From Paragraph To Essay - Rika Riwayatiningsih PDF

CHAPTER
1
FROM PARAGRAPH TO ESSAY
An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long. It is about one topic,

just as a paragraph is. However, because the topic of an essay is too complex to
discuss in one paragraph, you need to divide it into several paragraphs, one for each
major point. Then you need to tie the paragraphs together by adding an introduction
and a conclusion.
Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing a paragraph except that an
essay is longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if you can
write a good paragraph, you can write a good essay.
Rika Riwayatiningsih,M.Pd |1|

The Three Parts of an Essay
An essay has three main parts: an introduction (introductory paragraph), a
body (at least one, but usually two or more paragraphs), and a conclusion
(concluding paragraph).
The following chart shows you how the parts of a paragraph

correspond to the parts of an essay.
MODEL
Native American Influences on Modem U.S. Culture

When the first Europeans came to the North American
Essay
continent, they encountered the completely new cultures of the
Structure
Native American peoples
| 2 | Writing Essay;From Paragraph to Essay

of North America. Native Americans, who had highly developed
cultures in many respects, must have been as curious about the
INTRODUCTORY strange European manners and customs as the Europeans
PARAGRAPH were curious about them. As always happens when two or
more cultures come into contact, there was a cultural
exchange. Native
Americans adopted some of the Europeans’ ways, and the
Europeans adopted some of their ways. As a result, Native
THESIS
Americans have made many valuable contributions to modern
STATEMENT
U.S. culture, particularly in the areas of language, art, food, and
government.
First of all, Native Americans left a permanent mark on the

English language. The early English-speaking settlers
borrowed from several different Native American languages
words for places in this new land. All across the country are
cities, towns, rivers, and states with Native American names.
BODY For example, the states of Delaware, Iowa, Illinois, and
PARAGRAPH 1 Alabama are named after Native American tribes,2 as are the
cities of Chicago, Miami, and Spokane.
In addition to place names, English adopted from various
Native American languages the words for animals and plants
found in the Americas. Chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk,
tobacco, and squash are just a few examples.
Although the vocabulary of English is the area that shows
the most Native American influence, it is not the only area of
U.S. culture that has been shaped by contact with Native
Americans. Art is another area of important Native American
contributions. Wool rugs woven by women of the Navajo tribe
BODY in Arizona and New Mexico are highly valued works of art in
PARAGRAPH 2 the United States. Native American jewelry made from silver
and turquoise is also very popular and very expensive.
Especially in the western and southwestern regions of the
United States, native crafts such as pottery, leather products,
and beadwork can be found in many homes. Indeed, native art
and handicrafts are a treasured part of U.S. culture.

In addition to language and art, agriculture is another area
in which Native Americans had a great and lasting influence on
the peoples who arrived here from Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Being skilled farmers, the Native Americans of North America
taught the newcomers many things about farming techniques
BODY
and crops. Every U.S. schoolchild has heard the story of how
PARAGRAPH 3
Native Americans taught the first settlers to place a dead fish in
a planting hole to provide fertilizer for the growing plant.
Furthermore, they taught the settlers irrigation methods and
crop rotation. Many of the foods people in the United States eat
today were introduced to the Europeans by Native Americans.
For example,
Finally, corn
it may and chocolate
surprise weretounknown
some people learn thatincitizens
Europe.of the
BODY Now States
United they are
arestaples in the U.S.
also indebted 3 todiet.
the native people for our form
PARAGRAPH 4 of government. The Iroquois, who were an extremely large tribe
with many branches called “nations,” had
PRACTICE
American and British English: One Language with Many Differences
The English language came to be the world language that it is today by events that
happened hundreds of years ago. British colonization and trade led to the spread of
the English language to many areas around the world, and by the early 1600's
English was introduced to North America. Although the English used in the United
States and the United Kingdom is generally mutually intelligible, it has developed
several differences, including pronunciation, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Certain differences in vocabulary and the use of idioms between American and
British
English can cause misunderstandings between speakers.
Vocabulary is one area where many differences can be found between American
and British English. There are many examples of a particular vocabulary word
having different meanings. Words such as bill (AmE = paper money or invoice, BrE =
invoice), biscuit (AmE = slightly salty, thick pastry, BrE = sweet dessert, like an

American cookie) and football (AmE = soccer) are three well-known examples. Other
examples of vocabulary that are entirely different words for the same meaning
include elevator (AmE) and lift (BrE); gas (AmE) and petrol (BrE); period (AmE) and
full stop (BrE), apartment (AmE) and flat (BrE); potato chips (AmE) and crisps (BrE);
subway (AmE) and underground (BrE); line (AmE) and queue (BrE); and intersection
(AmE) and crossroads (BrE).
In addition to words, there are certain idioms, or phrases, that differ between
the two forms of English. Most of the phrases differ by only one or two words and
can sometimes cause misunderstandings between speakers of American and British
English. Some examples include (BrE) a drop in the ocean and (AmE) a drop in the
bucket, which mean "a small part of something that is much larger"; (BrE) blow one's
trumpet and (AmE) blow (or toot) one's horn, which mean to brag about one's own
accomplishments"; and (BrE) tuppence worth and (AmE) two cents' worth, which mean
"to offer one's opinion or advice'.' One phrase that can cause some confusion in
conversation is / don't mind. If a person is asked whether he would like tea or coffee,
for example, the BrE response "I don't mind" means that either choice is acceptable,
while the AmE response would most likely be "I don't care."
The examples above are only a small sample of the various ways American English
and British English differ. However, although vocabulary differences can cause some
misunderstandings, generally speakers of both forms of English can understand one
another with little difficulty. Differences between American and British English have
developed over the centuries, and these differences will likely continue to develop
and change into the future.
Writing Technique Questions

