SOIL MECHANICS IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE THIRD EDITION Karl Terzaghi Ralph B. Peck Gholamreza MesriSoil Mechanics in Engineering Practice Kari Terzaghi Late Professor of the Practice of Civil Engineering Harvard University Lecturer and Research Consultant in Civil Engineering University of Illinois Ralph RB. Peck Professor of Foundation Engineering, Emeritus University of Illinois Gholamreza Mesri Professor of Civil Engineering University of Mlinois ® ‘A Wiley-Intersclence Publication JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York » Chichester + Brisbane Toronto « Singapore‘This text i printed on acid-free paper Copyright © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, In. Al tights reserved, Published simultaneously in Canads, Reproduction or translation of any par of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United ‘Slates Copyright Act widhout dhe peunisiva of he wopysight ‘owner is unlawful, Requests for permission or further {information chould be addressed tothe Permissions Depart: ment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 605 Third Avenue, New ‘York, NY 101580012 ‘This publication is designed to provide accurate and suoriaive information in regi wo de subject matter covered, It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If legal advice or other expert acistnce ic required, the services of @ competent professional person should be sought, Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Terzaghi, Karl, 1883-1963. Soil mechanics in engineering practie/Karl Terzaghi, Ralph B. Peck, Gholamreza Mesri—3rd ed om, Includes index ISBN 0-471-08658-4 1. Soil mechanics. 1. Peck, Ralph B. (Ralph Biasclwu) TH, Mest, Giwisuuezs, 1940- MI. Tite TAT10.139 1995 624.1'5136—de20 95-6616 Printed in the United States of AmericaTo Ruth, Marjorie, and LornaCONTENTS Preface Preface to First Edition Introduction Symbols Part I, Physical Properties of Soils CHAPTER 1. CHAPTER 2. Index Properties of Soils Practical importance of index properties Principal types ot soils Size and shape of soil particles Properties of very fine soil fractions 41 Mineralogical composition 4.2. Characteristics of principal clay minerals 43 Role of isomorphic substitution 44 Cation exchange and adsorbed water 45° Fabric 46 Organic soils 4.7 Practical significance of colloidal properties panical analysis of soits 5.1 Methods of mechanical analysis 522 Abbreviated representation of grain-size characteristics 6. Soil aggregate Ga Taueduction 62 Texture structure, and consistency 63. Porosity. water content. unit weight. and density 7. Consistency of fine-grained soils 7.1 Consistency’ and sensitivity of undisturbed soils 72 Consistency of remolded soils 73. Plasticity char 8. Soil classification 8.1 Practical significance of soil classification 82 Classification based on grain size 83. Unified soil classification system 9. Minimum requirements for adequate soil description Soil Exploration 10, Purpose and scope of soil exploration 10.2 Influence of soil conditions on exploratory program xxi xxiii 0 n » 2viii CONTENTS 10.3 Influence of size of project on exploratory program 104 Causes of misjudgment of subsoil conditions 10.3 Observations during. construction 11. Methods of soil exploration 11.1 Principal procedures 112 Boring 1121 Methods of drilling 1122 Wash borings 4123 Rowry driling 1124. Auger borings 112.5 Hammer drilling 11.2.6 Inspection shafs 113° Sampling 13d Purpose 1132 Splivspoon sampling in exploratory drill 13.3 Thincwalled tube samplers 1134 Piston samplers 135. Sampling combined with coring 136 Hand-carved samples in clay 1137 Block samping in bore holes 113.8 Quality of samples 1.39 Sampling in sand 114 Subsurface soundings 111 Purpose af eubeurface soundings 42. State sounding methods 1.43. Dynamic methods 113 im su fests US.) Purpose and ypes 13.2 Vane teste 153. Pressuremeter 11.6 Groundwater investigations LB Observation wells 11.62 Piezometers 11.7 Geophysical methods 12. Program for subsoil exploration I2.L_ Type and sequence of operations 122 Geological considerations 1233 Spacing and depth of exploratory borings 124. Relative density of sand strata 125° Peumeability of sand strata 126 Shearing resistance of saturated clays 10.7 Comprecsihliy af elay