Introduction

A gate is defined as a digital circuit which follows some

logical relationship between the input and output voltages.
It is a digital circuit which either allows a signal to pass
through as stop, it is called a gate.

The logic gates are building blocks at digital electronics.

They are used in digital electronics to change on voltage
level (input voltage) into another (output voltage) according
to some logical statement relating them.

A logic gate may have one or more inputs, but it has only
one output. The relationship between the possible values of
input and output voltage is expressed in the form of a table
called truth table or table of combinations.

Truth table of a Logic Gates is a table that shows all the

input and output possibilities for the logic gate.

George Boole in 1980 invented a different kind of algebra

based on binary nature at the logic, this algebra of logic
called BOOLEAN ALGEBRA. A logical statement can have
only two values, such as HIGH/LOW, ON/OFF,
CLOSED/OPEN, YES/NO, RIGHT/WRONG, TRUE/FALSE,
CONDUCTING/NON-CONDUCTING ,etc. The two values of
logic statements one denoted by the binary number 1 and
0. The binary number 1 is used to denote the high value.
The logical statements that logic gates follow are called
Boolean expressions.

1
 PRINCIPLE
Any Boolean algebra operation can be associated with
inputs and outputs represent the statements of Boolean
algebra. Although these circuits may be complex, they may
all be constructed from three basic devices. We have three
different types of logic gates .These are the AND gate, the
OR gate and the NOT gate.

LOGIC STATES
1 0
HIGH LOW
ON OFF
CLOSE OPEN
RIGHT WRONG
TRUE FALSE
YES NO

2
 OR GATE
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2).

Theory and Construction:

An OR gate can be realize by the electronic circuit, making use of two
diodes D1 and D2 as shown in the figure.
Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to
the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery (i.e. voltage 5V in the
present case) corresponds to level 1. The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t.
earth.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit is:
a) If switch A & B are open lamp do not glow (A=0, B=0), hence Y=0.
b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow, hence Y=1.
c) If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow, hence Y=1.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp glow, hence Y=1.

3
Truth Table:
Input A Input B Output Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

4
 AND GATE
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), a resistance R.

Theory and Construction:

An AND gate can be realize by the electronic circuit, making use of two
diodes D1 and D2 as shown in the figure. The resistance R is connected to the
positive terminal of a 5V battery permanently.
Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to
the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery (i.e. voltage 5V in the
present case) corresponds to level 1. The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t.
earth.

The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of electrical
circuit:
a) If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then lamp will not glow, hence
Y=0.
b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow, hence
Y=0.
c) If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow, hence
Y=0.
d) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then Lamp will glow, hence Y=1.

5
Truth Table:
Input A Input B Output Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

6
 NOT GATE
Components:
An ideal n-p-n transistor.

Theory and Construction:

A NOT gate cannot be realized by using diodes. However an electronic
circuit of NOT gate can be realized by making use of a n-p-n transistor as
shown in the figure.
The base B of the transistor is connected to the input A through a resistance
Rb and the emitter E is earthed. The collector is connected to 5V battery. The
output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

The following conclusion can be easily drawn from the working of the
electrical circuit:

a) If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the lump will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the lump will not glow, hence Y=0.

7
Truth Table:
Input A Output Y
0 1
1 0

8
 NOR GATE
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), an ideal n-p-n transistor.

Theory and Construction:

If we connect the output Y’ of OR gate to the input of a NOT gate the
gate obtained is called NOR.
The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

In Boolean expression, the NOR gate is expressed as Y=A+B, and is being

read as ‘A OR B negated’. The following interference can be easily drawn
from the working of electrical circuit is:
a) If Switch A & B open (A=0, B=0) then Lamp will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
c) If Switch A open & B close (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow, hence
Y=0.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp will not glow, hence
Y=0.

9
Truth Table:
Input A Input B Output Y
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

10
 NAND GATE
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), a resistance R, an ideal n-p-n
transistor.

Theory and Construction:

If we connect the output Y’ of AND gate to the input of a NOT gate the
gate obtained is called NAND.
The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

In Boolean expression, the NAND gate is expressed as Y=A.B, and is being

read as ‘A AND B negated’. The following interference can be easily drawn
from the working of electrical circuit:
a) If Switch A & B open (A=0, B=0) then Lamp will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow, hence Y=1.
c) If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow, hence Y=1.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp will not glow, hence
Y=0.