1. How many paragraphs does this essay contain? How many paragraphs are in the
body?
2. Underline the topic sentence of each body paragraph, and double underline the
topic. {Note\ The topic sentence is not necessarily the first sentence in every
paragraph.)
3. Notice which noun phrase appears four times in the introduction. Circle each
repetition of this key noun in the other paragraphs of the essay.
CHAPTER
2
LOGICAL DIVISION OF IDEAS
Body Paragraphs
The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting sentences in a paragraph.
They are the place to develop your topic and prove your points. You should
organize body paragraphs according to some sort of pattern, such as chronological
order or comparison/contrast. Sometimes, depending on your topic, you will need
to use a combination of patterns.
Logical Division of Ideas

A basic pattern for essays is logical division of ideas. In this pattern, you divide your
topic into subtopics and then discuss each subtopic in a separate paragraph. Logical
division is an appropriate pattern for explaining causes, reasons, types, kinds,
qualities, methods, advantages, and disadvantages, as these typical college exam
questions ask you to do.
Economics Explain the three causes of inflation.
Agriculture/Landscape Describe the basic types of soils and the additives

Design needed to prepare each type for planting.
U.S. History Discuss the causes of the U.S. Civil War.
Business Explain the three main forms of business organization.
Health Science Describe the various classes of drugs used to treat

depression

THREE KEYS
Here are three keys to organizing a logical division essay.
1. Divide your topic into subtopics, and then discuss each subtopic in a separate
paragraph.
2. Write a thesis statement that indicates logical division.
3. Use transitions between paragraphs to guide your reader from one subtopic
to the next.
Thesis Statements for Logical Division of Ideas
The thesis statement of a logical division essay often indicates the number of
subtopics:
Native Americans have made valuable contributions to modern U.S. culture
in four main areas.
Inflation has three causes.
The thesis statement may even name the specific subtopics:

a. Native Americans have made many valuable contributions to modern U.S.
culture, particularly in the areas of language, art, food, and government.
b. Inflation has three causes: excessive government spending, unrestrained
consumer borrowing, and an increase in the supply of paper money.
Paired conjunctions (both . . . and, not only . . . but also) are an especially effective
way to list two subtopics:
c. Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the
United States not only in their choice of lifestyle but also in their choice
of careers.
d. Puppies, like children, need both love and discipline to become
responsible members of society.

A colon (:) is often useful before lists of two, three, or more subtopics in a thesis
statement:
e. Young people in my culture have less freedom than young people in the
United States in three areas: where they live, whom they marry, and
what their job is.
f. The Father of Psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, believed that the human
mind had three separate parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
Notice that subtopics are in parallel form, which means that they have the same
grammatical form: In examples a, d, and.'', all are nouns; in example b, all are
adjective + noun phrases; in example c, all are prepositional phrases; in example
e, all are dependent noun clauses.
Thesis statements
 What is a thesis statement?
The thesis statement is the sentence that tells the main idea of the essay. It
can be compared to a topic sentence, which gives the main idea of a paragraph.
The thesis statement can express an opinion: Travel is an effective way to
bring people of different cultures together and learn about one another. It can
also state an argument or fact to be defended or explained: There are several
ways that technology has made classroom instruction more effective. It usually
comes at or near the end of the introductory paragraph.
 Look at the essay in exercise 1 on page 4 again. Underline the thesis

statement.
 In these introductory paragraphs, underline the thesis statement. Then

circle the topic and draw another line under the main idea in each thesis
statement. Share your answers with a partner,

 Writing a strong thesis statement
 A thesis statement gives the author's opinion or states an important idea
about the topic. It should give an idea that can be discussed and explained
with supporting ideas:
The qualifications for entering a university in my country are
unreasonable.
When studying a second language, there are several ways to improve
your use of the ' language.
These are strong thesis statements. They can be discussed or explained.
 A thesis statement should not be a sentence that only gives a fact about the
topic:

In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer months are warmer than the
winter months.
This is not a strong thesis statement. It cannot be discussed or argued about.
 A thesis statement should not state two sides of an argument equally.
There are advantages and disadvantages to using nuclear power.
This could be a topic sentence, but it is not a thesis statement. It gives two
sides of an argument without giving a clear opinion of support or
disagreement. It could be revised like this:
Although there are some advantages, using nuclear power has many
disadvantages and should not be a part of our country’s energy plan.
This is a strong thesis statement. It clearly gives the writer's opinion about
nuclear power.
 Read these thesis statements below. Write √ (strong thesis statement), F

(fact only — a weak thesis statement), or N (no clear opinion—a weak
thesis statement).
A. __________ The top government official m my country is me prime minister.
B. __________ Many diseases are caused by both genetic and environmental factors.
C. __________ India became an independent country in 1947.
D. __________ To be a successful student, good study habits are more important than
intelligence.
E. __________ There are several advantages of owning a car, but there are also many
disadvantages.
F. __________ Half of the families in my country own a house.
G. __________ Using public transportation would be one of the best ways to solve the
traffic and pollution problems in cities around the world.
H. __________ While traveling, staying in a hotel offers more comfort, but sleeping in
a tent is less expensive.
I. __________ Classical music concerts are very popular in my country.
j. __________ In order to create a successful advertisement, it is necessary to
consider three issues: who should be targeted, where the ad should be
placed, and what type of ad should be made.
| 10 | W r i t i n g E s s a y ; F r o m P a r a g r a p h t o E s s a y
Transition Signals for Logical Division of ideas
Transition signals for logical division essays include many that you may
already know
PRACTICE
 Circle the transition expressions that link paragraphs in the model essay on
pages 58-59.
 Connect the ideas in the following paragraphs by adding a transition word,
phrase, or clause to the topic sentences of the third, fourth, and fifth para-
graphs. Try to vary the transitional linking expressions you use. You may
rewrite the topic sentences if necessary. The first one has been done for you
as an example.
Icebergs: A Potential Source of Water
(1) In countries where rainfall is very sparse,' scientists must constantly seek
ways to increase supplies of water. One method being considered is the use
Rika Riwayatiningsih,M.Pd | 11 |
of desalination plants, which would remove salt from seawater. Another
method being considered is the towing of icebergs. According to this method,
large icebergs from Antarctica would be wrapped in cloth or plastic, tied to
powerful tugboats by strong ropes, and towed to the countries needing
freshwater. While this plan may have some potential, there are certain
practical problems that must be solved.
(2) (The first problem) __________________is the expense. According to estimates,