strata 12.8 Summary of procedures in subsoil reconnaissance 129 Discrepancies between reality and assumptions based ‘on subsoil reconnaissance CHAPTER 3. Hydraulic and Mechanical Properties of Soils 13. Significance of hydraulic and mechanical properties of soils 14, Permeahility af soils 14.1 Introduction 142. Definitions and Darey's flow equation 143 Permeability of granular soils 144 Permeability of soft clays 143 Penmeabitiy of sand-clay mixtures 146 Laboratory permeability tests 14.8 Permeability of stratified masses of soil 149 Particle migration and erosion 7 m 1 1 1 B ™ 18 8 80 81‘CONTENTS: 15. Effective stress, porewater pressure, and critical hydraulic eradient 15.1 Effective stress 152 Mechanism of effective stess transfer 153 Ellective vertical siress 154 Critical hydraulic gradient 153 Porewater pressures resulting from undained changes in state of stress 1551 Ponrwnter pressures rrelting fom changes in equal all-around total stress 155.2 Porewater pressures resulting from application of shear siresses 15.6 Negative pore pressures in soils 136.1. Capillary and suction 15.62 Drainage by gravity 1563 Drainage by desiccation 1564. Shrinkage, swelling, and slaking 15,7 Bleciro-osmosis 158. Frost heave 16. Compressibility of confined layers of sail 16.1 Introduction 162 One-dimensional compression 163 Void ratio-ffective stress relationship 164 Preconsolidation pressure 19. Coefficient of earth pressure at rest 166 16.8 Rate of one-dimensional consolidation 169. Ocdometer test 16.10 Heave of expansive soils 17. Stress, strain, and failure in soils 17. Introduction 172 Triaxial apparatus and procedure 173. Other laboratory shear tests 17.3.1 Unconfined compression test 1732 Direct shear test 1733 Direct simple shear test 173.5 Plane strain triaxial test 174 Mohr's rupture diagram and Coulomb’s failure equation 175. Relations among shear stress, shear strain, and time 1/21 Hyperbolic stress-strain equation 1752. Creep equations 18. Behavior of soils in shear 18.1 Relation of mineralogy to shear strength 182 Volumetric response of soils during shear 18.21 Examples of drained behavior F822 Euumpies of undruined deiuvion 18.3 Suess path to failure 19, Drained shear strength 19.1 Drained shear strength of granular soils 192 rained shear strength of cohesive soils 19.2.1 Intact shear strength 19.2.2 Fully softened shear strength 19.2.3 Residual shear strength 20. Undrained shear strength of soils 20.1 Undrained failure 22 ‘ieiving of suit suucwre 203. Undrained shear strength in terms of effective stress st failure 3 83 83 84 85 87 87 so 90 90 93 oy 96 7 109 100 100 10 103 104 106 to 113 16 mm 12 125 127 127 127 128 129 130 133 133 134 134 135 137 137 1a 146 146 Ist 182 15 158 to 161 167x CONTENTS 204 Measurement of undrained shear strength 205 Mobilized field strength based on in situ vane experience 206 Undrined shear srengih from laboratory shear tests 20.8 Undrained shear strength of stiff fissured clays 20.9 Liquefaction of saturated loose sands 20.9.1 Introduction 20.9.2. Soils most susceptible to liquefaction 20.9.3 Liquefaction behavior 20.9.4 Events triggering liquefaction 20.9.5 Cyelie yield strength from laborato 20.9.6 Cyclic yield strength from in situ penetration tests 20.9.7 Undrained critical shear strengoh 21. Effect of vibrations on soils y tests Part 1. Theoretical Soil Mechanics CHAPTER 4, CHAPTER 5. Hydraulics of Soils 22. Scope of hydraulic problems 23. Seepage computations 2. 23.3 Two-dimensional steady-state seepage 23.4 Computation of seevage and seepage pressure 23.3 Construction of flow net 2316 Seepage through soils with transverse isotropy 23.1. Seepage coward single well 24, Mechanics of piping ‘24.1 Definition of piping 242 Mechanics of piping due to heave 243 Uplift compensation by loaded filters 25.1 Process of consolidation 252. Progress of consolidation 253 Computation of rate of consolidation 2544 Other intial and boundary conditions 23.9 Consolidation wath verucal drains 25.6 Limitations of the theory of consolidation 25.7 Application of a consolidation theory to field situations 25:8 Theory of expansion Plastic Equilibrium in Soils 26, Fundamental assumptions 27. States of plastic equilibrium 27.1 Fundamental concepts 272 Local states of plastic equilibrium 28, Rankine's earth-pressure