1994 Book OceanologyOfChinaSeas

Oceanology of China Seas
Volume 1
Editorial Board
Editor-in-chief ZHOU DI
LIANG YUAN-BO
ZENG CHENG-KUI (C. K. TSENG)
Editors
Part I. HU DUN-XIN
Part II. GU HONG-KAN
Part III. ZENG CHENG-KUI (c. K. TSENG)

ZHENG SHOU-YI
Pert IV. ZHOU DI
XIA KAN-YUAN
Part V. REN MEI-E
Part VI. GUAN DING-HUA

LIANG YUAN-BO
Responsible Editor PAN YU

Volume 1
Edited by
ZHOUDI
LIANG YUAN-BO
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology,
Academia Sinica, Guangzhou, China
and
ZENG CHENG-KUI (c. K. Tseng)

Institute of Oceanology,
Academia Sinica, Qingdao, China
KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS

PORDRECHT / BOSTON / LONDON
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ISBN 0-7923-2616-4 (Vol. 1)

ISBN 0-7923-2618-0 (Set of 2 Volumes)
Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers,

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Contributors ix
Preface
ZENG Cheng-kui (CX. TSENG) xiii
PART I. PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
Introduction
HU Dun-xin 1
Water Masses in China Seas

SU Yu-song and WENG Xue-chuan 3
Patterns and Structures of the Currents in Bohai, Huanghai and East China Seas
GUAN Bing-xian 17
Some Striking Features of Circulation in Huanghai sea and East China Sea
HU Dun-xin 27
Current Characteristics of South China Sea

HUANG Qi-zhou, WANG Wen-zhi, Y.S. U and C.W. U 39
On the Variation of Kuroshio in East China Sea

SUN Xiang-ping and SU Yujen 49
Kuroshio Intrusion and Taiwan Warm Current

SU Ji-/an, PAN Yu-qiu and UANG Xiang-san 59
A Prognostic Model of the Winter Circulation in East China Sea

YUAN Yao-chu, SU Ji-/an and NI Ju-jen 71
A Langrangian Model of Circulation in Bohai Sea

FENG Shi-zuo, ZHANG Shu-zhen and XI Pan-gen 83
Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of the Water Circulation

in South China Sea
WANG Wen-zhi, HUANG Qi-zhou, Y.S. U and Z.W. U 91
vi
Tides and Tidal Currents in East China Sea, Huanghai Sea and Bohai Sea
FANG Guo-hong 101
Tides, Tidal Currents and Stonn Surge Set-Up of South China Sea
HUANG Qi-zhou, WANG Wen-zhi and CHEN Jun-chang 113
Studies on Wave Climatology, Statistics and Dynamics of Bonai,

Huanghai and East China Seas
YUAN Ye-li 123
Waves in South China Sea

SUI Shi-feng 135
Marine Hydrologic Forecasts in China

DU Bi-lan and HAN Zhong-nan 141
PART II. MARINE CHEMISTRY
Introduction
GU Hong-kan 155
Marine Chemistry in Northern Seas of China

ZHANG Shou-lin and GU Hong-kan 157
Marine Chemistry of South China Sea

HAN Wu-ying, LIN Hong-ying, CAl Yan-ya and RONG Rong-gui 171
Geochemistry of Major Chinese River-Estuary Systems

ZHANG Jing, HUANG Wei-wen and llU Ming-guang 179
The Development of Marine Radiochemistry in China

LI Pei-quan, YU Yin-ting and WU, Yun 189
Biogeochemical Studies of Biologically Important Elements in the Taiwan Strait

HONG Hua-sheng and DAl Ming-han 201
Pollution and Pollution Monitoring in Northern Seas of China

PART Ill. MARINE BIOLOGY
Introduction
ZENG Cheng-kui (CX. TSENG) and ZHENG, Shou-yi 225
vii
Primary Productivity and Phytoplankton in China Seas

GUO Yu-jie 227
Zooplankton of China Seas

CHEN Qing-chao 243
Foraminiferal Faunal Trends in China Seas

ZHENG Shou-yi and FU Zhao-xian 255
Radiolaria in East China Sea

TAN Zhi-yuan 275
Nektons of China Seas

XU Gong·zhao and ZHENG Wen-lian 281
Biofouling and Fouling Organisms of China Seas

HUANG Zong-guo and YAN Song-kai 291
Aquaculture of Marine Algae in China

ZENG Cheng-kui (C K. TSENG) 303
Scallop Mariculture in China

ZHANG Fu-sui 321
Mariculture of Penaeid Shrimp in China

UU Rui-yu (J.Y. UU) and CAO Deng-gong 331
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART IV. MARINE GEOLOGY
Introduction
ZHOU Di 345
The Geology and Petroleum Resources of Northern China Seas

WANG Shan-shu 347
Basin Evolution and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Northern South China Sea
RU Ke, ZHOU Di and CHEN Han-zong 361
Geological Structure and Geophysical Characteristics of Nansha Block in

Southern South China Sea
XIA Kan-yuan and HUANG Ci-liu 373
Neogene Biostratigraphy of Zhujiangkou Basin, South China Sea:

A Quantitative Study
ZHOU Di and WANG Ping 385
Sedimentation in Northern China Seas

QIN Yun-shan 395
Basic Characteristics of Modern Sedimentation in South China Sea

SU Guang-qing and WANG Tian-xing 407
Paleoceanography in China: Progress and Problems

WANG Pin-xian 419
PART V. COASTAL RESEARCH
Introduction
REN Mei-e 431
Relative Sea Level Changes in China over the Last Eighty Years
REN Mei-e 433
Tidal Flats in China

WANG Ying and ZHU Da-kui 445
vi
Stratigraphic Models of Barrier-Lagoon Systems in the Coastal Zones of China

U Cong-xian and WANG Ping 457
Dynamic Geomorphic Systems of South China Coast

YUAN Jia-yi, ZHAO Huan-ting, LU Tie-song, SONG Chao-jing and
ZHANG Qiao-min 465
Modem Coral Reefs in South China Sea

GUO Li-fen, NIE Bao{u, ZHU Yuan-zhi and ZHONG Jin-liang 477
Distribution and Formation of Littoral Placer Deposits in China

XU Dong-yu and TAN Qi-xin 487
Improvement of Natural Environments of Coastal Zone in South China

ZHAO Huan-ting, LU Tie-song and ZHENG De-yan 497
PART VI. MARINE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Some Recent Advances in Underwater Acoustics in China

GUAN Ding-hua 509
Technology for Oceanographic Research and Investigation in China

U Yun-wu and U Jing-guang 517
The Optical Information Transmission in the Ocean

UU Zhi-shen 523
An Inversion Method for Obtaining Bottom Reflection Loss

WANG Qin and ZHANG Ren-he 533
Multiplex Function Manganese Nodule Sounding System

UAO Yun-he 541
Acoustic Discrimination of Seafloor Properties

UANG Yuan-bo, LU Bo and WONG How Kin 547
Ocean Wave Directional Spectra by Optical Methods

HE Ming-xia, ZHAO Chang{ang and ZHANG Xiao-dong 557
Statistical Characteristics of Sound Transmission and Signal Detection

in Shallow Sea
Xu Tiang-zeng 565
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Volume 1
CAl Yan-ya South China Sea IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
CAO Deng-gong IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao 266071, China
CHEN lun-chang South China Sea Institute ofOceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
CHEN Qing-chao South China Sea Illstitute ofOceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
DAI Ming-han Environmelltal Science Research Centre, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
DUB i-Ian China IllStitlite for Marine Development Strategy, State Oceanic Administration, Beijing 100081, China
FANG Guo-hong Institllte of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao 266071, China
FENG Shi-zuo College of Physical and Environmelltal Oceanography, Ocean University of Qingdao
Qillgdao 266003, Chula
FU Zhao-xian IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, Qillgdao 266071, China
GU Hong-kan Illstitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao 266071, China
GUAN Bing-xian Institlite of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Qillgdao 266071, Chilla
GUO Yu-jie (Y.l. GUO) Illstitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, QUlgdao 266071, Chula
HAN Wu-ying South Chula Sea IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
HAN Zhong-nan National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center, State Oceanic Administration,
Beijulg 100081, Chilla
HONG Hua-sheng Ellvirollmelltal Science Research Centre, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, ChUla
HU Dun-xin IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, Qingdao 266071, ChUla
HUANG Qi-zhou SOllth China SeaIllStitute of Oceanology, Academic Sinica, Guangzho1l510301, ChUla
HUNAG Wei-wen Department of Marine Chemistry, Ocean University ofQingdao, QUlgdao 266003, China
HUAN G Zong -guo Third Illstilllte of Oceanology, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen 361005, Chilla
LI Pei-quan IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, QiJlgdao 266071, China
LI Y. S. (Y. S. LI) Departmellt of Civil alld Stntctural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Hong Kong
LI Z. W (Z. W LI) Department of Civil and Stntctural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Hong Kong
LIANG Xiang-san Second Illstitllte ofOceanography, State Oceanic Administration, HangzhoIl310012, ChUla
ix
x
LIN Hong-ying South China Sea Institute of Oceanoiogy, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
LIU Min-guang Department of Marine Chemistry, Oceall Ulliversity ofQingdao, Qingdao 266003, China
LIU Rui-yu (J. Y. LIU) Institute ofOceallology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao 266071, China
NI Ju-fen Zhejiang Provillce Institute of Computing Technology, Hangzhou 310000, China
PAN Yu-qiu Secolld Institute of Oceanography, State Oceallic Administration, Hallgzhou 310012, China
RONG Rong-gui South China Sea Institute ofOceallology, Academia Sinica, Guallgzhou510301, China
SU Ji-Jan Second Institllte ofOceallography, State Oceallic Administratioll, HangzllOu 310012, China
SU Yu-fen Second Institllte of Oceanography, State Oceallic Administration, HangzllOll 310000, China
SU Yu-song Oceall Ulliversity of QUlgdao, QUlgdao 266003, Chuw
SUI Shi-feng SOl/th Chuw Sea Institute of Oceallology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, Chuw
SUN Xiang-ping First Institute of Oceanography, State Oceallic Admillistration, QUlgdao 266000, Chuw
TAN Zhi-yuan IllStitute of Oceallology, Academia Sillica, QUlgdao 266071, Chuw
WANG Wen-zhi South China Sea IllStitute ofOceaflology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou51030I, Chuw
WENG Xue-chuan Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, QUlgdao 266071, China
XI Pan-gen College of Physical alld Envirollmental Oceallography, Ocean University of Qingdao

QUlgdao 266003, Chuw
XU Gong-zhao South Chuw Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, ChUla
YAN Song-kai Third Institute of Oceanology, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen 361005, Chuw
YU Yin-ting IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, QUlgdao 266071, China
YUAN Yao-chu Secolld Institute of Oceallography, State Oceallic Administration

HallgzllOu 310012, Chilla
YUAN Ye-li Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, QUlgdao 266071, China
ZENG Cheng-kui (C. K. Tseng) Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica

Qingdao 266071, China
ZHANG Fu-sui Institute ofOceallology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao 266071, Chuw
ZHANG Jing Departmellt of Marine Chemistry, Ocean University of QUlgdao, QUlgdao 266003, Chuw
ZHANG Shou-lin Institllte of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, QUlgdao 266071, Chuw

xi
ZHANG Shu-zhen College of Physical and Environmental Oceanography

Oceall Ulliversity of Qlilgdao, Qingdao 266003, China
ZHENG Shou-yi IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, Qingdao 26607/, China
ZHENG Wen-lian South China Sea IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica

Guangz/lOu 510301, China
Volume 2
CHEN Han-zong South China Sea IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzholl 510301, China
HE Ming-xia Ocean Remote Sensing and Ocean Optics Laboratory, Oceall University of Qingdao
Qillgdao 266003, China
HUANG Ci-liu SOllth China Sea IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guallgzhou 510301, China
GUAN Ding-hua IllStitute of Acoustics, Academia Sillica, BeijiJlg 100080, China
GUO Li-fen SOl/tit Chilla Sea IllStitute ofOceallology, Academia Sinica, Guangz/lOu 510301, China
LI Cong-xian Depart/Ilent of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
LI Jing-guang IllStitute of Ocean Technology, State Oceanic Administratioll

Tia/ljin 300111, Chuw
LI Yun-wu IllStitute of Oceall Technology, State Oceallic Admillistration, Tialljul 300111, Chuw
LIAO Yun-he Illstitute of Ocean Technology, State Oceallic Administratioll, Tialljin 300111, China
LIANG Yuan-bo South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzholl 510301, Chuw
LIU Zhi-shen Oceall Optics and Remote Sensing Laboratory, Ocean University of QUlgdao,
LU Bo South China Sea IllStitute of Oceallolog}\ Academia Sillica, Gilangzhou 510301, Chuw
LU Tie-song South China Sea Illstitute of Oceallology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
NIE Bao-fu South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
QIN Yun-shan Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao 266071, Chuw
REN Mei-e Department of Geo and Ocean Sciences, Nanjing University, Nalljillg 210008, Chuw
R U Ke Nan/wi West Oil Corp., China Natiollal Offshore Oil Corp., Zhalljiang 524057, ChUla
SONG Chao-jing South Chuw Sea IllSlitllte of Oceanology, Academia Sillica, Guangzholl 510301, China
SU Guang-qing South China Sea 11lS1itute ofOceallology, Academia Sinica, Guangzholl 510301, Chuw
xii
TAN Qi-xin 11lStitute of Marine Geology, Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources
WANG Pin-xian Department of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
WANG Ping South China Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
WANG Ping Departmellt of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
WANG Qin State Key Laboratory of Acoustics, Academia Sinica, Beijing 100080, China
WANG Shan-shu Chinese National Offshore Oil Corporation, Xincheng, Hebei 070010, China
WANG Tian-xing South ChiJla Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, GuangzllOu 510301, China
WANG Ying Department of Geo and Ocean Sciences, State Pilot Laboratory of Coast and Island
Exploitation, Nalljillg University, Nanjing 210008, China
WONG How Kin (How Kin WONG) Universitiit Hamburg, Geologisch-Paliiontologisches 11lStitut,
BundesstrafJe 55, D-2000 Hamburg 1.1, Bundesrepublik Deutschlalla, Federal Republic of Germany
XIA Kan-yuan South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
XU Dong-yu 11lStitute of Marille Geology, Millistry of Geology alld Mineral Resources

XU Tian-zeng Department of Oceanography, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
YUAN Jia-yi Department of Geology, Zhoflgshan University, Gaungzhou 510275, China
ZHAO Chang-fang Ocean Remote Sensing and Ocean Optics Laboratory, Ocean University ofQingdao
ZHANG Qiao-min Solllh China Sea 11lSwute of Oceanology, Academia SUlica, Guangzhou510301, ChUla
ZHANG Ren-he State Key Laboratory of Acoustics, Academia Sinica, Beijulg 100080, Chuza
ZHANG Xiao-dong Ocean Remote Sensulg and Ocean Optics Laboratory, Ocean University ofQulgdao
Qillgdao 26600.1, Chuza
ZHAO Huan-ting Soutlz ChUla Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guallgzhou 510301, ChUla
ZHENG De-yan South China Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzholt 510301, Chuza
ZHONG Jin-liang Soutlz China Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, ChUla
ZHOU Di South Chilla Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 5/0301, China
ZHU Da-kui Department of Geo and Ocean Sciences, State Pilot Laboratory of Coast and Island
Exploitation, Nanjillg University, Nanjiflg 210008, Chuza
ZHU Yuan-zhi South Chuza Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Guangzhou 510301, China
PREFACE
ZENG Cheng-kui (C. K. TSENG)

Research Professor; Director Emeritus
illStitllte of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
Qillgdao 26607J, China
Ten years ago I was invited by Professor John Steele, Director of the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute of the U.S.A. to write a preface for the special issue on
"Oceanography in China" for the Oceanus. I was then the Director of the Institute
of Oceanology, Academia Sinica. I gladly appreciated the honor, and in the preface
I briefly enumerated the history of oceanology, or oceanography according to the
American custom, in China dividing it into four stages: the founding stage 1950-1956,
the growing stage 1956-1964, the partial expanding stage 1965-1978, and the
elevation stage since 1978 (Tseng, 1983/84).
The founding stage of Chinese oceanofogy should actually start in 1931 with the
establishment of the short-life Chinese Marine Biological Association in old China.
The following twenty years in Chinese history between 1931 and 1959 comprised a
very memorable period in China, badly marked by the World War II, and the
1946-1950 civil war. Some scattered research in marine biology was conducted in
phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology, mostly in taxonomy. A little work
was devoted to delta geology and tidal and seawater temperature records. Two
expeditions were organized and sent by the National Central Academy of Sciences
to the Bohai Sea in 1935 and by the Beijing Academy of Sciences to the Jiaozhou
Bay in 1936, both engaged principally in marine biological research. In this founding
stage, the most important events were the establishment of the Marine Biological
Laboratory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1950, which eventually became
the present Institute of Oceanology, and the establishment of the Department of
Oceanography at the Shandong University in 1952, which eventually became the
Qingdao Ocean University devoted to the education of marine scientists.
The second period, the expanding stage in the development of China's
oceanology, started in 1956, was strongly marked by the drafting and implementation
of the National 12- Year Plan for the Development of Science and Technology, in
which oceanology was one of the important items. This was the first time that China
had a long-term plan, and graduates from the department of oceanography and other
departments of Shandong University and other universities were assigned to
strengthen the Marine Biological Laboratory, and an oceanographic ship was
allocated to it. The Marine Biological Laboratory received in 1956 several dozen new
college graduates trained in oceanography, physics, geology, chemistry, biology, etc.
who eventually became leaders in Chinese oceanology. In 1957 a research ship was
remodeled to become China's first oceanographic vessel, the RN Vt?nus. An
xiii
xiv Oceanology of China Seas
oceanographic survey of the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea and the Bohai Sea was
conducted in the same year. Started in 1958 and lasting for a few years, a survey of
the entire China coastal seas west of 124°E and north of 18°N was conducted with
the RN venus and several other vessels temporarily converted for oceanographic
survey. Several hundred college students and teachers and enlisted men of the Navy
participated. The Institute of Oceanology of the Academia Sinica was established in
1959 on the basis of the Marine Biological Laboratory, the first independent institute
of oceanological science in China. In the same year the first all-China oceanological
meeting was called and land scientists were requested to study the seas.
The third period started in 1965 and was characterized by the establishment of
the National Bureau of Oceanography and the participation of the governmental
ministries of geology and petroleum industry in the studies of our seas. By 1963, the
12-Year Plan for the Development of Sciences and Technology was practically
accomplished at an astonishmg 7 years' time. A new 10-Year Plan for the
Development of Science and Technology in China was proposed. While discussing
the new plan, it became evident that a governmental agency for oceanology, similar
to that for meteorology, was needed. A concrete proposal by a group of senior
marine scientists was forwarded to the national government and approved in 1964.
A National Bureau of Oceanology, later changed to the State Oceanic Administration
(SOA), organized in late 1964, began to function in early 1965. At present the SOA
has sIX research institutes located in Tianjin, Dalian, Qingdao, Hangzhou and
Xiamen, a forecasting center in Beijing, three sub-bureaus located in Qingdao,
Shanghai and Guangzhou, a provincial bureau in Haikou, Hainan, several survey
vessels and oceanographic stations along the China coast. In this period, the Ministry
of Geology and Mineral Resources and the Ministry of Petroleum Industry continued
a series of technical surveys in the China seas. The Ministry of Communication
conducted studies on harbor construction while the Ministry of Metallurgy conducted
studies on metal corrosion. Three fisheries research institutes continued their studies
on marine fisheries resources and mariculture. During the ten years of turmoil caused
by the so-called Cultural Revolution in 1966-1976, basic studies in oceanology were
suspended, and only those concerned with production continued.
The fourth period started in 1978 and was characterized by the National Science
Congress which restored science to its function. Oceanographical research institutes
were revitalized and basic studies in physical oceanography, marine biology,
chemistry, geology, Geophysics, and physics reemphasized. The recent "China Ocean
Yearbook, 1987-1990" (Yang, 1990) enumerated the vast progress in China's
oceanological sciences.
Take aquaculture for instance. It has at least 3000 years of history and the first
document on common carp monoculture techniques was written by Fan Li in 473 Be.
Through the centuries, the methods have been refined and increased in complexity,
particularly since the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) when fish polyculture was initiated.
A number of indigenous species with characteristically different feeding habits were
used. Integrated fish farming in China has fish polyculture in ponds as the
predominant activity. Direct linkages exist between fish culture, animal husbandry,
and agriculture within the farms. Fish yields exceeding 13 000 kilograms per hectare
per year had been achieved in some areas, as compared to good catfish production
in the United States at 3000 kilograms per hectare per year on nonintegrated farms
dependent on costly fishmeal-based feeds (Zweig, 198311984).
Although freshwater aquaculture of fish is at present a vigorous industry
producing more than 5 million tons per year, its production was rather small in the
Preface xv
early fifties and the fish fry was not produced by cultivation but was caught in certain
streams during certain seasons of the year. It was not until the late fifties that
Professor X. Zhu and his group invented a method of producing fish fry under
culture, which now, after several modifications, has become a common practice
known to fish farmers. Aquaculture of marine fish or mariculture of fish, is still in
its infantile stage with an annual production of a few tens of thousand tons.
Mariculture, nevertheless, has made rapid progress in these forty years. In 1950,
the total production of mariculture was mere ten thousand tons, but in 1992, it was
2424613 tons, a growth of 242 times. Mariculture in China started with the seaweed
Laminaria japonica in 1952, followed by the shrimp Penaeus chinensis in 1960, the
mollusk Mytilus gallaprovincialis in 1970, the local scallop Chlamys farrei in 1974, and
the introduced American bay scallop Argopecten irradians in 1985. In fish mariculture,
we selected Liza haematocheila in the early 1960's was the subject of investigation
since it is a cheap fish. The selection was unfortunate sine before the 1980's, the high
cost of production and the cheap price of the produce precluded the extension of the
method. Since the 1980's we shifted to the expensive types of fish such as Pagrosomus
in the north and Epinephelus in the south (Tseng, 1993).
In 1985, the national government decided on a new fisheries policy that to
develop fisheries, aquaculture should be placed first; that aquaculture, fishing and
technology are all Important and should be emphasized differently in different
localities; that we should insist on first, national, collective, and private enterprises,
second, production, distribution and sale of the produce, third, fisheries,
manufactures and merchants, and fourth, internal and foreign trade, and that all the
above must be considered together. The fisheries industry was told to accelerate
development, improve quality and seek for better profits. Since then, there has been
a steady increase of production in fisheries production. In 1985 the total all-China
mariculture production was 712 000 tons (the areal coverage was 4 160000 mu) or
10% of the total fisheries production, of which mollusks (378 100 tons) comprIsed
53% of the total mariculture production, seaweeds (270000 tons) 37.9%, shrimp (41 800
tons) 5.8%, fish, crabs and seafood delicacies (24000 tons) 3.3%. Within four years,
in 1989, the total mariculture production was 1 580000 tons (the areal coverage was
6350000 mu) of which the mollusks yield (930000 tons) comprised 58% of the total
mariculture, seaweeds (293 700 tons) 18.6%, shrimp (195 900 tons) 11 %, fish (36 000
tons) 2.3% and crabs 0.25% (Yang, 1992).
Take another example, the marine oil and gas resource. This resource was
entirely neglected in old China, even in the early years of new China. In 1950 when
our institute was first established, there was not a single marine geologist or
geophysicists in mainland China. In 1956 in line with the 12-Year Plan, we received
the first group of geology and geophysics college graduates. In 1959 at the first all-
China oceanological meeting we earnestly requested that land scientists come to join
the oceanology group and to study the seas together. In the late 1950's and early
1960's geological and geophysical work started. It was not until after 1978, however,
especially after the proclamation of the open and reform policy in the early 1980's
that oil prospecting really became an industry. The China National Offshore Oil
Corporation was organized. By the end of 1991 in the 700 000 km 2 offshore area of
China that is suitable for oil prospecting, 289 wells had been drilled, and 67 oil and
gas bearing structures had been found. Six oil fields had been on production or test
production, producing 239x 10 4 tons in 1991. Eleven offshore oil/gas fields were under
active development. It is expected that by 1995 the annual production will be 5
million tons oil and 3 billion m 3 gas (Gong, 1992).
xvi Oceanology of China Seas
Those are only two examples showin~ the vast progress that China has attained
in the fourth stage of the progress of Chma's oceanology. The science of the ocean
is still advancing and China's oceanology must also advance. In the future there are
two foremost problems which China must address. First, in order to gain better
knowledge of the environment for the benefit of mankind, we must participate in
large scale international cooperative surveys and researches. For ages, mankmd has
been devastating forests and burning wood and coal, thus increasing the CO2 content
of the air. The present CO2 content may be 1.25 times higher than that at the start
of the industrial revolution. It is expected that the next century will witness many
global changes such as a 5°C rise in air temperature, rise in sea level, etc. Many
international expeditions (such as the current TOGA, WOCE, JGOFS, IGBp, etc.)
will be conducted. Secondly, to meet the need for development and utilization of the
ocean in the next century, mankind must develop high technology in marine research.
The seas and oceans are rich in biological, non-biological, and water resources. Some
of these resources on land had served mankind in the past but are being depleted in
recent years. They are still available in the seas and oceans, but are difficult to
exploit by ordinary methods. Hi~h technolo~y must be developed. I do believed that
Chinese oceanologists are qualifIed to partiCIpate in international expeditions and can
develop high technology for the welfare of mankind.
The book "Oceanology of China Seas" presented here contains 52 selected papers
written by 94 oceanographers, mainly Chinese. These papers are arranged in two
volumes mcluding six parts, namely,
Volume 1: Physical Oceanography
Marine Chemistry
Marine Biology
Volume 2: Marine Geology
Coastal Research
Marine Physics and Technology.
This is the first, but by no means an exhaust, collection of representative works
of Chinese oceanographers; many materials are published for the first time. It is the
editors' sincere wish to present to the world the state of art of Chinese oceanology
for the sake of scientific exchange and the promotion of ocean sciences.
On behalf of the editorial board, I acknowledge the South China Sea Institute of
Oceanology and the Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica for the support to the
publication of the book.
Gong, Zai-sheng (1992) "The prospects for oil and gas development of China offshore", China Offshore Oil
& Gas (Geology), 6(2), 1-10 (in Chinese).
Ou, Shao-dung (1992) "Development of marine biological resources", in Wen-he Yang (ed.), China Ocean
YearbOok, 1987-1990, China Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 33-34 (in Chinese).
Tseng, C. K. (1983/84) "Preface", Oceanus 26(4),3-8.
Tseng, C. K. (1993) "Notes on mariculture in China", Aquaculture 111, 21-30.
Yang, Wen-he (ed.) (1992) China Ocean Yearbook, 1987-1990, Chin Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 17+424,
18 color plates (in Chinese).
Yu, Zhou-wen (1992) "Two forefront problems in marine science and technology", in Wen-he Yang (ed.),
China Ocean Yearbook, 1987-1990, China Ocean Press, Beijing, PI'. 137-139 (in Chinese).
Zweig, R. D. (1983/84) "Aquaculture strategies in China", Oceanus 26(4),33-39.
PART I
PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Physical oceanography had its commencement in China seas with

studies on tides in late 1940's, followed by wind wave study in early
1950's. In the last 40 years it grew gradually with a series of
investigations, such as the Comprehensive Fishery Investigation off
Yantai and Weihai (1955), the Investigation in the Bohai Sea and
Western Yellow Sea (1957) and the National Oceanographic
Investigation (1958-1961). Through these investigations physical
oceanography expanded its scope from tides and waves to currents and
water masses. From the early 1960's on, routine oceanographic survey
(sections) on the shelves of China seas has been carried out. Since
1984 the area of the Nansha Islands in the southern South China Sea
has been surveyed. Various investigations were also conducted for
special purposes, including bilateral international programs, such as the
PRC-USA Cooperative Study on Sedimentation off Yangtze Estuary
(1979-1982), Academia Sinica Institute of Oceanology-Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution Joint Program on General Circulation and
Sedimentation in the Southern Yellow Sea (1983-1986) and China-
Japan Joint Investigation of the Kuroshio (1986-1992).
With various research programs, a general feature about currents,
water masses, waves, tides and storm surges etc. has been outlined for
China seas. Some new findings were made and new theories were
proposed. So far as it is known, 50 protruding physical phenomena
were revealed and examined, such as upwelling, mesoscale eddies, the
Yangtze River diluted water, the Yellow Sea Cold Water Mass, the
South China Sea Warm Current, and the South China Sea Branch of
Kuroshio. Also various theories or hypotheses on the dynamics or
mechanism of those phenomena were examined or reexamined. Some
of them are still controversial such as the source of the Taiwan Warm
Current and the summer circulation in the Yellow Sea, etc.
It should be pointed out that there have been some analytical
models as well as numerical ones about the shelf circulation in China
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology oj China Seas. Volume 1, 1-2.

© 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
2
seas since the 1970's, which are in progress with the computing
facilities gradually improved.
Marine environment forecasts, especially for waves, storm surges,
and sea surface temperature have become routinely operational.
The present volume (Part 1) gives a brief picture of what are the
major achievements in physical oceanography m China seas.
Chinese physical oceanographers ~ot out form the shelf to the
western PacifIc m the middle 1980's to Join the research stream of the
world such as Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) and
World Ocean Circulation Experiment and have made great strides
forward. However, owing to the limitation in scope and space, this
volume can not and should not be all-embracing, but it is fair to say
that the summarized information here is of the first time. It is expected
that this volume provide more comprehensive reference to those who
are interested in Chinese physical oceanography in China seas.
HU Dun-xin
IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
WATER MASSES IN CHINA SEAS
SU Yu-song
Ocean University of Qingdao
WENG Xue-chuan
Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
Qillgdao 266071, Chilla
I. ANALYSIS OF MODIFIED WATER MASSES IN THE SHALLOW PARTS OF

THE HUANGHAI SEA AND THE EAST CHINA SEA
The water in the shallow parts of the Huanghai (Yellow) and East China seas is
affected greatly by climatic and geographical conditions; it does not have the
homogeneity and conservativeness of ocean water. Temperature and salinity data
gained in 1978-1980 monthly sectional observations were used to study the water
masses in these areas.
The concept of modified water masses is introduced here as a water body which
holds similar physical and chemical characteristics, occupies a certain space, and
varies seasonally and regularly. Various existing T-S diagram methods of analyzing
water masses are useful in ocean water mass analysis, but by these methods it is
difficult to determine the core of original water masses in a shallow sea area, so a
large error may be introduced. We propose the use of a successive clustering method
with partial optimum (Su et aI., 1983) to determine the number and boundaries of
modified water masses and mixing areas. The following water masses are identified
for the Huanghai and East China seas (Fig. 1):
• Kuroshio Surface Water (K), including Kuroshio Subsurface Water in winter;
• East China Sea Mixed Water (E), including Taiwan Warm Current Upper
Water, Tsushima Warm Current Upper Water and Huanghai Sea Warm Current
Water;
• East China Sea Bottom Cold Water (EC), including Taiwan Warm Current
Deep Water, Tsushima Warm Current Deep water and Kuroshio Subsurface Water;
• Huanghai Sea and East China Sea Mixed Water (YE);
• Huanghai Sea Mixed Water (Y);
• Huanghai Sea Bottom Cold Water (YC), including East China Sea Northern
Bottom Cold Water in Spring;
• Huanghai Sea Nearshore Water (YS); and
• Continental Coastal Diluted Water (F), including Changjiang River Diluted
Water, Zhejian-Fujian Coastal Water and Subei (North Jiangsu) Coastal Water.
The fully mixed water is called Mixed Water (M).
Based on temperature and salinity, modified water masses in these seas are
divided into nine different groups (Table 1).
3
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 1, 3-16.
4 Oceanology of China Seas
Table 1. Characteristics and Existing Periods of Modified Water

Masses (1979) in the Huanghai and East China Sea
S=30.50 S=33.50
F (July-Oct.) Y (July-Sept.) K (Jan.-Dec.)