it would cost between $50 million and $100 million to tow a single 100-
million-ton iceberg from Antarctica to, for example, the coast of Saudi Arabia.
(3)_____________________________________________is the possibility that the iceberg

would melt en route.2 No one knows if an iceberg could be effectively insulated
for such a long journey. At the very least, there is the possibility that it would
break up into smaller pieces, which would create still other problems.
(4)________________________________________there is the danger that a huge block of

ice floating off an arid' coast could have unexpected environmental effects. The
ice could drastically4 change the weather along the coast, and it would
probably affect the fish population.
(5)_______________________________________ the cost of providing freshwater from

icebergs would be less than the cost of providing water by desalinization,
according to most estimates. It would cost between 50 and 60 cents per cubic
meter to get water from an iceberg, as opposed to the 80 cents per cubic meter
it would cost to get the same amount by desalinization.
(6)__________________________________________In conclusion, before icebergs can

become a source of freshwater in the future, problems involving cost, overall
practicality, and most important, environmental impact' must be solved.
 Add transition words, phrases, or clauses to the topic sentences of the
paragraphs in this essay. Rewrite the topic sentences if necessary.
Medicine and Ethics

(1) Recent advances in the fields of medicine and biotechnology have
brought about situations that could scarcely be imagined only a generation
ago. Battery- operated plastic hearts can be implanted into7 people. People
can be kept alive indefinitely by machines. Exact duplicates of animals can be
made. While such scientific achievements may ultimately benefit humankind,
they have also created complex legal and ethical issues.
(2) _______________________________________ involves doctors’ ability to
intervene in human reproduction. A well-known example is the case of Baby
M. A man paid a woman to bear a child for him and his wife, who could not
have children. They signed a contract, but after the baby was born, the
woman wanted to keep the baby. The father said the baby was his, but the
woman said it was hers. It took the courts many months to decide who was
right.
(3) __________________________________ another ethical dilemma has arisen
because doctors are now able to keep people who are in comas alive for years
by attaching their bodies to machines. This gives great power and great
responsibility to the people who control the machines. As a result of this
power, society has had to develop a new definition of death. How does a
person decide whether another person whose heart cannot beat on its own
and whose lungs are pumped by a machine is still alive or not?
(4) ______________________________________ the ability of biotechnologists to
produce new forms of life in their laboratories is another area with
profound"1 ethical consequences. Isn’t a scientist who creates, for example, a
new bacterium “playing God”? Furthermore, is it even safe to introduce new
life forms into Earth’s atmosphere? Is there a risk that such life forms could
get out of control? Some people fear so.
(5) ______________________________________ scientists are now able to duplicate
living organisms, cell by cell, through a process called cloning. Recently, the
world was stunned by the successful cloning of a human embryo. Should
biotechnologists be allowed to clone people? Who should control human
cloning?
(6) _________________________revolutions—political or technological —cause
upheaval" and force change. Our new ability to create and prolong life is
raising questions and forcing changes in our very concept of life, an issue
involving not only legal but also profound moral considerations.
CHAPTER
3
OUTLINING AN ESSAY
Writing an outline
How to write an outline
Before writing an outline, you must go through the usual process of gathering
ideas, editing them, and deciding on a topic for your writing. Writing an outline can
be a very useful way of organizing your ideas and seeing how they will work
together.
To show how the ideas work together, number them. To avoid confusion, use
several different types of numbers and letters to show the organization of the ideas.
Use roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, etc.) for your essay’s main ideas: your
introduction and thesis statement, your body paragraphs, and your conclusion.
Write these entire first, before going into more detail anywhere.
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
III. Second main idea
IV. Third main idea
V. Conclusion
Next, fill in more information for your body paragraphs by using capital roman
letters (A, B, C, etc.). Use One letter for each supporting idea in your body paragraph.
Complete this information for each body paragraph before going into more detail.
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
A. First supporting point
B. Second supporting point
.... and so on.
Finally, use Arabic numerals (1,2, 3, etc.) to give details for your supporting points.
Not every supporting point will have details, and some points will have several. It
is not important to have the same number of details for every supporting point.
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
A. First supporting point
1. First detail
2. Second detail
B. Second supporting point
1. First detail
2. Second detail
.... and so on.
A formal outline has a system of numbers and letters such as the following. In other
fields of study, different systems are used.
Roman numerals I, II, and III number the major sections of an essay
(introduction, body, conclusion)
Capital letters A, B, C, D, and so on label the body paragraphs.
Arabic numerals 1,2, 3, 4, and so on number the sub points in
each paragraph.
Small letters a, b, c, d, and so on label the specific
supporting details.
MODEL
A. Below is an incomplete outline of the model essay “Native American
Complete the outline by filling in the missing parts.
Native American Influences on Modem U.S. Culture
I. Introduction
Thesis statement: Native Americans have made many valuable
contributions to modern U.S. culture, particularly in the areas of language,
art, food, and government.
II. Body
A. Native Americans left a permanent mark on the English language.
1. Names of places—cities, towns, rivers, and states
a. States: Delaware, Iowa, Illinois, Alabama
b. Cities: Chicago, Miami, Spokane
2. Names of animals and plants
a. Animals: chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk
b. Plants: tobacco, squash
B. ___________________________________________________________________________________
1. Navajo rugs
2. Silver and turquoise jewelry
3. ____________________________________________________________________________________
a. Pottery
b. ________________ ___________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________
C ___________________________________________________________________________________
1. Farming techniques
a. _______________________________________________________________________________
__
b. _______________________________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________________________
a. _______________________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________________
D._____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Iroquois—large tribe with many branches (“nations”)
Needed to settle disputes among various branches
2. Five nations formed League of Iroquois
a. _________________________________________________________________________________
b. Acted together when dealing with outsiders
3. After independence, 13 colonies adopted similar system.
a. Each colony (future state) was autonomous in managing own affairs.
b. _______________________________________________________________________________
III. Conclusion
We can easily see from these few examples the extent of Native American
influence on our language, our art forms, our eating habits, and our government.
PRACTICE 1
1 Fill in this outline for the essay in Unit 8, exercise 1 on page 57. Then compare
with a partner.
The differences between American and British English.