theory 28.1 Earth pressure against reining walls 28.2. Active earth pressure of cohesionless soil against smooth vertical walls 283. Active earth pressure of wubmenged sand 28.4 Active earth pressure of cohesive soils against smooth vertical surfaces im 173 178 18} 187 193 193 193 194 196 198 208 206 208 m1 213 213 ans 214 215 27 217 218 29 22 22 m 223 23 224 226 29 231 233 235 236 2a 2a 283 243 28 246 246 240‘CONTENTS 285. Passive earth pressure of cohesive soils in contact with smooth vertical surfaces 29. Influence of wall friction on the shape of the surface of sliding 30. Coulomb's theory of active earth pressure against retaining walls 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Coulomb's theory 30.3 Colmana’s graphical construction 304 Earth pressure due to line load 31, Point of application of earth pressure 32, Passive earth pressure against rongh contact faces 321 Definition 322 Coulomb's theorv of the passive earth pressure of sand 323 Passive carthepressue of cohesive sols 33. Bearing capacity of shallow footings 33.1 Fundamental assumptions 33.2. States of plastic equilibrium beneath shallow continuous footings 33.3 Approximate methods for computing the bearing capacity of continuous footings 33.4 Bearing capacity of footings of finite length 34. Bearing capacity of piers and piles 34.1 Definitions 342 Beals capacity uf etnies pits 343 Bearing capacity of ples W447 "Pile formlos 33.2 Travsmission of stresses during driving 35. Stability of slopes 38.1. Introduction 352. Slopes on dry cohesionless sand 353 General character of sides in homogeneous cohesive soil $944 Purpose of stability computations 35.5 Computation of shearing resistance from slide data 337 358 Slopes on soils with cohesion and internal fc 359° imegular slopes on nonuniform soils, circular surface of sliding 35.10 Composite surface of sliding 36. Stability of earth dams 36.1. Critical states for design 362. Evaluation of porewater pressures in critical design 363 Stability computations AEA Ree af evtne in effective cece ctahility analyees 365. Seismic stability of earth dams 36.5. Introduction ‘36.3.2 Seismic shaking with nondegrading shear strength 63.9. Selon shaking with degrading shew sirength 37. Earth pressure against supports in cuts 37.1 Deformation conditions imposed by supports 312. Cuts in dry or dened sand 373 Cuts in saturated clay under undrained conditions 37.31 Heave of the bottom 373.2 Earth pressure agains: supports 38. Arching in soils 248 283 283 283 284 285 285 286 289xii CONTENTS CHAPTER 6. Settlement and Contact Pressure 39, Introduction Sai Ft sierneat investigations 39.2 Theoretical approach to settlement problems 303 Computation of contact pressure 40, Vertical pressure in soil beneath loaded areas 40.1 Boussinesq’s equatious 40.2. Pressure distribution in horizontal sections beneath loaded areas 40.3 Change of pressure with depth 41, Settlement of foundations 41.1. Foundations above confined strata of soft cley 41.2. Foundations on unstratified soil 42, Contact pressure and theories of subgrade reaction 42.1 Contact pressure on base of rigid footings 422. Definition of subgrade reaction 423 Subgrede reaction on rixid foundations 42.4 Subgrade reaction on flexible foundations 42.5 Horizontal subgrade reaction Part Ill. Problems of Design and Construction CHAPTER 7, Ground Improvement 43, Drainage prior to excavation 43.1 Introduction 43.2 Methods of drainage 43.3 Historical review of drainage techniques 43.4 Well-poine method 43.5. Deep-well drainage method 43.6 Eduetor well point system 43.7 Bleeder wells 438 Vacuum method 43.9 Drainage by eletro-osmosis 43.10 Summary of methods of drainage 44. Compaction, preloading, and other methods 44.1 Introduction 44.2. Compaction ot fils 442.1 Procedure and equipment 422 Compaction of cohesionless soils 423° Compaction of soils with moderate cohesion 4424 Effect of compaction on stresses 443. Compaction of sols in place ‘51 Procedures and equipment G32 Vibration combined with water jetting 443.3 Compaction induced by explosives 434 Compaction by dropping weights 435. Pile driving, sand piles, and stone columns 44315 Preoating or surcharging wthow oF wih 444 Other mex of ground improvement ‘441 General B82 Injection UA3 Electro-osmosis 44 Freecing HAS Heating 