11
Truth Table:
Input A Input B Output Y
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

12
 POLARISATION OF
LIGHT
A light beam which has all of the wave oscillations in a single
plane of space is said to have total plane polarization. Light
with an equal amount of oscillations in all directions is
unpolarized. The “in-between” case is one where there is
partially polarized light. Most sources of light in nature to not
emit polarized light. To do so would require the oscillating
electric charges that produce it to move in unison in the same
direction.

For a plane polarized beam. We can always subdivide the Similarly, an unpolarized beam could be
amplitude as the vector sum of two perpendicular represented this way
components. We will see that this is useful, because we
can usually choose how to do the subdivision to solve a
particular problem. If we could “see” the amplitudes for
a beam coming directly toward us, it might look like this.

13
 TRANSMISSION
Polarizing filters, such as those in Polaroid sunglasses, are
designed to allow only one plane of light through (although they
are not 100% effective, they can be pretty close to that value).

14
In each case shown, the second filter allows only that component that lies in
the “transmission direction” though. In (a), all of the amplitude is in the
transmission direction, so it all gets through. In (b), none of the amplitude is
in the transmission direction, so none gets through. In (c), the transmission
direction is rotated 45° to the direction of the amplitude, so some of the
light gets through.

15
 POLARISATION BY
REFLECTION

Light striking a surface, such as a piece of glass, the

surface of water, etc., can be both transmitted through the
surface and reflected from it. The amount that is
transmitted or reflected, and its polarization, depends on
the angle of incidence and the material it is hitting.
Parallel component: The amplitude runs along the plane
of the surface as it hits
Perpendicular component: The amplitude is in the plane
of incidence

16
For the parallel component, there is always some reflection,
even when the angle of incidence θ1 is 0. At higher angles
of incidence, the reflectance increases until it reaches
100% at grazing incidence.

The perpendicular component has a more complex

behavior. It begins at the same reflectance as the parallel
beam at θ1=0, slowly decreases to 0 reflectance at some
specific angle, then increases.

The angle where the reflection goes to 0% (and the

transmission to 100%) is called Brewster’s Angle. and it
depends on the index of refraction of the material.

17
 POLARISATION BY
SCATTERING

The scattering of light off air molecules produces linearly

polarized light in the plane perpendicular to the incident
light. The scatterers can be visualized as tiny antennae
which radiate perpendicular to their line of oscillation. If
the charges in a molecule are oscillating along the y-axis, it
will not radiate along the y-axis. Therefore, at 90° away
from the beam direction, the scattered light is linearly
polarized. This causes the light which undergoes Rayleigh
scattering from the blue sky to be partially polarized.

18
 OPTICAL ACTIVITY

Some crystals and organic materials have a twisted

molecular structure that produces another interesting
effect: “optical activity”.
Here, the plane of polarization rotates as the beam passes
through the material, and it can rotate different amounts
for different wavelengths. This phenomenon is useful for
analyzing mineral crystals and organic pharmaceuticals.

19
 POLARISED LIGHT IN
THE ENVIRONMENT

Due to the optical properties of various natural and

artificial materials, the effects of polarized light are all
around us. In addition to Haidinger’s Brush, we often use
polarized filters in the form of sunglasses to cut glare due
to reflected sunlight. It is also used to darken the sky in
photography, remove glare from subjects behind windows,
etc.

20
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 ENCARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA
 BRITANICCA ENCYCLOPEDIA
 www.googLE.CO.IN
 WWW.ANSWERS.COM
 WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM
 WWW.STUDYPHYSICS.CA
 WWW.PHYSICSCLASSROOM.COM

21
LOGIC GATES
POLARISATION
OF LIGHT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 I take this opportunity to express my profound sense of
gratitude and respect to all those who helped me
throughout this venture.

 I owe my regard to Mr. R.S. Rana, Principal of K.V.

NOIDA , for his cooperation and valuable support and
for giving me the opportunity to undertake this project
work and providing the necessary infrastructure.

 I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my revered

teacher and guide Mr. Ajab Singh for his valuable
guidance, encouragement and support throughout my
studentship under him at the institute. This project is
his visualization and owes a lot of its functionality to
him.

 Last but not the least; I owe my overwhelming gratitude

to my family and friends who gave me constant support
and motivation to continue with this endeavour.

RITESH KUMAR
XII G
 INDEX
Serial No. Contents Page no.
1 Introduction 1
2 Principle 2
3 OR Gates 3-4
4 AND Gates 5-6
5 NOT gate 7-8
6 NOR Gate 9-10
7 NAND Gate 11-12
8 Polarisation of 13
light
9 Transmission 14-15
10 Polarisation by 16-17
reflection
11 Polarisation by 18
scattering
12 Optical activity 19
13 Polarised light in 20
the environment
14 Bibliography 21