I. Thesis statement: ___________________________________________________________
II. Vocabulary differences
A____________________________________________________________________________
1. bill
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
B. Different words with same meaning
1. elevator/lift
2. gas/_____________________________________________
3. period/_________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________
III ____________________________________________________________
A. a drop in the ocean/bucket
B. _____________________________________________
C. _____________________________________________
D. _____________________________________________
IV. Conclusion: ______________________________________________________________
PRACTICE 2
A. Write a simple outline of yourself or your life. First, outline only the body
paragraphs. Your main ideas could include physical
characteristics, your personality, your habits, your
family, places you have lived, jobs you have had, things
you like and dislike, and so on.
B. Explain your outline to a partner. Your partner will
then add a thesis statement and concluding
statement.
C. Join another pair and present your
complete outlines
CHAPTER
4
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The importance of introductions and conclusions

This unit explained that the introduction and the conclusion are two of the three
main parts of an essay. Without an introduction and a conclusion, an essay is just
a group of paragraphs. The introduction and the conclusion work together to make
the topic and main ideas of the essay clear to the reader.
The introduction
What is an introduction?
The first paragraph of an essay as you learned in Unit 8, is called the introduction,
The introduction
• is usually five to ten sentences.

• catches the reader’s interest.
• gives the general topic of the essay
• gives background information about the topic.
• states the main point (the thesis statement) of the essay.
The introduction is often organized by giving the most general ideas first and then
leading to the most specific idea, which is the thesis statement, like this:
Specific Idea
(Thesis statement)
Read the introduction to the essay in Unit before. Complete this diagram.
Types of information
How to make an introduction interesting
To make an introductory paragraph interesting for the reader, you can include...
The conclusion
The importance of a conclusion
The conclusion is the final paragraph of the essay. A good concluding paragraph ...
• summarizes the main points of the essay.
• restates the thesis (using different words).
• makes a final comment about the essay's main idea.
• may emphasize an action that you would like the reader to take.
Don't introduce new ideas in a conclusion. A conclusion only restates or gives
further commentary on ideas discussed in the essay.
PRACTICE 1
Match each of these introduction thesis statements with its rewritten version
for a conclusion.
a. ..... A lack of adequate sleep can 1. Young people can learn many things
have several negative effects on a by traveling to other countries.
person s health and daily life.
2. Despite the challenges, being an

b. ..... Traveling is a valuable learning entrepreneur can offer more benefits
experience for people, especially than other types of employment.
children and young adults.
3. Sleep deprivation can result in many
c. ..... Learning to play a musical harmful effects on the body including
instrument is very beneficial for chronic tiredness, being unable to
children. think clearly or remember things
well, feeling depressed, and getting
d. ..... Creating and owning a business sick more easily due to a weakened
offers more advantages than immune system; clearly, getting
working as an employee in a enough sleep is an essential part of a
company. healthy lifestyle.
e. ..... More houses should be adapted 4. The Internet gives access to a huge
to use solar energy because it is amount of knowledge, but users
clean and renewable. shouldn’t believe everything they
read there.
f. ...... The Internet can be very useful 5. When children are exposed to music
research,
for but it also contains a lot of and are taught to play instruments
incorrect information. such as the piano or violin, there are
many positive effects.
6. The sun gives a constant, free supply
of clean energy, which more homes
should take advantage of.
PRACTICE 2
Choose the best concluding paragraph, below.
PRACTICE 3
Write an introduction and conclusion for the outline you created for Unit 9,
exercise 8 on page 70. Then exchange these with a partner. Make comments
on your partner’s paragraphs using the information you learned in this unit
about writing good introductions and conclusions
CHAPTER
5
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER: THE PROCESS ESSAY
The Process Essay