E {June-Nov.~
T=21°C
F (May-June, Y (May-June, Oct.-Dec.) E (Dec.-May)
Nov.-Dec.~ YE {Dec.-Feb., Aer.-June} EC {June-Nov.~
T=12°C
YS (Dec.-May) YE (May)
F (Jan.-Apr.) Y (Jan.-Apr.)
YC (May-Dec.)
Table 2. The Annual Variation Range of Temperature and Salinity of the Centers of Modified Water
Masses in the Huanghai and East China Seas in 1979
K EC E YE YC Y YS F
7.5 1.5 13.0 15.0 2.0 0.00 23.0 20.5
0.8 0.2 0.9 2.5 0.2 0.6
In the Huanghai and East China seas, the water salinity is more conservative than
its temperature, thus water masses may be classified into three systems by their
salinity: i) Open-sea water system (or the East China Sea Water), including K, E and
EC, and VE (in May only), originated mainly from the Kuroshio Water Mass and its
branches; ii) Local water system (or the Huanghai Sea Water), including Y, YC, YS
and YE, which exist in special geographic environment; and iii) Coastal water system,
which includes F only and are mixtures of sea water and river runoff.
Temporally, the eight modified water masses never exist simultaneously in any
one month. Usually four to six, or even seven, water masses co-exist in this area. K,E,
Y and F belong to the year-round water types; while EC, YC, YE, and YS to
seasonal water types (Fig. 1).
On the T-S diagram, points denoting temperature and salinity of modified water
masses in winter are aggregated and distributed around a curve called winter
modified regression curve (Su, 1980). It exists only from January to April every year
and disappears after May when the temperature increases at surface layers. There are
differences among these curves for each year and each month, but their variances are
confined within certain limits. Fig. 2 shows that variations of centers of K, E and Y
are smaller than those of YE, YS and F in winter, while in summer the center of EC
is located within the limits of E, suggesting that the summer EC is a remnant of
winter's E at the bottom layer. The center of YC is located simultaneously within the
ranges of Y and YE, so it is clear that the summer YC is the conserved water of
winter's Y and YEo
In winter, the modified water masses modify gradually from high temperature and
salinity to lower values in the order of K-+E-+YE-+Y-+YS. The cause of such a
gradual modification is that the offshore water moving north into the shallow areas
of the Huanghai and East China seas is mixed in varying degree in different
geographical and climatic conditions and nearshore diluted waters. K is the primary
water in this area, and E will be the primary modified water, which includes the
Taiwan Warm Current in the southwest, and the Huanghai Sea Warm Current in the
east. These two warm currents possess the characteristics of mixed water. The
Tsushima Warm Current may originate also from a current system of mixed water
Water Masses 5
Fig. 1. Distributions of modified water masses and their circulations at sea surface in the Huanghai and
East Qlina seas in 1979. a, in Februal)'; b, in May; c, in August; d, in November.
S(%,,)
25r3.::.0_ _-r-_ _::;.32,,--_~_ _---,3'.;'4,--,...-,.,
20
Fig. 2. Variation range of modified regression -

curves for modified water masses in the Huanghai
and East anna seas in 1978-1980. The two solid
lined show the largest range of modified regression
curves from Janual)' to April, and the solid and
closed curves represent the largest ranges of the
centers of different modified water masses at that
time. The dotted and closed curves show the
largest ranges of the centers of bottom cold water
masses EC and YC in summer.
6 Oceanology of China Scas
in this area (Sawara and Hanzawa, 1979). This idea is supported by the analysis of
modified water masses. A reversed modification process is applicable to the
southward moving current system for which F is the primary water. Therefore, the
complete modified process is K-E-YE-Y-YS-F.
The regular modification phenomenon is not observed in warm seasons.
Annual variations in the percentage area of the modified water masses are
significant. Variations of E, Y, and F are of an annual nature at the sea surface with
the maxima in summer; but phases of E and Yare slightly later than that of F. At
bottom layers, F is almost constant throughout the year, but E is not. Y has a
semiannual variation with a maximum in early spring and the other in late autumn.
The range of the mixed area in summer is larger than that in winter owing to the
effect of F. Variation ranges of E, Y and F are wide, but they all have a small
independent area of their own (Fig. 3). In between these waters are wide modified
exchange areas, indicating an intensive modification of water masses.
Seasonal variations at centers of modified water masses are examples by 1979
data. The increase of temperature and decrease of salinity in warm seasons and the
reverse of these conditions in cold seasons are characteristics of modification of sea
water. Ranges of temperature increase with levels of modification. YS has the largest
temperature variation of 23°C due to the influence of adjacent continent. YE has the
largest variation in salinity (2.5), since YE lies within the confluence of the offshore
water and nearshore diluted water. The bottom cold waters EC and YC are the most
stable waters.
123 0 1260
,~
l
,
\
C)
Fig. 3. Variation ranges of modified water masses

E at the sea surface of the Huanghai and East China
Sea (1979). Blank parts are independent areas for
water masses E, Y and F; superimposed areas
between them are referred to as the modified
exchange areas, where YE and YS lie.
II. ANALYSIS OF MODIFIED WATER MASSES IN THE BOHAI SEA
Five modified water masses are recognized in this area (Zhang et aL, 1983):
Water Masses 7
1) Bohai Sea and Huanghai Sea Mixed Water (BY), which is the continuation of
the Huanghai Sea Mixed Water;
2) North Huanghai Sea Bottom Cold Water (YC);
3) Bohai Sea Central Water (B);
4) Bohai Sea Coastal Water (BS); and
5) Continental Diluted Water (F'), including Liaonan Coastal Water.
Annual variations of temperature and salinity for these modified water masses are
shown in Fig. 4.
25
,'; /
BY
33.0
_-__ _ -ycL- /
20
a
/_~~~ ~
;;P
32.0
c
o~
i?
I-
'0 'BY'~-=----/ Jl.0
YC
JO.fJ
--T
---s
Fig. 4. Annual variation of temperature and salinity
for the modified water masses in the Bohai Sea in 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1978-1980. MUll!!!
In winter, distributions of water masses at the sea surface and the bottom layer
are basically identical (Fig. 5a). The gradual modification occurs from November to
April at the sea surface and from December to March at bottom layers, both in the
order of BY-+B-+BS-+F. From June to October, at the sea surface the Bohai Sea
Central Water (B) changes into the Bohai Sea and the Huanghai Sea Mixed Water
(BY). At the bottom layer, the five water masses coexist (Fig. 5b and c). Distributions
of the water masses at the sea surface and the bottom layer in spring and autumn are
transitional and not very regular.
The waxing and waning of modified water masses in this area also may be divided
into two types. BY, BS and F are of the year-round type; while YC and B seasonal
type. The areal range of BY is maximum in summer and minimum in winter at the
sea surface, but is minimum in spring at the bottom layer owing to the appearance
of YC. The range of BS has two maxima respectively in spring and autumn, and two
minima in winter and summer. The range of F is narrow but expands with the
increase of river runoff in summer. YC appears in April and disappears in December,
and is powerful from May to August. At the sea surface, B appears in November,
reaches a maximum in winter, and disappears in next June. At the bottom layer, B
exists in all the months except September and October, when B is changed into a
mixed water. The range of B is the largest in April and the smallest in November.
III. MODIFIED WATER MASSES IN RELATION TO MARINE ENVIRONMENT
The modification of water masses is influenced by thermodynamic and dynamic

factors. The fonner includes the heat interchanges through the sea surface and the
convectional mixing; the latter is mainly the turbulent mixing of sea water. Through
the analysis of modified water masses in the Bohai, Huanghai, and East China seas,
the authors conclude that thermodynamic factors play a major role in the
modification of water masses in winter, spring and autumn, when the temperature
variation is larger than salinity variation at the surface layer. Besides, the bottom cold
Fig. 5. Distribution of modified water masses in the

Bohai Sea (1978-1980). a, in winter; b, sea surface,
in summer; c, bottom layer, in summer.
water can last longer as there is little turbulence. Thus its disappearance depends
mainly on the convectional mixing, which occurs only in summer when the
Continental Diluted Water and the warm current systems become powerful.
In the Huanghai and East China seas, the motion of water mass is correlated with
meteorological factors (Asaoka and Moriyasn, 1986). Owing to the modification of
seawater, different modified water masses may coexist in one current system, and
minor circulations may occur not only in the central part of a modified water mass
but also near the boundary between two modified water masses. Besides, the
correlation of the tongue-like boundary of modified water mass with the current
direction is apparent (Fig. 3) and may be used as a collateral reference for analyzing
circulation.
The correlation between fish activity and marine environment is observed in this
area. Central fishing grounds generally appear near mixed water areas, and both vary
seasonally. In the Huanghai and East China seas, good fishing grounds are found
within the modified water YE and close to warm waters E and Y in the cold season,
and near cold waters YC and EC in the warm season. In the Bohai Sea, central
fishing grounds lie inside the modified water BY. The warm water fish is usually
found in warm water masses and mixed areas; while the cold water fish in cold water
masses and mixed areas. Thus the analysis of modified water masses may serve the
forecast of fishing conditions.
IV. ANALYSIS OF WATER MASSES IN THE NORTHERN SOUTH CHINA SEA
Data on water masses of the northern South China Sea are relatively limited (Fan
et al., 1988). Different water layers of the West Pacific enter this area through the
Bashi Channel and, after mixing and modification, forms different water masses. The
influence of continental runoff is also significant. Eight water masses found in this
Water Masses 9
area can be grouped into three types: i) the runoff diluted type of Nearshore Diluted
Water Mass (F); ii) the shallow sea modified type composed of Coastal Mixed Water
Mass (M), Warm Surface Water Mass (WS), Surface Water Mass (S) and Surface-
Subsurface Mixed Water Mass (SV); and iii) the deep sea type, composed of
subsurface Water Mass (V), Subsurface-Intermediate Mixed Water Mass (VI) and
Intermediate Water Mass (I). Distributions of water masses at the sea surface and
bottom layers are approximately parallel to the coastline (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Distribution of water masses at the sea surface (a-d) and bottom layer (e-h) in the northem South
China Sea. a, February; b, May; c, August; d, November; e, February; f, May; g, August; b, November.
WS and S both are originated from the West Pacific Surface Water. After
modification under different surface meteorological conditions, the former is
characterized by high temperature and low salinity, and the latter by low temperature
and high salinity. SV is originated from the West Pacific Subtropical Subsurface
Water and is similar to S due to mixing. V retains more characteristics of the highly
saline layer of the West Pacific. It is distributed lower than SV at about 150 m depth.
VI is distributed between the high salinity layer and upper low salinity layer. The
water mass I belongs to the low salinity layer and distributes down to 700 m. It is an
oceanic-type water mass with the least modification in this area. F is a mixture of
runoff and nearshore water. M is mixed with SV, WS and S respectively in different
seasons and underwent the most severe modification in the area. Table 3 lists the
indicative characters of the water masses.
In the T-S diagram, the annual tracks of the centers of water masses in the
northern South China Sea are staggered together, indicating the similarity in
temperature and salinity of the water mass in different seasons. This staggering is an
important character for modified water masses in shallow seas, but not in oceans. The
increase of temperature and decrease of salinity in warm seasons and vice versa in
cold seasons are the basic feature of modified water masses in this area. The Shore
Mixed Water Mass (M) has the largest variations in temperature (14.5°C) and salinity
(1.70). The water masses in the northern South China Sea also have the regular
gradual modification that is even more obvious in winter. The intensities of
modification for the water masses are in the order: M> WS>S>SV> V> VI> I.
The waxing and waning of Ws and S are significant and negatively correlated,
since S extends into WS when the temperature increases, and WS extends into S
when the temperature decreases. M and F wax and wan slightly.
10 Oceanology or China Seas
Table 3. Variation Ranges or Temperature and Salinity or Water Masses in the Northern South China Sea
Water mass Feb. May Aug. Nov.

T("C) 25.5-27.8 29.0-30.5
F Salinity <30.0 <30.0
T (0C) 13.2-16.0 22.5-27.6 28.9-30.3 21.3-24.4
M 31.20-33.60 31.16-33.80 30.69-32.91 31.32-34.02
Salinity
T("C) 22.3-24.4 26.2-30.0 28.0-30.1 25.5-26.1
WS
Salinity 34.08-34.67 33.90-34.69 33.03-34.40 33.68-33.93
U T("C) 20.4-22.3 22.2-26.2 23.5-28.0 22.5-25.5

Salinity 34.43-34.80 33.85-34.62 33.65-34.62 33.97-34.60
SU T("C) 17.5-20.4 19.8-22.2 21.0-23.5 19.0-22.5

Salinity 34.18-34.75 34.16-34.71 34.32-34.70 34.42-34.76
U T("C) 15.5-17.5 14.5-19.8 15.2-21.0 14.5-19.0

Salinity 34.28-34.78 34.44-34.88 34.35-34.81 34.50-34.78
UI T("C) 11.0-15.5 10.0-14.5 11.0-15.2 11.0-14.5

Salinity 34.46-34.60 34.40-34.70 34.41-34.79 34.42-34.62
T("C) 5.3-10.0 5.6-11.0 6.4-11.0
Salinity 34.33-34.64 34.34-34.52 34.30-34.50
V. CHARACfERISTICS OF SEVERAL MAJOR WATER MASSES IN THE

HUANGHAI AND EAST CHINA SEAS
Essential features of major water masses are reviewed in the section (Fig. 7).
A. The Kuroshio Water Mass in the East China Sea
The Kuroshio Water Mass is produced by modified Pacific water in the Kuroshio
area in the eastern East China Sea. The T-S diagram (Fig. 8a) shows that the
Kuroshio Water Mass in the East China Sea in summer consists of four layers:
Surface Water, Sub-surface Water, Intermediate Water, and Deep Water.
The Kuroshio Surface Water of the East China Sea exists only in the warm half
of the year. In the cold half of the year, it is completely modified and merges with the
Kuroshio Subsurface Water due to the salinity Increase (caused by the temperature
decrease of the surface water) and the strong convective interaction. The distribution
range of this water has obvious seasonal variation. It is normally less than 75 m, up to
100 m, in thickness and located at 40-60 m depth in the Okinawa Trough.
The Kuroshio Surface Water has the highest temperature in the East China
Sea.Owing to the influence of rainfall and the low salinity water from the shelf, its
salinity is less than the underlying subsurface water. Its surface temperature and
salinity are 21.9-29.6°C and 33.95-34.95, respectively, with annual mean values of
2S.60°C and 34.44 (Yang, 1984a). Seasonal variations in temperature and salinity of
the Surface Water are significant.
The Kuroshio Subsurface Water of the East China Sea originates from the near-
surface water of the subtropical North Pacific. In winter, its upper boundary becomes
the sea surface. In summer, the upper boundary is usually at about 50-75 m depth,
and the lower boundary at about 400 m and shallowing toward upper slope. With the
Water Masses 11
11.
25
20
C>
'-' ·9
°~ 15 ... 11
·21
. 29
'51
10
·60 •
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 33 34 35
S (%0)
Fig. 7. The T-S diagram for major water masses in the Huanghai and East China seas. Kuroshio, Kuroshio
Water Mass; TWcw, Taiwan Wann Current Water; HSWM, Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass; CD\¥,
Changjiang Diluted Water; Numbers show obselVation stations.
increasing water depth, the temperature decreases from >20°C to about 15°C, and
the salinity increases initially and then decreases. The maximum salinity appears at
a depth of 125-200 m, forming a high-salinity core, one of the main features of the
Kuroshio Water. Measurements from 1955 to 1983 (Yang, 1984a) showed that the
salinity in the core was rather stable (34.67-34.97, maximum of 35.06). The
temperature variation of the salty core is 17.0-23.2°C.
The upwelling of Kuroshio Subsurface Water along the Okinawa Trough slope
and subsequent mixing with the low-salinity water on the shelf forms a thermocline
(frontal surface) which provides some economic fish with a good spawning and
feeding environment. The upwelling area on the western boundary of the Kuroshio
Sub-surface Water was located generally at 124°17'-125°55'E, and the moving range
in E-W direction was about 60 n mile.
The distribution of the Kuroshio Subsurface Water varies in year (Xing, 1986).
In the strong year, the water is characterized by its shallow upper boundary, far
westward extension of the high salinity core and deflection to the west part and
shallower depth.
The Kuroshio Intermediate Water of the East China Sea ori~inates from the NW
Pacific Water (also called Subpolar Middle-level Water). Its major branch enters the
East China sea from the east of the Taiwan Island, and another branch enters the
East China Se,a through the water course between the Okinawa and Miyako-Jima
islands. It is located approximately at a depth of 900-1000 m. Its thickness is about
500-600 m and rapidly decreases in the shallow water area of the Okinawa Trough.
The temperature and salinity are comparatively stable. The observed temperature
and salinity in one year range respectively 5.8-9.5°C and 34.26-34.38, with annual
average of 7.8°C and 34.32. The existence of a low-salinity core (usually at 600-700
m depth) is one of the major features of Kuroshio. The variations of temperature and
salinity in this core are small. Upwelling also occurs on the continental slope,
although not as strong as that of Kuroshio Subsurface Water.
The Kuroshio Deep Water of the East China Sea is usually located at depths of
900-1000 m in the Okinawa Trough. This water originates mainly from the waterway
between the Okinawa Islands. Its temperature and salinity are rather stable, about
3.7°C and 34.48, respectively. It is the coldest among the Kuroshio Water Masses of
the East China Sea. Its salinity is slightly higher than that of the Kuroshio
Intermediate Water. Because of the blocking of the Ryukyu Ridge, the temperature
of the Kuroshio Deep Water is hi~her than that of the NW Pacific Deep Water, but
the salinity is lower. They are simIlar to the temperature and salinity of the water at
the 1000-2000 m depths of the NW Pacific. The Kuroshio Deep Water is regenerated
mainly through convection. It may be inferred from the vertical convection that a
countercyclone (clockwise) circulation exists in the area of the Okinawa Trough
where the depth is more than 1500 m (Yang, 1984b).
B. The Taiwan Wann Current Water (TWCW)
This is a rush of high-salinity water flowing northward along the western shelf of
the East China Sea. On the T-S diagram (Fig. 8) TWCW may he divided into two
sections, the Upper Water and the Deep Water (Weng and Wang, 1965, 1984).
30
25 20
20
"--
:-
15
10
10
a h
33.0 34.0 35.0 34.0 35.0

S (%c) S (%0)
Fig. 8. The T-S diagram of the Kuroshio area in the East China Sea. a, in summer (July-September); b,
in winter (January-March).
The TWCW Upper Water is mainly characterized by high temperature and sub-
high salinity. Its vertical thermohaline is comparatively homogeneous. Its temperature
Water Masses 13
is the highest in the western shelf of the East China Sea. As it is mixed up
unceasingly with coastal water,its salinity is lower than the underlying Deep Water.
In summer, the temperature and salinity ofthe Upper Water range from 23.0 0 -29.0°C
and 33.30-34.20, respectively, and their charactenstic values are 27.0°C and 33.7. In
winter, its temperature decreases, while its salinity increases slightly.
The Upper Water extends from the south to about 32° north roughly along 120°E.
Horizontally, it adjoins the low-salinity Fujian and Zhejiang Coastal Water in the
west and the Changjiang Diluted Water in the north. A high hydrographic gradient
front emerges at the crisscrossing area. The western boundary is sharp, but the
eastern boundary is obscure because of the similar temperature and salinity with the
central East China Sea. Where the Upper Water adjoins the Deep Water, there exists
a strong gradient thermocline layer at the boundary.
The Upper Water is thick in the south and thin in the north. In the cold half of
a year (October-next March), when it is affected by a powerful convection and eddy-
mixing force, the thickness of the Upper Water increases until it extends approxi-
mately from the surface to the bottom of the Taiwan Warm Current north of 28°N.
The distribution of the Upper Water has obvious seasonal variations closely
linked with the growth and decline of the Fujian and Zhejiang Coastal Water and the
Changjiang Diluted Water.
The Deep Water of TWCW lies on the deeper floor of the East China Sea. It is
characterized by low temperature and high salinity. The thermohaline of the Deep
Water are comparatively stable seasonally and vertically, and maintain the annual
values of 16.0-23.0°C and 34.10-34.70 (characteristic values 19.0°C and 34.40). The
variation in monthly average salinity of the Deep Water is similar to that of the
Kuroshio Subsurface Water east of Taiwan, and the maximum value emerges in July.
The appearance of the Deep Water is only in the warm half of the year (from
April to September), approximately along 123°E in an area north of 28°N. Its widest
distribution appears in July. The maximum range between the E-W boundary is from
121°15'E to 123°45'E. The Deep Water joins the Kuroshio Subsurface Water along
the continental slope of the East China Sea where the latter rises up. The average
thickness of the Deep Water is 30-40 m and decreases from south to north. The
depth of the top boundary varies monthly but always greater in the south (50-65 m)
than in the north (about 25 m). There is no consensus so far on the origin of the
Taiwan Warm Current Water. Since the water of Taiwan Strait is high in temperature
and sub-high in salinity, it is unlikely that the cold and highly saline Deep Water of
TWCW originates from the Taiwan Strait. Based on studies of seawater motion,
water masses mixture, and the T-S feature of the seawater, Weng and Wang (1984)
concluded that the Upper Water of TWCW is formed by the mixing of Kuroshio
Surface Water flowing northward with the Taiwan Strait Water, but the Deep Water
originates from Kuroshio Subsurface Water east of Taiwan. This is supported by Guo
et al. (1985) who pointed out that northeast of Taiwan there may be a channel
through which the Kuroshio Subsurface Water flows onto the shelf of the East China
Sea.
c. The Changjiang Diluted Water (CDW)

The CDW is one of the main components of the coastal water system. It consists
mainly of the Changjiang runoff (including the Qiantang River runoff, which accounts
for 4%) mixed with the inshore seawater. It distributes along Jiangsu and Zhejiang
coast adjacent to the Changjiang estuary.
The CDW can be described as an integrate body of water with distinctly low
salinity all year through. The salinity is the lowest (20.0) around the Changjiang
estuary, increases gradually seaward, and becomes 31.0-32.0 at its outer boundary. It
is negatively correlated with the Changjiang runoff.
The temperature of CDW is lower than that of the open sea, especially in
autumn and winter, and the isotherm is generally parallel to the shoreline. The
temperature gradient in the CDW is low, and the seasonal temperature variations are
regularly (highest in August, lowest in February) over a wide range.
The CDW stratification (mainly dependent on the vertical gradient of salinity)
has a significant positive correlation with the Changjiang monthly runoff, but has
scarcely any correlation with wind.
Statistical data on the spacial distribution of CDW show that, in general it
extends at first along the estuary to the southeast until about 122°30'E and then
spreads into two directions at different seasons (see Fig. 6 in Hu, this volume). In
winter (from September to next April), it extends mainly along the coast; while in
summer (from May to August), it turns left (northeastward) and forms a tongue of
warm and diluted water. Although the turning locality may vary, the turning angle is
always such that the water is confounded within the area where the depth changes
sharply and is less than 15 m (Le, 1984). The left turning of COW main body has
been a subject of attention for years and is discussed in more detail by Hu in this
volume.
D. The Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass (HSCWM)
The HSCWM exists under the Huanghai Sea Upper Layer Water, and submerges
deeply into the bottom of the central Huanghai Sea. The distribution range of
HSCWM increases with increasing depth. Its position is stable on the bottom. It
extends over 4 degrees longitude (121°15'E-125°05'E) and 5 degrees latitude
(33°43'N-38°48'N) and accounts for 29% of the total volume of the Huanghai Sea.
Its southern part is five times larger than the northern part (Weng and Wang, 1982),
and it is thicker in the center and thinner with the strengthening of the convective
mixing with the upper layer water.
The HSCWM IS a seasonal water mass that exists only in the warm half of the
year (April-November). It is characterized by low temperature and sub-high salinity.
The HSCWM isotherms are all closed curves, making up an independent system (Fig.
9). There is a fairly ~reat temperature gradient (temperature front) between the
HSCWM and its neighboring waters. Inside the HSCWM, the isothermal and
isohaline distributions are fairly stable. In the entire Huanghai Sea, the HSCWM is
the most conservative water mass.
The HSCWM contains two stable low temperature centers, one in the north
(122°08'E, 38°14'N) and the other in the southeast (124°30'E, 36°00'N). An unstable
low temperature center exists at about 122°30'E from May to August. These centers
are relatively independent, and their distributions are closely related to the bottom
topography.
The seasonal variation of the HSCWN in distribution and volume, though not
significant, are the maximum in spring, smaller in summer, and minimum in autumn.
This variation correlates negatively with the temperature of the low temperature
centers and with the winter temperature of its surrounding areas (Guan, 1963). The
multi-year variation of the HSCWM distribution range is obvious. The variation in
the south is more evident than that in the north, and that of the upper (at 30 m)
Water Masses 15
layer is more than that of the lower layers. In weak years, the HSCWM shrinks and
may even disappear in the South Huanghai Sea.
Fig. 9. The distribution range and isothermal lines of the Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass.
It is generally though that the HSCWM is formed under specific geographic and
climatic conditions. In winter, low temperature and sub-high salinity water occupies
the entire Huanghai Sea. In the beginning of spring, due to the increase in
temperature and river runoff and the decrease in salinity, the Huanghai Sea Upper
Layer Water is formed. With the blanking of the Upper Layer Water, the deeper
water retains its low temperature and sub-high salinity, forming the HSCWM.
REFERENCES
Asaoka, 0., Moriyasn, S. (1986) "On the circulation in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea in winter
(Preliminary Report)", Oceallography 18(1-2), 73-81 (in Japanese).
Cui, Mao-chang (1984) "A study on the direction change of the Changjiang River Diluted Water",
Oceall%gia et Limllologia Sillica 15(3), 222-229 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Guan, Bing-xian (1963) "A preliminary study of the temperature variations and the characteristics of the
circulation of the ('-old Water Mass of the Yellow Sea", Oceallologw et Limllologia Sillica 5(4),
255-284 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Guo, Bin-huo, Lin, Kui, and Song, Wan-xian (1985) "The problems on flowing of the sea water in the
southern East China Sea in summer",Acta Oceallologica Sillica 7(2), 143-153 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Le, Ken-tang (1984) "A preliminary study on the salinity distribution and the current structure of the
Yangtze Diluted Water in the flood periods", in Reports on Oceanological Studies of the Bohai Sea,
Huanghai Sea and East China Sea, pp. 151-163 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Nakao, T. (1977) "Oceanic variability in relation to fisheries in the East China Sea and Yellow Sea", 1. of
the Faculty of Marine Sci. alld Tech., Tokai University (Special Numbers), pp. 199-367 (in Japanese).
Pu, Yong-xiu (1983) "The preliminary analysis of the expansion mechanism of the Changjiang Diluted
Water", DOllg/wi MariJle Sciellce 1(1),43-51 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Sawara, T. and Hanzawa, Y. (1979) "Distribution of water type in the East China Sea", Umi to Sora 54(4),
135-148. (in Japanese)
Stockman, W.B. (1946) "A theory of T-S curves as a method for studying the mixing of water masses in
the sea", J. Mar. Rea. 6(1), 1-24.
Su, Yu-song (1980) "The T-S comparison method for determining the boundary of modified water masses
and the anafysis of modified water masses in the western area of the Ease Olina Sea", Acta
Oceallologica Sillica 2(1), 1-16 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Su, Yu-song, Yu, Zu-xiang, and Li, Feng-qi (1983) "Application of cluster analysis method for analyzing
the watermass in the shallow water area and the analYSIS of modified watermass in the Huanghai Sea and
the East China Sea", Oceallologw et Limllologia Sillica 14(1),1-13 (in Chinese, with English abstract);
Chill. 1. Oceallol. Limllol. 1(3), 272-284.
Weng, Xue-chuan and Wang, Cong-min (1982) "Determination of the boundary and T. S. bounds of the
Yellow Sea ('-old Watermass", Hydrometeology of the Chillese Soc. ofOceallol. LimIlOl., pp. 61-70 (in
Chinese, with English abstract).
Weng, Xue-chuan and Wang, ('-Ong-min (1984) "A preliminary study on the T-S characteristics and the
origin of Taiwan Warm Current Water in summer", Studw Marina Sillica 21, 113-134 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Weng, Xue-chuan and Wang, Cong-min (1985) "A study on Taiwan Wanll Current Water", Marine Sciences
9(1),7-10 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Xing, Cheng-jun (1986) "A study on the variational characteristics of the Kuroshio Subsurface Watermass
in summer", (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Yang, Tian-hong (1984) "A preliminary investigation of the Kuroshio Watermass in the East China Sea",
Studw Marilla Sillica 21, 179-200 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Yang, Tian-hong (1984) "The statistical characteristics of the temperature and salinity of the Kuroshio
Watermass in the East China Sea", Studw Marilla Sillica 21, 165-178 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Yuan, Yao-chu, Su, Ji-lan, and Zhao, Jin-san (1982) "A simple layer model of the continental shelf
circulation in the East China Sea", Acta Oceallologica Sinica 4(1), 1-11 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zhang, Yuan-kui, He, Xian-ming, and Gao, Yong-fu (1083) "Preliminary analysis on the modified
watermass in the North Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea", TrallS. of Oceallol. Limllol. 2, 19-26 (in
Fan, Li-qun, Su, Yu-song, and Li, Fen-qi (1988) "Au analysis of water masses in the north area of the
South Sea", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 10(2),136-145 (in Chinese).
PATTERNS AND STRUCTURES OF THE CURRENTS
IN BOHAI, HUANGHAI AND EAST CHINA SEAS
GUAN Bing-xian
If1Stitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
I. GENERAL FEATURES
The Bohai Sea (BS), Huanghai Sea (HS) and East China Sea (ECS) are a continuous
system that consists of two sub-systems: the warm and saline current system of
oceanic origin (Kuroshio and its branches and extensions) and the less saline coastal
current system. The former moves northward and northeastward and the latter
generally southward. The current pattern of these seas is roughly in the form of a
cyclonic gyre as shown in Fig. 1, with the Kuroshio-Tsushima Warm Current - HS
Warm Current and its extension on the east side and the China Coastal Current
(including the southern BS Coastal Current, HS Coastal Current, and ECS Coastal
Current) on the west side. Along the western coast of Korea, the West Korea Coastal
Current flows southward.
The extension of the HS Warm Current entering the BS and the Southern BS
Coastal Current constitute the BS Circulation. The HS Warm Current with its
extension and the HS Coastal Current constitute the HS circulation. The ECS
circulation is much less enclosed. The Kuroshio in the ECS flows along the
continental slope toward northeast which will be described in a seperate paper in this
volume. To the east of the ECS coastal current is the Taiwan Warm Current flowing
northward. Farther east exists a region of weak current flowing northeast-eastward.
Therefore, with the exception of the ECS Coastal Current flowing southward in
winter, the ECS circulatIOn essentially appears as a band with the predominant
current direction pointing northeastward. With the exception of some local areas,
major current patterns of both summer and winter seasons in the BS, HS and ECS
are rather similar.
II. THE BOHAI SEA CIRCULATION
The BS is connected in the east with the northern HS by the Bohai Strait. The
salinity distribution shows that the saline oceanic water enters the BS from the North
HS through the northern Bohai Strait, and the less saline coastal water enters the
North HS from the BS through the southern strait. In summer, owing to the intensifi-
cation of the density circulation of the HS Cold Water Mass and of the Liaonan
Coastal Current, the westward velocity is large. In winter, as the northerlies become
much stronger, the direction of the surface current in the strait may be southward
17
Zhou Di et at. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 1, 17-26.
and gradually eastward with increasing depth. But the saline water tongue still
extends from the northern HS into the BS to the westernmost. As the wind force
increases, the short-duration current structure in the strait is much more complicated
and unstable. The current direction may be eastward in the northern strait in winter,
but westward in the southern strait in summer (Guan and Chen, 1964).
40·
35·
30·
,, , --
~
------
~ ~
(al
~
"- ~
115· 120· 125· 130· 135·
Fig. 1. Schematic representations of the major current systems in the Bohai, Huanghai, East China seas,
and adjacent areas for winter (a) and of the surface current systems for summer (b). a, Kuroshio; b,
Tsushima Warm Current; c, HS Wann Current; d, BS Circulation; e, Taiwan Wann Current; f, China
Coastal Current; g, SCS Warm Current; h, West Korea Coastal Current.
The BS circulation consists of three components, namely, the HS Warm Current