446 Chemical additives 291 201 291 201 292 292 292 293 205 295 296 298 208 298 299 299 300 301 303 303 303 303 305 305 306 306 307 307 308 309 310 310 310 310 3 312 315 319 319 320 320 322 322 324 324 a4 324 324 324 325CONTENTS xii CHAPTER 8. _Earth Pressure and Stability of Slopes 37 45. Retaining walls 45.1 Function and types of retaining walls 452. Foundations for retaining walls ‘45.2.1. Introduction 45.2.2. Safety against sliding 45.23 Safety against overnuraing 45.24 Allowable soil pressure and settlement 453 Backfill of retaining walls 453.1 Materials 45.3.2 Drainage provisions for retaining walls 45.3.3 Provisions to reduce frost action behind retaining walls Forces acting on retaining walls Use of earth pressure theories for determining external pressure on walls Use of semiempirical rules for estimating exiernal pressure on reiaining walls 455° Intemal stability of retaining walls ‘45.5.1 Masonry and concrete walls 45.5.2 Reinforced soil 45.5.3 Soil nailing 456 Influence of compaction on rigid vertical walls 45.7. Earth pressure against nonyielding retaining walls 43.3 Large-Scale mouel tess and eid Observations 459° Summary 46. Lateral supporss in open cuts 46.1 Inteodution 46.2. Bracing of shallow cuts 46.3 Support of deep cuts 40.3.1 General considerations in design of support systems 350 46.3.2 Deep cuts in sand 352 463.3 Cuts in saturated clay 353 46.34 Deen cute in soft to medium clay 354 46.3.5 Deep cuts in stif clay 357 46.3.6 Deep cuts in stratified soils 358 49.4 Tiebacks 359 47. Stability of hillsides and slopes in open cuts 361 47.1 Causes and general characteristics of slope failures 361 47.2 Engineering problems involving the stability of slopes 361 47.3. Standard slopes 362 47.4 Stability of slopes and cuts in sand 363 47.9. Stability of cuts in loess 303 47.6 Slides in fairly homogeneous soft clay 368 47.8 Stability of slopes on clay containing layers or pockets ‘of water bearing sand 365 41.9. Slides in stiff clay 366 47.10 Slopes on shale 367 7:11 Sudden spreading ot clay slopes 309 47.12 Slopes on residual soil and weathered rock 370 W721 General 370 47.122 Weathered metamorphic rocks 3 47.123 Weathered granite a 47.124 Weathered basalts 32 47.123. Weathered carbonate rocks 333 47.120 Design of slopes 313 47.13 Debris flows 35 47.14 Summary of approach to stability of slopes 375xiv CONTENTS 48. Design and stability of embankments 37 48.1 Introduction 377 48.2 Early practice in construction of railway and highway fills 377 438.5 Modem practice for raulway ana mighvay Tis si 484 Levees or dikes 318 48.5 Typer of base failure 379 48.6 Methods for investigating stability 379 48.7 Fills on very soft organic silt or clay 379 488 Fills on soft homogeneous clay 380 48.9 Varieties of failure by spreading 382 ‘489.1. Spreading of flis above fatrly homogeneous layers of soft clay 382 189.2 Spreading of fills above clay strata with sand or silt partings 382 48.10 Means for increasing stability of fills above thin strata or soft clay 384 48.11 Summary 384 CHAPTER 9. _ Foundations 386 49. Foundations for structures 386 49.1 Types of foundations for structures 386 49.2 Minimum depth of building foundations 386 493 Minimum depth of bridge foundations 387 49.4 Allowable pressure on the subsoil 388 50. Footing foundations 389 50.1 Origin and shortcomings of conventional design methods ey 50.1.1 Loads, resistances, and factors of safety 301 50.2 Tootings on sand and nonplastc silt 30 ‘50.2.)- Scope 393 [50.2.2 Relevance and limitations of settlement predictions 393 50.2.3 Early application of soil mechanics to settlement prediction 398 50.24 Settlement estimates by semiempirical 50.2.5 Method using standard penetration test 395 50.2.6 Method using cone penetration test 398 50.2.7 Comparison of standard penetration and cone penetration methods 402 50.2.6 Design of foouings on sand and gravel 402 50.3 Footings on clay. 405 503.1 Footings an expansive clays 407 50.4 Footing foundations located on firm soil above soft layers 50.5 Footing on metastable soils 50.5.1. Principal types of metastable soils BO.2 Fouings om wrsuinraied sells wish ‘metastable structure 50.5.3 Footings on saprolite 50:54 Compressbilty of metastable soils 51. Raft foundations ‘31.1 Comparison between raft and footing foundations ‘51.2 