Process essays discuss a series of steps in chronological (time) order. They can
explain how to do or accomplish a task. Reading 1 gave steps on how to network
with people to get a job. Reading 2 explained how young entrepreneurs can start
and run their own business. Many process essays in college focus on technical or
complex procedures. In an economics course, a process essay could explain how to
buy and sell stocks. A government course might require you to explain how a
country elects its politicians.
Read the model essay. What three steps does the essay discuss?
MODEL
Job Interviewing 101
Author Mark Twain once said that "work is a necessary evil to be avoided."
Unfortunately, most people cannot avoid work. Consequently, they also cannot
avoid job interviews. Employers require interviews because they want to know if
you will be a good fit for the company. Knowing how to interview is vital to getting
the job you want. By following three simple steps, you can succeed at a job interview
and get the job you want.
First of all, in order to succeed at a job interview, you need to be well prepared.
Before your interview, you should find out as much information about your
potential employer as possible. The Internet can be a great source of information
about a business. Look on the Internet to see what the company is involved in and
how it operates. You also need to practice what you are going to say when the
interviewer asks you about your experience and accomplishments. Come up with
possible questions he or she might ask, and practice interviewing with a friend or
family member until you know exactly what you are going to say. Be sure that the
information you will provide about yourself is directly relevant to the job.
On the day of the interview, you need to help yourself relax. Being nervous at a job
interview can cause things to go terribly wrong. Luckily, there are ways to help
yourself stay calm before an interview. You can listen to calming music, or close your
eyes and visualize a peaceful image, such as a beach at sunset. Don't let any bad
thoughts come into your mind. Stay focused, and take deep breaths. Controlling your
breathing is one of the best ways to keep your body relaxed.
Finally, at the interview it is important to be polite. Make sure you arrive to the
interview on time. Being late to an interview will not only make you nervous, but it
will also make the interviewer wonder whether you might be late to work in the
future. Not arriving on time is disrespectful, and most employers won't hire you if
you don't follow this simple rule. It is also impolite to talk when interviewers are
talking. Tell them everything you want to say, but never interrupt them, and always
listen closely when they are talking.
In summary, you will do well at a job interview if you follow this step-by-step
approach. Job interviews are a necessary evil, and they can be very intimidating.
However, you will thank yourself if you take this advice. It is helpful to keep in mind
that a good job interview will usually get you the job you desire.
Three Keys
Here are three keys to organizing a process essay.
1. Discuss the steps in your process in the order in which they occur. Divide the
steps into separate paragraphs where natural breaks or groups of steps occur.
For example, to write about how to make a ceramic vase, you might divide the
body into four paragraphs:
I. Introductory paragraph
II. Body
 Shaping the vase
 First (bisque) firing
 Glazing
 Second firing
III. Concluding paragraph
2. Write a thesis statement that names the process and indicates time order.
3. Use chronological order signal words and phrases to indicate the.
Practice 1
Discuss the topics below in pairs or small groups. List three steps for each process.
1. How to stay safe when driving
a. __________
b __________
c. __________
2. How to prepare for a test

a. __________
b __________
c. __________
3. How to live on a small budget

a. __________
b __________
c. __________
Transition Signals for Chronological Order

Chronological order signal words are especially important in a process essay. You
have to be very clear about the sequence of steps: Does one step happen before,
after, or at the same time as another step? Chronological order signals include all
time expressions.
Chronological Order Signal Words and Phrases
first, first of all, second, third, First, choose a destination for your
etc. then, next, after that, soon, camping trip. Then make a list of supplies
later, later on finally, last, last of and equipment. Last of all, have a good
all meanwhile, at the same time, time.
now gradually, eventually Meanwhile, have a supply of clean rags
subordinator's ready. Gradually increase your child’s
allowance.
After you have chosen a destination, make a
list of equipment and supplies that you will
after since as until as soon as
need.
when before while
Praise your child when he or she does
something well.
Others
the first (second, last, final)

The last step is to decorate the cake.
step
Continue stirring the soup for five minutes.
on the third day
In 2004, scientists announced a major
after leaving home
discovery.
later that morning
After leaving home, I began to appreciate my
for five minutes
parents.
in 2004
My parents emigrated to the United States
several years ago a few
several years ago. The court announced the
weeks later in the next (past,
decision a few weeks later.
last) 15 years
Practice 2
Fill in each blank with an appropriate chronological order signal from the list
provided. Use each signal only once. Change small letters to capital letters an add
commas where necessary.
as soon as the lesson begins when you return when he or she asks you
in conclusion first to speak up
in the next few minutes finally second
then a third time before you sit down next.
How to Annoy a Teacher
It is quite easy to annoy a teacher—even the most patient, kind-hearted
teacher in the world—if you follow these simple steps.
( 1 )_________ always come to class just a little late. (2 )___________ make
as much noise as possible as you enter the room. (3) ______________ greet
all your friends with a cheerful wave or even better, with a shouted greeting.
(4)___________slam your heavy backpack down on the floor next to your desk and
do a few stretching exercises. (After all, you will be sitting still for the next 40
minutes or so!)
( 5)__________ make a big, gaping1 yawn and take your seat
.( 6 )___________ raise your hand and ask to be excused to go to the restroom.
(7)________ be sure to slam the door,
and again, make as much noise as possible while taking your seat.
(8) _________________turn the pages of your book noisily, search in your backpack
for a pencil, ask your neighbor if you can borrow an eraser, and announce
in a loud voice that you cannot find your homework. (9) ______________ raise your
hand and ask to be excused to look for it in your locker. If the teacher should
happen to call on you during the class, mumble an answer. (10)
_______________mumble again—maybe a little louder this
time, but still not loudly enough to be heard. If the teacher dares to ask you
give a loud and clear answer to the previous question—the one your
classmate answered a minute ago—and smile smugly3 as you do so. (12)
___________if these techniques do not achieve the desired
results, you can always fold your arms across your desk, put your head down,
and take a nap. Just do not forget to snore!
CHAPTER
6
COMPARISON CONTRACT ESSAY
The Comparison-Contrast Essay

Comparison essays compare two or more topics by discussing their
similarities or both their similarities and differences. Reading 2 was a historical
comparison that discussed the similarities and differences between fashionable
men at different moments in history. Contrast essays focus primarily on the
differences between two topics. Reading 1, for example, compared how and why
American men and women shop differently. Contrast essays are a very common
assignment in college courses. They might ask students to explore the differences
between two ideas, principles, people, or periods in history.
Read the following paragraph and answer the questions.

a. What two things does the paragraph talk about?
b. Is the paragraph mostly comparing or contrasting? How do you know?
In recent years, new technology such as

cellular telephones and the Internet have made life
more convenient. Cellular telephones allow people to
talk to one another almost anywhere. Likewise, the
Internet gives people the ability to talk to one another
very easily, even across countries. Second, cellular
phones and the Internet are available 24 hours per
day, so people can speak or connect at any time, day
or night. Another convenient quality of these two
types of technology is that they both allow people to
find out information without even leaving one's home A person can access the
Internet through most types of cellular phones, and the Interne can be used to look
up virtually any topic of interest. Clearly, cellular phones, the Internet, and other
new types of technology that exist today provide a great deal of convenience for
people.
MODEL (point by point Organization)
I. Introduction
Thesis statement: One way to decide between two job offers is to compare
them on important points.
II. Body
A. Salary
B. Benefits
C. Opportunities for advancement
D. Workplace atmosphere
E. Commuting distance from home
III. Conclusion
Block Organization
The other way to organize a comparison/contrast essay is to arrange all the similar-
ities together in a block and all the differences together in a block. You could discuss
either the similarities first or the differences first. You often insert a transition
paragraph or transition sentence between the two blocks. The model essay compar-
ing Japan and the United States uses block organization.
MODEL (Block Organization)
Using Comparison and Contrast Markers