Extension entering the BS, the Liaodong Coastal Current, and the southern BS
Coastal Current. The Warm Current Extension is the leading component of the
circulation. It enters the BS like a jet, moves westward along the central part of the
BS until meeting the coast, then separates into two branches. One branch moves
toward the Liaodong Bay to form an anti-cyclonic gyre. The other moves toward the
Bohai Bay to form a cyclonic gyre (Fig. 1).
Patterns and Structures of Currents 19
The current in the Liaodong Bay in summer may move anticlockwisely, contrary
to the above-stated model, if the discharge of the Liaohe River into the BS increases
abruptly and a favorable wind prevails, as was the case in August, 1959. But such a
situation is not stable. As for the long-term mean condition, the clockwise circulation
is more representative (Guan and Chen, 1964).
The surface current velocity in the BS IS rather weak in general, and to a
considerable degree is influenced by the climatic conditions. The mean and maximum
speeds are ca. 10 and 20 cm/s, respectively. Generally, it is stronger in winter than
in summer. During the summer flood season (June-August), the Huanghe River
discharges a large amount of mud and sand into the sea, forming a turbid diluted
water tongue in the vicinity of the estuary. The diluted water flows northeastward and
converges with the BS Coastal Current.
III. BAROCLINIC CIRCULATION OF THE HUANG HAl SEA COLD WATER
MASS (HSCWM)
The Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass (HSCWM) is one of the most important
phenomena in the shallow water hydrography of the China seas (Fig. 10 in Su and
Weng, this volume). This water mass is characterized by very low temperature in the
central part of the deep layers in summer. In the sultry summer, the surface
temperature in the central area of the northern HSCWM may exceed 28°C, the
lowest bottom (50 m) temperature may be 4-5°C, and the temperature difference
between the 10-25 m depth may be as great as 10-1S°C. It is one of the regions with
the greatest vertical temperature gradient (the most intense thermocline) in the
China seas. The isobaric surfaces slope upward from its center to the rim, resulting
in a cyclonic and baroclinic circulation around the HSCWM. The cyclonic circulation
of the CWM is accompanied by an upwelling in its central part, especially near the
thermocline (Fig. 2). The horizontal circulation of HSCWM is largely determined by
its thermal structure. Similar to the "thermal wind" in meteorology, the summer
baroclinic circulation in HSCWM may be named as a "thermal current" (Guan, 1963).
The idea that HSCWM is accompanied by a cyclonic thermal circulation has been
generally accepted by oceanographers in China (Yuan, 1979; Guo, 1982).
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the three

dimensional movements of the Huanghai Sea Cold
Water Mass (after Guan, 1962).
The formation mechanism of HSCWM and its variation in temperature have

been studied in some detail by Chinese oceanographers. It was considered that
HSCWM is chiefly the remainder of the surface water of the previous winter. Owing
to a cooling process, the surface water sinks down and remains in the basin. As the
weather gets warmer in spring, a thermocline is formed which serves as a barrier
preventing HSCWM from being affected by the downward heat flux. The inter-annual
variations of the intensity of the northern HSCWM in spring and summer are mainly
determined by the corresponding variations of the air temperature in the
neighborhood in the previous winter. This conclusion has been verified by data of
quite a long time series (Guan, 1963; Zhang and He, 1981) (Fig. 3). Historical data
(Sun, 1980) showed that both the intensity of the HSCWM (strong or weak) and the
degree of the BS ice conditions (heavy or light) are chiefly determined by the winter
climatic conditions (cold or warm). The two different hydrographic phenomena,
HSCWM and ice condition, are correlated under the special meteorological
conditions in the HS and BS. This is a good example of the local air-sea connection.
Fig. 3. Comparisons of the inter-annual variations

of the lowest bottom water temperature (a, llTw)
, , and the relative area (b, fjSw) of the northwestern
-2
\/ "": ' ', /,' Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass in April-May
(data adapted from Zhang and He, 1981) with
----~-------=:±l~.c those of the air temperature in Jan.-Feb.(c, Ta) at
l§eO 62 64 66 68 1970 72 74 76 78 1980
Dalian.
IV. TSUSHIMA WARM CURRENT (TSWC) AND HS WARM CURRENT (HSWC)

TSWC is traditionally considered as a branch separated from the Kuroshio west
of the Tokara Strait (Fig. 1). After the separation of HSWC from TSWC west of
Kyushu, the main body of the TSWC gradually turns northeastward, splits into two
branches west of the Goto Islands, and eventually, enters the Japan Sea (the western
branch through the Korea Strait, and the eastern branch through the Tsushima
Strait). The eastern branch, flowing at a maximum speed about one half that of the
western one, is unstable and does not reach deep layers. A countercurrent exists
between the branches.
Korean and Japanese oceanographers suggested that the TSWC should not be
simply regarded as a direct branch of the Kuroshio, but rather a current originated
from the mixed water in the central ECS; i.e., its water is a mixture of the surface
Kuroshio Water and the Continental Coastal Water (Lim, 1971; Sawara and
Hanzawa, 1979). Inoue (1981) presented a map of the residual current component
at the 10 m depth by analyzing available data of tidal current observations. Most
residual currents near the edge of the continental shelf of the ECS flow
northeastward toward the Tsushima Strait. Such a result seems to support the above
mentioned hypothesis of the origin of the TSWC.
HSWC was considered as a branch separated from the TSWC. But recently it is
suggested that HSWC in winter is only the compensation current of the wind current
induced by the monsoon (Hsueh, 1986). It is a warm and saline (salinity>32) water
tongue, most remarkable In winter, and located near the trough of the eastern South
HS. In winter, it may enter the BS but with lower salinity.According to the available
current measurements, this saline water moves northward in deeper layers all the
year round at an average velocity of around 5 cm/s. In the period of weak winds in
winter, the northward flowing warm current with its extension appears also in the
surface layer (Guan and Chen, 1964).
In the South HS, the warm current and its extension move in general along the
axis of the saline water tongue as a jet-like current, and not along the contour lines
of dynamic height. Through analysis of the salinity distribution, it was preliminarily
considered that the saline water tongue of the HSWC was chiefly a result of the
balance between the advection and lateral mixing effects. In the whole vertically
homogeneous layer in winter and the lower vertically homogeneous layer below the
thermocline in summer, the sharpness of the water tongue is positively correlated to
the velocity of the warm current. HSWC tends to be stronger in winter and weaker
in summer. This seasonal variation is closely connected with the appearance in
summer of the HSCWM, which blocks the passage of the warm current along the
South HS Trough, resulting in the decrease of the velocity of the warm current and
the sharpness of the saline water tongue. At the same time, the path of the HSWC
is deviated eastward as compared with that in winter, and the water of oceanic origin
moves northward chiefly around the boundary of the baroclinic circulation of the
HSCWM (Guan and Chen, 1964).
According to studies on the seasonal variation, the TSWC, after entering the
Japan Sea, tends to be stronger in summer and autumn and weaker in winter and
spring (Suda, 1983; Yi, 1970; Miita and Ogawa, 1984). This seasonal variation is
approximately inverse to that of HSWC. Since the TSWC entering the Japan Sea has
the same source as the HSWC, such an inverse relation seems to be reasonable
(Guan, 1962; Guan and Chen, 1964; Guan, 1983).
V. TAIWAN WARM CURRENT (TWC)
This warm current usually moves northward offshore Fujian and Zhejiang
provinces. Its upper layer is characterized by high temperature and salinity all the
year. The western side of the TWC is adjacent to the low-salinity ECS Coastal
Current (ECSCC), resulting in a sharp front where these two currents meet.
According to the measured current data collected since the end of the fifties, with the
exception of the surface current (0-5 m depth) in winter which may move southward
under the influence of the north wind, the TWC at all levels below the sea surface
moves northeastward or north-northeastward (especially evident at levels near the
bottom) along isobaths all the year round. Its speeds and directions are relatively
stable. The overall mean speed is ca. 14 cm/s, and the maximum of the mean speeds
is ca. 33 cm/s (Guan and Chen, 1964). As the TWC approaches the deeper layers, its
tendency of "upclimbing" and "coast-approaching" is obvious.
The seasonal variation of the width and strength of the TWC is rather
pronounced. In summer, the warm current flows parallel to the ECSCC. The
southwest wind forces the water to move away from the coast, so that the TWC
increases in width and velocity. In winter, this warm current flows against the
ECSCC. The northeast wind forces the TWC water to move toward the shore,
decreasing both its width and speed. The very large gradients of hydrographic
elements and current velocity at the front are characteristics of a good fishing ground.
The origin of the TWC has attracted much attention from Chinese and Japanese
oceanographers. Part of the surface water of the TWC seems to have originated from
the Taiwan Strait (Weng and Wang, 1984; Su and Pan, 1987) and is likely to be
traced back .to the South China Sea Warm Current (Guan, 1984b). The Kuroshio,
through shelf intrusion northeast of Taiwan, provides all the lower layer and part of
the surface layer water of the TWC (Weng and Wang, 1984; Su and Pan, 1987; Su
et al., 1990).
VI. WEST KOREA COASTAL CURRENT (WKCC)
The northerly monsoon winds in fall induce surface current drift to the south
along the west coast of Korea in the HS, forming the WKCC. Setdown of daily mean
sea levels up to 0.5 m is seen along the Korea west coast each fall. This is an order
of magnitude higher than that can be accounted for by barometric of steric effects
and is in phase with the northerly component of the wind stress. The WKCC water,
freshened from summer runoff and chilled by outbreaks of cold air in fall, is
discharged southward and eastward through the Cheju Strait and Korea Strait into
the Japan Sea. Satellite data show that the cold WKCC converges on the TSWC
waters in the vicinity of Cheju Strait. Along the convergence zone, it forms a strong
temperature, salinity and density boundary known as the "South Korea Coastal Front"
which is strongest and most stable in fall and winter when the temperature and
salinity gradients coincide.
Strong northerly winds in winter create southward flowing coastal currents of
cold, low-salinity, high-turbidity waters along the China coast and west coast of
Korea. Coastal sea levels are at their annual minimum then. On the Korea side,
coastal flow terminates abruptly at the strong thermal front just south of the Huksan-
Chedo Island group, where it appears to flow westward, possibly recirculating within
the eastern HS (Huh, 1982).
VII. CHINA COASTAL CURRENT (CCC)
It is traditionally recognized as a current flowing continuously along the East
China coast southward all the year round. In the study area, the CCC consists of
three parts, namely, i) BS Coastal Current (BSCC) flowing along the southern BS
coast as depicted in the BS Circulation; ii) HS Coastal Current (HSCC) flowing along
the Shandong Peninsula and off the northern Jiangsu Coast; and iii) ECS Coastal
Current (ECSCC) flowing along the southern Jiangsu-Zhejiang-Fujian Coast. In this
paragraph, we shall chiefly discuss the latter two.
A. Huanghai Sea Coastal Current (HSCC)
It meets the BSCC at the northern end and flows eastward along the northern
coast of the Shandong Peninsula. After bypassing Chengshantou (at the tip of the
peninsula), it generally moves southward nearly along the 40-50 m isobaths off
Haizhou Bay, and begins to flow southeastward at 33°-32°N. In summer, it directly
meets the northeastward flowing ECSCC near Changjiang Dui. In winter, it connects
with the southwestward flowing ECSCC through the Subei coastal water. The HSCC
transports the less-saline and lower-temperature water from the HS to the ECS.
Based on the data available to date, the path of the HSCC does not change
throughout the year, and is quite different from that of ECSCC and the SCS Coastal
Patterns and Strueiures of Currents 23
Current whose paths vary seasonally. The flow pattern of the HSCC is related to the
semi-closed character of the BS and HS. In this region, the HSWC and its extension
move northward all the year round to maintain the balance of exchange between the
oceanic and coastal waters. The HSCC, even under the influence of the prevailing
southerly wind, still moves southward, except the surface layer which may flow
northward in summer. The maximum speed of HSCC is observed at three places, the
southern Bohai Strait, the vicinity off Chengshantou, and the Dasha Fishing Ground.
Though the path of the HSCC does not vary significantly with the season, its
formation mechanism in winter is different from that in summer. In winter, the low
salinity water piles up along the northern coast of Shandong Peninsula under the
action of northerly winds. The formation of HSCC is mainly due to the salinity
difference. In summer, HSCC appears as the boundary of the density circulation of
the HSCWM; therefore, it is formed mainly due to the temperature difference.
The current in the vicinity of Chengshantou is intense and variable. A counter-
wind current appears near the bottom of an ear-like region around Chengshantou in
winter when the northerly winds prevail. North of Chengshantou along the northern
coast of the Shandong Peninsula there also exists a current flowing westward against
HSCC from surface to bottom in winter. Such a counter-current phenomenon is
unique in winter. The counter-wind current off Chengshantou is related to the
westward approach of the HSWC extension in the deep-bottom layer. Through lateral
friction the HSWC extension carries northward the low-salinity coastal water. The
counter-current along the northern coast of Shandong Peninsula is related to the
influence of the northerly wind which forces HSCC to move close to the coast,
strengthening the lateral friction between HSCC and the coast. As a result,
anticyclonic small eddies are induced (Guan and Chen, 1964).
B. East China Sea Coastal Current (ECSCC) and Changjiang Diluted Water Flow (CDW)
ECSCC is one of the major nearshore current systems off the Southeast China.
Its path varies with seasons. When the southerly monsoon predominates in summer,
ECSCC moves northward along the coast with increasing width and velocity. When
the northerly monsoon predominates in winter, it moves southward much more closer
to the coast; its width is greatly reduced and velocity weakened.
During its northward movement in summer, it meets the runoff of the
Changjiang and Qiantang rivers to form a strong diluted water mass known as the
"Changjiang Diluted Water" (CDW) off the mouth of the Changjiang River. The
salinity decreases greatly to as low as 5 or even less near the mouth. Sometimes the
isopleth of 31 may reach 125°E. The expanding, turning and mixing (with the
surrounding seawater) of the CDW are the most striking hydrographic phenomena
in the ECS. Initially, the discharge of the Changjiang River flows southeastward along
the direction of its mouth. At a place not very far, CDW turns cyclonically to the east
or northeast. In the flood season, the CDW tongue extends very far and covers
almost the entire northwestern ECS. Its influence may reach the South HS. The
fluctuation of the Changjiang River discharge is one of the main factors controlling
the dimension and the direction of the CDW movement. In addition, the seaward
deepening of the bottom, the boundary effect of TWC, the southerly winds, and the
baroclinic effects also play roles in the northeastward turning of the CDW axis.
Lateral mixing is also important (Mao et al, 1963; Cao, 1980; Le, 1984; Yuan et al, 1982).
As for the relation between the mass field and velocity field, the CDW possesses
the characteristics of a "jet-like current" (Guan, 1962; Mao et al, 1963). Current
measurements for the flood period also show that with its northeastward expansion,
CDW flows essentially along the axis of the diluted water tongue (Le, 1984). But data
of drift-bottles released along the northern Jiangsu coast in summer showed that the
general tendency of the movement of the surface water in the nearshore region from
32°N to 29°N was still southward. This discrepancy is worth noting.
VIII. CURRENT IN THE TAIWAN STRAIT
The Taiwan Strait is a strong current region in the ECS because of the "narrow-
channel effect". The current condition in the Strait is fairly stable. In summer, the
strait is occupied by the SCS water on the western side and by the Kuroshio water
on the eastern side. It is traditionally considered that in winter (except for the
intermediate and deep layers in the eastern strait which are occupied by the
northward moving Kuroshio water) both the western and central parts are occupied
by the southward moving ECS coastal water. It was not until the end of the 1950's
that such a traditional concept was questioned. Current measurements in winter
showed that from the near-surface layer down to the bottom, there existed currents
moving northward or northeastward against the wind in the offshore region of
Zhejiang and eastern Guangdong. This counter current offshore Zhejiang was named
the "Taiwan Warm Current"; that offshore eastern Guangdong the "South China Sea
Warm Current" (Guan and Chen, 1964). The winter current conditions in the Taiwan
Strait are much more complicated. The current on the western side of the strait does
not wholly flow southwestward; the southward coastal current appears only at a
shallow layer of a zone closely adjacent to the coast in the littoral zone of central
Fujian, and currents in the offshore region and at a deeper layer in the western part
of the strait also flow against the wind (Chen, 1978). Through an analytical study of
data from CSK for the winters of 1966-1968, a strong, narrow, and band-like
northeastward current was discovered on the geostrophic current field south of the
Tropic of Cancer, 19°-22°N, i.e., in the open sea off Guangdong province (Guan,
1978). This finding is supported by current measurements by mooring buoys in the
deep water region in Feb. 1982 (Guo and Huang, 1982). This current is the main
body of the South China Sea Warm Current.
Besides the current flowing along the wind direction in winter,there also exists
a current flowing against the wind in the coastal region off Guangdong, Fujian and
Zhejiang. Such an "against the wind" current was also shown on the current chart
derived from the ship-drift data (JHO, 1925). Among about 90 current vectors
measured respectively in February and November in this region, about 1/3 are
directed northward (chiefly northeastward). Recently, data from sea-bed drifters
(Zhang et aL, 1992) and long-term moored current meter (Chuang, 1986) in the
Taiwan Strait also show that near-bottom currents in the Strait are almost all
northward flowing all the year round. Therefore, there should be in winter a similar
"against the wind" current in the Taiwan Strait, connecting the Taiwan Warm
Current and South China Sea Warm Current at the northern and southern ends,
forming a continuous northward and counter-wind current all along the southeastern
coast of China (Guan, 1984b).
REFERENCES
Cao, Xin-zhong (1980) "The numerical model of the summer surface salinity distribution of the Changjiang
Diluted Water", Acta Oceanological Sinica 2(2), 1-6 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Chen, Ji-liang (1978) "Some viewpoints concerning the methods and accuracy of the observations of
temperature and salinity of sea water", Oceanic /llStrnmentation 1(1978),59-61 (in Chinese).
Chuang, WS. (1986) "A note of the driving mechanisms of current in the Taiwan Strait",1. Oceanogr. Soc.
Japan 42, 355-361.
Guan, Bing·xian (Kwan Pinghsien) (1962) "Some problems concerning the study of the current structure
of the nearshore area of China Sea", Oceanologw et Linlllologia Sinica 4(3-4), 121-141 (in Chinese,
with English abstract).
Guan, Bing·xian (Kwan Pinghsien) (1963) "A preliminary study of the temperature variations and the
characteristics of the circulation of the cold water mass of the Yellow Sea", Oceanologw et Limnologia
Sinica 5(4), 255-284 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Guan, Bing-xian (1978) "The warm current in the South China Sea-a current flowing against the wind
in winter in the open sea off Guangdong Province", Oceanologw et Limnologia Sinica 9(2), 117-127
(in Chinese, with English abstract).
Guan, Bing-xian (1983) "A sketch of the current structures and eddy characteristics in the East China Sea",
in Proc. of Symposium on Sedimentation on the Continental Shelf with Special Reference to the East
China Sea (April, 1983, Hangzhou), pp. 52-73.
Guan, Bing·xian (1984a) "Major features of the shallow water hydrography in the East China Sea", in T.
Ichiye (ed.), Ocean Hydrodynamics of the Japan and East China Seas, Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, pp. 1-14.
Guan, Bing-xian (1984b) "Evidences for a current flowing against the wind in winter in the off-shore region
of the South China Sea and the East Olina Sea", in Reports on Oceanological Studies of the Bohai
Sea, Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea, pp. 142-150 (in Chinese).
Guan, Bing-xian and Chen, Shang-ji (1964) The Current Systems in the Near-Sea Area of the China Seas",
pp. 1-85 (in Chinese).
Guo, Bing-huo (1982) "The temperature and salinity structures and the circulation in the Yellow Sea", in
Proc. of the Japan-China Ocean Study Symposium, Oct. 1981, Shimizu, pp. 174-197.
Guo, Zhong-xin and Huang, Yu-ting (1982) "Effects of the northeastern wind on the temperature and
salinity distribution in area of Nanhai Warm Current-a preliminary analysis of the results of
dynamic experiments of Nanhai Warm Current", Collections of Abstracts of Symposium of Chinese
Hydrometeorologic Conference III, 2, 35-36 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Hsueh, Y. and Romca, R.D. (1986) "Winter winds and coastal sea-level fluctuations in the northeast China
Sea, Part II, Numerical model", J. Physical Oceanography 16,241-261.
Huh, O.S. (1982) "Satellite observations and the annual cycle of surface circulation in the Yellow Sea, East
China Sea and Korea Strait", La mer. 20, 210-222.
Inoue, N. (1981) Abstracts of Lectures in Autumn Assembly of Oceanographic Society of Japan, p. 105
(in Japanese).
JHO (Japanese Hydrographic Department) (1925) Meteorological and Ocean Current Charts in the
Adjacent Sea of Japan (in Japanese).
Le, Ken-tang (1984) "A preliminary study on the salinity distribution and the current structure of the
Changjiang Diluted Water in the flood periods", in Reports on Oceanological Studies of the Bohai
Sea, Huanghai Sea and East China Sea, pp. 151-163 (in Chinese).
Lim, D.E. (1971) "On the origin of the Tsushima Current Water", 1. Oceanogr. Soc. Korea 6(2), 85-91.
Mao, Han-lee, Gan, Tse-chun, and Lan, Shu-fang (1963) "A preliminary study of the Yangtze diluted
water and its mixing process", Oceallologw et Limnologia Sinica 5(3),183-206 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Miita, T. and Ogawa, Y. (1984) "Tsushima current measured with current meters and drifters", in T. Ichiye
(ed.), Ocean Hydrodynamics of the Japan and East China Seas, Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, pp. 67-76.
Sawara, '[ and Hanzawa, Y. (1979) "Distribntion of water type in the East China Sea", Umi to Sora 54(4),
135-148 (in Japanese).
Shuto, K. (1982) "A review of sea conditions in the Japan Sea", La mer. 20(2), 119-124.
Su, Ji-lan, Guan, Bing-xian, and Jiang, Jing-zhong (1990) "The Kuroshio, Part I, Physical Features",
Oceanogr. Mar. BioI. Antill. Rev. 28, 11-71.
Su, Ji-lan and Pan, Yu-qiu (1987) "On the shelf circulation of the Kuroshio north of Taiwan", Acta
Oceanologica Sillica 6(suppl. I), 1-20.
Suda, K. (1938) "Annual variation of the Tsushima Current", Limnol. Mag. 8,205-215 (in Japanese).
Sun, Xiang-ping (1980) "Some examples in variability of the cold water mass of the Yellow Sea and sea
ice of the Bohai Sea caused by the climatic anomaly", TrallS. of Oceanol. Limnol. 1, 1-8 (in Chinese,
wi th English abstract).
Weng, Xue-chuan and Wang, Cong-min (1984) "A preliminary study on the T-S characteristics and the
origin of T.'liwan Warm Current in summer", Studw Marina Sinica 21, 113-133 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Yi, S. (1970) "Variations of oceanic condition and mean sea level in the Korean Strait", in J.D. Marr (ed.),
The Kuroshio-A Symposium on the Japan Current, Eastwest Center Press, Honolulu, pp. 125-14l.
Yuan, Yao-chu, Su, Ji-lan, and Zhao, Jing-san (1982) "A single layer model of the contlllental shelf
circulation in the East China Sea", La mer. 20, 131-135.
Yuan, Ye-li (1979) "A preliminary study on the circulation related to the cold water mass of the Yellow
Sea, I", Oceall%gia et Limll%gia 10(3),187-199 (in Chinese).
Zhang, Yi-ken, Weng, Xue-chuan, Zhang, Qi-long, and Wang, Zong-min (1992) "Bottom current in the
Taiwan Strait", in Selections of the Ocean Circulation Study Symposium, China Ocean Press, 28--40
(in Chinese).
Zhang, Yuan-kui and He, Xian-ming (1981) "The annual variation and its forecasting of the intensity of
cold water mass of the northwestern Yellow Sea in spring", Trans. Oceano/. LimlloL 1 (1981), 17-25
SOME STRIKING FEATURES OF CIRCULATION IN HUANGHAI
SEA AND EAST CHINA SEA
HU Dun-xin
IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
The coastal upwelling off Zhejiang Province, eddies southwest of Cheju Is. and
northeast of Taiwan, Changjiang (Yangtze River) plume, and the circulation related
to the Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass are four of the most significant features in the
Huanghai (Yellow) Sea and the East China Sea and will be discussed in this paper.
I. UPWELLING
A vertical motion is considered as upweIIinfo only where or when its velocity
reaches a much larger value, say, 10-5 cm/s to 10- cm/s in order of magnitude. There
are several areas of upwelling in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea (Fig. 1) (Guan,
1963; Hu et al., 1980, 1984). In this section, only the coastal upwelling off the
Zhejiang Province will be dIscussed, which is significant for both fishery and the
understanding of its physical process.
It can be easily seen from Fig. 2 that there is a cold water mass located off
Zhejiang in summer. Some nearshore isotherms become more convex and shallower
along 29°N from June to July. It is readily inferred that upwelling takes place there
(Hu et al., 1980).
So far, wind is considered as the main cause for coastal upwelling, including that
off Zhejiang (Guan and Chen, 1964). Southwesterly wind is prevailing in this region
in summer, wbich is favorable for upwelling. Hu et at. (1980) calculated the vertical
velocity based on the principle of flow volume conservation by using near-bottom
current measurements and bottom slope, and an average velocity of 8.6 X 10-3 cm/s
was yielded. At the same time the wind-driven vertical velocity was calculated on the
basis of Ekman transport using the average wind velocity in June and July, 1959 and
1963. The calculated wind-driven upwelling over a band of 25 n mile from the coast
is 6.8 X 10- 4 cm/s. Apparently the vertical velocity computed from the current
measurements near bottom is one order of magnitude greater than that computed
from the wind stress. This suggests that the major component of upwelling in summer
off Zhejiang is not wind-driven. In addition, though the prevailing northeastly wind
in winter is unfavorable for upwelling, near-bottom currents still show their
shoreward components, suggesting upwelling occurrence in winter. Therefore, there
must be another more important force for upwelling generation. Hu et aL (1980)
pointed out that there is a northward residual of the Kuroshio (NRK), branching
from the northeast of Taiwan (i.e., the Taiwan Warm Current). When NRK moves
27
ll6·
40·
N
38·
36·
34·
32·
30·
2S·
26·
24·
Fig. 1. The circulation in the Huanghai Sea and the
East China Sea.
>21
so
70
m
-
0 10 20 ...
m
Fig. 2. Thermal sections off the Zhejiang Province. Isotherms are in 0c. a, along 28°N, June 1963; b, along
29°N, June 1963; c, along 3DoN, June 1963; d, along 29°N, July 1963.
Some Striking Features of Circulation 29
northward, its bottom shallows, causing the nearshore upwelling with bottom Ekman
spiral effect.
Currents in summer on both sides of Taiwan direct northward. West of Taiwan,
a northeastward flow pushes the upper water to turn away from the coast, which is
also favorable for the upwelling off Zhejiang. The surface divergence is added by
bottom Ekman transport due to bottom friction, as the water in the Taiwan Strait is
mostly shallower than 60 m. In contrary, water northeast of Taiwan is much deeper,
and the NRK in the lower layer may easily climb up against the shelf to cause
upwelling. This was verified by data of bottom drifter in June, 1971. The upwelling
center must be somewhere near the Dachen Island off Zhejiang.
Two methods were used to calculate the vertical velocity. One is based on the
principle of water volume conservation with near-bottom current measurements.
Another is called "anomaly-correcting method" (Hu et aL, 1980, 1984) that avoids
limitations of Sverdrup's method, according to whlch there will be no upwelling when
isotherms are not displaced in vertical from time to time. The two methods gave
quite consistent vertical velocities, in average approximately 6.1 X 10-3 cm/s for
summer and 2.7 X 10-3 cmls for winter. Combined with calculated wind-driven vertical
velocities, the upwelling caused by the NRK is estimated as S.7x 10-3 cm/s for
summer and 3.6 X 10- 3 cmls for winter.
In terms of energy conversion, when the NRK brings about upwelling, kinetic
energy is converted partially into potential energy nearshore (causing higher sea
level), which will be released as offshore current. This current, combined with the
original coastal current, forms the resultant coastal current which is slightly offshore.
Current measurements in the East China Sea (Fig. 3) show that currents in the
bottom layer are left-lateral of those in the upper layer. This may be explained by the
bottom Ekman spiral. So in a broad sense upwelling takes place almost all over the
East China Sea shelf.
122· 124· E
26·
Fig. 3. Residual currents in the East China Sea in
summer. Solid line-at 5 m level; dashed line-
near bottom.
II. EDDIES
The discovery of mesoscale eddies in the ocean was the most exciting event in
oceanography in the 1970's. Since then, a furore about eddies remained for about a
decade, during which a couple of eddies were discovered in the China seas (Hu et aL,
1980, 1984; Guo, 1981; Pu, 1981; Guan, 1983; Mao et al., 1983; Xing, 1983; Ding,
1985; Zhao, 1985). Geographically these eddies are located respectively about 200 Ian
southwest of the Cheju Is., about 200 Ian east of northern Jiangsu Province, and
northeast of Taiwan. We can also call the gyres between the Shandong and Liaodong
peninsulas and between China and South Korea as eddies.
Eddies in the Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea are more steady in terms
of time and space than those in oceans. All the cyclonic eddies or gyres here take
place on the left side of the Kuroshio, and an anticyclonic eddy exists on the right
side of the NRK (Fig. 1), while in the Atlantic Ocean, cyclonic eddies or rings are
formed on the right side of the Gulf Stream. This sug~ests that the formation
mechanism of eddy is very different on the shelf from that III oceans. In this section,
emphasis will be laid upon the eddy southwest of the Cheju Island as an example.
A. The Eddy in the Northern East China Sea
There are three current systems converging in the northern East China Sea, the
Huanghai Sea Warm Current (HSWC) flowing into the Huanghai Sea from the
southeast, the Huanghai Sea Coastal Current (HSCC) directin~ to the East China
Sea from the north, and the Northward Residual of the KuroshIo (NRK) spreading
from the south (Fig. 1). The bottom current in the northern East China Sea from late
fall to winter is a horizontal counterclockwise circulation with considerable extension
(Inoue, 1975).
Hu et aL (1980) discovered a year-round cyclonic eddy centering at about
31°30'N, 125°30'E with a horizontal scale of 100-200 Ian and a full vertical scale, with
a cold center near where the eddy occurred (Fig. 4). Current measurements (Mao et
al., 1983) showed that the eddy was distinguishable below 10 m in summer and
winter, and below 5 m in spring and fall. In winter, when the southward wind was
strong, the HSCC was intensified in the south, HSWC became stronger as
compensation, and HSCWM (the Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass) further extended
to the south so that the eddy moved to the south. On the other hand, under the
prevailing southerly wind in summer, HSCC and HSWC are weak, and the eddy is
weak and moves northward. If the map of current vectors and dynamical heights is
superimposed onto that of sediment (mud), the eddy will be well consistent with the
isolated round mud patch in location and size (Hu, 1984a). Then the mud
distribution may be considered as both the result and the evidence of long-term
current (thousands of years) existence of the eddy.
Due to insufficient current measurements, the variability of the eddy is examined
by analyzing the thermohaline structure, which is remarkable in summer. The eddy
is strongly correlated with its thermal structure. The stronger the eddy, the more
distinguished is the upwelled water. So the closeness of isotherms at certain horizon
can be considered as a reliable indicator of the strength of the eddy. Correlation
analysis was made of the number of closed isotherms to the westmost distance of the
34 psu isohaline from 128°E along 32°N, which can be considered as indicative of the
extent and strength of HSWC and the intensity of the Kuroshio's effects on the eddy
(Mao et al., 1983). A positive correlation was found, indicating that the cyclonic eddy
gets stronger when the HSWC gets wider or stronger. From these facts, there seems
to be an interannual variability of shelf circulation, about which little is known so far.
Fig. 5 shows the correlation of the eddy strength in terms of every June's temperature
nr~~~~ln2~4~·M-_l_2~5·____1_2_6_·___1~2_7·____1~28·!
32·
31·
..
27
Fig. 4. Distribution of temperature and salinity at 20 m level (a), and temperature section along 32°N (b)
in July-August, 1972. Solid line is isotherm; dashed line isohaline.
anomaly at 20 m level along 32°N to the EI Nino index of SST anomaly at Puerto
Chicama, Peru. Among the 17 June temperature anomalies, 15 anomalies were higher
than 3.3°C in absolute value correspond to EI Nino years such as 1963, 1965, 1972,
1976, 1979, and 1982, and all the eddy temperature anomalies lower than 3.3°C in
absolute value correspond to non-EI Nino years. That suggests that the eddy is
strongly correlated to El Nino events and becomes stronger about 6 months before
the EI Nino period (Hu, 1986a).
, -5.2 _
-4.8
;'
-;.,
-4.4 "0
-4.0 ...'""
...°c -3.6 ...°
;.,
'E"
....." -3.2 0
...o -2.8 .."'"

