Richter scale

SEISMOLOGY
WRITTEN BY:
 John P. Rafferty
See Article History
Richter scale (ML), quantitative measure of an earthquake’s magnitude (size), devised in
1935 by American seismologists Charles F. Richter and Beno Gutenberg. The
earthquake’s magnitude is determined using the logarithm of the amplitude (height) of the
largest seismic wave calibrated to a scale by a seismograph. Although modern scientific
practice has replaced the original Richter scale with other, more-accurate scales, the
Richter scale is still often mentioned erroneously in news reports of earthquake severity as
the catch-all name for the logarithmic scale upon which earthquakes are measured.

Schematic diagram of a 1924 Anderson-Wood torsion pendulum seismograph, the type used by seismologist Charles F.
Richter to define his earthquake magnitude scale.A small copper cylinder (C) was attached to a tungsten wire (T) between
the poles (N, S) of a U-shaped permanent magnet. In response to oscillations of the ground caused by an earthquake, the
pendulum swung in a nearly horizontal plane around the wire, its own free oscillation being reduced, or damped, by the
magnetic field. Magnification of its movements for recording purposes was made possible by use of a mirror
(m).Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The Richter scale was originally devised to measure the magnitude of earthquakes of
moderate size (that is, magnitude 3 to magnitude 7) by assigning a number that would
allow the size of one earthquake to be compared with another. The scale was developed
for temblors occuring in southern California that were recorded using the Wood-Anderson
seismograph and whose epicentres were less than 600 km (373 miles) from the location
of the seismograph. Present-day seismographs, however, may be calibrated to compute
Richter magnitudes, and modern methods for measuring earthquake magnitude have
been developed to produce results that remain consistent with those measured using the
Richter scale.
Methodology
 Richter scaleThe Richter scale and how it measures earthquake magnitude. The Richter scale calculates an
earthquake's magnitude (size) from the amplitude of the earthquake's largest seismic wave recorded by a
seismograph.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

On the original Richter scale, the smallest earthquakes measurable at that time were
assigned values close to zero on the seismograph of the period. Since modern
seismographs can detect seismic waves even smaller than those originally chosen for
zero magnitude, it is possible to measure earthquakes having negative magnitudes on the
Richter scale. Each increase of one unit on the scale represents a 10-fold increase in the
magnitude of an earthquake. In other words, numbers on the Richter scale are
proportional to the common (base 10) logarithms of maximum wave amplitudes. Each
increase of one unit also represents the release of about 31 times more energy than that
represented by the previous whole number on the scale. (That is, an earthquake
measuring 5.0 releases 31 times more energy than an earthquake measuring 4.0.) In
theory, the Richter scale has no upper limit, but, in practice, no earthquake has ever been
registered on the scale above magnitude 8.6. (That was the Richter magnitude for
the Chile earthquake of 1960. The moment magnitude for this event was measured at
9.5.).
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For earthquakes measuring magnitude 6.5 or greater, Richter’s original methodology has
been shown to be unreliable. Magnitude calculations are dependent on the earthquake
being local, as well as on the use of one particular type of seismograph. In addition, the
Richter scale could not be used to calculate the total energy released by an earthquake or
describe the amount of damage it did. Because of limitations imposed by seismographs
and the emphasis on measuring a single peak amplitude, the Richter scale
underestimates the energy released in earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 6.5,
since the values calculated after measuring very large seismic waves tend to cluster, or
“saturate,” near one another.
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Modified Richter Scales