To make their comparisons clear, writers use a variety of comparison and contrast
markers in their essays:
PRACTICE 1
 Work with a partner. Separate these ideas into advantages (A) and
disadvantages (D).
Studying English
a ....... .... takes a lot of time
b ....... .... classes are fun
c ....... .... grammar is difficult
d ........ .... useful for talking to people from other countries
e ....... .... good for using the Internet
f ......... .... lots of vocabulary to learn
g ....... .... too many tests to take
h ....... .... helps to understand English-language movies
i ........ .... my friends like English
j ......... .... pronunciation is difficult
 Now, in pairs, one person should write a paragraph about the advantages
and the other person should write about the disadvantages of studying
English. Add one new idea of your own to your paragraph.
 Share your paragraphs with another pair of student
PRACTICE 2
Read the thesis statements. Add one or two points of comparison for each
statement
1. Men and women have different styles of communication.
a. with friends
b. at work
c. ____________________________
2. Today’s jobs require more computer skills than they did in the past.
a. architects
b. journalists
c. ____________________________
3. Urban and suburban living differ in three significant ways.
a. cost
b. ______________________ _______________
c. ______________________ _______________
4. Doing research online differs from doing traditional library research.
a. convenience
b. _____________________________________
c. _____________________________ ________
5. Teenagers have many different clothing styles to choose from nowadays.
a. ________________________ _____________
b. __________________________ ___________
c. ___________________________ __________
CHAPTER
7
CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAYS
Another common pattern of essay organization is called cause and effect. In

a cause/ effect essay, you discuss the causes (reasons) for something, the effects
(results), or both causes and effects. You might use cause/effect organization to
answer typical test questions such as these:
Athenian silver tetra drachma, 4th century
.
EDUCATION Explain the decline in reading ability among
schoolchildren
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Discuss the effects of global warming on the
environment.
BUSINESS, ECONOMICS Discuss NAFTA1 and its effects on the U.S. economy
HISTORY Discuss the causes of the U.S. Civil War.
PSYCHOLOGY Explain the causes and effects of the “Stockholm
syndrome.”
.
Organization for Cause/Effect Order
You can organize a cause/effect essay in two main ways: “block” organization and
“chain” organization. In block organization, you first discuss all the causes as a block
(in one, two, three, or more paragraphs, depending on the number of causes). Then
you discuss all the effects together as a block. You can discuss either causes or effects
first. Of course, you can also discuss only causes or only effects.
Block Organization
In block organization, a short paragraph often separates one major section
from another major section. This paragraph is called a transition paragraph. Its
purpose is to conclude one section and introduce another section. You do not always
have to write a transition paragraph, but it is helpful when your topic is long and
complex. For example, an essay about global warming might include several
paragraphs about the causes and several paragraphs about the effects, with a
transition paragraph between the two blocks.
Essays that discuss mainly (or only) causes or mainly (or only) effects might
have a transition paragraph between blocks of different kinds of causes or between
blocks of different kinds of effects. For example, you might use a transition
paragraph to separate the personal effects of our increased life expectancy from its
many effects on the economy.
In short, a block-style cause/effect essay could have many different patterns. Some
possibilities are shown below.
Block Organization
A B
As you read the following model essay, try to determine which of the
patterns the model essay follows: A, B, C, or D
Chain Organization
The other organizational pattern you can use to write about causes and
effects is chain organization. In this pattern, causes and effects are linked to each
other in a chain. One event causes a second event, which in turn causes a third event,
which in turn causes a fourth event, and so on. Each new cause and its effect are
links in a chain. Depending on the complexity of the ideas in each link, you can
devote an entire paragraph to one link, or you may include several links in one
paragraph, or you may describe the entire chain in one paragraph. Chain
organization usually works better than block organization when the causes and
effects are too closely linked to be separated. Notice the chain pattern in the
following diagram.
Introduction How Fertile Land Becomes Desert
Cause People move into new areas and clear land for
↓ agriculture by cutting down trees.
Effect The tree roots no longer hold the soil in place.
↓
Cause The tree roots do not hold the soil in place.
↓
Effect The topsoil washes away during heavy rains.
↓
Cause The topsoil washes away during heavy rains.
↓
Effect There is no good soil to grow crops in.
↓
Cause There is no good soil to grow crops in.
↓
Effect People move to new areas and clear land for
↓ agriculture by cutting down trees.
Conclusion
Cause and Effect Essay (Chain Organization)

The following short essay describes a simple chain reaction.
SAD
Years ago, medical researchers identified a psychological disorder that they
appropriately named Seasonal Affective Disorder, or SAD. People who suffer from
SAD become very depressed during the winter months. Doctors now understand the
causes of this condition, which affects millions of people, particularly in areas of the
far north where winter nights are long and the hours of daylight are few.
SAD results from a decrease in the amount of sunlight sufferers receive.
Doctors know that decreased sunlight increases the production of melatonin, a
sleep-related hormone that is produced at increased levels in the dark. Therefore,
when the days are shorter and darker, the production of this hormone increases.
Shorter, darker days also decrease production of seratonin, a chemical that helps
transmit nerve impulses. Lack of seratonin is known to be a cause of depression
(“Seasonal” HH, par. 1).1Depression may result from the resulting imbalance of these
two substances in the body. Also, doctors believe that a decrease in the amount of
sunlight the body receives may cause a disturbance in the body’s natural clock
(“Seasonal” NMHA, par. 2).2 Doctors believe that the combination of chemical
imbalance and biological clock disturbance results in symptoms such as lethargy, 5
oversleeping, weight gain, anxiety,and irritability—all signs of depression.
Since absence of light seems to be the cause of this disorder, a daily dose of
light appears to be the cure. Doctors advise patients to sit in front.
Using Cause-Effect Markers