" -2 -2.4 .,":>
II
'..""
'"
..
C -2.0 0.
Fig. 5. Relationship between the H
E
eddy strength (dots-temperature -4 -1. 6
anomalies \lear the eddy center) and -1.2
an index of El Nino (curve). 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
Attention is paid usually to the relationship between El Nino off Peru and the
wann pool in the western tropical Pacific. Actually, there must be some kind of
physical process which propagates northward from the tropical Pacific and has an
effect on shelf circulation such as the eddy we are talking about. In this case, the
warm pool in the western tropical Pacific is the energy source for El Nino events and
the interannual variability of the eddy. However, this is just a hypothesis. We should
try to really understand the physics of the process and finally to model the process
in order to contribute to the prediction of the interannual climate change.
B. The Wann Eddy Northeast of Thiwan
Constrained by the geometry and bottom topography, Kuroshio and its branches
enter the East China Sea and the Huanghai Sea mostly from the right-hand side of
the seas. With a return coastal current, these form a cyclonic circulation pattern.
Hence most major eddies are formed left of the Kuroshio and its branches and are
cold near their centers in summer due to upwelling. On the contrary, wann eddies
are mainly formed on their right (Fig. 1). In what follows, we will focus on the eddy
northeast of Taiwan. The eddy was centered at 27°N, 123°30'E, about 100 n mile in
horizontal scale, about 75 m thick, and warmer and less saline than its surroundings.
It was elliptical with the long axis directing southwest. The center of the eddy moved
northwestward and then moved back eastward. The thennohaline structure is
consistent with the dynamical topography in showing the existence of the eddy and
the change of its center position with depth. In terms of geostrophy, the average
velocity was 7 cm/s with a maximum of 13 cm/s on its southern side. Calculated
vertical velocity was in the order of 10-3 cm/s, downwelling near its center and
upwelling near its edges (Xing, 1983).
The high temperature and low salinity were not observable at the sea surface
near the eddy center, thus the wann eddy is easily ignored (Guan, 1983). That should
be common for warm eddies everywhere, unless they have independent external
sources of heat and fresh water, or, like those near the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic
Ocean, they are temporarily separated from their main stream due to meandering.
However, eddies on the shelf, cyclonic or anticyclonic, are mainly caused by current
systems, geometry of coastline, and bottom topography. In this case, the water, at the
surface for anticyclonic eddy and in the lower layer for cyclonic eddy, must be similar
in properties with its surroundings. The T-S diagram (Guan, 1983) showed that the
eddy water above 75 m was similar with the water from the Taiwan Strait and
different from that of Kuroshio. This suggests that the main cause of the eddy must
be the current from the Taiwan Strait with Taiwan Island as an obstacle. On the basis
of Hidaka's experiment (1962), Xing (1983) pointed out that two eddies, one cyclonic
and one anticyclonic, must occur northeast of Taiwan. This may be explained by the
transverse circulation. Driven by the prevailing southwesterly wind, the high
temperature and low salinity current flows from the strait to the northeast away from
the coast and piles up offshore, where it sinks and is balanced by an opposing inshore
flow in the bottom layer, causing the coastal upwelling. From our point of view, two
northeastward currents on both sides of Taiwan are asymmetric and unequal in
strength. The one from the Taiwan Strait is stronger in the upper layer in summer
than the NRK east of Taiwan, since the main body of Kuroshio turns right before it
reaches the north end of Taiwan. However, in the lower layer, say, below 75 m, the
NRK will be dominant northeast of Taiwan, which is the main cause of coastal
upwelling off Zhejiang and Fujian as discussed previously. Then stronger current west
SOUle Striking Features of Circulation 33
of Taiwan must result in an anticyclonic eddy, which is bigger and stronger than the
cyclonic eddy generated by the weaker current east of Taiwan. Judging from the main
cause of the warm eddy described above and the fact that the northeastward current
from the Taiwan Strait occurs in the warm half of the year, it can be inferred that the
warm eddy northeast of Taiwan occurs every year, at least in summer. Of course, we
need more measurements to verify the conclusion.
III. THE CHANGJIANG RIVER PLUME
The Changjiang (Yangtze) River is the largest river in Asia and the third on the
earth in terms of runoff ,9X
1011 m 3/a), and the fourth in the world in terms of
sediment discharge (5 X 10 t/a).
The Changjiang Plume is defined as the water body of salinity less than 26 psu
(Mao et al., 1963). Its nearshore segment (generally shallower than 20 m) is vertically
quite homogeneous in current. For the offshore segment, with the distance away from
the river mouth, the bottom depth increases abruptly, the current decreases rapidly,
and the lateral diffusion increases. Farther away, the plume thins, and the intrusion
of more saline water may occur in the lower layer. Sometimes two fresher tongues
(lower than 10 psu in salinity) appear in the nearshore segment (Le, 1980).
After analyzing the salinity distribution, Mao et al. (1963) described the direction
change of the plume. In winter, the plume flows southward along the coast within a
considerably narrow band (Fig. 6a). During the flood period when runoff of the river
is large, it directs to the Cheju Island and even reaches the Tsushima Current (Fig.
6b). Occasionally, however, the plume turns left and directs to the Cheju Island in
winter (Pu, 1983), while directs to the southeast in summer (Le, 1983).
122 ' 124' 122' 123 •

a
b
33
N
0 ) /
34 31 "&
30
,),)
Fig. 6. Salinity distribution at the sea surface off

the Changjiallg River Mouth. (a) Feb., 1978; (b)
June, 1975.
There are so many arguments about the directional change of the plume after
the fresh water empties into the East China Sea. On the basis of qualitative analysis
of the vorticity equation, Mao et aL (1963) examined quite a few factors which might
cause the left-turning of the plume, focusing on the bottom effect and the effect of
horizontal divergence of velocity. Other factors include the effects of baroclinicity,
{3, advective transport, horizontal divergence of current, friction (wind), etc. In
conclusion, all the factors are favorable for its turning left in summer. Le (1984)
proposed a model with amount of runoff and bottom slope as main factors. Cui
(1984) focused on the interaction of bottom slope and the detention of transverse
pressure gradient in order to model the left-turning. Gu (1985) suggested the
importance of the ambient current field, wind field, and pressure field. The striking
feature of the left-turning Changjiang plume can seemingly be explained by any of
these models. The question now is what is the dominant factor? The bottom slope
is obviously favorable for the left-turning from the point of view of potential vorticity
conservation. However, the bottom slope is common for all the rivers of the world
and is the same for both summer and winter. Why do some other river plumes, like
the Savannah River plume (Blanton and Atkinson, 1983) and the Chesapeake Bay
Plume (Boicourt, 1981), turn right during most period of the year? And why does the
Changjiang plume turn left in summer and turn right in winter with the same bottom
slope? In addition, why does the plume turn left occasionally in winter?
On reviewing all the arguments, it seems that the wind could be the dominant
factor for the turning of the Changjiang plume. The wind over the East China Sea
is monsoonal, northeastward in summer and southwestward in winter. In summer,
because of the northward wind and the Kuroshio with its branches, the current is
northward or northeastward from the coast to offshore and from the surface to the
bottom. In winter, except for a very narrow band close to the coast where current is
southward or southwestward in the upper (less than 10 m) layer, the current is still
northward or northeastward as in summer because of the effect of the Kuroshio or
its branches. This can be verified from the distribution of total suspended matter near
the bottom. Once in a while, when wind collapses or reverses either in winter or in
summer for a certain period of time, say, about 4-5 days, the situation can be
changed and the plume turns right in summer or turns left in winter.
V. GENERAL CIRCULATION RELATED TO THE HUANGHAI SEA COLD
WATER MASS
The Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass (HSCWM), domed with a sharp thermo-
cline on the top with maximum temperature gradient of about 6°C/m (Fig. 7), is
another protruding feature in the China seas (Ho et al., 1959). Its characteristics,
formation mechanism, and related circulation are discussed by Su and Weng (this
volume). In the present paper, attention is focused on the general circulation based
on some distinct features, such as dissolved oxygen maxima in the thermocline and
the cold front.
A traditional concept of the circulation pattern in summer is that the cold water
mass causes a basin-wide cyclonic gyre with upwelling near the center and
downwelling at edges (Kwan, 1963). Mao et al. (1964) pointed out that dissolved
oxygen reaches an extremely high value near the interface between the cold deep
water and warm upper water, i.e. near the lower boundary of the thermocline, which
is the top of the HSCWM. After discussed seasonal variations in dissolved oxygen
content, its saturation, and water temperature, Gu (1982) concluded that the maxima
of dissolved oxygen beneath the thermocline in summer are remnants from winter
after the heating, which reduces oxygen content, in the upper layer in spring and
summer, and after the decomposition of organic matter, which consumes oxygen, in
the lower or bottom layer. It was noted (Hu, 1986b; Hu et ai, 1991) that the
existence of oxygen maxima indicates that no water goes through the thermocline
from the interior of the HSCWM to the warm upper layer. Otherwise the maxima
of dissolved oxygen in summer could not be almost the same as that in winter even
with the increased temperature.
Dalian Chengshan
o
10
20
30
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution along the Dalian- E

Chengshantou section in June 1977. ~-------------'
For the occurrence of upwelling in the HSCWM front in summer (Zhao, 1986),
a formation mechanism was proposed (Hu, 1986b; Qu and Hu, 1992). The bottom
of the HSCWM is concave in the central portion of the sea. The tidal current in the
coastal part of the sea is much stronger than that in the deeper part, and water is
well mixed vertically by bottom friction in the coastal zone. While III the central part
of the sea, the surface layer is free of bottom friction and thus is warmer with heating
from the surface. So a surface cold water zone must be formed somewhere between
the warmer coastal and offshore waters by tidal mixing (a conversion from kinetic
energy to potential energy). This induces two thermally-driven currents in opposite
directions (a conversion from potential energy to kinetic energy), causing divergence
in the upper layer and hence upwelling.
On the basis of the existence of oxygen maxima and front-caused upwelling, Hu
et al. (1991) proposed a conceptual model for the summer circulation in the South
Huanghai Sea. Since no upwelling gets through the thermocline, and the isotherms
in the upper layer of the South Huanghai Sea are of a concave shape, downwelling
must take place in the central part of the HSCWM, at least in the upper layer. This
is opposite to the results of Kwan (1963) and Yuan (1979). In fact, there is a cyclonic
circulation between the coast and the cold front in the upper layer, while in the
central portion of the South Huanghai Sea there is an anticyclonic gyre causing
downwelling. Between the cyclonic and anticyclonic circulations, a cold front occurs
(Fig. 8). Regarding the vertical circulation, downwelling occurs near the center and
along coastal bands, and upwelling occurs near fronts (Fig. 9). This has been verified
by a theoretic model (Feng et ai., 1992).
It must be noted that in the Huanghai Sea tidal current and wind-driven current
are one order of magnitude stronger than the residual current, so the thermal-driven
circulation is barely above the noise level. Thus, the verification of the conceptual
model of thermal circulation deduced above will requires more current measurements
in situ.
120· 122· 124 ·E

a b
36·
34·
32·
36'
34·
Fig. 8. Temperature eq distribution at 10 m level

(a), at distribution at 10 m level (b) and near the
32" bottom (c) in the South HuanghaI Sea, July 1983.
Heavy arrow indicates the direction of circulation
deduced.
C!----D
b
'C ~
Fig. 9. A conceptual model of thermal-driven circulation in the South Huanghai Sea in summer. (a)
Horizontal circulation in upper layer; (b) vertical circulation in bottom layer; (c) horizontal circulation in
bottom layer. Solid line denotes circulation; dashed line isothenn; shaded area O 2 maxima.
Some Striking Features or Circulation 37
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and its mixing process", Oceallologia et Limnotogia Sinica 5(3), 183-206 (in Chinese, with English
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characteristics and water masses in the southern Huanghai Sea and northern East China Sea", Studia
Marilla Sillica I, 23-77 (in Chinese).
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in Proceedings of the Japan-China Ocean Study Symposium on Physical Oceanography and Marine
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circulation on the shelf', in Ocealllc and Anthropogenic Controls of Life in the Pacific Ocean, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, pp. 109-115.
Xing, Cheng-jun (1983) "A preliminary study on the anticyclonic eddy in summer of 1973", Oceano/.
Lim II 01. Sillica 14(13),263-271 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
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China Sea", Oceano/. Linmo/. Sinica 16(3), 240-248 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
HUANG Qi-zhou and WANG Wen-zhi

South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academic Sillica
GliangzllOll 510301, ChiJla
y. S. LI and C. W. LI
Department of Civil alld Stl7lctllral Ellgineering, HOllg Kong Polytechnic
HOllg KOllg
I. INTRODUCTION
The South China Sea (SCS) is one of the lar¥est marginal seas of the West Pacific
Ocean, with a surface area of 3.5 x 106 Ian. It extends across the tropical and
sub-tropical zones, with an average annual precipitation of 2000 mm. A large amount
of freshwater enters the sea from the Zhujiang (Pearl) River in the north and from
the Mekong River in the southwest. The SCS is connected to the East China Sea, the
Pacific Ocean, the Sulu Sea, the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean through the Taiwan,
Bashi, Balabac, Karimata, and Malacca straits, respectively. All these straits are
narrow and shallow, except the Basm Channel whose maximum depth is over 2000 m.
Consequently, the SCS is a semi-enclosed water body. The bottom topography of the
SCS is complicated. Wide continental shelves appear in the north and in the south;
steep slopes in the east and in the west. The 200 m isobath encloses a NE-elongated
rhomboid basin. The Luzon, Manila, and Nansha troughs are distributed on the east
slope, while the Dongsha, Xisha, Zhongsha and Nansha islands form underwater
plateaus. Strong northeastly winter monsoon and weaker southwestly summer
monsoon prevail at the sea surface. Due to the great expanse of the SCS, the
beginning and ending of winter or summer monsoon may lag for up to three months
from the south to the north. During the transitional periods between winter and
summer monsoons, different controlling wind fields may coexist at the sea surface.
These environmental factors have determined the hydrological features and the
complex current patterns of the SCS.
II. CURRENT SYSTEM
Early monthly surface current charts for the SCS were published by
Hydrographic Department (1945), Dale (1956), Wyrtki (1961), Brekhovskikh et al
(1983). Current patterns in these charts are somewhat different. Using a layered
numerical model, Pohlmann (1987) computed the 3-D current field of the SCS.
Through the effort of Chinese investigators, the SCS branch of the Kuroshio
(SCSBK) and the SCS warm current (SCSWC) were recognized (SCSIO, 1985; Guan,
1978), which modified the traditional view on the current system of the northern SCS.
Xu et al. (1982) utilized over 6000 data on the dynamic depth anomaly obtained in
1961-1970 and performed a statistical averaging of these data on a l°xl° grid for
39
each season. Charts of seasonal averaging geostrophic current for the layers above
1200 m were obtained, giving a relatively complete picture of the water circulation
at intermediate to upper layers ofthe SCS. Later, 2-D and 3-D numerical simulations
of the SCS circulation have been conducted, yielding meaningful results (Zeng et at.,
1989; Mao et at., 1992; Zhang, 1992).
A. Current Patterns at Intermediate to Upper Layers
The circulation at intermediate to upper layers of the SCS are mainly influenced
by monsoons. The prevailing winter monsoon results in a cyclonic circulation at the
surface layer, while the prevailing summer monsoon in an anti-cyclonic circulation
(Fig. 1). This basic pattern is distinctive as compared to those in the East China Sea
and the Huanghai sea, which are insensitive to monsoons. The reason may be that
the SCS is large, semi-enclosed, and only slightly affected by Kuroshio.
}
4"
400
cr 600
(82.6)
4" Oth
S
Fig. 1. Surface current patterns for the South Olina Sea (a) during winter monsoon and (b) during summer
monsoon (compiled from Qiu et ai., 1984; SCSIO, 1982, 1985, 1987; Dale, 1956; Uda and Nakao, 1974).
1. Currents in the Taiwan Strait
The analysis of a large number of current observations and temperature and

salinity data in the Taiwan Strait has confirmed the current direction in summer and
modified the previous view (Wyrtki, 1961) on the current direction in winter. In
winter, the current is southwestward only in the western coastal region of the strait;
in other regions the current is mainly northeastward, except under a strong
northeastly monsoon which makes the current at the upper layer turn southwestward
temporarily. Under the winter monsoon, the current in the Taiwan Strait is consistent
with the SCSWC in direction, but different in flux. The northeastward flux of the
SCSWC is 10 Sv (the geostrophic current field based on temperature and salinity
measurements at the greatest common depth available for two stations). If the
average water depth in the strait is 80 m and the average width is 100 n mile, the
current caused by the SCSWC will have a velocity of 67 cmls, which approximately
Current Characteristics 41
equals the average maximum current velocity of the northward main stream of
Kuroshio northeast of Taiwan (Chu, 1970), but is more than twice the average
current velocity in the strait obtained by long-term measurements in Taiwan (Chuang,
1986). Based on available current measurements for the strait, Zhao et al. (1991)
estimated the northeastward flux to be 1.05 Sv in winter and 2.1 Sv in summer.
According to these results, we believe that only a small portion of the SCSWC enters
the Taiwan Strait and flows to the north.
Based on the current data measured in the southern Taiwan Strait in summer,
and making reference to temperature, salinity, density and other chemical
parameters, Hu et al. (1992) pointed out that in summer the northeastward current
in the western part of the strait is originated from the extension of the SCSWC. Due
to the blocking effect of the Taiwan Bank and Taiwan Island, the left wing of the
SCS branch of Kuroshio changes its direction from northeast to southeast in the
southern part of the strait, and creates a sub-branch which starts from offshore
Gaoxiong and flows northward along the eastern part of the strait.
2. Current in the Bashi Channel
Historical current charts (Dale, 1956; Wyrtki, 1961) showed that the surface
current flows through the Bashi Channel from the SCS into the West Pacific Ocean
under the summer monsoon, and reverses its direction under the winter monsoon.
Recent investigations show, however, that the geostrophic current field in the Bashi
Channel has a staggered pattern, with currents moving eastward and westward in
alternative belts, and the current direction is vertically invariant (Huang, 1984). The
geostrophic current analysis, numerical simulation, and the current data obtained by
ADCP in spring, summer, and autumn also indicate that there is a branch of
Kuroshio entering the SCS through the Bashi Channel and exerts a great influence
on the hydrological condition and circulation pattern of the SCS, especially its
northern coastal areas (Huang, 1984; Guo et al., 1988; Zhang, 1992; Pu et al., 1992).
3. Kuroshio and Its South China Sea Branch (SCSBK)
Kuroshio is a western boundary current in the northern Pacific Ocean. Near the
Bashi Channel, the main body of Kuroshio flows northward approximately along
121°E, with a westward branch entering the SCS through the south-central portion
of the strait. This branch flows south of the SCSWC and has a flux of 8-10 Sv
(SCSIO, 1985). The axes of this branch and the SCSWC have relatively stable
positions west of 117°E, only slightly southward in winter (Ma et al., 1990). The
SCSBK can be thought as a relatively stable southwestward current.
4. South China Sea Warm Current (SCSWC)
This current appears in the coastal area east of the Zhujiang Estuary and in the
deep water off Guangdong. It always flows from SW to NE, even against the wind
in the winter monsoon. This current, considered similar to the Pacific Sub-tropical
Countercurrent, shows remarkable seasonal and inter-annual variations and weak
stability, endurance and persistence, even may be a sub-permanent current (Guan,
1978). The authors suggest that the SCSWC, blocked by the Taiwan Bank and the
Taiwan Island, may partially (especially its south wing) leave the SCS through the
northern Bashi Channel, either merges with Kuroshio or forms an eddy in the sea
area southwest of the Taiwan Islands.

Zeng et aL (1989) considered that the SCSWC is a compensation current
produced by a wind-induced current confined by surrounding coastlines and blocked
by bottom topography around the Xisha Islands. Ma et al. (1990) suggested that the
SCSWC is originated from a branch of Kuroshio in the south. According to the
authors, the SCSWC is a compensation current under the winter monsoon originated
in the sea area north of 16°N and adjacent to the Hainan Island, the Xisha Islands
and the central Vietnam. Under the winter monsoon, a part of the southwestward
Guangdong Costal Current (GCC) changes its direction near the convex coastline of
the eastern Vietnam. Meanwhile, a part of the westward-moving SCSBK turns right
by the shoaling seafloor, another part of the SCSBK turns northeastward due to the
blocking of the Xisha Islands, and the rest merges with the GCC and moves
southward along the eastern Vietnam coastline, forming the west wing of the SCS
circulation in winter. The SCSWC is probably formed by significantly modified
portions of SCSBK and GCe. While the SCSWC flows northeastward against the
wind in winter, it continuously accepts waters from the SCSBK and becomes stronger.
This explains why the coastal water and the open-sea water have a sharp boundary
in between, while the SCSWC and SCSBK, both appearing in the open sea, have only
a blurred boundary surface.
5. Guangdong Costal Current (GCC) and Zhujiang River Diluted Water (ZRDW)
The volume and width of the GCC are closely correlated with the seasonal
variation of freshwater runoff. The GCC is divided by the Zhujiang Estuary into the
East Guangdong Coastal Current (EGCC) and the West Guangdong Coastal Current
(WGCC). The direction of the EGCC is in accordance with that of monsoons. In
winter, EGCC moves southwestward with a narrow current width, and its eastern
portion is usually affected by the southward-moving East China Sea Coastal Current
(ECSCC). But when the SCSWC is strong and the ECSCC is weak in winter, the
SCSWC will occupy the entire coastal region east of the Jieshi Bay in East
Guangdong. In summer, the EGCC moves northeastward with a wide current width,
passing through the Taiwan Strait, and influencing the ECSCe. In contrast, the
WGCC flows southwestward all year around. Only a strong southwestly monsoon may
result temporarily in a northeastward current at the surface layer. The WGCC is also
narrow in winter and wide in summer. In summer the WGCC carries the characteris-
tics of a complementary current. The GCC is an important feature of the SCS
current system and distincts the coastal current system of the SCS from that in the
East China Sea and in the Huanghai Sea.
The ZRDW significantly influences the hydrological status of the northern SCS.
During the summer monsoon, the ZRDW may reach the Dongsha Islands, covering
the regions north of 21°N and east of the Zhujiang Estuary. In winter, it affect only
the region around and west of the Zhujiang Estuary. Seasonal and inter-annual
variations of the freshwater front are significant and directly controlled by the water
discharge of the Zhujiang River. Apart from the relative small runoff of the Zhujiang
River, the current off its estuary is extremely complicated because of the large
number of outlets and many small islands which divert the current into many routes
to the sea. In general, the core of ZRDW moves slightly southwestward under the
winter monsoon, and southeastward under the summer monsoon. The sensitivity of
the core position of the ZRDW to monsoons is distinctively different from the fan-
shaped oscillation of the Changjiang Diluted Water in the East China Sea.
Currcnt Charaetcl'istics 43
B. Current in the Near-Bottom Layer of the Continental Shelf
A preliminary picture of the current in the near-bottom layer of the shelf area
of the SCS is obtained based on geostrophic current field supplemented with some
current observations (Fig. 2). The trend of the circulation in the near-bottom layer
is similar to that in the surface layer. A cyclonic circulation appears in the winter
monsoon; an anti-cyclonic circulation in the summer monsoon. However, the near-
bottom current in the Taiwan Strait always flows northeastward throughout the year
(FlO, 1989; Zhang et al., 1991). In Fig. 2 we included the observed residual currents
at 30 m and 50 m layers which provided evidences for the near bottom current in the
northern SCS, but for the southern SCS there is only one station at Zengmu Ansha
providing observations on near bottom current.
10<1 10" lOB' 112" 116" 10<1 104' lOB' 112" 116"
N N
24· a 24' b
20' 20'
16"
" "
O' O'
Fig. 2. The near bottom current in continental shelf of the South China Sea (a) during winter monsoon
and (b) during summer monsoon. --+, ObselVed residual current at (a) 30 mlayer or (b) 50 m layer (after
Ma et at., 1992; SCSIO, 1987); - -+, Direction of bottom drift (after FLO, 1989); ---+, Equipotential line
for the 100 m layer averaged at lOx 1° grid (in m2s-~1O-2, reference level 1200 m) (a) from Dec. to Feb.
or (b) from June to Aug.
III. EDDIES
Eddies in the SCS are predominantly cyclonic in winter and anti-cyclonic in
summer, with sizes ranging from small to medium scale. Dale (1956) and Uda and
Nakao (1974) reported a cold eddy offthe central Vietnam in summer; Nitain (1970)
found a cold eddy in the sea area northwest of Luzon. SCSIO (1982, 1985) pointed
out that during the early stage of the NE monsoon in winter, there is a cold eddy (a
cyclonic density circulation) east of the central Vietnam and possibly an anti-cyclomc
density circulation in the central SCS; during the prevalence of the southwestly
monsoon in summer, directions of these two eddies are reversed. A cold eddy exists
west of the Dongsha Islands throughout the year; a relatively steady cold eddy in the
Nansha Trough in winter, spring and summer. In between the Natuna Islands and the
Wan'an Bank in the southwest SCS there is a localized cold eddy with large seasonal
and inter-annual variations. In the south-central SCS, anti-cyclonic circulations (warn

eddies) appear in summer and winter, but more close to Vietnam in summer at the
surface. Cold or warm eddies also exist in reef areas and the resulted current
condition is very complicated. The abovementioned eddies in the southern SCS were
not shown in early current charts.
There are two distinct features for the eddies in the SCS. First, they are mostly
cold eddies. This is obviously related to the fact that cyclonic eddies are more stable
than anti-cyclonic eddies (Luo, 1963). Second, the eddies occur in places where the
current velocity is high (e.g. SCSWC, SCSBK, Central Vietnam Coastal Current), or
where the coastline or bottom topography has a concave shape (e.g. off the
Zhanjiang Harbor). The importance of bottom topography is also verified by Wang
(1986) who analyzed the data of CTD placed in the deep sea southwest of Taiwan
and pointed out that the bottom layer of the northern SCS has a "cold-center"
circulation structure.
Large scale eddies with significant energy also exist in the SCS, mainly in
summer. These eddies are produced during the passage of tropical cyclones which are
originated from the West Pacific Ocean or in the SCS itself. Up to now, the only
current data set available is that from an anchored buoy station at a water depth of
210 m south of the Zhujiang Estuary during the passage of the typhoon Georgia in
1983. The analysis of this data set (Ke et ai., 1987) indicated that the energy transfer
is intense from the tropical cyclone to the current. The average current speed during
the passage of the tropical cyclone is more than twice larger than its value under a
normal weather condition (wind speed less than Beaufort Scale 6). The maximum
current speed occurred 6 to 8 hours behind the time of maximum wind speed. The
influence of the tropical cyclone disappeared in 3-4 days after the passage of its
center. These results are consistent with the data reported abroad. Yu et ai. (1990)
developed a numerical modelling of wind-induced current under tropical cyclones.
IV. UPWELLINGS
Upwellings in the SCS occur extensively with a strong strength. They are usually
co-exist with cold eddies. In summer, upwellings occur more often in the nearshore
areas from the Zhujiang Estuary to Shantou, off the eastern Hainan island, and off
the central Vietnam. This is because that the summer monsoon produces a
northeastward wind-induced surface current (Ekman type drift current) and a
seaward transport of water mass, leading to upwellings in these areas. Chen et aL
(1982) pointed out that the upwelling in the sea area surrounded by coastlines of
Shantou, Xiamen and the Taiwan Bank in summer may migrate to the sea area
southwest of the Taiwan Bank in autumn and winter. Hong et ai. (1986) noted the
shift of the upwelling from the sea area southwest of Taiwan toward the western
coast of Taiwan under the northeastly monsoon.
Previous studies of upwellings in the SCS were based on the concept of monsoon
origin. Thus a general view is that upwellings in the northern SCS are seasonal,
created in spring, enhanced in summer, and dissipates in autumn. The report of an
upwelling in winter (Chen et ai., 1982) contradicts this view. The authors suggest that
an upwelling may occur in winter near the Jieshi Bay in East Guangdong, because
this is an area with radiating current in winter (Fig. 1). An upwelling occurred in the
coastal area of the Eastern Hainan in Dec. 1984 (Fig. 3). Thus in fact upwellings
occur throughout the year, at least in some area of the northern SCS, and their
positions are subject to seasonal variations.
Fig. 3. The equipotential lines (in m 2s- 2 x 10- 2) at

the surface layer and the residual current at 3D m
layer (arrows) in the northwestem South China Sea
in Dec., 1984. Summer upwellings occur in the
shaded area (from Han et at., 1990).
V. ABOUT DEEP CURRENT
In the SCS, the area enclosed by the 1000 m isobath accounts for about 2/3 of
the total area, but current data at or below this depth are very scarce (Huang et aI.,
1992). This section introduces the current field at 2000 m layer computed by the f3-
spiral method of Yuan et al. (1988) as an example of the deep currents in the SCS
(Wang et aI., 1993).
Current fields in 2000 m layer in summer and winter are very similar (Fig. 4).
Depth = 2000m (win.) Depth=2000m (sum.)