The shortcomings inherent in the original Richter scale spawned the development of
improved Richter scales by Richter and Gutenberg. In the decades that followed the
creation of the original Richter scale, they developed the body-wave magnitude scale (mb,
which calculates the magnitude of primary, or P, and secondary, or S, seismic waves
traveling within Earth) and the surface-wave magnitude scale (MS, which calculates the
magnitude of Love and Rayleigh waves traveling along Earth’s surface). Although both
scales continued to make use of seismographs and peak wave amplitudes, they became
relatively reliable ways to calculate the energy of all but the largest earthquakes. The
surface-wave magnitude scale also had no distance restrictions between the
earthquake epicentre and the location of the seismograph, and the body-wave magnitude
scale, with its approximately 1,000-km (620-mile) range, was viewed as accurate enough
to measure the few relatively small earthquakes that occurred in eastern North America.
Both scales, however, suffered from saturation when used to measure earthquakes of
magnitude 8 and above.
Moment Magnitude Scale
The moment magnitude (MW or M) scale, developed in the late 1970s by Japanese
seismologist Hiroo Kanamori and American seismologist Thomas C. Hanks, became the
most popular measure of earthquake magnitude worldwide during the late 20th and early
21st centuries. It was designed to produce a more-accurate measure of the total energy
released by an earthquake. The scale abandoned the use of peak wave amplitudes in its
calculations, focusing instead on calculating an earthquake’s seismic moment (M0)—that
is, the displacement of the fault across its entire surface multiplied by the force used to
move the fault. Since the moment magnitude scale was not limited by Richter’s process, it
avoided the saturation problem and thus was used to determine the magnitudes of the
largest earthquakes. Moment magnitude calculations, however, continue to express
earthquake magnitude using a logarithmic scale, which allows its results to compare
favorably with those of other scales below magnitude 8.
Richter Scale Of Earthquake Magnitude
The Richter scale of earthquake magnitude is listed in the table.
magnitude earthquakes per
category effects
level year
less than 1.0 to generally not felt by people, though recorded on local
micro more than 100,000
2.9 instruments

3.0–3.9 minor felt by many people; no damage 12,000–100,000

4.0–4.9 light felt by all; minor breakage of objects 2,000–12,000

5.0–5.9 moderate some damage to weak structures 200–2,000

6.0–6.9 strong moderate damage in populated areas 20–200

7.0–7.9 major serious damage over large areas; loss of life 3–20

8.0 and higher great severe destruction and loss of life over large areas fewer than 3

Richter scale of earthquake magnitude

Mercalli intensity scale
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The Mercalli intensity scale (or more precisely the Modified Mercalli intensity scale) is a scale to measure the
intensity of earthquakes. Unlike with the Richter scale, the Mercalli scale does not take into account energy of an
earthquake directly. Rather, they classify earthquakes by the effects they have (and the destruction they cause).
When there is little damage, the scale describes how people felt the earthquake, or how many people felt it.
Very often, non-geologists use this scale, because it is easier for people to describe what damage an earthquake
caused, than to do calculations to get a value on the Richter scale.
Values range from I - Instrumental to XII - Catastrophic.
Giuseppe Mercalli (1850-1914) originally developed the scale, with ten levels. In 1902, Adolfo Cancani extended the
scale to include twelve levels. August Heinrich Sieberg completely rewrote the scale. For this reason, the scale is
sometimes named Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg scale, or MCS scale.
Harry O. Wood and Frank Neumann translated it into English, and published it as Mercalli–Wood–Neumann
(MWN) scale. Charles Francis Richter also edited it. He also developed the Richter scale, later on.

Modified Mercalli Intensity scale[change | change source]

The lower degrees of the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is
felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed damage to structures
The large table gives Modified Mercalli scale intensities that are typically observed at locations near the epicenter of
the earthquake.[1]

I. Not felt Not felt by humans but technology is capable of sensing it.

II. Weak Felt only by a few persons during sleep, especially on upper floors of buildings.

Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not re
III. Weak slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.

Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doo
IV. Light truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.

V. Moderate Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned.

VI. Strong Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage sli

Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordina
VII. Very Strong designed structures; some chimneys broken.

Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings w
VIII. Severe of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned.

Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plu
Buildings shifted off
foundations.7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
IX. Violent

X. Extreme Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with found

XI.
Few, if any, (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground. Underg
Extremely slips in soft ground. Rails bent greatly.
Dangerous
XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown upwar
Catastrophic
Correlation with magnitude[change | change source]
Typical Maximum
Magnitude Modified Mercalli
Intensity
Under 2.0 I
2.0 – 2.9 II – III
3.0 – 3.9 III – IV
4.0 – 4.9 IV – V
5.0 – 5.9 V – VI
6.0 – 6.9 VI – VII
7.0 – 7.9 VII – VIII
8.0 or
VIII or higher
higher

There is a correlation between the magitude and the intensity of the earthquake. Even though this correlation is
there, it may be difficult to link one to the other: This correlation depends on several factors, such as the depth of the
earthquake, terrain, population density, and damage. For example, on May 19, 2011, an earthquake of magnitude
0.7 in Central California, United States 4 km deep was classified as of intensity III by the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) over 100 miles (160 km) away from the epicenter (and II intensity almost 300 miles (480 km) from
the epicenter), while a 4.5 magnitude quake in Salta, Argentina 164 km deep was of intensity I.[2]
The small table is a rough guide to the degrees of the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale.[1][3] The colors and descriptive
names shown here differ from those used on certain shake maps in other articles. However, it will not be 100%
accurate.

Volcanic Explosivity Index

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VEI redirects here. For the company, see Visual Entertainment Inc.

VEI and ejecta volume correlation

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a relative measure of the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions. It was
devised by Chris Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self at the University of Hawaii in
1982.
Volume of products, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations (using terms ranging from "gentle" to "mega-
colossal") are used to determine the explosivity value. The scale is open-ended with the largest volcanoes in history
given magnitude 8. A value of 0 is given for non-explosive eruptions, defined as less than 10,000 m3 (350,000 cu ft)
of tephra ejected; and 8 representing a mega-colossal explosive eruption that can eject 1.0×1012 m3 (240 cubic
miles) of tephra and have a cloud column height of over 20 km (66,000 ft). The scale is logarithmic, with each
 interval on the scale representing a tenfold increase in observed ejecta criteria, with the exception of between VEI-0,
VEI-1 and VEI-2.[1]

Contents

 1Classification
 2Limitations
 3Lists of large eruptions
 4See also
 5References
 6External links

Classification[edit]
With indices running from 0 to 8, the VEI associated with an eruption is dependent on how much volcanic material is
thrown out, to what height, and how long the eruption lasts. The scale is logarithmic from VEI-2 and up; an increase
of 1 index indicates an eruption that is 10 times as powerful. As such there is a discontinuity in the definition of the
VEI between indices 1 and 2. The lower border of the volume of ejecta jumps by a factor of one hundred, from
10,000 to 1,000,000 m3 (350,000 to 35,310,000 cu ft), while the factor is ten between all higher indices. In the
following table, the frequency of each VEI indicates the approximate frequency of new eruptions of that VEI or
higher.

Ejec Troposph Stratosph

Descripti Frequenc
ta Classification Plume eric eric
on y
V volu injection injection[2]
EI me
(bul
k) Examples

continuou
Hawaiian Effusive < 100 m negligible none
s
<
0 104
m3
Hoodoo Mountain (c. 7050 BC),[3] Erebus (1963), Kīlauea (1977), Socorro Island (1993), Mawson
Peak (2006), Dallol (2011), Piton de la Fournaise (2017)

Hawaiian
Gentle 100 m – 1 km daily minor none
> / Strombolian
1 104
m3
Stromboli (since Roman times), Nyiragongo (2002), Raoul Island (2006)

Strombolian every two

Explosive 1–5 km moderate none
> / Vulcanian weeks
2 106
m3
Unzen (1792), Cumbre Vieja (1949), Galeras (1993), Sinabung (2010)

Vulcanian
Catastrop
/ Peléan / Sub- 3–15 km 3 months substantial possible
> hic
Plinian
3 107
m3
Lassen Peak (1915), Nevado del Ruiz (1985), Soufrière Hills (1995), Ontake (2014)
 Peléan > 10 km
Cataclysm
/ Plinian/Sub- (Plinian or sub- 18 months substantial definite
ic
> Plinian Plinian)
4 0.1
km3
Laki (1783), Kīlauea (1790), Mayon (1814), Pelée (1902), Colima (1913), Sakurajima (1914), Katla (1918), Galunggung (19
82), Eyjafjallajökull (2010), Nabro (2011), Calbuco (2015)

