeronautics
and Astronautics Press: Beijing, China, 2004.
7. Chang, R.F. Sheet Metal Parts Manufacturing Technology; National Defence Industry Press: Beijing, China, 1992.
8. Wan, M.; Zhou, X.B.; Li, X.X.; Wu, H. Process parameters in stretch forming of mirror skins. Acta Aeronaut.
Astronaut. Sin. 1999, 20, 326–330.
9. You, Z.H.; Huang, Y.S.; Wu, R.H. A study of orange-like roughness on front side on Airplane.
Aviat. Maint. Eng. 2001, 6, 46–47.
10. Zhang, R.X.; Zeng, Y.S. Development, technological characteristics and application status abroad of
aluminum-lithium alloys (In Chinese). Aeronaut. Manuf. Technol. 2007. [CrossRef]
11. Yin, D.F.; Zheng, Z.Q. History and current status of aluminum-lithium alloys research and development.
Mater. Rev. 2003, 17, 18–20.
12. Huo, H.Q.; Hao, W.X.; Geng, G.H.; Da, D.A. Development of the new aero-craft
material—Aluminum–lithium alloy. Vac. Low Temp. 2005, 11, 63–69.
13. Lyttle, M.T.; Wert, J.A. The plastic anisotropy of an Al–Li–Cu–Zr alloy extrusion in unidirectional deformation.
Metall. Mater. Trans. A 1996, 27, 3503–3512. [CrossRef]
14. Li, H.; Tang, Y.; Zeng, Z.; Zheng, Z.; Zheng, F. Effect of ageing time on strength and microstructures of an
Al–Cu–Li–Zn–Mg–Mn–Zr alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008, 498, 314–320. [CrossRef]
15. Huang, J.C.; Ardell, A.J. Addition rules and the contribution of δ1 precipitates to strengthening of aged
Al–Li–Cu alloys. Acta Metall. 1988, 36, 2995–3006. [CrossRef]
16. Fan, C.P.; Zheng, Z.Q.; Jia, M.; Zhong, J.F.; Cheng, B.; Li, H.P.; Wu, Q.P. Microstructure, tensile property and
fracture toughness of 2397 Al–Li alloy. Rare Met. Eng. 2015, 44, 91–96.
17. Ma, G.S. Hot Forming Technology of Complex Aluminum Lithium Alloy Parts; Chemical Industry Press: Beijing,
China, 2011.
18. Jin, H.X. Basic Experimental Research and Simulation on Aluminum Alloy Mirror Skin Tensile Forming; Beijing
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics: Beijing, China, 2009.
19. Wan, M.; Han, J.Q.; Jin, H.X.; Wu, H. Determination of strain criterion of portevin–Le chatelier effect for
aluminum alloy sheets. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 2006, 16, 1499–1503.

© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).