2~'--------------------r---''-T-,
N
2~'-------------------'---~-'r-.
21" 21'
19"
1T 1T
u, 15'
1~ 1~
11' 11"
T T
Fig. 4. Computed current fields at the 2000 m layer of the South China Sea (a) in winter and (b) in
summer.
The current in the Bashi Channel directs southward and has a branch entering the
SCS, forming an anti-cyclonic circulation in the western strait. Local eddies exist
south of the Zhongsha Islands and at the outer sea southeast of the Mekong River
in winter. Cyclonic eddies exist east of the Zhongsha Islands, also in the sea east of
the Kim Lam Bay of Vietnam. The difference between the deep current and the
intermediate to upper current in the Bashi Channel is apparent. The authors suggest
that the southward current in the Bashi Channel and the southward current east of
Taiwan and Philippines (Guan, 1992) may belong to the same water body. Bottom
typography and coastal shape are thought to be important factors for the cyclonic
circulatIOn in the sea off the Kim Lam Bay. Results of numerical modelling (Mao et
ai., 1992) also support the above pattern of deep currents.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The current pattern in the SCS is much more complicated than the previous
model that assumes the direction of upper layer currents is in accordance with the
prevailing wind direction. Three major currents occur in intermediate to upper layers
of the northern SCS, i.e., the southwestward GCC, the northeastward SCSWC, and
the southwestward SCSBK. These three currents form a system of SW-NE-SW
alternative currents.
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changes", in The Kuroshio Proceedings of the 3rd CSK Symposium, Bangkok, Thailand, 1972, pp.
161-188.
Wang, loe (1986) "Observation of abyssal currents in the northern South China Sea",Acta Oceallographica
Taiwaflica Science Reports of the National Taiwan University 16,36--45.
Wang, Wen-zhi, Huang, Oi-zhou, Fu, Sun-cheng, Li, Y.S. and Chau, K.w. (1993) "Calculation for currents
in deep area in South Olina Sea", Tropic Oceanology (in press) (in Chinese, with English abstract).
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Naga Report 2, 195.
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circulation in the South China Sea", in Proceedings of the Conference of the Chinese Oceanology and
Limnology Society and Hydrology and Meteorology Society (1980), Science Press, Beijing, pp. 127-145
(in Olinese).
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current generatcd by Typhoon 8309 (Ellen, 1983)", Oceaflologio et Limllologia Sillica 21(5),433--441
(in Chinese).
Yuan, Yao-chu, Su, 1 i-Ian, and Zhou, Wei-dong (1988) "Calculation of the Kuroshio current south of 1apan
in May-lune 1986", Prog. OcearlOg. 21,503-514.
Zeng, Oing-cun, Li, Rong-feng, and Ji, Zhong-zhen, Gan, Zi-jun, and Ke, Pei-hui (1989) "Calculation of
monthly mean currents of the South China Sea", Chinese 1. of Atmospheric Scieflces 13(2), 127-138.
Zhang, Yi-ken, Weng, Xue-chuan, Zhang, Oi-Iong, and Wang Cong-min (1991) "Bottom current in Taiwan
Strait", Oceanologia et Limllologia Sillica 22(2), 124-131 (in Chinese).
Zhang, Meng-you (1992) "Three-dimensional numerical simulation for the winter circulation in the
South China Sea", (Thesis for master degree in South China Sea Institute of Oceanology) (in Chinese,
Zhao, Bao-ren, Fang, Guo-hong (1991) "The estimate of transport of the main water route in the East
China Sea", Acta Oceallologio Sillica 13(2), 169-178.
ON THE VARIATION OF KUROSHIO IN EAST CHINA SEA
SUN Xiang-ping
First Illstitute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration
SU Yu-fen
Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration
Hangzhou 310012, Chilla
The Kuroshio in the East China Sea (ECS) is an important part of Kuroshio. Its
variation is responsible for sea conditions, determines to a large extent the location
of fishing grounds, affects the movement of polluting substances, and causes drought
or excessive rain in the eastern ECS, and forms the large meander in the seas south
of Japan.
Spatial-temporal variations of the Kuroshio are mainly in velocity and transport,
and the swing and meander of the axis. In this study, the structure of the velocity, the
transport and the path of the Kuroshio in the ECS were analyzed according to
historical data from Japanese observations and data from the China-Japan Joint
Research Program on the Kuroshio.
I. SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF SURFACE PATH AND WIDTH OF THE
KUROSHIO
The surface path of the Kuroshio in the ECS is plotted in Fig. 1. For compa-
rison, this path is divided into four sectors. Sector A covers the area near the east
coast of Taiwan south of 25°N; sector B the area north of 25°N and west of 125°30'E;
sector C between 125°30'E and 129°E, and sector D east of 129°E. The seasonal
variations are significant at sectors A, Band D, especially B, but very small at C.
The path of the sector A, an entrance of the Kuroshio in the East China Sea, is
quite stable and nearly parallel to the east coast of Taiwan in winter and summer (no
datum for spring and autumn). However, this path is to the west and close to the
coast (17-30 n mile) in winter, and to the east and away from the coast (30-70 n
mile) in summer. This conclusion is consistent with that of Chu (1967), Guan (1979)
and Gu (1984). The seasonal difference is mainly caused by monsoons. The seasonal
variation of the path of the Kuroshio is the most complicated at sector B. Guan
(1979), and Kondo and Tarnai (1975) pointed out that the surface axis of the
Kuroshio always has a small anticyclonic meander in autumn and winter. The results
shown in Fig. 1 basically support their conclusion, but indicate some differences. The
meander appears in both seasons, and the yearly mean path stretches first northward
and then eastward or southeastward. The largest meander occurs in autumn, the next
in winter, the third in spring and the smallest in summer.
49
, 129°E
(I)-multiyear average
---~
«2) -meander present
-._ ....,
(3) -meander absent
!!
~ Spring
---+Summer
-. _.+ Autumn
- ••• _ol) Winter
Fig. 1. The surface path of the Kuroshio in the ECS (replotted by using the GEK measured current data
of 1953-1977 from JODe, 1979).
The path at sector C was somewhat to the east in the area south of the PN
section in winter and coincide basically in other seasons. The seafloor of this area is
steep. Consequently, the path was stable and parallel to the isobath. This implies that
the path of the Kuroshio is closely correlated with the topography of the sea bottom.
Numerical results of Wang and Su (1987) indicated also the control of the path of
the Kuroshio in the ECS by the topography of the continental shelf.
At sector D, the Kuroshio flows out of the ECS through the Tokara Strait and
returns to the Pacific Ocean. It is surprising that seasonal variations of the Kuroshio
path at this sector were rather similar to those at sector B. A small meander
appeared in winter and autumn, which first directed northeastward and then
southeastward. The path was quite straight in spring and summer. After entering the
Tokara Strait, it turns to the north in spring and summer and to the south in autumn
and winter.
The Kuroshio does not have an obvious northward branch at sector D. In all the
Variation of Kuroshio in East China Sea 51
119 seasons from 1955 to 1984, signs of the existence of a northward branch of the
Kuroshio appeared only in one season. This implies that it is doubtful, at least on the
sea surface, that the Tsushima Warm Current originates from the Kuroshio.
The strong current region where the current speed is greater than 1 knot is taken
as the Kuroshio mainstream. Its distributional range varies seasonally (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. The distribution range of the surface mainstream of the Kuroshio in the East China Sea (from
JODC, 1979).
A general trend is that the surface mainstream is the widest in spring and
summer, and the narrowest in autumn. However, such variations change with
location. At sector A the width in summer is larger than that in winter and nearly the
same in spring and autumn. At sector B the mainstream is the widest in summer,
medium wide in spring, and the narrowest in autumn and winter. At sector C, its
width in decreasing order is in summer, winter and autumn. At D, the width in
decreasing order is in spring, summer, winter and autumn. The width of the Kuroshio
surface mainstream in the ECS is 30 n mile in yearly average, 45 n mile at maximum
and only 17 n mile at minimum.
II. THE VELOCIlY STRUCTURE AND AXIS SWING
Fig. 3 shows calculated results of the geostrophic flow from 1984 to 1988 at three
sections which crosscut respectively the southern, central and northern sectors of the
Kuroshio in the ECS. We can see that the Kuroshio in the ECS was characterized
by a narrow and strong current with a single core and a single bunch. The axis tilts
to the right of the Kuroshio with the increase of depth and moves eastward. The
mainstream lies near the shelf break, and the countercurrent zone appears on its
right. The current distribution is stable and almost invariant vertically. This implies
that the Kuroshio is very thick (500-600 m). However, the Kuroshio varies somewhat
at different sections (Table 1).
The section I lies in the area northeast of Taiwan and crosses the southern sector
of the Kuroshio in the ECS. Two cruises were carried out in June 1984 and May
1988. A reference surface was taken as 800 db for computing geostrophic current.
Results show that the velocity of the Kuroshio was quite strong with the maximum
speed of 95 m/s and 97 cm/s; and the axis (a strong current zone with speed greater
than 40 cm/s was 30 and 40 n mile wide and 230 and 420 m thick, respectively.
20
~;Jf:
" 300
500
20 200
700
Om
300 300 100
500 500
300
500
700
May 1988
200
300 300
sol
70Q
500
700
Fig. 3. Distribution of the velocity of the Kuroshio at three sections.
Structures of velocity were similar to one another at section I, with 10-20 cm/s
countercurrent flowed on both sides of the Kuroshio mainstream. The only slight
differences were in the axial location and the thickness.
Table 1. Some Parameters of the Kuroshio in the East China Sea at Three Seetions
Maximum depth Maximum

Axis position Axis width
Section Time in Fig. 3 speed
(n mile) 20 cm/s 50 cmls (cm/s)
Aug., 1987 No.2-5 45 505 350 93
Jan., 1988 No.2-6 55 550 300 87
III May, 1988 No.2-5 47 475 345 76
Oct., 1988 No.1-5 53 480 340 104
May, 1986 No.2-4 35 380 190 51
II Dec., 1987 No.3-5 350 55
37 200
June, 1984 No.7-1O 30 280 230 95
May, 1988 No.6-9 40 620 420 97
Section II crosses the central sector of the Kuroshio in the area southwest of the
Okinawa Island. The reference surface was still 800 db. Investigations in May 1986
and Dec. 1987 showed that the velocity was very weak; the maximum speeds were 51
and 55 cm/s; and the axis was about 200 m thick and 35-37 n mile wide.
Section III is located in the area west of Amami Osima in the northern sector
of the Kuroshio. The reference surface was 700 db. The strongest current (greater
than 100 cm/s) appeared in autumn; the weakest (greater than 70 cm/s) in spring, and
over 90 and 80 cmls in summer and winter, respectively. A southwestward counter-
current appeared on the left side of the Kuroshio mainstream in both October and
May, but did not occur in August 1987 and January 1988.
The above analyses indicate that the axis of the Kuroshio swings with time. The
swing ranges (the nearest and farthest distances away from the coast) vary in
different regions (Table 2). Trends of the monthly variation of the axis were similar
in areas near the Okinawa and Amami Oshima islands, but opposite in the area off
the Ishigakijima and Okinawa islands.
To study if there is a periodicity in the swing of the Kuroshio axis, a maximum
entropy method was used to analyze the distances between the axis and individual
islands. Fig. 5 shows that significant periodity of the axial swing did not occur at the
southern sector, but occur at the central and northern sectors, being 12.3 and 3.3
months respectively. A very long period of swing (49 months) is seen in the area near
the Tanegashima Island where the Kuroshio leaves the ECS.
Table 2. An Outline of the Axial Swing of the Kuroshio in DilTerent Regions (1986-1988)
Times near Times far away Times near the Swing difference Remarkable period of the swing
Place the coast from the coast mean position (n mile)
Major Minor
Ishigakijim3 Is. 26 35 1 10-70 Over 4 years

Okinawa Is. 23 20 18 10-50 Unclear
Am311li Oshima Is. 27 29 14 5-50 12.3 months 2.0 months
Yakushima Is. 27 35 2 10--40 3.3 months
Tallegashim3 Is. 35 26 9 10--40 49 months
In addition, the filtered rotating spectrum and orthographic component spectrum

of the current were calculated according to the current data at the mooring stations
near the mainstream. Results show that the period of the residual current was 2-8
days, of which 2-4 days were the most remarkable (Table 3).
S 49 I -19.0
3000 2 -2'.5
3-16.3
2000 '-12.3 S
5 -9.8 1200
§-8.2
(5)
\l00 7 -7.0
M=38 8-6.1 10001
12.3 9-5.1
700
10-4.9
800/
500
300
100
S 6
4 8 10 12 14 16 (4)
400·
400'
5 7 9 II 13 15 17 19 21 23
300 (1) - Ishigakijima Island
( 3 ) M = 70
200'
( I )M = 3
(00
200
6 8 \0 12 \4. 16 18 20 22 T
(2) - Okinawa Island
(3) - A rnarni ilihima Islam:!

o L...L-'-'..................L->_!.......................
!--!-'!~ ......................................_
3 5 7 9 II 13' 15 17 19 21 23 25' T (5) - Tanegashima Island
(4) - Yakushima Island
Fig. 4. Maximum entropy spectrum of the distances between the Kuroshio axis and the islands along the
coast (1986-1988).
Table 3. Major PeI"iod of the Residual Current at Mooring Stations in the Central Region of the ECS
Significant time
Station Location Depth (m) layer Major period
obselVed
28°33.9'N Sm 1986.05.21-06.03 6.3 4.2 2.5 1.6

M, 126°46.7'E
223 12m 1986.05.21-06.03 4.2 2.1 1.6
218 m 1986.05.21-06.03 6.3 4.2 2.6 1.6
28°41'N Sm 1987.07.17-4)7.24 4.1 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.2

M, 126°49'E 195
54 m 1987.07.17~.06 8.5 4.2 3.4 2.4 1.7 1.4 1.1
There are seasonal variations in the transport at each section. In yearly average,
at the PN section the maximum transport appeared in spring, the minimum in
autumn and the mean value was 21.4x 106 m 3/s, which is basically consistent with that
from Pu and Xu (1986); at the KD and Ko sections, the largest transport appeared
in summer, the smallest in autumn and winter, and values were 46.8x106 m /s and
48.8 X 106 m 3/s, respectively.
When a large meander occurred at the PN section, the transport in each season
was larger than its mean value, being a positive anomaly; but at the Ko section (south
of Japan), the transport was smaller than its mean value, being a negative anomaly.
When the large meander disappeared, variations of the transport at both sections
were opposite to the above cases. This shows that the anomaly of the transport at the
upstream sector of the Kuroshio was closely related to the occurrence of the large
meander at the downstream sector of the Kuroshio. This conclusion is also confirmed
by the statistics for the transport with the large meander during 1986-1988 at the PN
sector.
At the Ka section, variations of the transport were similar to those at the PN
section in winter, spring and summer and to that at the Ka section in summer and
autumn. It seems to have a transitional feature between the KB section and the Ka
section. The transport at the sections K B, KD and Ka were also analyzed by using the
maximum entropy method. Computations were carried out only for winter and
summer. It can be seen from Fig. 5 that the variation period of the transport of the
S
190 1-98.0 17-5.8 33-3.0
19.6
2-49.0 18-5.4 34-2.9
"
II 170
3-32.7 19-5.2 35-2. ~
I I
4 -24.5 20-4.936-2.7
I I 150
I I 5-19.6 21-4.7 37-2.7
S
I I 2.9 6-16.3 22-4.5 38-2.6
130
17
I I 7-14.0 23-4.3 39-2.5
8-12.324-4.1 40-2.5
Iii 110
13 1M = 24 M = 22 9-10.9 25-3.9 il-2.4
'"f
11
9 I
I
90 10-9.5 26-3.8
11-8.9 27-3.6
42-2.3
43-2.3
~t
I
K, 70 12-8.2 28-3.5 44-2.2
I I 13-7.5 29-3.4 45-2.2
I
2.0 50 14-7.0 30-3.3 46-2.1
::~ 15-6.5 31-3.2 47-2.1
30 16-6.1 32-3.1 48-2.0
O.H 14.0
uk S
7
o 21 Ii 8 10 12 11 16 18 20 22 21 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 T 7.0
15
II "
II
S 13 4
II
30 3
II
11 II
25
I 1M = 26
II 0.9
20 I I
M= 8 I I 0.7
15 I I
I I Kd 0.')
I I 4.9
10
I I 0.3
I I
I I
J I O. I
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 U 16 18 20 22 24 26 T
Fig. 5. Maximum entropy spectrum analyses on the transport of the Kuroshio at three sections (solid line,
winter; dotted line, summer). Data were from 1955 to 1988 at the sections K B, and from 1954 to 1981 at
sections KD and KG.
Kuroshio changes with region and season. At the KB (PN) section, the period is 3.3
years in winter and 14 and 4.7 years in summer. At the Ko section, the period is 14
and 7 years in winter and summer, respectively. At the Ka section, the period is 2.9
years in winter and 19.6 and 3.2 years in summer.
The period of the transport variation at the PN section provided by Nitani
(1972) and Saiki (1982) are 6-7 years, 8 and 5.5 years, respectively. However,
these were all derived from yearly mean value.
III. INTERANNUAL VARIATION OF THE PATH AND WIDTH OF THE
MAINSTREAM
In this study, the interannual variation of the path of the surface axis and the
width of the mainstream of the Kuroshio are discussed only for sections C and D in
winter and summer, due to the lacking of data at sector A and B in spring and
autumn.
At sectors C and D, interannual variations are very complicated. The paths in
each year are different. The swing is small in some years (the interannual difference
is only several n miles) but quite large in other years (the maximum difference is 50
n mile). In most of the region of sectors C and D, the variation range of the axis in
summer is larger than that in winter. However, the swing range of the axis is much
smaller than that in other areas, and the path is quite stable, which indicates the
representation of the PN section much better.
The path of the surface axis can be basically classified into three types based on
shape. In type I, the path is to the west at sector C and to the north at sector D.
Type II, named "Gentle", has small turns. Its path is to the east at the western sector
and mainly to the south at sector D.
Type III is called "northward stretch" because the northward extension of the axis
is the greatest near 129°E. The Kuroshio surface axis moves northward along the
outer edge of the continental shelf of the ECS, then turns perpendicularly to the right
near the sea area west of Yakushima Island about 129°E, and then passes through
the Tokara Strait, returns to the Pacific Ocean and finally moves northward along the
southern coast of Japan.
The PN section is taken as an example to examine further the interannual
variations of the path of the axis and the width of the mainstream at certain regions.
At this section, the surface axis lies between station PN3 and PN5 • The multiyear
mean position of the Kuroshio axis is located between stations PN3 and PN 4 and
close to station PN 4 (on the right of station PN 4 where depth is about 300-800 m).
The swing of the axis in summer is larger than that in winter, and the maximum IS
40 n mile.
In winter, the surface axis is very stable and lies usually on the east side of
station PN 4 (except 1982 to 1984). In summer, the interannual variation of the axis
is quite large, especially in summer of 1977-1981, the axis was considerably to the
west. In both winter and summer, the path of the Kuroshio at the PN section can be
also classified into three kinds: the straight type in which the axis is basically
perpendicular to the section; the "inclined to the nght (to the east)" type in which the
axis crosses the section northeastward, and the "inclined to the left (to the west)" type
in which the axis crosses the section northwestward.
As for the interannual variation of the width, it was about 55 n mile in winter of
1980 and 1978, the narrowest (about 20 n mile) in 1962, 1967 and 1968, the widest
(60 n mile) in summer of 1980,40-50 n mile in 1976, 1981, 1971 and 1965, respectively.
IV. COUNTERCURRENT AND WARM EDDY ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE

KUROSHIO
It is well known that a countercurrent often appears on the right side of the
Kuroshio in the ECS. Is the countercurrent stable? How about its temporal and
spatial variations? What correlation is there between the countercurrent and the
eddy?
On the right of the Kuroshio in the studied area there are four countercurrent
regions (Fig. 2A). Region 1 lies in the area east of Taiwan; region 2 in area north of
the Miyakojima Island; region 3 west of the Okinawa Island, and region 4 west of the
Amami Oshima Island. The largest speed (0.5-1.0 knot) of the countercurrent
appears in region 1; the next (0.2--0.5 knot) in region 2 and 4; and the smallest
(0.1--0.2 kont) in region 3.
Fig. 2 shows that distributions of the current in spring and autumn are basically
similar to that of the multiyear average, but the locations deviate slightly. However,
distributions in winter and summer are very different from those of the multiyear
average. A northwestward flowing countercurrent appears in area north of the
Ishigakijima Island and Iriomotejima Island and region 2 but not in summer. The
countercurrent appears in 5 regions in winter, in 4 regions in spring and autumn and
in only 3 regions in summer. Its occurrence is unstable in the region 2, especially in
winter and summer, but it exists throughout the year in the regions 1, 3 and 4. With
regard to the interannual variation of the path of the countercurrent at the PN
section, it swings obviously to the left and to the right between stations PN, and PN z.
The maximum width of the swing is 30 n mile.
Analysis on the interannual variation of the Kuroshio path in the ECS showed
that the Kuroshio countercurrent formed a nearly semi-enclosed small circle in the
area west of the Amami Oshima and Okinawa islands in the summer of some years.
The location of the small circle nearly coincides with the closed region of the high
temperature, high salinity and low density each layer (except on the surface).
The countercurrent region sometimes does not in a closed form on the surface,
but a closed high temperature region still appears near it at the lower layer.
Especially in the summers of 1977, 1978, 1979 and 1980, and the late summers of
1981 and 1983, a closed warm water mass appeared at 50 m, 100 m, 200 m, and 400
m layers in the sea area west of the Okinawa and Amami Oshima Islands. It is
known that the temperature can be taken as a main index to express the horizontal
difference of hydrophysical feature in the Kuroshio region, because the horizontal
distribution of salinity is rather homogeneous.
The warm eddy in the summer of 1977 is an example. At the 50 m layer, there
was a warm water mass near the countercurrent region with temperature greater than
28°C at the center, which is about 2°C higher than that at the outer part. This warm
eddy is considerably strong and covers a wide field.
This example also indicated that the countercurrent of the Kuroshio can generate
the warm eddy, especially in summer. However, this phenomenon has not been
noticed on the surface.
REFERENCES
Guan, Bing-xian (1964) "A preliminary study of the distribution and variation of the velocity and volume
transport of the Kuroshio and their relation to the topography", Oceallologia et Limllologia Sillica 6(3),
229-251 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Guan, Bing-xian (1977) "Some results from the study of the variation of the Kuroshio in the East China
Sea", Oceallologia et LinJllologia 10(4),297-306 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Guan, Bing-xian (1983) "The main features of several cold and warm eddies in the area of the beginning
of the Kuroshio", in Proceeding of the Second Chinese Oceanological and Limnological Science
Conference, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 19-30 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Sun, Xiang-ping (1987) "Analysis of the surface path of the Kuroshio in the East Olina Sea", in Essays on
Investigation of Kuroshio, China Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 1-14 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Pu, Yong-xiu and Xu, Xiao-yun (1986) "The Kuroshio (on the PN Section) in the East China Sea during
1972-1983", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 8(1), 14-20 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, Wei and Su, Ji-Ian (1987) "A Barotropic model of the Kuroshio system and eddy phenomena in the
East China Sea", Acta Oceallologica Sinica 9(3), 271-285 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Gu, Yu-he (1984) "The study of the seasonal variations of the position of surface axis of the Kuroshio east
of Taiwan", Studio Marilla Sillica 21, 233-243 (in Olinese with English abstract).
Kondo, M. and Tamai, K. (1975) "On the current in the East China Sea", Marine Science Monthly 7(1),
27-32.
Fujibara, I. (1981) "011 the sea condition in the East China Sea", Marine Science Monthly 13(4),264-269.
Miyaji, K. and Inoue, N. (1986) "Characteristics of the flow of the Kuroshio ill northwest waters off Amami
Oshima ill the East China Sea", Bull. Seikai Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. No.63, 1-14.
JODC (1979) Marine Environmental Atlas Currents-Adjacent Seas of Japan.
Nishizawa, J. (1981) "On the variations of transport of the Kuroshio in the sea area south of Honshu",
Report of the Kuroshio Exploration and Utilization Research 4, 100-105.
JODC (1980-1984) Oceanographic Atlas of KER, Vol. 1-5.
HDMSA (1961-1986) State of the Adjacent Seas of Nippon, Vol. 1-6.
MSA (1986-1988) Report of the Oceanographic Observation in Adjacent Sea of Japan.
Nagasaki Marine Observatory (1982-1988) Report of the Oceanographic Observations in the Sea West of
Japan.
Chu, Tsu You (1967) "A study on the variation of velocity and transport of the Kuroshio cnrrent", Report
I/lSt. Fishery Biology 2(2), 43-56.
Nitani, H. (1972) "Beginning of the Kuroshio", in Kuroshio-Its Physical Aspects, University of Tokyo
Press, Tokyo, PI'. 129-163.
Saiki, M. (1982) "Relation between the geostrophic flux of the Kuroshio in the East China Sea and its large
meander in south of Japan", Oceallogr. Mag. 32(2), 11-18.
JMA (17961-1983) The Results of Marine Meteorological and Oceanographical Observation. No. 27-74.
KUROSHIO INTRUSION AND TAIWAN WARM CURRENT
SU Ji-Ian, PAN Yu-qiu, and LIANG Xiang-san

Secolld IlIStitute of Oceallography, State Oceanic Administration
HallgzllOll .1100/2, Chilla
I. INTRODUCTION
A large area of the East China Sea (ECS) is a part of a broad shallow epicontinental
sea which includes the semi-enclosed Huanghai (Yellow) Sea to the north (Fig. 1).
It is connected with the South China Sea at the southwest through the Taiwan Strait
and to the Japan Sea at the northeast through the Korea Strait. East and south of
the Ryukyu Archipelago is the North Pacific Ocean.
Kuroshio enters the ECS east of Taiwan. It flows along the shelf edge until
around 29°30'N where it leaves the shelf and re-enters the Pacific Ocean through the
Tokara Strait. All observations northeast of Taiwan have always yielded evidence of
the intrusion of Kuroshio water onto the shelf (Su and Pan, 1990).
Fig. 1. Map of the East China Sea. Semi-parallel

lines and arrows indicate the path and direction of
Kuroshio; A: the Korea Strait; B: the Tokara
Strait; C: the Taiwan Strait; S: hydrographic section
referred to in the text.
59
Zhou Di el al. (eds.), Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 1,59-70.
The western part of the ECS is dominated by the influence of the Taiwan Warm
Current (TWC) which flows to the north all the year round between the 50 m to 100
m isobaths, even during strong northerly winds in winter (Su et aL, 1990). The current
was named by Mao et aL (1964) because of its high temperature characteristics in
winter compared with that of the southward coastal current. The origin of the TWC
has long attracted much attention from both Chinese and Japanese oceanographers.
Earlier hydrographic studies (Uda, 1950; Mao et aL, 1964) and bottom drifter studies
(Inoue, 1975) argued that tbe TWC is a Kuroshio branch originated from the
northeast of Taiwan, i.e., where shelf intrusion by Kuroshio takes place. However,
Guan (1983) pointed out that summer GEK data obtained by Japanese scientists over
1972-1979 do not support the Kuroshio branch hypothesis, at least not in the upper
and middle layers. Guan also inferred that in summer the upper part of the TWC
must originate from water through the Taiwan Strait. From water mass analysis of
historical hydrographic data, Weng and Wang (1984) suggested that in summer the
TWC derives its lower layer water from Kuroshio intrusion northeast of Taiwan,
while its upper water is a mixture of the intruding Kuroshio water and the water
coming north through the Taiwan Strait.
In this paper the authors review recent advances in the understanding of the
relation between the TWC and the shelf-intrusion of the Kuroshio northeast of
Taiwan. These are largely based on hydrographic studies and numerical works by our
Institute. The study area is limited to the ECS shelf south of 30o N.
II. SEASONAL HYDROGRAPHIC CHARACfERISTICS OF THE SOUTHERN
EAST CHINA SEA
Since the mid 1980s, the State Oceanic Administration of China has conducted
two extensive observational programs covering the ECS. Based on these data, hydro-
graphy of the southern ECS has two basic patterns, a winter one and a summer one.
The hydrographic patterns of the other two seasons are transitional. The spring one
is, however, close to the summer one while the autumn one to the winter one.
Following the well accepted practice in this area, the winter is defined as the season
from December to February next year, the spring from March to May, the summer
from June to August, and the autumn from September to November.
A. Winter Hydrography
In winter, the water over the shelf in the ECS is basically vertically homogeneous
everywhere except along the shelf break and at the northeast of Taiwan, where large
shelf-intrusion by the Kuroshio water takes place (Fig. 2). This intrusion and its
associated fronts are evident from satellite imageries. Fig. 2a shows that Kuroshio
intrudes almost half-way across the shelf to the 100 m isobath line. The coastal front
is situated near the 50 m isobath.
The T-S diagram shows that the surface water in the stratified area has the
characteristics of the Kuroshio Surface Water (KSW) (Fig. 3a). The diagram seems
also to imply that the bottom water in the stratified area could be due to the cooling
and sinking of the intruding KSW, as was suggested for the Gulf Stream over the
much narrower South Atlantic Bight Shelf in the winter (Oey, 1986). However, the
content of the dissolved oxygen in this bottom water is too low (Fig. 3b) and the
nutrients are too high to support such a hypothesis. Instead, it is likely the result of
advection of upwelled Kuroshio Subsurface Water (KSSW) from upstream (Su and
Kuroshio Intrusion and Taiwan Warlll Current 61
Pan, 1990). KSSW is the upper part of the thermocline water of Kuroshio. This name
was given by Mao et aL (1964) because the same water characteristics is also found
in the lower layer over the ECS shelf during summer. In this paper, the authors will
call the vertically homogeneous shelf water with salinity> 34 the Winter Shelf Water
and those with salinity <31 the Coastal Water. In Fig. 2, the Coastal Water is at
water depths less than 50 m and hence does not appear in Fig. 3.
401l
\0 \2
Fig. 2. Winter (Dec., 1984 to Jan., 1985) temperature distribution. a, across Section S; and b, at the surface.
Location of Section S is shown in Fig. 1.
TeC)
5 10 15 20 25
2 .
200' •
:
b
34,0 .l¢ e a
I
a lie
I
I E e ell"
~ __ J f-o e e
~
•
Q
~ IS
e
en 345 800 ,J,v
'a •• 0
<D!(bo
~Y\J b
a 200 150 10~3----~4------5~----~6---
35.
Dissolved oxygen (x 10- 3 mill)
Fig. 3. a, T-S diagram; and b, T-02 diagram of the water between 50 m and 200 m isobaths in Fig. 2. 0,
surface water in stratified area; ., ncar-bottom water in stratified area; e, vertically homogeneous water;
x, Kuroshio Water at the station over the Okinawa Trough along Section S. The number under "x"
indicates datum depths in meter. Dashed rectangle represcnts the winter Taiwan Strait Water (Hwang and
Tang, 1992).
In Fig. 4a the water mass distribution near the bottom of the ECS shelf for the
winter of 1984/1985 is sketched. Records of short-duration moored current meter
suggest that the Winter Shelf Water was flowing to the north (Su and Pan, 1987). To
see whether part of this water can originate from the Taiwan Strait, the authors plot
in Fig. 3a the extent of the standard deviations of the Taiwan Strait Water between
24°N and 25°N but outside the coastal zone of the mainland for the winters from
1985 to 1991 (Hwang and Tang, 1992). It is not possible to conclude from the T-S
diagram that the Taiwan Strait Water had entered the ECS. However, the diagram
is also not in contradiction with the hypothesis that part of the Winter Shelf Water
may be the result of mixing of the Taiwan Strait Water with the Kuroshio Water.
The corresponding water mass distribution at the upper layer of the ECS shelf
is similar to Fig. 4a except that here KSW replaces KSSW
124° 126°
,
,
.J
C
/
@ (/
27° ../ c ..,/
c
/E
{P.{'"
...................
2SO ........C-...::....::_···~_~~_~.J
_···~···_·d_
250 .......o<.....::""'....
·;_ ...~. ~~--'
.P_.}_;-
:..................... ..
25° ..........."'-=....,..-'~-~~-~-I
Fig. 4. Water mass distribution near the bottom of the East China Sea shelf for a, winter of 1984/1985; b,
spring of 1988; and c, SUlllmer of 1984. A, C'-Oastal Water; B, Winter Shelf Water; C, Kuroshio Subsurface
Water; D, Kuroshio Surface Water; E, Taiwan Strait Water.
B. Summer Hydrography
The ECS is well stratified in summer. Its surface salinity is low and varies widely
over the shelf (Fig. 5a). Below the surface, the salinity increases and becomes more
uniform as the depth increases, but the temperature distribution starts to assume the
surface salinity pattern (Fig. 5b). A more or less uniform cold water occupies most
of the near-bottom area over the shelf (Fig. 5c). Northeast of Taiwan there is always
extensive strone; upwellings (Fig. 5d). It is present from spring to autumn, and
satellite imagenes often show a low temperature center northeast of Taiwan.
In the T-S diagram only the 30 m depth and the near bottom data are used (Fig.
6a). There are two obvious water types in the bottom layer. One is similar to the
summer bottom-layer Taiwan Strait Water, and most of these data was obtained
north of the strait (Fig. 4c). The other is close to the KSSW The upwellings
northeast of Taiwan seem to have brought the KSSW onto the shelf (Fig. 5d). The
KSSW then spreads over to southern ECS shelf (Figs. 4c and 5c). It is known that
summer coastal upwellings in the ECS often bring water (with properties close to that
of the KSSW) up near the surface along the coast between 29°N and 300 N (Mao et
aL, 1964; Pan et at., 1987). The cold « 15°C) bottom water near the 30 N boundary
(Fig. 5c) has a relatively high dissolved oxygen content (Fig. 6b). It is a remnant of
the Winter Shelf Water (Fig. 3). The evolution of this Winter Shelf Water north of
our study area during spring and summer was discussed by Pan et aL (1991, 1992).
The corresponding water mass distribution at the upper layer is given in Fig. 7b.
The Taiwan Strait Water covers most the shelf and the KSW is found only along the
shelfbreak area. It should be pointed out that the Coastal Water (salinity<31) is
present only in the surface layer and does penetrate far onto the shelf (Fig. 5a).
C. Water Mass Distribution During Spring and Autumn
When the winter monsoon winds over the ECS relax after the middle of March,
the northward flow through the Taiwan Strait becomes stronger. As the southwest
monsoon wind starts to form, the coastal current also turns northward. It seems then
Kuroshio Intrus'Ion and T alwan
. Wa rm Current 63
Fig 'i" a, Sa I'Illity d' .