Paroxysm > 10 km
Peléan/Plinian 12 years substantial significant
ic (Plinian)
>1
5
km3
Vesuvius (79), Fuji (1707), Tarawera (1886), Agung (1963), St. Helens (1980), El
Chichón (1982), Hudson (1991), Puyehue (2011)

Plinian / Ultra- 50–100

Colossal > 20 km substantial substantial
Plinian yrs
> 10
6
km3
Lake Laach Volcano (c. 10,950 BC), Nevado de Toluca (8,550 BC), Veniaminof (c. 1750
BC), Lake Ilopango (450), Ceboruco (930), Huaynaputina (1600), Krakatoa (1883), Santa
Maria (1902), Novarupta (1912), Pinatubo (1991)

Super- 500–1,000
Ultra-Plinian > 20 km substantial substantial
colossal yrs
>
7 100
km3 Valles Caldera (1,264,000 BC), Phlegraean Fields (37,000 BC), Aira Caldera (22,000 BC), Mount
Mazama (c. 5,700 BC), Kikai Caldera (4,300 BC), Cerro Blanco (c. 2300 BC), Thera (c. 1620
BC), Taupo (180), Baekdu (946), Samalas (1257), Tambora (1815)

Mega- > 50,000

Ultra-Plinian > 20 km vast vast
colossal yrs[4][5]
>
100
8
0
km3 La Garita (26,300,000 BC), Cerro Galán (2,200,000 BC), Huckleberry Ridge Tuff (2,100,000
BC), Yellowstone (630,000 BC), Whakamaru (in TVZ) (254,000 BC),[6] Toba (74,000
BC), Taupo (25,360 BC)

About 40 eruptions of VEI-8 magnitude within the last 132 million years (Mya) have been identified, of which 30
occurred in the past 36 million years. Considering the estimated frequency is on the order of once in 50,000
years,[4] there are likely many such eruptions in the last 132 Mya that are not yet known. Based on incomplete
statistics, other authors assume that at least 60 VEI-8 eruptions have been identified.[7][8] The most recent is Lake
Taupo's Oruanui eruption, more than 27,000 years ago, which means that there have not been
any Holocene eruptions with a VEI of 8.[9]
There have been at least 10 eruptions of VEI-7 in the last 10,000 years. There are also 58 plinian eruptions, and 13
caldera-forming eruptions, of large, but unknown magnitudes. By 2010, the Global Volcanism Program of
the Smithsonian Institution had catalogued the assignment of a VEI for 7,742 volcanic eruptions that occurred during
the Holocene (the last 11,700 years) which account for about 75% of the total known eruptions during the Holocene.
Of these 7,742 eruptions, about 49% have a VEI of ≤ 2, and 90% have a VEI ≤ 3.[10]

Limitations[edit]
Under the VEI, ash, lava, lava bombs, and ignimbrite are all treated alike. Density and vesicularity (gas bubbling) of
the volcanic products in question is not taken into account. In contrast, the DRE (dense-rock equivalent) is
sometimes calculated to give the actual amount of magma erupted. Another weakness of the VEI is that it does not
take into account the power output of an eruption, which makes the VEI extremely difficult to determine with
prehistoric or unobserved eruptions.
Although VEI is quite suitable for classifying the explosive magnitude of eruptions, the index is not as significant as
sulphur dioxide emissions in quantifying their atmospheric and climatic impact, as a 2004 paper by Georgina
Miles, Roy Grainger and Eleanor Highwood points out.
"Tephra, or fallout sediment analysis, can provide an estimate of the explosiveness of a known eruption event. It is,
however, not obviously related to the amount of SO2 emitted by the eruption. The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
was derived to catalogue the explosive magnitude of historical eruptions, based on the order of magnitude of
erupted mass, and gives a general indication as to the height the eruptive column reached. The VEI itself is
inadequate for describing the atmospheric effects of volcanic eruptions. This is clearly demonstrated by two
eruptions, Agung (1963) and El Chichón (1982). Their VEI classification separates them by an order of magnitude in
explosivity, although the volume of SO2 released into the stratosphere by each was measured to be broadly similar,
as shown by the optical depth data for the two eruptions."[11]