Writers use a variety of cause-effect markers in their essays to make
their ideas clear.
Cause Markers These verbs, phrases, and conjunctions introduce a cause.
Effect Markers These verbs and transition signals introduce an effect.
Practice 1
Complete the sentences with the cause-effect markers from the box.
More than one answer may be possible.
because due to since

because of is caused by therefore
contribute to result from
consequently result in
1 People exercise _________________because______ it helps them stay healthy.

2. _________ the weather, the soccer game was canceled.
3. Driving recklessly can _________________________________ an accident.
4. The TV show wasn’t popular. _________________________ __ ___ , h was canceled.
5. Stress can ________________________________ working too many hours.
6 _______________________________ skydiving is so dangerous, not many people do
it.
7. People are sometimes late to work ________________________________ heavy
traffic.
8. Tigers are hunted a lot. ________________________________ _» they have become
endangered.
9. Most air pollution ___________________________________ burning coal, oil, and gas.
10. Getting a college degree can _____________________________________ greater success
in life.
Practice 2
Using Cause/ Effect Signal Words
Step 1 Decide which sentence in each item is a cause and which is an effect.
Write C for cause or E for effect next to each sentence.
Step 2 Combine the sentences in each item into a new sentence that shows a
cause/effect relationship. Use the cause or effect signal word or phrase
given to form your new sentence, and circle the word. You will have to
add, delete, or change words in most sentences.
The first one has been done for you as an example.

1. __E__ There are fewer hours of daylight.
__C In winter, the sun is lower in the sky.
(thus) In winter, the sun is lower in the sky; (Thus)there are fewer hours of
daylight.
__________________________________________________________________
2. . Some breeds of dogs have a stronger desire to perform a service than

other breeds.
______They are more suitable as search-and-rescue animals. (since)
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. Seals and other aquatic mammals can see when they are hunting for
food in the dark ocean depths at night.
______They have very large eyes.
(dueto)______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
4. _____Metals have many free-moving electrons.
_____Metals are good conductors of heat.
(consequently)
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
5. ____My company began offering employees flexible working hours.

_____Productivity has increased.
_____Absenteeism has declined.
(as a result) ____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
6. ____Radiation could escape into the atmosphere.
____The Chernobyl nuclear power plant had no confinement shell.
(hence) ___________________________________________________________________
7. ____Operators had disregarded safety rules.

____The nuclear reactor at Chernobyl underwent a meltdown.
(because of) ___________________________________________________________________
8. ____During a weather phenomenon known as El Nino, a mass of warm water
flows eastward across the Pacific Ocean toward South America.
____The temperature of the water off the coast of Peru rises as much as 10°F.
(thereby) Note: You must change the verb rise to raise.
______________________________________
9. ____Weather around the world changes.
____During an El Nino, the jet stream blows in a different pattern.
(therefore)_______________________________________________________________________
10. ____In some areas of the world, heavy rains fall.
____Devastating floods and mudslides happen.
(cause—verb) ____________________________________________________________
11. ____In other parts of the world thousands of people suffer starvation.
____Drought happens.
(as a result of)_____________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER
8
CLASSIFICATION ESSAY
Classification essays divide a topic into different types or groups and

explain the characteristics of each type or group. Reading 1 categorized people into
four musical personalities and described the characteristics of each group. In a
similar way, Reading 2 focused on the topic of stress, divided it into two specific
types of stress, eustress and distress, and explained the characteristics of each type.
A psychology course may ask you to identify and discuss different kinds of
intelligence; in a biology course, you might write about different types of plants or
animals.
Read the model essay. What four types of bosses does the essay discuss?
MODEL 1
Four Typical Bosses
1 Just as there are many types of people in the world, there are also many
different kinds of bosses. Most people will have to deal with more than one
boss in their lives, and every boss has his or her own personality. Based on my
own work experience, I can categorize bosses into four types: the lion, the bee,
the cat, and the dog.
2 Lions know they are in charge, and they expect their employees to follow
orders correctly the first time. Employees need to be careful not to make them
angry because lions have bad tempers. These bosses are also extremely proud
of their position, and they demand respect from everyone.
3 Bees are always buzzing around from one project to the next. Like lions,
they are hard workers, and they do whatever it takes to get the job done. They
are good role models for their employees because they are willing to work so
hard. Unfortunately, however, sometimes bees are too busy to see what's
going on around them, so their workers sometimes see them as unfriendly or
uncaring.
4 The cat is more relaxed than the bee. Cats tend to be very independent,
preferring to work alone. They often keep happy employees, for they don't
bother them or stand over them unless it is an absolute necessity. Employees
who like an independent work environment complement the cat's personality
very well.
5 The dog is often called "man's best friend"; likewise, the dog boss is the
worker's best friend. These bosses are very extroverted. They love social
interaction, and they get along well with everyone in the company. They are
happy to help their employees when needed. Finally, they are loyal. They
respect their employees, and they treat them well so that they stay working
for them.
6 The lion, the bee, the cat, and the dog all have distinct characteristics
that distinguish them from one another. These are the four kinds of bosses I
have met, but there are certainly more to discover. What is most important is
to find the type of boss that matches your own personality to ensure that both
of you are happy.
Organizing the Classification Essay