in su~m:p(~~I~~~~u~~~tJi~81)iOt
t!Ie " cross se cion surface' te . ocatJon
shelf, and d , III. Istnbution f at S b, a! 30 mf de pt,
h c, nea b
T ("C) 0 00'''00 " " , , : ottom ovo<
15 20 WD'" Hg. 1.
5 __ 11 •O
r-......... 25 30
25 .....
o
o 20
cO
00
~
0
ogo 0
o
0
E ..
x_x-'"""
800
'-. . ,., '" ---1
...'-...
300"( ,
" -0
0
0
0
dBruw:l.
ir.:
0
'iF. 1)' '0
+0
b
200" ........;--x..--'---;-
recta~gleor:
35.0 a
p'>g. 6. S.m, " F 150 2. :1 ,;---
d'pt". 'Dd 3 tg. 3 <>re t '
Tang, '1992). ,dashed 1, the data are I
0,,,.1,," 0 \
xygen (x16-' mill)
..~,; 2,Wat
epth (Hwang al~
represents tlIe summer Ta'to
re ated F IgStrait
Iwan "0"errepresents
at 50 m dthe water at 30
126 0 1240 1260 1240 126 0
25" 25 0
Fig. 7. Water mass distribution at the 30 m depth over the East China Sea shelf for: a, the spring of 1988;
b, the summer of 1984; and c, the autumn of 1988. B, Winter Shelf Water; D, Kuroshio Surface Water;
E, Taiwan Strait Water.
that the coastal front broadens and there is significant cross-shelf transport
throughout the water column. At the same time, large scale upwellings of KSSW
similar to those in summer are formed. In mid-spring the water mass distribution
over the ECS shelf resembles that of summer except that the KSSW has not yet
spread much beyond the mid-shelf (Figs. 4b, c and Figs. 7a, b).
The summer monsoon over the ECS ends around the end of August. Soon
afterwards the winter monsoon begins. The northerly winds weaken the northward
current through the Taiwan Strait and cool the shelf water, so that intrusion of KSW
again becomes strong (Fig. 7c), similar to the winter situation. Large-scale upwelling
of KSSW persists, and KSSW remains the dominate water mass in the bottom layer.
As the autumn season progresses, the shelf water is cooled further, becomes vertically
homogeneous, and forms the Winter Shelf Water.
III. THE TAIWAN WARM CURRENT AND THE KUROSHIO INTRUSION
NORTHEAST OF TAIWAN
As most of the moorings deployed for current observation over the southern ECS
shelf are for only short-term duration, knowledge of the Taiwan Warm Current
(TWC) is gained mainly through hydrographic data. Contour maps of the isopycnal
surface suggest that the TWC actually has two branches, one inshore and one
offshore (Su and Pan, 1987).
The horizontal temperature distributions also support the existence of the
offshore branch (e.g., Figs. 2b and Sa). The inshore branch flows northward near the
50 m isobath. The offshore branch separates from the inshore branch near 28°N in
spring and summer, and further south in autumn and winter. It first turns anti-
cyclonically and then cyclonically towards the shelf break around 27°N. Diagnostic
computations also support such a current pattern (e.g., Yuan et aL, 1987).
Discussions earlier have shown that persistent shelf-intrusions of the Kuroshio
occur northeast of Taiwan. They seem to concentrate in two areas, one close to
Taiwan and the other where the shelf makes a sharp east turn and cuts across the
path of the Kuroshio (Su and Pan, 1990). Intrusions at the former site appear to be
stronger and thus more important.
TWC and the Kuroshio intrusion are the two major features of the circulation
of the southern ECS. In the following we will discuss the results of theoretical studies
which paid special attention to these two aspects.
Kuroshio Intrusion and Taiwan Warm Current 65
A. Winter Circulation
1. Analytical Model
It is known that the cross-stream momentum equation for a western boundary

current is approximately geostrophic. Thus the Kuroshio velocity structure is basically
reflected in the sloping of the free surface and other isobaric surfaces in the cross-
stream direction. East of Taiwan, these slopes are "supported" by the steep wall of
the Taiwan coast. North of Taiwan, geostrophic adjustment due to the sudden loss
of the "support" by the steep wall results in the shelf-intrusion by the Kuroshio. Based
on this hypothesis, Su and Pan (1987) carried out an analytical study with a simple
model. Following Csanady (1979), they derived a linearized time-independentJ3-plane
governing equation for the surface elevation s.
Their equation contains a cross-
isobath bottom stress term which was neglected by Csanady.
Since most of the shelf water is vertically homogeneous in winter, a barotropic
model is deemed appropriate. For a domain with no north-south bathymetric
variation, the governmg equation simply reduces to
where r is the bottom resistance coefficient. Consider a simple model (Fig. 8) where
the southern end of the shelf is closed and both the east and west sides are rigid
walls, Kuroshio enters from the south over the slope, and most of it also exits in the
slope area.
b
Fig. 8. Idealized winter model. a, bottom topo-

graphy; b, free surface elevation distribution.
It can be shown through asymptotic analysis that there are three types of
boundary layers in the domain. Next to the southern boundary there is a Stommel-
type boundary layer due to the topographicJ3-effect (Fig. 8). The sharp change of the
bottom slopes at the shelf break induces a shelf break boundary layer which is wider
on the shelf than it is on the slope. Geostrophic adjustment mentioned earlier is
accomplished through these two boundary layers. Finally, a classical Stommel
boundary layer is present next to the west boundary. The reSUlting surface elevation
distribution sketched in Fig. 8 does have the essential features of the winter
isotherms of the ECS except for the southward coastal current (Fig. 2b). Thus, in this
model, the inshore branch of the TWC is maintained by the J3-effect, while the
offshore branch of the TWC is due to geostrophic adjustment of Kuroshio because
of the loss of the Taiwan coast. We point out that if the y-axis of the model is not in
the north direction, as in the case of the ECS, the planetary (3-effect will also
contribute to the boundary layer north of Taiwan and that the topographic (3-effect
will also contribute to the boundary layer next to the mainland coast if there is
alongshore variation of the bathemetry.
2. Numerical Model
The linear model discussed above is supported by a numerical model based on

vertically integrated equations with constant density (Wang and Su, 1987). Fig. 9
shows the free surface elevation distribution over the ECS when the Taiwan Strait
is closed off. It resembles the winter isotherm distribution offshore of the coastal
current in the ECS (Fig. 2b), as well as Fig. 8b.
Fig. 9. Free surface elevation over the ECS from a

barotropic model. The Taiwan Strait is closed off.
To test the influence of the various factors, several experiments were conducted.
As expected from the earlier discussion, without the (3-effect the Kuroshio intrusion
is weakend but only slightly, and the inshore branch of TWC becomes diffused and
soon veers off from the coast. For the flat-shelf experiment, i.e., without the
topographic (3-effect on the shelf, the intrusion is less sharp but wider than that in the
above experiment. Without the advective terms the sharpness of the intrusion is
slightly rounded. If the bottom friction is neglected, the southern boundary layer is
thinner but stronger, because now the smaller lateral friction term assumes the role
of the larger shallow-water bottom friction in the boundary layer. If an inflow is
added through the Taiwan Strait, the basic flow pattern remains unchanged except
that the intrusion is reduced. The linear model analysis presented earlier suggests
that the sharp turning of the intruding Kuroshio Water back to the shelf break area
is a result of the downstream trapping of Kuroshio by the continental slope. This is
confirmed by another experiment with a flat bottom with no shelf. In this experiment
the southern boundary layer is not needed. Instead, Kuroshio ~radually turns north
towards the west boundary near 28°N. It then loops around antIcyclonically and exits
through the Tokara Strait.
One important driving force for the seemingly year-round northward current
through the Taiwan Strait and, for that matter, for the TWC is the free surface
elevation field impressed by Kuroshio over the northern South China Sea and the
ECS (Su et al., 1990; Liu and Su, 1992). Using a barotropic model with lateral density
gradient, Liu and Su (1992) studied the winter circulation for a domain enclosing all
marginal seas bordering China. Their numerical experiments showed that northeast
of Taiwan large scale shelf-intrusion by Kuroshio always occurs. They also found that,
outside the coastal current next to the mainland, northward currents persist even
during mildly strong north winds. For high northerly winds (Beaufort scale 7 and
above) in the Taiwan Strait, however, all water in the Strait flow southward.
B. Summer Circulation
In summer, the surface layer over the ECS shelf is occupied by warm and less
saline water (Figs. 5a and 7b). It is less dense than the KSW and hence shelf-
intrusion by KSW is difficult. In other words, geostrophic adjustment of KSW cannot
be accomplished by relaxing the "unsupported" surface elevation gradient through the
combination of a southern boundary and a shelf break boundary layer as in Fig. 8.
There is, however, no source of light density water for the bottom layer over the
outer shelf where the water depth is more than 30 m deeper than the sill depth of
the Taiwan Strait. Therefore, KSSW can intrude onto the shelf through upwelling.
Steepening and rising of the subsurface isopycnals northeast of Taiwan serve as a
steep wall which "support" the isobaric surfaces in the surface layer.
A linear 2-layer model after the linear barotropic model discussed earlier can be
formulated (Su, and Liu, unpublished manuscript). The governing equation for the
isobaric surface(s) in the lower layer resembles the one governing the free surface
elevation for the barotropic model. Thus the lower-layer circulation is expected to be
similar to that in the barotropic case. This is confirmed by the numerical results of
a two-layer model with complete momentum equations (Liang, 1992). Because ofthe
limitation of the capability of our computer (a PC), the shallowest part of the shelf
was deepened to 150 m in the numencal model to avoid excess computer time in
dealing with outcroppings of the pycnoline. Furthermore, the model domain covered
only the southern part of the ECS. Initially Kuroshio has a 120 m upper layer depth
and a 480 m lower layer depth at the iuput.
Fig. 10 gives the distribution of the free surface elevation as well as the
pycnocline height anomaly for the case where the Taiwan Strait is closed off and
where 8, the ratio of the upper layer transport to the lower layer transport for
Kuroshio, is 1.5 (Liang, 1992). It is seen that there is only slight shelf-intrusion in the
upper layer (Fig. lOa), which is limited to the shelf break region. The pycnocline rises
sharply along the shelf break, and there is a conspicuous peak of the pycnocline topo-
graphy, i.e. a cold center, northeast of Taiwan (Fig. lOb), reaching to within 30 m
from the sea surface. The isobaric surface anomaly for the lower layer (figure not
shown) has a distribution similar to that in Fig. 9, except that all the isobars return
to the shelf break region. In other words, the lower layer water intrusion extends all
the way to the western boundary north of Taiwan. All the intruding water return to
the shelf break region after turning sharply clockwise.
Fig. 10. a, Free surface elevation; and b, pycnocline height anomaly of a two-layer model with ~=1.5 and
with the Taiwan Strait closed off. North IS 35' counterclockwise from the left boundary. The square next
to the lower boundary represents the northern portion of Taiwan. Numbers on the pycnocline height
denote anomaly in meter from an initial level of -120 m.
When there is an inflow through the Taiwan Strait, the rise of the pycnocline
northeast of Taiwan is not as steep as in the case when the strait is closed (Figs. lOb
and lla). Although most of the intruding lower layer water still returns to the shelf
break area, part of it, however, now flows north next to the left boundary (figure not
shown). This is not surprising because the northward upper layer current along the
left boundary induces a rise of the pycnocline conducive to the northward penetration
of the lower layer water. In the surface layer, part of the inflow from the Taiwan
Strait flows north along the left boundary because of the tJ-effect, forming the inshore
branch of the TWC (figure not shown). Part of this inflow separates from the inshore
Fig. 11. Same as Figure 10 except for pycnocline height anomaly for the case: a, with ~ =1.5 and with inflow
through the Taiwan Strait; and b, with ~=0.8 and with the Taiwan Strait closed off.
branch and joins the Kuroshio at the shelf break area after making a loop similar to
the salinity distribution in Fig. Sa. This current forms the offshore branch of the
TWC. The authors point out that further north the inshore branch of TWC is
weakened gradually as more water turns offshore. Consequently, the current next to
the left boundary in the lower layer also returns to the offshore area gradually.
The different flow patterns in the upper and lower layers reflect the importance
of the joint effect of baroclinicity and relief. Fig. llb shows the pycnocline height
anomaly in an experiment with reduced vertical shear, i.e., reduced baroclinicity. The
rise of the pycnocline northeast of Taiwan is about 40 m lower than that in Fig. 10.
The upper layer water again shows only slight shelf-intrusion at the shelf break area.
In the lower layer, part of the shelf-intrusion water also flows north along the left
boundary and then gradually turns away offshore, as in the case corresponding to Fig.
11a.
IV. SUMMARY
Shelf-intrusion by the Kuroshio northeast of Taiwan and the northward flowing
TWC are the two dominant features always present on the southern shelf of the ECS.
They have distinct winter and summer patterns. Shelf-intrusion by Kuroshio is a
manifestation of the geostrophic adjustment of Kuroshio due to the loss of the steep
wall of the Taiwan coast to "support" the sloping isobaric surfaces. The large scale
pressure field impressed on the China seas by Kuroshio and the shelf-intrusion of the
Kuroshio are two main driving forces for the TWC.
In winter, the shelf water is denser than the Kuroshio Water. Consequently large
scale shelf-intrusion by KSW takes place, while KSSW also upwells onto the shelf.
Most of the intruding KSW returns back to the shelf break area, forming the offshore
branch of the TWC. The rest flows northward east of the coastal front because of the
l3-effect, often strengthened by currents through the Taiwan Strait except during
strong northerly winds. This forms the inshore branch of the TWC.
In summer, the shelf water is lighter than the Kuroshio Water. Consequently,
shelf-intrusion by KSW is limited to the shelf break region only. Large scale shelf-
intrusion by KSSW takes place through strong upwellings. Helped by the southerly
winds, the inflow, mainly in the upper layer, through the Taiwan Strait is strong. Part
of it loops clockwise to the shelf break region because of the strong upwellings,
forming the offshore branch of the TWC. The rest is trapped along the coast due to
the l3-effect, forming the inshore branch of the TWC. Northward spreading of
upwelled KSSW along the coast is helped by the inflow through the Taiwan Strait.
Reduced vertical shear of the Kuroshio current structure also has the same effect on
the spreading of KSSW
North of Taiwan the shelf break turns sharply to the east. Shelf intrusion by
Kuroshio there due to inertial effects has not been adequately studied in our models,
though obselvational evidences suggested its existence. One complication is that this
area is also where the Kuroshio water intruding upstream returns to the shelf break
area. Idealized barotropic model treating only the inertial intrusion of a jet coming
towards a shelf has been studied by Chern and Wang (1990) and Chen and Zhang
(1991).
REFERENCES
Chen, S. M. and Zhang, Q. H. (1991) " Influence of the shelf break on the path of the Kuroshio", in
Selections of Kuroshio StudIes, Vol. III, Olina Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 71-81 (in Chinese).
Chern, C. S. and Wang, J.(1990) "On the Kuroshio branch current north of Taiwan", Acta Oceanographica
Taiwanica 25,31-54.
Csanady, G. T. (1979) "The pressure field along the western margin of the North Atlantic", 1. Geophysical
Research, 84, 4905-4915.
Guan, Bing-xian (1983) "A sketch of the current structure and eddy characteristics in the East China Sea",
in Proceedings of International Symposium on Sedimentation on the Continental Shelf, Olina Ocean
Press, Beijing, pp. 52-73.
Hwang, S. J. and Tang, T. Y. (1992) CTD data bank data report, Vol. I (revised 1), Regional Instrument
Center RN Ocean Research I, National Research Council, Taipei, China.
Inoue, N. (1975) "Bottom current on the continental shelf of the East China
Sea", Marine Science MOl/thly 2, 12-18 (in Japanese).
Liang, Xiang-san (1992) "A two-layer model for the circulation in the East China Sea", Master Thesis,
Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Hangzhou, China.
Liu, X. B. and Su, Ji-Ian (1992) "A numerical model of the winter circulation of the shelf seas adjacent to
China", in Ji-Ian Su, W. S. Chuang, and Y. Hsueh (eds.), Proc. Symp. Physical and Chemical
Oceanography of the China Seas, China Ocean Press, Beijing (in press).
Mao, Han-Ii, Ren, Y.W. and Wan, K.M. (1964) "A preliminary investigation on the application of using
T-S diagrams for a quantitative analysis of the watermasses in the shallow water area", Oceanologica
et Limllologica Sillica 6, 1-22.
Oey, L. Y. (1986) "The formation and maintenance of density fronts on the U.S. Southeastern continental
shelf during winter", 1. Physical Oceanography 16, 1121-1135.
Pan, Yu-qiu, Su, Ji-Ian, and Su, Yu-fen (1992) "Seasonal hydrographic characteristics of the southern East
China Sea", in Proceedigs of Second Symposium of Olina-Japan Joint Research Program on the
Kuroshio, China Ocean Press, Beijing (to appear).
Pan, Yu-qiu, Su, Ji-Ian and Xu, D.R. (1991) "The fonnation and evolution of the East China Sea Dense
Water", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 10, 525-538.
Pan, Yu-qiu, Xu, D. R, and Xu, J. P. (1987) "The structure of fronts and their causes in the coastal
upwelling area off Zhejiang", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 6, 177-189.
Su, Ji-Ian and Pan, Yu-qiu (1987) "On the shelf circulation north of Taiwan", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 6
(Supp. I.), 1-20.
Su, Ji-Ian and Pan, Yu-qiu (1990) "On the areas of shelf-intrusion of the Kuroshio north of Taiwan", in
Selections of Kuroshio Studies: Vol. II, China Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 196-205 (in Chinese).
Su, Ji-Ian, Guan, Bin-xian, and Jiang, J. Z. (1990) "The Kuroshio, Part I, Physical features", Oceanography
alld Marine Biology: An Amlllal Review 28, 11-71.
Uda, M. (1950) "On the temperature variation in the East China Sea, I", Hydrography oftlte East China
Sea and Yellow Sea, No.2, 1-10. (in Japanese)
Wang, W. and Su, Ji-Ian (1987) "A barotropic model of the Kuroshio system and eddy phenomena in the
East China Sea", Acta Oceanologica Sillica 6 (Supp. 1.),21-35.
Weng, X. C. and Wang, C. M. (1984) "A preliminary study on the T-S characteristics and the origin of
Taiwan Wann Current Water in summer", Studw Marilla Sillica 21, 113-133 (in Chinese).
Yuan, Yao-chu, Su, Ji-Ian, and Xia, S.Y. (1987) "l1uee dimensional diagnostic calculation of circulation
over the East China Sea shelf', Acta Oceallologica Sinica 6 (Supp. I), 36--50.
A PROGNOSTIC MODEL OF THE WINTER CIRCULATION
IN EAST CHINA SEA
YUAN Yao-chu and SU Ji-Ian

Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration
Hangzholl :n0012, China
NI Ju-fen
Zhejiang Province Institute of Computing Technology
Hallgzholl 310000, China
I. INTRODUCTION
There have been many numerical studies on the circulation in the East China Sea,
including some diagnostic computations (Yuan et al., 1986, 1987, 1988). Diagnostic
models assume that the flow field is in a steady state and is compatible with the given
wind field and the density distribution. This is a major shortcoming common to all
diagnostic models. It is usually found, however, that difference between the result of
diagnostic calculation and observed current velocity is not large. There have been
many studies on prognostic models in the ocean circulation (Bryan and Cox, 1967;
Sarkisyan, 1977). Shallow sea prognostic models were proposed lately by Hendershott
and Rizzoli (1976) and by Shaw and Csanady (1983). In this paper, the winter
circulation in the East China Sea is studied by a prognostic model similar to that of
Shaw and Csanady (1983). The hydrographic data used are mostly the same as those
of Yuan et al. (1987).
II. MODEL EQUATIONS

First we estimate the order of magnitude of the time varying terms and the
nonlinear term in the momentum equations. Based on the current, temperature and
salinity data obtained by moored Aanderaa current meters near the Kuroshio path
between Taiwan and Iriomote-Shima gathered by Tokai University of Japan, Chen
et al. (1987) showed that there existed various remarkable low-frequency oscillations
with periods from a few days to tens of days. Liu (1984) analyzed the sea level data
at the Ryukyu Islands and found that the low frequency fluctuation of the sea level
had periods of 6-15 days and amplitudes of 4-5 cm. The time scales of the dominant
low frequency fluctuation obtained from these two studies are comparable. If the
scales T, Land Uo are taken to be 6 days (5.2x 105 s), 400 km, and 1 m/s respectively,
we obtain the Rossby number Ro= UoI«(L) =3.6 X 10-2, where!=7xlO- 5 s, and the
ratio of the time-dependent term to the Coriolis terms (T/)-1=3x 10-2• Thus, the time
varying and nonlinear terms are negligible in the momentum equations. Similarly, the
lateral friction terms are also negligible in momentum equations (Yuan et al., 1986,
71
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 1,71-82.
1987). Using a right-hand Cartesian coordinate system with the z axis directed
upward, the momentum and continuity equations then become
A (J2u +fv- 1:.... op

Z OZ2 Po ox
(J2v 1 op
A --fu--- (1)
Z OZ2 Po oy
_pg_ op
az
ou + ov + ow -0
ax oy OZ
The convection-diffusion equation for the density is written as
op op op op - (J2p - (J2p (J2p
- - + u - + v - + w - - K --+K ( - - + - - j (2)
ox ox oy az Z az 2 H ox 2 ay2
The computational region and the mesh points are shown in Fig. 1. For
simplification, we assume that the depth depends only on the offshore coordinate x,
i.e., H=H(x) (Fig. Ib).
30"
E500
2&"
.d
0.
Q
1000
1500
b
24° 1700
17250~1...J4--:&~1:;';2~1~6-2~0~24-:--:2~&-::':32,....--'3-6-4'-O.2l
44i
Fig. l. a, The computational region and mesh points (the mesh points on solid and dashed lines are points
of density and velocities, respectively); b, the bathymetry H=H(x).
To derive the governing equation from Eqs. (1) and (2), we introduce the bottom
geostrophic velocity components (U b, Vb) as follows
A Prognostic Model of the Winter Circulation 73
U ___1_ ap I
b I Po ay :r.--H (3)
v __1_ ap I
b I Po ax z--H (4)
and the pressure at a depth z is
p-p +gfO pdz (5)

If :r.
Assuming f3-plane, we have

I-to + Ply cosO+ (L- X) sin 0] (6)
Where L is the length of the model region in the offshore direction, and the angle
() is measured clockwise from the true east to the offshore direction x.
From Eqs. (3)-(5), we obtain
a
-(ju b ) + -(jvb )
a gs apb
(7)
ax ay ay
- - ---
Po
dH
where s - - and Pb-P(X,y,z) ~--H
dx
Integrating Eq. (1) vertically, we have
IVH- r 1.. apax

-H P
dz-(~- TbX)_IUH
Po Po
(8)
_fO 1.. aP dz _ ( ~ _ Tby )
-H P ay Po Po
In which,
(9)
and (Tx' Ty) is the wind stress vector, and (U, V) satisfies the total transport equation:
a( UH) + a( VH) -0
(10)
ax ay
In addition, we assume that the bottom stress is proportional to the bottom
geostrophic velocity, i.e.,
- -
T xb - Po YUb ' T yb - Po YVb (11)
where y is 5 X 10-4 m/s (Scott and Csanady, 1976; Winant and Beardsley, 1979).
To make further simplifications, we non-dimensionalize the above equations. Let

IIp
So-HolLo, Uo-g(-)SJfo, T-LoIUo '
Po
Y - fIfo, & - yl(SoLo) , KH-KH/( UoLo) ,
- - 2 - -
Kz-(KzLo)/(UoHo) , u-uIUo ' v-vlUo
p-(p-po)/(llp) , "ix~1:xl1:o' !y-1:yl1:o'
8 1 -1:0 /(pofo UoHo) ' I-lIfo, P-PLlfo,
x-xILo ' y-YILo ' H-HIHo and s-sISo'
where the overbar denotes dimensionless variables. To simplify notations, in the
following the overbars are dropped from all the dimensionless variables. We thus
obtain the non-dimensional form of equations for (U b , Vb) as follows:
We note that in the above equation s=y/(Sol--o), s[=ToI(p~ Upo) and f3 are all
small parameters. If all second order terms 0(S2), 0(S[2), O(f3~), O(ss[), O(stf3) and
O(sJ3) are neglected, then Eq. (12) becomes
8 oawb PHcosO &1 01: y 01: x
lu - - - - + V --[---]
b S AX s b s ax oy
(13)
P
+-[cosO fO op
z-dz+smO . fO 00
z-dz]
Is -H aX -H oy
The non-dimensional form of Eqs. (7) and (11) can be written respectively as
a a
-(fu )+-(fv ) - - s -
OPb
ax b oy b oy (7)'
(11)'
Substituting for U b in Eq. (13) into Eq. (7)', and neglecting all second order small
terms, we obtain the non-dimensional form of the equation for Vb as follows
& a 1 oVb aVb oVb 1 a 1 sap I
--(--)+-+M -+M v -& --(-rot f)---
I ax s ax oy 1 ax 2 b 1 I ax s 2 I ay
pal fO z-dz+smO
ap . fO ap
(14)
+ - - [ -(cosO z-dz)]
fax s -H aX -H ay
in which
(15)
From Eq. (8), the vertically averaged velocity U and V can be expressed in terms
of u b , Vb' i.e.,
A Prognostic Model of the Winter Cireulation 75
? I?
U-u b +-
1 fO dz fO -dz+e
ap ,
- - -ev y
(16)
fH -H -H ay 1 fH fH b
V-v +1- fO dz fO -dz-e

ap 'x- -eu
- (17)
b fH -H -H ax 1 fH fH b
To further simplify the problem, we assume the sea water to be vertically well-
mixed, i.e., p(x, y, z, t)=Pb(X, y, t)=p(x, y, t). This assumption is not satisfied in the
Kuroshio region even in wmter, and there we may regard p(x, y, t) as the vertically
averaged density field. Integrating Eq. (2) vertically, we get the non-dimensional form
of the equation for density
ap ap ap crp crp Q
-+u-+v--K (-+--)+a- (18)
at ax ay H ax 2 ay2 H
in which the following non-dimensional boundary conditions have been used.
K ap I _ aQ K ap I -0 (19)
z az z-O 'z az z--H
- - 2 - 22-
where KH-KH/( UoLo), Kr.-K,LO/( UoHo), Q-Q/Qo' a - QofoPo/(1l p gSo)' Q is the
surface density flux and Qo is a reference value of the surface density flux.
Finally, Eq. (18) can be easily transformed to
ap +u' ap +v' ap -K (cr p + crP)+ Q (20)

at ax ay H ax 2 ay2 H
where
U' - U-u b (21)
v' - V-Vb (22)

Thus, the governing equations of the prognostic model consists of Eqs. (13), (14)
and (20) together with the necessary boundary conditions. Note that Eq. (14) is a
parabohc equation, hence we need to specify boundary conditions on boundariesx=O,
x=M!::.x andy=N~y, but not ony=O. There are two types of boundary conditions that
may be imposed at the boundary y=N~y: i) specifying Vb value, i.e., a boundary value
problem of the first type; ii) specifying V value; it is easy to see from Eqs. (17) and
(13) that this is a boundary value problem of the third type. Along x=O, we have
U=O at solid boundaries or specified influx, U, at river mouths. On the boundary
x=M!::.x where the water depth is deep, we take ub=O, i.e., the bottom geostrophic
current here flows along isobaths. This condition is based on the findings of our
diagnostic results (Yuan et al., 1988).
Eqs. (13), (14) and (20) are solved numerically subject to the above necessary
boundary condItions and the initial condition until a stable solution is reached.
III. NUMERICAL SOLUTION

A. Parameters and Computational Stability
The computational region (Fig. 1) has dimensions L x =549.765 X 103 m and

L y =722.28 X 103 m and is oriented such that 0=38.8°. Two values for the grid size of
& are taken, namely the fine grid ax 1 = 12.217x103 m and the coarse grid
axz = 48.868 X 103 m, while the grid size of ~y is always equal to 55.56 X 103 m. The
time step ~t is 1 day. Other parameters are Ho= 1000 m, {3=0.2091 X 10- 10 1m' s,
fo=0.5932xlO- 4 Is, KH =102-10 3 m 2/s, Y=5x10- 4 mis, and Qo=O. The wind data and
the initial condition for the density field are taken from the 1984-1985 winter cruise
(Yuan et ai., 1987). A uniform northerly wind is assumed with vw =8.5 m/s. The
discharge from the Changjiang River mouth is taken to be 32 000 m 3/s (distributed
uniformly betweenj=8dy to 9dy) and that from other rivers south of the Changjiang
is taken to be 5000 m 3/s (distributed uniformly between j=6~y to 7dy). These two
values are close to their respective annual average fluxes. Their winter values are in
general less than these two values, respectively, but the differences have no significant
effects on the computed results.
Computation at two consecutive time steps are considered to have reached a
stable solution if
( (n+l) (n» «n+l) (n» «n+l) (n»
max [ Pi, j - Pi, j Vb, i,j-Vb, i,j Ub, i,j-Ub, i,j ]<10- 3
{i j} (n) (n) (n)
, P~ j Vb, i, j U b, i, j
Different values of KH (10\ 5 X lO z and lO z mZ/s) have been used and they do not
show significant differences in the respective final stable solutions. Results show that
the solution with the coarse grids does not resolve some important feature such as
the coastal front. Thus in the foIlowing discussion only the results with fine grids and
KH =10 z m 2/s are presented.
B. Examples
To study the {3-effect and the effects of various boundary conditions, the following
examples have been studied.
1. Boundary Conditions for the Density Equation
In class DC-I, we consider the density boundary condition to be periodical in y,

i.e., p(x, 0, t)=p(x, Ndy, t), and assume that the initial density field is a function of
offshore coordinate x only, i.e., p(x, y, t) 1,=0 = p*(x). Since the eddy diffusion term
in Eq. (20) is small compared with the advection term, the interior density solution
is characterized by the characteristics of the first order terms of the left-hand side
and the source term of Eq. (20). The effect of the eddy diffusion term is important
only in a narrow boundary layer near the northern boundary y=Ndy. The width of
this boundary layer is actually smaller than the grid size in the y direction. To
illustrate this point we construct class DC-2 in which ~(x, N~y, t) takes on the steady
state solution of DC-l at (N-1)dy, i.e., POC_2(X, N~y, t)=PDC_l[X, (N-1)dy, t] 1,_00' As
we will see later in class DC-1 the density distribution near the northern boundary
has a large gradient, whereas in class DC-2 it is smooth.
2. Boundary Condition for the Vb Equation
As discussed before, two types of boundary values may be imposed at y=NJ1y. i)

The first type of boundary value problem, i.e., Vb= V(I); ii) The third type of boundary
value problem, expressed by the notation V(III), i.e., V is specified at y=NJ1y. Here
boundary values of V are taken from the results of diagnostic calculations (Yuan et
al., 1987).
3. f3-Effect
We have computed examples with f3=0.2091 X 10- 10 m/s or f3=0.
Altogether ten computed cases (Table 1) with curl, i' =0 have been used for the
following discussions.
TlIble 1. The Computed Cases
Cases DC Vb (m/s) f3 (m/s)

1 DC-l V~III~ o
2 DC-l V III 0.2091 X 10- 10
3 DC-2 V~III~ o
4 DC-2 V III 0.2091 X 10- 10
5 DC-l V~I~ 0.2091 X 10- 10
6 DC-l V I 0.2091 X 10- 10
7 DC-l V(I) 0.2091 X 10- 10
8 DC-l V(I) 0.2091 X 10- 10
9 DC-l V~I) 0.2091 X 10- 10
10 DC-l V I) 0.2091 X 10- 10
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
To make the Fig. 2 clearer, the velocity vectors are drawn only on every other points
in the x direction (even number of i). The following five problems will be discussed.
A. Main Features of the Winter Circulation in the East China Sea
Comparing the computed stationary results of our prognostic model with the
results of the diagnostic model (Yuan et at., 1987) indicate that the main features of
both computed winter circulations in the East China Sea agree qualitatively. We shall
discuss in detail these features separately.
1. The Coastal Current
Fig. 2 shows a strong coastal front and a southward coastal current to the west
of the front, while northward the TWC flows to the east of the front. These results
agree with both the observations and the diagnostic model results. If the coarse grid
&2 is used, the coastal front will not appear; the strong coastal front is resolved only
when the fine grids are used. The bottom geostrophic velocities on both sides of the
front are all directed to the north (Fig. 2c). This shows that in the region west of the
fron t the direction of the vertically averaged velocities differs from that of the bottom
geostrophic velocities. This is due to the important contribution of the northerly wind
stress in winter to the vertically averaged velocities fEqs. (16) and (17)], as was
pointed in the diagnostic calculation (Yuan et aL, 1981).
a b
u ~O.05
'--' O.05<~O.2
o.......J O.2<v';;;O.4
O.4<v';;;O.6
~ v>O.6 (m/ s)
_.... 4\_._._,_,_,_,_\_1_,_'_1_'_' -,-, ,-,