Settlement of raft foundations ‘S121 Rafts on sand ‘51.2.2 Rafts on clay Desigi of rat foundations Heave during Footings on sand in basements below the water tableCONTENTS 52. Pile foundations 52.1 Function of piles 52.2 Design of pile foundations ‘52.2.1 Historical development 52.2.2 Steps in design of a pie oundasion ‘52.3. Ultimate loads and safe design loads for single ples 5221 Side resistance and point resistance 523.2 Relations berween driving resistance and depth 52.3.3 Use of pilesdriving formulas for estimating ultimate bearing capacity 5234 Use of wave equation in design 52.3.5 Determination of bearing capacity by Iand test 52.3.6 Use of wave equation for estimating ultimate bearing capacity 52.3.7 Single pile entirely tn sand 52.3.8 Single pile in sand below weak deposits 52339 Side resistance on single pile in saturated clay 52.310 Action of point-henring piles 52.3.11 Evaluation of safe design load 524 Ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups ‘525 Behavior of pile foundations 525.1. Friction pile foundations in sand BLB2 Piles driven through compressible strata into sand or gravel 52.52 Pilee driven to sound hedenck 52.5.4. Piles driven into decomposed bedrock 52.5.5. Piles driven through compressible strata ino sti clay 52.5.6 Piles embedded in firm stratum underlain by suff clay 52.5.7 Floating pile foundations in deep soft deposit 52.5.8 Heave and lateral movement due to pile driving 92.5.9 Efjictency equations 525.10 Selection of type of pile "52.6.1 Lateral resistance of single piles 526.2 Lateral resistance of pile groups 52.63 Effect of repeated lateral loads on vertical piles 53. Pier foundations $3.1. Function of piers 53.2 Distinction between piers and piles 533. Caissons 53.3.1 Methods of construction 5222 Resimate of skin friction durine sinking of 53.4. Piers constructed in open excavations ‘33.1 Piers on sand 5342. Piers on cla 53.4.3 Hand excavated shafis 53.5. Drilled shatts 33.5.1. Methods of construction 535.2 Construction implications of subsurface conditions 543.5 Behavior of dnited shajts under id 535.5. Settlement of drilled shafts $33.6 Load tes on died shatis xv 47 47 418 418 419 419 2 21 422 ana 425 436 BI 432 a 435 435 436 436 437 a0 429 440 440 442 a2 493 445 445 49 450 450 450 451 454 454xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER 10. CHAPTER 11. 535.7 Uplift capacity of drilled shafis 53.5.8 Drilled shafts in expansive soils 353.9 Lateral resistance of drilled shayts Settlement Due to Extraneous Causes 54. Settlement due to excavation in open cuts 54.1 Characteristic movements 542 Cuts in sand ‘$42.1 Sand above water table 542.2 Effect of lowering the water table in sand siraa 34.3. Cats in soft to medium clays 54.4 Cuts in stiff clays of cohesive sands 54.6 Measures for reduction of settlement 355. Settlement due to increasing stress in subsoil 35.1 Effect of adjacent loads 455.2 Effect of pumping on clay stata 56. Settlement caused by vibrations 56.1 Factors determining magnitude of settlement 56.2 Examples of settlement due to induced vibrations 563 Settlement due to earthquakes ‘56.3.1 Settlement due to drained shaking Dams and Dam Foundations 57. Types of dams and potential modes of failure ‘57.1 ‘Types of dams and foundations 37.2 Causes of failure 58, Mechanisms of subsurface erosion Influence of geologic factors on mechanics of piping Empirical rules for estimating factors of safety Subsurface erosion initiated by scour Means for avoiding subsurface erosion Susceptibility of soils to erosion 59, Earth and rockfill dams 59.1 Basis for design 59.2 Seepage control 593. Cutofls S931 Effciency of eworps 593.2 Construction by use of slurry 59.34 Injected curtains in rock 59.4 Upstream blankets 59.5 Drainage provisions 596 Zoned dams IB.6.1 Purpose of cones ‘59.6.2 Arrangement of zones 59.7 Deformation of earth and rckfill dams 598 Slopes 599 Materials '59.10 Contact between embankment and foundation 59.11 Embankment dams with membranes pair jucings 59.11.2 Internal membranes 59.113 Synthetic membranes and filter fabries 484 456 330 487 487 457 459 459 459 466 497 467 468 470 a 47 474 74 4 44 415 475 415 478 418 49 480 480 480 480 480 482 483, 484 484 454 485 486 489 490, 492 493 495 49660. CONTENTS Concrete dams on sediments 60.1 Modes of faire 60.2 