To write a classification essay, divide your topic into related, but different
categories. Topic can be categorized in more than one way, but in a classification
essay, you must use only one principle or way. For example teacher can be
classified by their personality as strict, friendly or funny. Another way to classify
teachers is by their experience: expert, experienced, and inexperienced. Make
sure that you don’t include unrelated categories. For instance, you couldn't
classify teachers into strict, friendly, and inexperienced because inexperienced is
different Principe.
The thesis statement for a classification essay should state the topic an show that
the essay will divide the topic into types or groups.
EXAMPLE
Renfrew and Gosling's conclusion was that people could be categorized into
four distinct musical personalities.
Practice
A. Read the model essay on model 1 again. Complete the missing information in
the outline below.
I. Introduction
a. Lead_____________________________________________________________
b. Background information: Most people mil has to deal with more than one
boss in their lives, and every boss has his or her own personality.
c. Thesis statement:______________________________________________
II. Body
A. The lion_____________________________________________________________
1 . expects employees to follow orders correctly__________________
2. has a bad temper_________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
B. _______________________________________________________________________
1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. good role models________________________________________________
3. sometimes too busy______________________________________________
C. _______________________________________________________________________
1. _____________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
D. The dog ______________________________________________________________
1. _____________________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________________
3. happy to help employees when needed________________________
III. Conclusion
A. Restated thesis: _______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
B. Final thoughts: These are the four kinds of bosses I have met, but there are
certainly more to discover. What is most important is to find the type of boss
that matches your own personality to ensure that both of you are happy.
B. Each category has one unrelated item. Cross out the item that doesn't
belong to the group.
1. Teachers: strict, friendly, female, funny
2. Animals: whales, fish, dolphins, penguins
3. Pollution: air, garbage, water, land
4. TV shows: soap opera, comedy, news, drama
5. Social status: unemployed, lower class, middle class, upper class
6. Music: pop, rock, British, classical
7. Weather: snow, rain, water, sleet
8. Art: sculpture, painting, modern, photography
Look at the professions in the box. Divide them into 3 separate categories
and write them in the chart below. Then identify the classification type
used for each group.
GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3

classification type: classification type: classification type:
people who work in
emergency
1. firefightersituations 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
Write a classification essay. Follow the steps.
STEP 1 Get ideas.

STEP 1 STEP
1 Get ideas a topic for your essay. Check (√) it.
A. Choose
SGet ideas.
□ Topic 1: Identify and explain three or four different types of students
□ Topic 2: Identify and explain the different types of friends you have.
Try to categorize your friends into three or four different
groups.
□ Topic 3: Explain the personalities of different kinds of shoppers.

□ Topic 4: Identify and explain different kinds of love.
B. Brainstorm ideas for your topic using clustering. Write your topic in the
center of a piece of paper. Use lines to connect ideas that are related to
one another.
Reference
Oshima, Alice & Ann Hogue. 2006. Writing Academic English; Fourth Edition.
Pearson Education. The United States of America
Ward,Colin.2010. From Reading to Writing 4. Pearson Education. The United States

of America
Zemach, Dorothy E & Lisa A Ghulldu. 2011.Writing Essay;From Paragraph to

Essay.Macmillan Publisher. Thailand
.

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CHAPTER

An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long. It is about one topic,

Rika Riwayatiningsih,M.Pd |1|

The following chart shows you how the parts of a paragraph

Native American Influences on Modem U.S. Culture

| 2 | Writing Essay;From Paragraph to Essay

First of all, Native Americans left a permanent mark on the

Rika Riwayatiningsih,M.Pd |3|

American and British English: One Language with Many Differences

| 4 | Writing Essay;From Paragraph to Essay

Writing Technique Questions

Logical Division of Ideas

Agriculture/Landscape Describe the basic types of soils and the additives

U.S. History Discuss the causes of the U.S. Civil War.

Business Explain the three main forms of business organization.

Health Science Describe the various classes of drugs used to treat

| 6 | Writing Essay;From Paragraph to Essay

Thesis Statements for Logical Division of Ideas

The thesis statement may even name the specific subtopics:

Rika Riwayatiningsih,M.Pd |7|

 Look at the essay in exercise 1 on page 4 again. Underline the thesis

 In these introductory paragraphs, underline the thesis statement. Then

| 8 | Writing Essay;From Paragraph to Essay

Rika Riwayatiningsih,M.Pd |9|

 Read these thesis statements below. Write √ (strong thesis statement), F

(2) (The first problem) __________________is the expense. According to estimates,

(3)_____________________________________________is the possibility that the iceberg

(4)________________________________________there is the danger that a huge block of

(5)_______________________________________ the cost of providing freshwater from

(6)__________________________________________In conclusion, before icebergs can

Medicine and Ethics

The differences between American and British English.

The importance of introductions and conclusions

• is usually five to ten sentences.

2. Despite the challenges, being an

The Process Essay

2. How to prepare for a test

3. How to live on a small budget

Transition Signals for Chronological Order

the first (second, last, final)

The Comparison-Contrast Essay

Read the following paragraph and answer the questions.

In recent years, new technology such as

MODEL (point by point Organization)

Using Comparison and Contrast Markers

 Share your paragraphs with another pair of student

Another common pattern of essay organization is called cause and effect. In

Athenian silver tetra drachma, 4th century

Cause and Effect Essay (Chain Organization)

Using Cause-Effect Markers

because due to since

1 People exercise _________________because______ it helps them stay healthy.

The first one has been done for you as an example.

2. . Some breeds of dogs have a stronger desire to perform a service than

5. ____My company began offering employees flexible working hours.

7. ____Operators had disregarded safety rules.

Classification essays divide a topic into different types or groups and

Organizing the Classification Essay

GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3

STEP 1 Get ideas.

□ Topic 3: Explain the personalities of different kinds of shoppers.

Ward,Colin.2010. From Reading to Writing 4. Pearson Education. The United States

Zemach, Dorothy E & Lisa A Ghulldu. 2011.Writing Essay;From Paragraph to

1 People exercise ___________because it helps them stay healthy.