I, • I _ • • ' " I ' I I Itt \ I I c, ~
I""" "dtllt\ II" 1 I , \ . t , , I I I

• +
I, , ' , • , , • I I I II tIII \ \ +I • 1 ' 1 I / I ,I
+
+ ++•
.,
\ . 11I1dlllfl, , I • I I I I I I t I I 1I I ,
~ ++I •
' ,
1
., ,
",,,1I111It +I I I I , ~ / I 1 , t ,
+I , •
1
I
,,,,,,,,/,lllltt -., I , I t I I I ~ I ,
,, . • I I '
I I
1 1111~"lltttlt • I , t , I I , I I I It' I •
~ +I
1
j I •
1IIIIIIfllltll'",' ,, I I I I 1 / I / , I
j j I j ,
, ,
I I
\,/111//1111111111 I, I I , ,, I I , I I t
j I I
1
I I
111111"'/tlI11I,I,I.
I
lit,III
I . I +I I
1
I I , I , 1
' .
1__ I- L. t.. t.. t. L !. t. L t... t.. L LL.L"L' -~">r LLL~LLl~tlLl~L-rrrr~~'
, • ....... 1
Fig. 2. The computed case 4. a, The isopycnals at 10 days; b, the isopycnals at 1000 days; c, the (u b, vbl
distribution at 1000 days; d, the (U, II) distribution at 1000 days (units of the isopycllals are in (P-l)xlO
where pis in glcIll 3).
2. The Taiwan Warm Current (TWC)
TWC is the dominant winter circulation feature over the shelf. Fig. 2b shows that
the isopycnals over the shelf converge gradually to the region close to the shelf break.
Fig. 2c and 2d show that most of the vertically averaged current as well as the bottom
geostrophic current of the TWC turn clockwise and gradually converge near the shelf
break. The values of bottom geostrophic velocity over the shelf vary from 2 to 10
cm/s, and the maximum average velocity over the shelf is about 38 cm/s.
3. Kuroshio
Fig. 2d shows that the main current of Kuroshio is located over the continental
slope (i=28-36). Its maximum average velocity is about 86 cm/s and its width about
100 km. There is obviously a countercurrent associated with the anticyclonic eddy
east of Kuroshio. Fig. 2c shows that the bottom geostrophic velocity points mostly to
the south in the Kuroshio region (i=28-36), with speed varying from 8 to 22 cm/s.
We note that the values for the bottom geostrophic currents are quite small at the
east part of the computed region (generally less than 0.1 cm/s).
B. Dependence of Density Equation Solution on Northern Boundary Condition
Comparing the results of case 2 (Class DC-I) with those of case 4 (Class DC-2)
(Fig. 2), it is found that they have only slight difference in most of the region except
near the northern boundary where the difference is remarkable. This is because the
~iven boundary values at the northern boundary in case 2 are not compatible with the
mterior solution, hence a density boundary layer is produced near the northern
boundary. The width of the boundary layer is determined by the value chosen for the
horizontal density diffusion coefficient. In case 4 the density values imposed at the
northern boundary is compatible with the interior density distribution, thus the
density boundary layer near the northern boundary is not needed.
C. Nonlinear Interaction Between Density and Velocity
One of the key problem in the calculation of the current is how to determine the
geostrophic velocity at the bottom. The principal term for the generation of the
alongshore component of the bottom geostrophic velocity on the right-hand side of
Eq. (14) is -!.. aP b, which is the interaction between the sloping bottom and the
f ay
along-isobath density variation. We can explain the dynamical process with the help
of Eqs. (16), (17) and (20) as follows. The average velocity (u, v) is determined by
the bottom geostrophic velocity, the density field and the wind stress field rEqs. (16)
and (17)]. Advection of the density field by this average flow field will change the
density distribution which in turn will affect (u b, Vb), and so on and on. This is the
process of nonlinear interaction between the density and velocity, which can only be
taken into account by prognostic models.
We now discuss the distribution of the bottom geostrophic velocity in the
Kuroshio region. To simply the discussions we retain only the lowest order terms in
Eq. (14), i.e.,
The shelf break is located at i=29 (Fig. 1), Fig. 2b and Fig. 2c show that i) in the
region west of i=29, S ~~ >0 due to convergence of the isopycnals to the west of the
JVb
shelfbreak. Hence Jy <0, i.e., the northward current is strengthened along the "_y"
direction. ii) In region east ofi=29, S :~ <0 for the same reason. Hence :~ >0, i.e.,
the southward current is strengthened along the "_y" direction. Thus, the interaction
between the sloping bottom and the along-isobath density variation is the most
important dynamic factor for the generation of the bottom geostrophic flow.
D. Dependence of the Solution of Eq. (14) on Northern Boundary Condition
Different northern boundary conditions for Vb have been tried in the computed
cases 5 to 10 (Table 1). We shaH discuss them respectively.
1. Case 5
In the Kuroshio region, the direction of (U b , Vb) points mostly to the south with
a speed varying from 5 to 26 cm/s. In the shelf region, however, the main circulation
features of case 4, such as the strong coastal front and the convergence of the
isopycnals to the shelf break, are not found in the shelf circulation of case 5. Instead,
there is a strong anticyclonic circulation in the (U b , Vb) field and a prominent cyclonic
circulation in the (U, V) field. Thus, the shelf flow pattern of case 5 is quite different
from the observed flow field (and case 4). This indicates that we can not consider
simply vb=O at the northern boundary.
2. Cases 8 and 10
Like in case 5, there is no coastal front in cases 8 and 10. The isopycnals diverge
away from the shelf break and the degree of divergence increases from case 5, 8, to
10, in that order. Similar to case 5, the anticyclonic circulation in the (U b, Vb)
distribution dominates over the shelf, but its center moves graduaHy to the west from
case 5 to cases 8 and 10. For the (U, V) distribution, the cyclonic circulation
dominates over the shelf in case 8, similar to that in case 5. However, in case 10 a
southward (U, V) flow replaces the Taiwan Warm Current over the shelf. Thus,
negative v values at the northern boundary are also inappropriate, as far as the shelf
circulation is concerned. We note that in the Kuroshio region the flow patterns of
both cases 8 and 10 are quite similar to that of case 4 (or 2). This is because the v
at the northern boundary of the Kuroshio region in cases 8 and 10 have the same
sign as the computed results of cases 4 and 2.
3. Cases 6 and 9
The isopycnals and the flow pattern for case 6 are similar to those of case 5. This
is because the Vb at the northern boundary is too small, although having a correct
sign. For case 9, main features of isopycnals and the winter circulation over the shelf
are similar to those of case 4. Thus, positive Vb with suitable values at the northern
boundary of the shelf region yield a shelf circulation in agreement with observations.
In the Kuroshio region, both isopycnal distributions and flow patterns of cases 6 and
9 show large differences from those of case 4. Therefore, negative Vb values at the
northern boundary of the Kuroshio region are needed in order to produce circulation
features in accordance with the observations.
4. Case 7
In case 7, the values of Vb at the northern boundary are similar to but not the
same as the vb(x, N!J.y) obtained in case 2. In the shelf region vb>O with Vb decreasing
linearly toward the Kuroshio region, and in the Kuroshio region Vb <0 but with values
different from the Vb values obtained in case 2 (or 4). The distributions of isopycnals,
(Vb' Vb) and (U, V) obtained in case 7 all agree qualitatively with those obtained in
case 2 (or 4).
5. p-Effect
Both cases 1 and 3 have {3=0. Comparing case 3 with case 4 (Fig. 2) (or case 1
with case 2), it is found that the {3-effect in Eq. (14) on the solution is not large. This
is because the computed region is not very large. The {3-effect has almost no
influence on the position and strength of the coastal front. Near the shelf break, the
isopycnals in cases with {3~0 the converge is slightly stronger than that in the cases
with P=O. The bottom geostrophic velocities in cases with {3~0 are slightly larger
than those in cases with {3=0. Their relative difference are less than 15%.
V. SUMMARY
In the calculations, the winter circulation and the density field in the East China
Sea are studied by a prognostic model with simplified topography. The following is
found:
1) The comparison between computed results with our prognostic model and with
a previous diagnostic model indicates that their main features of the winter
circulation in the East China Sea agree qualitatively. There is a strong coastal front
near the coast. The coastal current flows southward to the west of a strong coastal
front, while the TWC flows northward to the east of the front. The TWC turns
clockwise to the northeast and gradually converges near the shelf break. The main
Kuroshio Current is located over the continental slope and flows more or less along
the isobaths. There is a countercurrent with the anticyclonic eddy in the east of the
main Kuroshio Current.
2) The interaction between the sloping bottom and along-isobath density variation
is the most important dynamic factor for the generation of the bottom geostrophic
flow. This nonlinear interaction between the density and velocity can be tested easily
in the prognostic model.
3) Different boundary values at the northern boundary have marked influence on
the density field only in a narrow region next to the northern boundary.
4) The solution of Eq. (14) depends strongly upon its northern boundalY
conditions, thus correct boundary values of Vb prescribed at the northern boundary

is essential. The correct Vb distribution at the northern boundary should be such that
the sign of the bottom geostrophic velocity Vb is taken to be positive in the shelf
region and negative in the Kuroshio region.
5) In this prognostic calculation, the fJ-effect is secondary and has only slight
influence on the density distribution and circulation.
REFERENCES
Bryan, K. and ('..ox, M. D. (1967) "A numerical investigation of the oceanic general circulation", Tellus
19( 1),54-80.
Chen, Shang-ji, Ma, Ji-rui, and Du, Bing (1987) "An analysis on characteristics of multi-frequency
oscillation of the Kuroshio between Taiwan and Iriomoto-Shima", Oceanoiogia et Limtloiogia Sinica
Hendershott, M. C. and Rizzoli, P. (1976) "The winter circulation of the Adriatic Sea", Deep-Sea Res. 23,
353-370.
Liu, Ju-ping (1984) "Low frequency variation of the sea level in the Kuroshio region of the East China
Sca", Oceallologia et Lil1l1lologia Sillica 15(3), 230-239 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Sarkisyan, A. S. (1977) Numerical Analysis and Prediction of Sea Current, Gidrometeoizdat Publisher,
Leningrad.
Scott, J. T. and Csanady G. T. (1976) "Nearshore current off Long Island", 1. Geophs. Res. 81,5401-5409.
Shaw, Ping Tung and ('.sanady, G. T. (1983) "Self-advection of density perturbation on a sloping continental
shelf',l. Phys. Oceaflogr. 13(5),769-782.
Winant, C. D. and Beardsley, T. C. (1979) "A comparison of some shallow wind-driven currents",1. Phys.
Oceanogr. 9, 218-220.
Yuan, Yao-chu, Su, Ji-lan, and Xia, Song-yun (1986) "A diagnostic model of summer circulation on the
northwest shelf of the East China Sea", Progress ill Oceanography 17(3/4), 163-176 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Yuan, Yao-chu and Su, Ji-lan, and Xia, Song-yun (1987) "Three dimensional diagnostic calculation of
circulation over the East China Sea Shelf',Acta Oceanoiogica Sillica 6, supp. I, 36-50 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Yuan, Yao-chu and Su, Ji-Ian (1988) "The calculation of Kuroshio Current structure in the East China Sea-
early summer 1986", Progress ill Oceanography 21, 343-361 (in Chinese with English abstract).
A LAGRANGIAN MODEL OF CIRCULATION
IN BORAI SEA
FENG Shi-zuo, ZHANG Shu-zhen, and XI Pan-gen

College of Physical and Environmental Oceanography
Oceall University of Qingdao
I. INTRODUCTION
The Bohai Sea is a typical shallow sea. The modeling of the time mean
circulation in the Bohai Sea and a more thorough understanding of its dynamics
are of interest. The problem of winter circulation in the Bohai Sea is referable
to the physics of sea-ice and will be not discussed in this chapter. Preliminary
researches suggested that the summer circulation pattern in the Bohai Sea can
be grossly characterized by a big counterclockwise gyre (Guan et aL, 1977). And
then the big counterclockwise gyre in the summer circulation pattern was
numerically simulated based on a depth-averaged wind-driven and thermohaline
circulation model (Zhang et aL, 1984). However, such a simple pattern of the
summer circulation cannot be used to explain, directiy or indirectiy, some field
data and long-term transport processes in the Bohai Sea. Recently the tide-
induced Lagrangian residual current field in the Bohai Sea has been obtained by
a numerical model for a typical summer condition of flow through the Bohai
Strait (Zheng, 1992). The contribution of this numerical simulation was an
inspiration that the tide-induced residual circution should be an important
component of the mean circulation in the Bohai Sea (Feng, 1990).
The time mean ocean circualtion can be derived in practice by averaging
fixedpoint current-meter data for periods of the order of a month or longer and
in theory by solving a steady-state set of the hydrodynamic equations for the
wind-driven and thermohaline ocean circulation. However, in coastal seas such
as the Bohai Sea, where dominant observable motions are tidal circulation
associated with tides, there are two open questions for the description of such
mean circulation and the understanding of its dynamics.
One of them is that the steady set of equations only governs the wind-driven
and thermohaline ocean circulation and thus is not sufficient for describing the
time-averaged circulation in coastal seas. In fact, the nonlinear interactions
between the dominant tidal variables, when time-averaged over several tidal
cycles, have also the effects on the time-averaged circulation (Nihoul and Ronday,
83
© 1994 Kluwtr Academic Publishers.
1975). Thus the tidal cycle mean circulation in coastal seas is driven not only by
the wind stresses at the sea surface and the horizontal gradient of water density
but also by the tide-induced "forces", and described by a tidally averaged set of
equations for the wind-, density- and tide-induced mean circulation. Moreover,
when the convection-diffusion equation of temperature, salinity or the
concentration of any tracer is averaged over several tidal cycles, the effect of
nonlinear coupling between the tidal currents and the fluctuations of temperature,
salinity or concentration was considered as a dispersion term and sometimes
called the "tidal dispersion", of which dynamics is not clear (Fischer, et aL, 1979).
From the view point of physics, another problem brought by the dominant
tidal motion is more important and essential for the understanding of the time-
averaged circulation in coastal seas. In recent years, it is becoming increasingly
clear that it is more relevant to use a Lagrangian mean velocity rather than a
Eulerian mean velocity to determine the origin of water masses, the long-term
transport processes and distributions of important water properties such as
salinity and temperature; and thus the tidal cycle mean circulation, or the residual
circulation often called in shallow sea dynamics, should be described and
understood by means of the Lagrangian mean velocity, in stead of the Eulerian
mean velocity used traditionally. The development of an appropriated dynamic
theory on shallow sea circulation is evidently interesting.
In a weakly nonlinear dynamical system, the Lagrangian mean velocity leads
to the concept of Lagrangian residual velocity, and the latter is a solenoidal field
(Feng, 1987).
The first-order Lagrangian residual velocity, or the mass-transport velocity,
should be appropriate to the description of the lowest-order mean circulation in
coastal seas. A set of field equations governing the mass-transport velocity, the
residual elevation and the time-averaged apparent concentration has been
proposed for a baroclinic shallow sea system (Feng, 1990).
In this chapter, based on the set of field equations governing the mass
transport velocity (Feng, 1990), the lowest-order summer circulation in the Bohai
Sea is numerically derived and studied. A comparison between the wind-, density-
and tide-induced circulation and the wind- and density-driven circulation reveals
some interesting aspects of the dynamics and transport processes in the Bohai
Sea, particularly indicating that the tide-induced residual circulation is really one
of the most important components of the mean circulation in the Bohai Sea.
II. MODEL
A generalized set of field equations describing the shallow sea circulation and
long-term transport processes, at the lowest-order approximation, has been
proposed as follows (Feng, 1990).
(1)
(2)
A Lagrangian Model of Circulation 85
V'VC + WCt - (kCt)t (3)
z - 0:
(4)
(5)
W- V-C -0 (6)
t
where a Cartesian coordinate system on an I-plane is constituted, z is its vertical

coordinate, and K the correspoding coordinate unit vector; V is a horizontal
vector operator; the subscript z denotes a partial differential sign; Vand Ware
respectively the horizontal vector and the vertical component of mass-transport
velocity; 2 is the residuai elevation; C is the time-averaged apparent
concentration; 2' is the time-averaged dynamic height representing the horizontal
gradient of the relative deviation of density, which is induced by the thermohaline
effect, and sometimes is called the "baroclinic force"; h is an undisturbed water
depth; I is the Coriolis parameter; y and k are the eddy viscosity and diffusivity,
respectively; g is the gravitational acceleration; 'T is the time-mean wind stress at
the water surface; 7r is termed the "tidal body force", which is induced by the
Lagrangian dynamics of the dominant tidal motion and expressed by the time-
averaged effect of nonlinear coupling between tidal varibles (Feng, 1987, 1990).
This generalized set of field equations (1)-(6) is an extension of the classical
set of field equations for the wind-driven and thermohaline circulation in coastal
seas. In fact, III addition to the wind stress and the baroclinic force, the tidal body
force represents the effect on shaUow sea circulation of nonlinear tides.
III. CIRCULATION IN THE BOHAI SEA

The Bohai Sea, consisting of a central area and the Liaodong, Bohai,
Laizhou bays, is a semi-enclosed coastal shal10w sea with an average depth of
approximately 20 m (Fig. 1). The Bohai Strait in the east is the only passage
connecting the Bohai Sea to the oceanic Huanghai Sea. There are several rivers
emptying into the Bohai Sea, and the biggest one is the famous Huanghe River
laden with heavy silt sediments.
The obselvable intra-tidal motion in the Bohai Sea, with a tidal amplitude
of the order of 1 m and the tidal current of the order of 1 mis, implies a tidaUy
dominant, weakly nonlinear dynamics.
The Mz-tide is a principal tidal constituent in the Bohai Sea, which derives
the most important component of "tidal body force".
The East Asia monsoon dominates the meteorology of this region. The
prevailing winds in the summer are southerly, and a typical wind stress on the sea
surface is 0.005 dyne/cm z (Zhang et aL, 1984). The baroclinic effect through the
observable salinity distribution in the Bohai Sea on the summer circulation has
been treated, and a typical relative deviation of density is 1% (Wang et al., 1993).
The volumetric transport of water through the Bohai Strait is deduced from
calculation of the current speed based on the field data collected in the summer
(Zhang et at., 1984). Here it has to be supposed that the components of tidal
current are zero, at least can be ignored, in the cross section of the Bohai Strait
(Feng et al., 1986). It has been shown that the Huanghai Sea Warm Water enters
the Bohai Sea through the deep northern waterway of the Bohai Strait, and the
Bohai Sea water flows out of the basin through the southern part of strait. The
Huanghe River is taken into acount, and its runoff is typically about 4000 m/s for
the summer coditions (Pang and Si, 1980).
Under these conditions, based on the generalized set of field equations
(1)-(6), and using a velocity-splitting numerical model for the 3-dimensional
shallow sea problems (Zheng, 1992), the summer circulation pattern and related
numerical results have been obtained through a diagnosis approach. Some results
will be exhibited here and used to reveal the related dynamics of the summer
circultaion in the Bohai Sea.
A depth-averaged mass-transport velocity field is derived by integrating the
3-dimensional solutions as the mean summer circulation in the Bohai Sea (Fig. 2).
It shows that the mean summer circulation in the Bohai Sea has a relativefy
complicated pattern compared to mean circulation pattern driven only by wind
and baroclinic forces for the summer conditions in the Bohai Sea. The latter is
only one big counterclockwise gyre (Zhang et at., 1984).
VelOCity scale
_15.0 cm/s
- 10.0 ,;m/s
- 5.0 cm/s
- 1.0 cm/s
40°1"-----'
38°
Fig. 1. Isobaths (m) of the Bohai Sea. Fig. 2. Summer circulation in the Bohai Sea,
which is embodied by a depth-averaged mass-
transport velocity field.
There exists a distinct clockwise gyre in the Bohai Bay (Fig. 2), and a very
similar clockwise gyre appeas also on the surface water of the bay (Wang et aI.,
1993, not exhibited here). Such a flow pattern can be qualitatively verified by the
surface current field in the Bohai Bay observed on ERTS imagery (Fig. 3).
Turbid water visible on the satellite imagery makes splendid tracers of near
surface currents. During most part of the year, turbid water from the Huanghe
River flows northwestwards along the southern coast of the Bohai Bay. Near the
apex of the bay, the flow turns southeastward along the northern coast of the bay
and then runs into the central part of the Bohai Sea (Ping, 1983).
The surface distribution of suspended matters in the Bohai Sea for summer
conditions (Fig. 4) (IOQAS, 1985) might imply not only the existence of that
same clockwise gyre in the Bohai Bay but also the objective existences of the
smaller clockwise gyre at the northeastern corner of the Liaodong Bay, into which
the Liaohe River empties itself. This also imply the existence of the counter-
clockwise flow pattern near the Bohai Strait. The surface summer circulation
pattern in the Bohai Sea is very similar to the mean summer circulation pattern
(Wang ct al., 1993).
itS" 120"
<20
20-30
30-50
50-100
_ 100-150
Fig. 3. Turbid water plume and interpretative Fig. 4. Distribution of suspended matter
pettern of flow at the surface in the Bohai Bay content at the surface in the Bohai Sea in July.
(from ERTS photograph, on June 20, 1978).
River runoff affects the current velocity only in the vicinity of the Huanghe
River Estuary, it does not change the summer circulation pattern in the whole
Bohai Sea.
A comparison between the summer circulation in the Bohai Sea (Fig. 2) and
the wind-driven and thermohaline circulations for the summer conditions (Zhang
et al, 1984) shows that the smaller clockwise gyre in the Liaodong Bay and
particularly the clockwise gyre in the Bohai Bay are induced by the tidal body
tide-induced Lagrangian residual circulation model (Zheng, 1992). Particularly

the clockwise gyre in the Bohai Bay has been verified, although qualitatively and
indirectly, by the existence of calcite and muscovite in sediments of the Bohai Bay
since the calcite and muscovite are the characteristic minerals from the Huanghe
River (Figs. 5 and 6) (Feng, 1990).
Fig. 5. Distribution of muscovite in sediments of Fig. 6. Distribution of calcite in sediments of

the Bohai Sea. the Bohai Sea.
The biggest coastal harbour of North China, Tianjin, is situated at the bay
head, where the Haihe River empties itself into the Bohai Bay. South of the bay
mouth is the estuary of the Huanghe River, where the water mass is expected to
be heavily laden with sediments and silt. It is therefore extremely interesting not
only to confirm the existence of the clockwise circulation pattern in the Bohai
Bay but also to understand more thoroughly its dynamics.
A flat bottom circulation in the Bohai Sea in summer (Wang et aL, 1993)
shows that the clockwise gyre in the Bohai Bay vanishes. It suggests that the
generation of the clockwise pattern of circulation in the Bohai Bay is due to the
nonlinear coupling of the tidal effect and variable bottom topography.
The wind stress and baroclinic effect cause 1 % and 10% increment in the
current speed, respectively, and have no marked influence over the general
pattern of the summer circulation in the Bohai Sea, although they have
constructed their respective circulation patterns (Wang et at., 1993).
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the generalized set of equations governing the mass-transport
velocity proposed by Feng (1990), the lowest order velocity field of the summer
circulation pattern in the Bohai Sea has been obtained. This pattern shows a
relatively complicated circulation when compared to a pure wind-driven and
thermohaline circulation pattern in the Bohai Sea for the summer conditions.
Analyses on the dynamics indicate that the mechanism of formation of the
summer circulation pattern in the Bohai Sea, particularly inclusive of the
clockwise gyre in the Bohai Bay, is mainly due to the interaction between the
tidal body force and an irregular bottom topography and due to the branch of the
Huanghai Sea Warm Water coming through the Bohai Strait. Effects of the wind
stress and baroclinic force are of less importance for the summer circulation in
the Bohai Sea.
REFERENCES
Feng, Shi-zuo (1987) "A three-dimensional weakly nonlinear model of tide-induccd Lagrangian
residual currcnt and mass-transport, with an application to the Bohai Sca", in 1. C. 1. Nihoul and
8. M. Jamart (eds.), Three-dimensional Models of Marine and Estuarine Dynamics, Elsevier
Oceanogranphy Series, 45, Elsevier, pp. 471-488.
Feng, Shi-zuo (1990) "On the Lagrangian residual velocity and mass-transport in a multi-frequency
oscillatory system", in R. 1: Cheng (ed.), Physics of Shallow Estuaries and Bays, Springer-Verlag,
pp.34-48.
Feng, Shi-zuo, Cheng, R. 1:, and Xi, Pan-gen (1986) "On tide-induced Lagrangian residual current
and residual transport, Part I: Residual current", Water ResouT. Res. 22(12), 1623-1634.
Fischcr, H. 8., List, E. J., Koh, R. C. Y., Imberger, 1., and Broods, N. H. (1979) Mixing in Inland and
Coastal Waters, Academic, Orando, Fla.
Guan, Bin-xian, Ding, Wen-Ian, and Li, Chang-song (1977) An Atlas on Surfacc Current in the Bohai
Sea, Huanghai Sea and Donghai Sea, Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Qingdao (in
Chinese).
Institute of Oceanology, Qingdao, Academia Sinica (1985) Geology of the Bohai Sea, Scicnce Press,
Bcijing (in Chincse).
Nihoul, 1. C. J. and Ronday, F. C. (1975) "The influencc of the tidal stress on the residual circulation",
Tellus 27, 484-489.
Pang, lia-zhen and Si, Shu-heng (1980) "Fluvial process of the Huanghc River estuary, II.
Hydrographical character and region of sediment silting", Ocean 0/. et Limnol. Sinica 11(4),
Ping, Zhong-liang (1983) "Surface current in Bohai Bay observed on ERTS imagery", Oceano/. et
Lilllllol. Sillica 14(3),297-304 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wang, Hui, Su, Zhi-qing, Feng, Shi-zuo, and Sun, Wen-xin (1993) "Numcrical calculation of the wind-
driven, thermohaline and tide-induced Lagrangian residual current in the Bohai Sea", Acta
Oceallologica Sillh·a 15( I), 9-21 (in Chincsc, with English abstract).
Zhang, Shu-zhcn, Xi, Pan-gcn, and Feng, Shi-zuo (1984) "Numerical modcling of the steady circulation
in the Bohai Sea", 1. of S/wlldollg College of Oceanology 14(2), 12-19 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zheng, Lian-yuan (1992) "A numerical study on the three-dimensional hydrodynamic equations for
the mass-transport velocity, with an application to the Bohai Sea", 1. Ocean Ulliv. of Qingdao
22( 1), 39-48 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
THREE-DIMENSIONAL NUMERICAL MODELING OF THE
WATER CIRCULATION IN SOUTH CHINA SEA
WANG Wen-zhi and HUANG Qi-zhou
South Chilla Sea !llStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
GuaJlgzllOu 510301, China
y. S. LI and Z. W. LI
Departlllelll of Civil alld Slmctural Engineering, HOllg KOllg Polytechnic
Hong Kong
I. INTRODUCTION
The South China Sea (SCS) is the largest and deepest sea in China. For a fully
understanding of its flow fields, numerical modeling is an important approach
because the acquisition of sufficient field data is very difficult, especially for its deep
part, and the topographical complexity hampers the success of analytic solutions even
for the simplest models. A basic flow patterns for the upper layer has emerged by 2-
D modeling (Guo et al., 1983; Wang, 1985; Zeng et al., 1989; Li et al., 1992), but the
knowledge about the vertical distribution of currents requires 3-D models.
For a 3-D modeling of the seawater circulation in the SCS, the following factors
should be taken into account:
1) The SCS is situated in the tropical and subtropical zones with its southern part
in the vicinity of the equator. With the gradual decrease of the Coriolis force towards
the south, the convection and friction terms in the governing differential equations
become increasingly important and should not be neglected.
2) The SCS is dominated by monsoons throughout the year. The winter monsoon
is northeastly with an average wind speed of 9 mis, while the summer one southwestly
with an average speed of 6 m/s. Owing to the vast expanse of the sea area, there is
a time lag of about 3 months between the northern and southern parts for the wind
field to reverse direction at the change of seasons. Hence different wind fields may
coexist in the transition periods between the summer and winter monsoons. This
phenomenon creates much difficulties in the specification of a realistic input wind
field for the computer model.
3) The average annual precipitation in the SCS is about 2000 mm. A large
amount of fresh water is discharged into the northern and southwestern SCS from
the Zhujiang (Pearl) River and the Mekong River, respectively. The sun radiation is
quite strong, and hence the water in the upper layer is of high temperature and low
salinity. In contrast, the water in the deep region comes from the Pacific Ocean and
is of low temperature and high salinity. These account for the relatively strong
stratification of the water body. The temperature contrast in the surface layer
between the north and the south is also significant, especially in winter. The existence
of these horizontal and vertical density gradients requires the adoption of 3-D models
for an accurate representation of the flow pattern.
4) Continental shelves of the SCS are broad in the north and in the south, while
91
Zhou Di el al. (eds.), Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 1,91-100.
narrow and steep in the east and in the west. A deep basin is in the center.
Enormous islands, reefs, and shoals scattered on the continental shelves and slopes.
The irregular coastlines further complicate the topography of the SCS.
5) The SCS is connected to other seas and oceans by several straits which are,
except the Bashi Channel, usually less than 100 m deep. Hence the SCS is a semi-
enclosed sea, whose water exchange with other seas takes place mainly through the
Bashi Channel.
II. METHODS
Both multi-layer and a-transformation numerical models have been employed by
the authors to simulate the circulations in the SCS, supplemented by a diagnostic
model and the {3-spiral method for the deep-water region. Since data for wind,
temperature and salinity are scarce and unevenly distributed, only seasonally averaged
data are used in computations, and hence the resulted circulations should be
regarded as the patterns averaged over different seasons.
There are two types of 3-D models commonly used. The first type is the multi-
layer models in which the water body is divided into a number of layers, and vertical
integration is successively applied to each layer. The other type of 3-D models applies
discretization to the original or transformed vertical coordinate. Both models have
been applied to study the water circulation in the SCS.
A. Multi-Layer Models
The main advantage of multi-layer models is that fairly accurate results can be
obtained without great computational and programming efforts, since they are an
extension of the well-developed 2-D depth-averaged models with interfacial
interaction. Pohlmann (1987) and Mao et al. (1992) applied the finite-difference
method (Backhaus, 1985) to compute the seasonally averaged circulation in the SCS.
They used similar numerical scheme but are different in details, such as salinity and
temperature fields, boundary conditions, and the thicknesses of the water layers. Mao
et al. (1992) used a computational mesh of 98°-122°E and 00_23°N, L\x=dy=OS, 15
water layers, dt=20 min, and 1440 time steps. These yielded relatively stable results.
B. THREE-D Models with a-'fransformation (Zhang, 1992)

The 3-D baroclinic Navier-Stokes equations are adopted as governing equations.
By Bossionesq approximation, j5 is the vertically-averaged density, and an explicit
relationship is available to compute the density from known pressure, temperature
and salinity. These equations are subject to the following boundary and initial
conditions. At land boundaries the north component of velocity is zero. At open sea
boundaries the sea surface elevation, salinity and temperature vary through time. At
sea surface,
au I - F
-p(N-)azz-( S
(1)
(2)
Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of the Cireulation 93
where F, and G, are the wind stresses in the x and y coordinates, respectively. At sea
bottom the adhesive condition is employed. There are no fluxes of water, salt and
temperature through the sea surface and sea bottom. The initial conditions are zero
velocity and sea surface elevation, given lOx 1° (at standard layers) seasonal average
temperature and salinity, lOx 1° seasonal average sea surface wind stresses.
In order to overcome the limitation of multi-layer models and to better account
for the topographical factor, the following two improvements are made:
1) The a-transformation is carried out
(-z (3)
0-1-2--
(+h
where 1; is the water surface elevation, h the water depth. a varies between -1 and
+ 1, thus the topography is simplified. The finite-difference technique can then be
applied to the new a coordinate in addition to horizontal coordinates, without
considering the interfacial interactions between adjacent layers.
2) The east boundary of the computation mesh is moved to 137°E, thus including
the Basbi Channel where flow patterns are complicated in the computation domain.
This helps to investigate the relationships between Kuroshio and the currents in the
northern SCS. More field data are available at 137°E boundary, this makes the
boundary more representative.
The parameters used in the simulation are: computational mesh 98°-137°E and
:1
0°-28°N, Lll= Lly = 1°, 11 intervals, and = 1 min. The averaged winter circulation was
obtai:1ed using this model.
Since the water depth caries significantly in the SCS, the a-transformation
approach results in a large variation in vertical resolution. Zhang (1992) used uneven
interval of a to increase the resolution for upper layers.
C. Diagnostic Models
Nonlinear, 3-D diagnostic models had been widely applied to study ocean
circulations before the 80s. The model applied to the SCS was based on the model
au and W av
suggested by Yuan (1984) with the inclusion of the vertical transfer terms, W
Bz Bz
in the horizontal momentum equations (Zhang et aI., 1993). The governing
differential equations on Cartesian coordinates are given below
au au au . aD cPu cPu Bu
u - + v - +w--2G1(stnlp)v - --+A ( - + - ) + A - (4)
ax By Bz ax I ax 2 By2 x az
Bv Bv av . BD cPv cPv Bv
u-+v-+w--2G1(stnlp)u- - - + A ( - + - ) + A - (5)
Bx By Bz ay I ax 2 ay2 x az
au + av + aw _ 0 (6)
Bx ay az
The boundary conditions are Ax au - -. x and A z av - -'y at sea surface and
az Bz
u=v=w=O at seabed.
The dynamic height D was obtained from known temperature and salinity fields
with the reference plane at 1200 m deep. Tx and Ty are wind stresses in the x- and y-
direction, respectively; w the angular velocity of the Earth. The elliptic Eqs. (2) to (4)
were first replaced by corresponding hyperbolic equations whose steady solution is
the solution of the former elliptic set. For simplicity, nonlinear terms were upwind
differenced, and time derivatives fOIWard differenced. TIle water body was divided into 14
layers, and &=~y=O.so. The flow fields averaged for individual seasons were calculated.
The major drawback of all diagnostic models is the assumption of a stable flow
field which is compatible with the input wind and density fields. Also the velocities
calculated are relative to a reference plane. Nevertheless, diagnostic calculations can
provide useful information on average flow fields in deep-water regions.
D. p-Spiral Method
The p-spiral method (Bigg, 1985) does not require a zero-velocity plane and
hence can be used to calculate the velocity field in deep layers. A modified J3-spiral
method (Zhou el al., 1990) were employed to investigate the velocity field in the
deep-water region of the SCS. This method directly solves the convection-diffusion
equation for the density field and minimizes errors by using linear regression and the
quadratic spline function to calculate the horizontal and vertical derivatives of the
density field. The horizontal and vertical eddy viscosities are carefully chosen to
match the observed velocities. Huang et al. (1992) used the temperature and salinity
data obtained in two cruises in winters of 1988 and 1989 to computer the velocity
field in the southern SCS. Wang et aL (1993) used seasonally averaged temperature
and salinity fields to compute seasonally averaged velocity field.
III. COMPUTED THREE-D FLOW FIELDS OF THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
All the four computer models employed by the authors are based on similar
input data and similar grid size, therefore the four sets of results can be compared
and validated against each other. Only those characteristics which have been obtained
consistently are given in the following sections.
A. Flow in the Surface Layer

The flow in the surface layer has marked seasonal variations in accordance with
the changes in monsoon direction. The computed results agree well with the 2-D
models and field observations. Results show that flow patterns are cyclonic in winter
and anticyclonic in summer (Figs. 1 and 2). Flow patterns of spring and autumn are
more complicated, but basically similar to that in winter.
Fig. 1 shows clearly that the main stream of Kuroshio with a speed of 70-80 cm/s
does pass through the Bashi Channel, but a branch of Kuroshio flows westward into
the SCS with decreasing speed after passing through the Bashi Channel. This is
consistent with observations in the northeastern SCS. This branch joins the main body
of Kuroshio again in the West Pacific after flowing in an anticyclonic loop through
the Bashi Channel, without intruding into the Taiwan Strait. Many small and medium
eddies observed in the SCS are not presented in the computed flow fields, this may
be due to the relatively coarse grid size used in computation. However, larger eddies
can still be reproduced, for example, the cyclonic eddies southwest of the Dongsha
Islands and in the vicinity of the Nansha Islands in winter (Fig. 1) and the
anticyclonic eddy in the SCS in summer (Fig. 2).
Thrcc-DiDlCllsiolllll NUDlCI"iclll Modeling of the Circullltioll 95
>---<
80",,10
-, ,
24'
+-"~,
~
...
( .............
...... , ...... ,
" . '" ,
... ,~i' ......
.
~ ~JI'
20'
,'- ....
" " ....... ,; '\" ' .. ..
" ' ~.,~ ...... , ...... ~"

,,
.......
" ...... " ,
, ",
...............
'" ~ ~ ~
-,
{
16'
\
" ... " " , .....................