Safety with respect to sliding 60.3 Settlement considerations References Author Index Subject Index 497 497 497 498 501 323 529Preface In 1948 Karl Terzaghi, in the preface to the First Edi- tion, wrote: Uinforrinately the research activities in soil mechanics diverted the attention of many investigators and teachers from the manifold limitations imposed by nature on the appli- cation of mathematics to problems in earthwork engineering. ‘Asa consequence, more and more emphasis has been placed fon refinements in sampling and testing and on those very ‘few problems that can be solved with accuracy, Yet, accurate solutions can be obtained only ithe soll strata are practically homogeneous and continuous in horizontal directions. Fur- thermore, since the investigations leading (0 accurate solu- tions involve highly specialized methods of sampling and testing, they ate justified uly in exceptional vases. On the overwhelming majority of jobs no more than an approximate forecast is needed, and if such a forecast cannot be made by simple means it cannot be made at all. If itis not possible to make an approximate forecast, the behavior of the soil ‘must be observed during construction, and the design may subsequently have to he modified in accordance with the Findings. These facts cannot be ignored without defying the purpose of soil mechanics. They govern the treatment ofthe subject in this book. In the half century since these words were writen, research in sampling and testing has continued unabated, and a vast Jiterature has accumulated about the properties of soils, much of it directed toward advancing one or another school of thought concerning idealized concep- tions of soil behavior. During the same time, remarkable forecasts possible for problems involving complex boundary and sratigraphic conditions. Thus it nay 10 longer be true that if a forecast cannot be made by simple ‘means it cannot be made at all. In exchange for this progress, however, it has become increasingly important that the choice of Soil properties used in the analyses be based on a fundamentally correct knowledge of soil behavior, Part [of this edition is essentially a digest of the find- ings of research workers concerning the properties of soil that are of interest to engineers. The digest presents the findings from a fundamental point of view rather than as representing any one school of thought. Because of the ‘many eouuibutions of the research workers, this part of the book has been expanded markedly over that of the previous editions Part Il, on the other hand, has been increased only slightly, because the essential theoretical tools were already available 50 years ago. The development of finite- element and simular procedures, although changing the mode of many calculations, has not altered this fact. ‘Moreover, the closed-torm solutions of the classical theo- ries of elasticity and plasticity permit the simple, rapid approximate calculations that should always be made to provide a “back of the envelope” estimate to permit judg- ing the need for or the reasonableness of the results of any more elaborate calculational procedure. AAs in previous editions, Part III deals with the art of getting satisfactory results in earthwork and foundation engineering ata reasonable cost, in spite ofthe complexity of the structure of natural soil formations and in spite of the inevitable gaps in our knowledge of the soil condi- tions. The semi-empirical approach described and advo- cated in this Part has stood the test of time. It has become the hallmark of the practice of geotechnical engineering. ‘The authors are indebted to Dr. M. T. Davisson, Mr. R M, Armstrong. and Prof, J. H. Long for their constructive reviews of the chapters on pile and pier foundations. The patient and expert typing of the many successive versions of the text by Mrs. Paul C. Jesse and Mrs, Joyce M. Snider are gratefully acknowledged. The new illustrations for this edition were drawn by Mr. Ron Winburn, Mr. Marawan Shahien provided invaluable assistance in checking the manuscript and in preparing, revising, and solving the problems. Figures and tables from journals, proceedings, and books are reproduced with permission from the respective publishers RaLpH B, Peck GHOLAMREZA MESRI xix