.... " " ' .... , ' # ...
..... - ..... , ~
" , 1
, . , ....... ./<'/,-
, ,I f 11' _ ..........
~ L ", " ...r" . I
Fig. 1. Simulated flow field at the surface layer (0-50 01) of the South China Sea and adjacent sea areas
in winter (from Zhang, 1992).
Depth= OOOOm(oum.) ;::>;40 em
,
21' .. J' ...... - - . . ( f' J't "
.,l_\<,r ••
~" "...- II .. '\ ,.. ... -
... ..,~,.'_ ... jo.'4J1_
19'
"" _. ". . . ... . .,. " ..... ",. ,,. ....
... , ... II
~
...... ,
". /' ,./' ..,

~ ,. ,. ~
.. " ,. ........ .,..
AI
......,,_~1!.
" l' "" .... ..
4 ... ~ ... f_ .... -.. ..... " .... ?/'r/'_.k

11' .. ..,.., ,l'./' _ _ ..... ~_-'?-. . . . . . . .
l' 1 , ? _ _ \ . ~ '" .. / ' - " , " t ~
_ ...... " , 11It. ......... '" \.. -... ...... ,.
___ . . . . , t....-.............. "'....,. ..... .. '" . . ..
# .... -'" ,. "
IS' __ .,.._----.--.... '\ "t ~

J ; ....... ~ .... ..
_ " ~ ... , - - - " ~ f... .. II .. " ' . . ... ,. .. "
/!" ...... -..--.....' \ , ......... - - - - --- ..

t t ! .A"-...-......" t , , ( • ~
-1,_ .
- ____ . . . _ ,,'" . .
..... It
13' t t ,"";-;.{_ ,I / ......... " f II .j. "r-

\ J' /:C,se- ....... -... ... ' r ~"f:- J ~.,...
A / ..... _//-"'-........ __ -"
... #
1',. ,, ___ /I
~ I/_~-....,.,"\ -.._If ... -...-..• •

11' ..................~ "". ~-, ~ \r ..... - "90 • " t
( ......,.-. !' ~" ..... -'!Ito ........ .....
............. -~\,,r"" 11/1#('_ .. ....
~ -", r • ~.~-- , •
9' ir- ...... V,/" ... , ... --""
"___
-", ... ",,t
,/ Iii"" .........
..........-
,. - -
'I - ...... '11
~
\"_....... " _ . . . . " ...~ '\ ",If".

l' ..... ..- ... -..". ... ~ /",.. ..
,
T_~" ----...... ? --"_"
Fig. 2. Simulated flow field at the surface laycr .t' \ ,,'" ••
(0-30 m) of the deep area of the South China Sea

in sUlllmer (from Zhang, 1992).
B. Flow in Intermediate Layers

The simulated spring flow field at 500-800 m depth (Fig. 3a) is of a cyclonic
pattern consistent with the pattern of spring (March to May) geostrophic flow at the
500 m layer (Fig. 3b) given by Xu et al. (1982). Local cyclonic eddies can be observed
north of the Bashi Island, southeast of the Hainan Island, and in the vicinity of the
Nansha Islands (Fig. 3a).
N
2:t +... '" lit ~ _
~t;\ ... -+
I " .. k.lf \- ... Ii
t .... ,11<..., "" \0 ...... ....
20° ...- ... "" ... '1; ... "I l., ... ".-'1'"
._ .~J ; ... ~: :~: ~:::' ~

\o ..
~ 10'" .. \i'-'" ..... \0 ~ • ,. Jf ?- "II
18° _ _ 1_ ........ t .Iff -to -... ...... 'lo + .,. JIll! •
~
4",.
t 1'_ ............
.II:'\'t ....
t + ........
...,_" . . . . \,,,
11. \j ;1' .,. ,
16° ~ \, , -,.' ~~ -:::: ~~ ~::~ =:

\\ _ .... _ .... ~t.1f'" lo" .. ~ "' .... " '"
+-~\~-: :;~~~;!;~ :.:~:;:

14° t.- . " t , .......... "' ...
..... ., t ...... iI' 1" " .. Ie '\ .. -
"oJrJ ...
~ ........
t •
+t ~
lr ........ fI '11.- " ,. " It" .... 11 ..... t t ~
1:t tlt
t
............. - . , ......... -- . .
'lw ..... 1" ........... - .or ... l' t
t
.. '"
l.,
\ " " - ..... -
"-
.j,1r 4. ~'''' II .,. .,. /II.,. Ii 't '\ ......
!; ~::~ :..~;; :!.!+"-

."", )" \.,j. t_
~ l' _ ',j. +I f '
~ II.
.......... "
, ".,If ......
"' .... "
11 ...... ..,._ ...
,j, . , " ............... " ~ ..... JI ... .... \
~ ..................... "" .......... "_ t ....
8° .j. +- + ... 'lo ~ .\. .... ,. .,.
"'.. ,1' ................. ....
6°
~ :+-'<4:: ::_. ._':-'10
Fig. 3. The flow fields for intermediate layers of the South China Sea. (a) Simulated spring flow field at
the 500 III layer (from Mao et al., 1992); (b) Spring (March-May) geostrophic flow field at 500 m depth
(from Xu et al., 1982).
The winter flow field at 500-800 m depth (Fig. 4) is basically cyclonic, similar to
the surface flow pattern in winter shown in Fig. 1. A branch of Kuroshio intrudes into
the SCS. Another branch of Kuroshio east of Taiwan flows eastward, unlike that in
the surface layer which flows northeastward. A local anticyclonic eddy exists southeast
of Taiwan. This may be due to the shallow water depth in the sea area northeast of Taiwan.
C. Flow in Deep Layers
The simulated flow field in the 2000-3000 m layer of the SCS is anticyclonic in
winter and cyclonic in summer (Fig. 5). This is contrary to the flow direction in the
surface layer. This phenomenon persists for all four seasons.
The winter velocity fields at the surface and 1500 m depth in the vicinity of the
Nansha Islands, obtained by using the f3-spiral method from field data gathered in
1989, are given in Fig. 6. The flow is basically anticyclonic at the surface, with a
cyclonic eddy on the southeast side. However, the flow at the 1500 m layer is
basically cyclonic, and the eddy in the southeast becomes anticyclonic. The reversal
of flow direction between the surface layer and the near-bottom layer as depicted in
Figs. 5 and 6 requires further verification and investigation.
Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of the Circulation 97
24
--
27 .../5
c2:: ~ ,, ~. : " ,..

...
. - . ., ...
"
~
" " ..
,,,
", #' " .., \
, ,
, . ... , ... ,,~J ... tI ..
20· ,,.~, , ,. ~#<'

"l4."~""'\."
;' ..r "
, ," , , .. ~,' ,'I" . . " . . ~,.
.. .... / '..... tf' , '" ..... II' ~
~
"I ,
... ... , " "

.... " ...... ;'
,.. .... ,
........
,/"'"
""
",,.
" "
16"
.........
"
'" " .... , " "
.... " ...... " '
" '" I' "
.. -
.J
,
'r ;ilL' .II
12'
4·
~IT'
20U
Summer W Winter
18"
16
14
12"
............
10 4.4 emls
112' 114 116" 111; 120E 112' 114 116" 111; 120 E
Fig. 5. Simulated flow field in the 2000-3000 m layer of the South Olina Sea (a) in sulllmer and (b) III
winter (from Mao et 01., 1992).
The seasonal flow fields at the 1500 m depth obtained using the J3-spiral method
are very similar in summer, autumn (Fig. 7b) and winter, different only in spring (Fig.
7a). These results show that the seasonal variation of flow is smaller in deep layers
than that at the surface. The reason may be that the seasonal variation of density is
small in the deep layers, and the influences of monsoon decreases with depth.
N N
12"
12" '/' Om layer b /1500m layer
10" \
\
/'
10"
/"
t
'1.,- ......
J
~ ! \ /'
8"
6"
\
,-t -~ ~·
\ \ )
/~
! +-
i
>---;
8"
6"
\ --
0\ r
/"
\/
/
50 anjs
109" 111" 113" 115" 117'E 109" 111" 113" 115"
Fig. 6. Winter flow fields in the vicinity of the Nansha Islands (a) at the surface and (b) at 1500 m depth
(from Huang et aI., 1992).
Depth= 1500m (spr.) N Depth= 1500m (aut.)

N
23" 23"
~r I........... 21"
"
\-1 "
/' ,
.;I
19"
'-
I
,/
~
.
/'
,/
~
" /-
\
, ,.
19"
t .
.,
.
t 17'
17' / ,/
•____It " , .-- I

-
"
-
\
15" ~ ~
...... / 15" I
J. I t
/ ....
. I
.
~
{
'3" '-.
/ r ........ J' 13' ..-_ ........... /
/~ t
\
/' --.. '-.1-- \'
----.
.'
"-
" L .....< .
\ .
11" 11"
"-.
.- -
, ,
L.... f>-- '"'-
9" 1- 9" 1 ,,-
\
-~ ..-'
- I
I
"-
/
"'../
.-
7'
/
!
1/ 7'
~/
5" 5"
109" 111" 113" 119" 121"E 109" 111" 113' 117' 119 121"E
Fig. 7. Simulated flow field in the 1500 m layer of the South China Sea (a) in spring and (b) in autumn
(from Wang et al., 1992).
D. On the South China Sea Warm Current
The South China Sea Warm Current (SCSWC) flows always northeastward along
the east coast of Guangdong and in the deep-water region off Guangdong. It flows
Three-Dimensional Numcrical Modcling of the Circulation 99
against the monsoon in winter. The existence of this current in winter is also reflected
in our result for the 50-300 m depth (Fig. 8). Owing to its small width, the SCSWC
was not fully simulated by our rather coarse computational grid.
N
24" >---I
30 cm/s
22"1------'
20"
18":=::::==:==::=::=~:=;::::::;=:;::::::*:::::;=~
N
24" r----<
25cm/s
22·1------'
20'
114" 116" 118" 120" 122"E
Fig. 8. Simulated winter flow fields of the South China Sea at (a) 50-100 m layer, (b) 100-150 m layer, (c)
150-200 m layer, and (d) 200-300 m layer (from Mao et aI., 1992).
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The flow characteristics of the SCS obtained by four numerical methods can be
summarized as follows:
1) The flow in the surface layer has marked seasonal variations due to the
seasonal reversal of monsoon directions. This flow is basically cyclonic in winter and
anticyclonic in summer. Flow fields obtained by the (3-spiral method show that this
seasonal variation diminishes in deeper layers.
2) The flow in the intermediate layer (500-800 m) is similar to that in the surface
layer, but the flow in the deep layer (1500 m) is more complicated and with a
reversal of flow direction.
3) The flow in the Bashi Channel is very complicated. A branch of Kuroshio
flows into the SCS through the Bashi Channel in the surface to the 1500 m depth
layer, but no branch of Kuroshio intrudes the Taiwan Strait.
4) Many eddies occur in the South China Sea, mainly cyclonic in nature. Local
eddies in the Nansha Islands and in areas east of Vietnam and southwest of the
Dongsha Islands are quite stable. It is believed that the existence of eddies is closely
related to the bottom topography and the density field.
5) The existence of the South China Sea Warm Current is not well reflected in
the velocity field between 50-300 m depth. A finer grid (with size less than 0.5°) has
to be used in order to obtained a full picture of this current.
REFERENCES
Backhaus, J. O. (1985) "A three-dimensional model for the simulation of shelf sea dynamics, Dept.
Hydrogr. Z., 38, 165-187.
Bigg, G. R. (1985) "The /3-spiral method", Deep-Sea Research 32,465-484.
Guo, Zhong-xin and Wang, Wen-zhi (1983) "A numerical study on wind-driven circulation in the
Beibu Gulf', Tropic Oceallology 2(3), 205-215 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Huang, Qi-zhou, Wang, Wen-zhi, and Fu, Sun-chen (1992) "Calculation of intermediate and deep currents
in winter and summer in Nansha sea area", Tropic Oceallology (in press) (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Li, Rong-feng, Huang, Qi-zhou, and Wang, Wen-zhi (1992) "Numerical simulation for currents in upper
layer in the South China Sea", Acta Oceanologica Sinica ~in press).
Mao, Ming, Wang, Wen-zhi, and Huang, Qi-zhou et al. (1992) 'A three-dimensional numerical simulation
of the South China Sea Circulation", Tropic Oceanology 11(4), 34-41 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Pohlmann, T. (1987) "A three dimensional circulation model of the South China Sea, in J. C. J. Nihoul and
B. M. Jamart (eds.), Three Dimensional Models of Marine and Estuarine Dynamics, Elserier, PI'.
245-268.
Wang, Jia (1985) "A mathematical modcl of steady circulation in the South China Sea", J. of Shandoflg
College of Oceallology, 15(3), 22-32.
Wang, Wcn-zhi, Huang, Qi-zhou, Fu, Sun-chcn, Li, Yu-xiang, and Zhou, Guo-rong (1993) "Calculation for
currents in dcep area in the South China Sca", Tropic Oceallology (in press) (in Chincse, with English
abstract).
Xu, Xi-zhcn, Qiu, Zhang, and Chcn, Hui-chang (1982) "The general descriptions of the horizontal
circulation in thc South China Sea", in Proceedings of the 1980 Symposium on Hydrometerology of
the Chincsc Socicty of Occanology and Limnology, Sciencc Press, Bcijing, pp. 137-145 (in Chincse,
Yuan, Yao-chu (1984) "A study of sevcral models for thc calculation of an equatorial flow, La mer zz,
167-174.
Zeng, Qing-cun, Li, Rong-feng, Ji, Zhong-zhen, Gan, Zi-jun, and Ke, Pei-hui (1989) "Calculation of the
monthly mean currents of the South China Sea", Chillese 1. of Atmospheric Sciences, 13(2), 129-144.
Zhang, Fan, Huang, Qi-zhou, Wang, Wen-zhi, Li, Yu-xiang, and Zhou, Guo-rong (1993) "Diagnostic
calculations of mean seasonal circulations in the deep-water region of the South China Sea",
presented in PACON '93 Regional Symposium-Beijing June 14-18, 1993.
Zhang, Meng-you (1992) "Three-dimensional numerical simulation for the winter circulation in the South
China Sea", (thesis for Master degree in Snouth China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica)
Zhou, Wei-dong and Yuan, Yao-chu (1990) "Kuroshio velocity calculation using beta-spiral method", Acta
Oceallologica Sillica, 12(4),416-425 (in Chinese).
TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS IN EAST CHINA SEA,
HUANGHAI SEA AND BOHAI SEA
FANG Guo-hong
IllStitute of Oceallology, Academia Sillica
I. SOME REMARKS ON THE REPRESENTATION OF TIDAL CURRENT
To show the distribution of tidal current for a specific constituent, one could give
some maps representing the distribution of the harmonic constants of two
components. The maps of this kind are convenient for tidal current prediction but
lack physical meaning. Furthermore, the values are dependent on the choice of the
orientation of the coordinate axes. In this chapter we will use the current ellipse
parameters to show the characters of the current. These parameters do not rely on
the choice of the coordinate axes and possess physical meaning. They are: i) major
semi-axis of the ellipse, representing the maximum velocity of the constituent; ii)
minor semi-axis of the ellipse, representing the minimum velocity of the constituent;
iii) direction of the major semi-axis; iv) time of occurrence of the maximum velocity
after transit of the corresponding fictitious celestial body.
These parameters will be denoted by symbols W, w, e and T respectively. The
ratio k=w/W is called ellipticity. To indicate the rotation sense of the current, a sign
can be attached to the value w/W, with positive representing the anticlockwise sense
and negative the clockwise sense. The value X =(J)T, with OJ being the angular
frequency of the constituent, can be called phase-lag of the principal component.
When the major and minor axes are equal, the ellipse becomes a circle and both
the time and direction of the maximum velocity are indefinite. The place where the
current ellipse reduces to a circle can be called current-amphidromic point (Fang,
1986) or circular-current point (Fang and Wang, 1966). It can be derived from the
results of Fang and Ichiye (1983) that if the current ellipse is a circle at one level,
then the ellipes for any level will also be circles. Consequently, the current-
amphidromic points for different levels should be located at the same horizontal
position.
Owing to limitation of data and space, this paper will give only the vertically
averaged values for currents.
II. THE EAST CHINA SEA
There are many tidal stations on the coast and islands, so the distribution of tides
is well understood. Larsen and Cannon (1983) obtained tidal harmonic constants at
4 stations from the pressure data recorded by Aanderaa current meters, but only half
101
Zhou Di et af. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 1, 101-112.
of them seemed good. The distribution of tides in the open sea given in Figs. 1 and
2 are derived from data of tides on the coast or islands and tidal currents in the sea
by using the Proudman-Doodson (1924) Method. Data from the current stations in
the northwestern East China Sea and numerical model results for other parts of the
sea (Fang and Yang, 1988a) are used to give tidal current charts (Figs. 3-6).
The distribution of M2 tides in the East China Sea is rather simple as shown in
Fig. 1. The maximum amplitude appears in Hangzhou Bay and reaches 2.5 m at
Ganpu, where the sum of M2 and S2 amplitudes is 3.4 m (one of the largest values
along the China coast). The distribution of K1 shown in Fig. 2 is even simpler.
Around 300 N there is almost no spatial change in K1 tide. Because here the
frequency of inertial oscillations is equal or very close to that of K1, a small K1 sea
surface slope would result in a large K1 current. Thus the small spatial variation of
K1 tide should be a general character for the areas at latitudes about 30° (except for
areas close to coast). For the constituent 01, this kind of area is located slightly
southward (about 21.6°).
Fig. 1. M2 tide amplitude H (in em) and phase-lag Fig. 2. Kl tide amplitude H (in em) and phase-lag
g (in deg. and referred to 1200 E). g (in deg. and referred to 1200 E).
The distribution of M2 current is shown in Figs. 3-5. Near Okinawa there is a

current-amphidromic point, which is obtained from numerical computations. The
velocity of tidal currents here is very weak and this point is thus not important.
Tides and Tidal Currents 103
40
3.
"
34 34
32 32
30
oR
2.
Fig. 3. Maximum velocity of M2 tidal current (in Fig. 4. Time of occurrence of M2 maximum
cm/s). velocity (in hr and referred to 1200E).
Choi (1980, 1984) presented two-dimensional and three-dimensional models for the
Bohai, Huanghai and East China Sea. Values of the semidiumal currents derived from his
models for the East China Sea seem to be in good agreement with the obselVed data.
Miller (1966) gave the energy flux of M2 entering the East China Sea to be
0.6 X 108 kW Ding (1984) calculated the energy flux across the section from the
northeastern tip of taiwan to the southwestern tip of Kyushu. The obtained energy
flux of M2 is 1.365 x 108 kW (the error in unit has been corrected here). The tidal
current data used in Ding's calculation was from the numerical computations of Fang
and Yang (1988a). Results of energy flux thus needs further verification. However,
it can be said that Ding's value is more reasonable than Miller's value. We will see
later that the energy flux entering the Huanghai Sea is already about 0.6x108 kW
III. THE TAIWAN STRAIT
Tides and tidal currents in the Taiwan Strait have been investigated by many
Chinese scientists (Zheng et aL, 1982; Yin and Chen, 1982; Ding, 1983; Fang et ai.. ,
1984). The amplitude of M2 tide exceeds 2 m on the northern coast of Fujian
Province and reaches 2.5 m at Sandu, where the value of HM2+Hs2 is 3.3 m, the
second largest in China. In sharp contrast to Fujian, the M2 amplitude on the
northeastern coast of Taiwan is small, below 0.2 m at Jilong (Chilung).
3.
34 34
32
"'- 32
"- ,
oJ
30 30
'X"J<-.""''''
.,;'.
26
pi
5~
ad 0 4
/
24
124 12. 128 130 124 12. 126 130
Fig. 5. Major and minor axes of M2 current ellipse. Fig. 6. Maximum velocity of Kl tidal current (in
Arrow denotes rotation sense of current vector. cm).
The largest M2 tidal flow appears in the waters over the Taiwan Bank and
around the Penghu Islands, and may exceed 1 m/s as reported by Fang et aL (1984).
The area, a little north (24°15'N or so) of Lugang, Taiwan, is a weak current region,
where the smallest major semi-axis o( the M2 ellipse may be below 0.1 m/s. This is
also a region with co-phase lines of M2 current crowded together, the specific
distribution of the current phase is still questionable. Zheng et aL (1982) believed
that an M2 current-amphidromic point existed here, but Fang et al. (1984) presented
their current chart without such a point. The existence of this point can be
determined by numerical computation with a larger coverage besides direct
measurements.
The distribution of diurnal tide is rather simple (Fig. 2) and the diurnal tidal
current is quite weak (Fig. 6) according to Fang et aL (1984).
IV. THE KOREA STRAIT
The cotidal charts for the Korea Strait has been fairly well determined since the
1930's. The tidal charts, on the basis of numerical computation by Fang and Yang
(1988b), show no significant difference from Ogura's charts. Only is located Fang and
Yang's K1 amphidromic point slightly closer to the Korea coast than Ogura's. The
point plotted in Odamaki's (1989) chart is even more closer to the coast.
The distributions of tidal currents in the strait shown in Figs. 3-6 are based on
the numerical computation by Fang and Yang (1988b). The strongest M2 current
appears near the southwestern tip of the Korea Peninsula. In the channels south and
north of the Tsushima Islands the M2 current is also relatively strong (Fig. 3), and
the K1 current here is the strongest in the entire Korea Strait (Fig. 6).
Fig. 4 indicates an M2 current-amphidromic point in the southern part of the
Korea Strait. This point has not yet been verified by direct measurements.
Nevertheless, both the Korea Strait model by Fang and Yang (1988b) and the East
China Sea model by Fang and Yang (1988a) discovered such a point at nearly the
same position. This point seems to exist with high possibility. A numerical model
covering the East Chma Sea, the Korea Strait, and the Japan Sea would be useful for
verifying its existence.
V. THE HANGZHOU BAY
The tide amplitude at the mouth of the Hangzhou Bay is moderate. However,
the funnel-shaped coastal geometry magnifies the tidal range dramatically. The
largest spring tidal range in China appears in the upper portion of the bay. When the
tidal wave travels further upwards to the estuary of the Qiantang River, it becomes
a bore. The earlier reports (Defant, 1961) stated that the height of the Qiantang
River Bay could reach 8 m, but recently, a height of 3.7 m was reported (Chen et
al., 1979). .
Ye (1983) gave an analytical model for the M2 tide in Hangzhou Bay, assuming
an exponential width and a flat bottom for the bay. The obtained tidal amplitude
agrees with the observed value fairly well.
There are numerous tidal numerical models for the bay. The distribution shown
in the present chapter is based on the model by Cao and Fang (1986). Most
numerical computations, except Cao and Fang (1986, 1989), do not use a correct
coefficient of bottom friction. Because the modelled area usually has two openings
where the open boundary conditions are given on the basis of the observed data, the
use of an improper drag coefficient can hardly be detected by comparing the
computed and observed values in the interior of the area. Fang et al. (1987) used
three methods to estimate the bottom stress. The obtained drag coefficient ranges
from 0.00050 to 0.00067, which is only one sixth to one third of the generally adopted
value. In this work the incoming M2 energy flux through the opening is estimated to
be 3.45 X 106 kW This value is comparable with the incoming M2 energy flux through
the entrance of the Bohai Sea, which has an area one order of magnitude larger than
that of the Hangzhou Bay.
VI. THE HUANGHAI SEA
Sufficient tidal data available for most parts of the Huanghai Sea coast. But data
on the coast of North Jiangsu (about 32 -34°N) are rather poor and can hardly
reflect the tides in the open sea because of the wide shallow sand banks next to the
coast. Therefore, the biggest problem on the distribution of the M2 tide in the
Huanghai Sea is likely to be the position of the amphidromic point northeast to the
North Jiangsu coast.
Boris (1958) was the first to attempt the numerical computation for the
Huanghai Sea. He used the boundary-value method and gave a detailed description
for both tides and tidal currents. Because of the method itself and the coarse grid
used, his results were not quantitatively accurate, but some features have been
discovered. Fang (1971) first employed initial-value method to compute the tidal
currents in the eastern part of the Huanghai Sea. The results are in good agreement
with the observed values. An (1977), Shen (1980), Choi (1980, 1981, 1984), Xia and
Wang (1984), Fang (1985) and many others have made numerical computations for
the area.
The distribution of tidal current given in Figs. 3-6 is based on the measurements
and numerical computations by Fang (1971). These current data, combined with
coastal tide data, are utilized to calculate the tides in the open sea by means of the
Proudman-Doodson Method.
In this chapter only the distributions of M2 and K1 are shown. There are no
great variations in the phase-lag difference of S2 from M2 and the amplitude ratio
of S2 to M2 except for the area very close to the amphidromic points. The same
holds for 01 in relation to Kl. Thus the charts for S2 and 01 virtually resemble
those for M2 and K1, respectively.
The phase-lag difference of S2 from M2 and the amplitude ratio of S2 to M2 are
plotted in Fig. 7, and those for 01 versus K1 in Fig. 8. It can be seen that the
differences and ratios do reveal some, though not large, spatial variations. The
variations are relatively small in the East China Sea while noticeable in the Huanghai
Sea and Bohai Sea. Generally speaking, the phase-lag differences ofgs2 -gM2 and
Fig. 7. Phase-lag difference KS2-KM2 (solid line, in Fig. 8. Phase-lag difference KK1-g0l (solid line, in
deg.) and amplitude ratio HsJHM2 (dashed line). deg.) and amplitude ratio Ho\/HKl (dashed line).
Tides and Tidal CUiorents 107
gKl-gOi increase and the amplitude ratio of HsJHM2 decreases in the direction of
wave propagation. The increase of phase-lag difference can be easily explained. In
fact, the higher frequency wave, which has a shorter wave length, gains a phase-lag
increment of 360 in a shorter distance. Thus the difference of the phase-lag of the
0
higher frequency wave from that of the lower frequency wave should increase with
distance. The decrease of the amplitude ratio HsJHMZ has been attributed by Fang
(1980, 1981) to the nonlinear effect of friction, which is usually believed to be
proportional to the square of the velocity of the flow. When two tidal waves travel
together, the smaller wave would decay at a faster rate. Because both Kl and 01
waves are small waves in the studied area, the amplitude ratio Ho/HKl does not
reveal such a rule as the ratio HsJHMz does. The above explanation applies to
travelling waves. For the present case the reflected wave also plays an important role,
especially in the western part of the area. Notice that the phase-lag difference gsz-gM2
(or gKl-gOl) for reflected wave is larger than that for lllcident wave, and that the
amplitude ratio HsJHM2 for reflected wave is smaller than that of incident wave,
because the reflected wave can be regarded as an extension of the incident wave in
this aspect.
A similar phenomenon in the North Sea was noticed by Merz 60 years ago
(Defant, 1961) but in a slightly different way of representation.
Employing the nonlinearity in tidal friction, Fang (1979) was able to estimate the
drag coefficient in the Huanghai Sea by using tidal data at only 4 stations. But the
drag coefficient (0.0032) obtained seems too high, due probably to the inaccuracy in
the quadric relation of friction to velocity. Numerical experiments show that 0.0015
may be a reasonable estimate.
Unlike the Kelvin wave or Sverdrup wave, the incident semidiurnal wave at the
entrance has a larger amplitude on the left side than on the right side. Fang (1979)
considered the wave as a Proudman wave (The classification of tidal waves is
somewhat confusing. Fang (1979) called it Poincare wave according to Proudman
(1953). Platzman (1971) called this wave Proudman wave. The platzman classification
is more appropriate and is thus adopted here). A peculiarity of this wave is the large
ellipticity of its current. Fang calculated the ellipticity for semidiurnal wave to be 2/3,
with the current vector rotating clockwise. This feature can be observed from Fig. 5.
Based on the prototype wave, it was estimated that the energy flux of the incident
semidiurnal wave was 1.42 X 108 kW for spring tide and 0.25 X 108 kW for neap tide.
Because the ratio of the amplitude of M2 to that of spring tide is 0.711 on average,
the energy flux of the M2 incident wave is thus 0.711zx1.42x 108 kW=O.72 X 108 kW
The energy flux of the reflected M2 wave here is estimated to be 16% of that of the
incident wave. Thus the total M2 energy flux is 0.60 X 108 kW Ding (1984 ~ estimated
the M2 energy flux from the tide and tidal current charts to be 0.52 X 10 kW
The M2 wave is basically a Proudman wave at the entrance of the Huanghai Sea,
but the restriction of the coasts to current can be seen from Fig. 5, which shows that
the ratio of the minor semi-axis to the major semi-axis becomes smaller near the
coasts. After entering the Huanghai Sea the wave soon changes to a Kelvin type. The
incident wave is reflected by the Shandong Peninsula first and then by the Liaodong
Peninsula and forms two tide-amphidromic points.
Kang (1984) developed an analytical model for the South Huanghai Sea showing
that the Ongjin Peninsula also plays an important role in the co-oscillating tides. This
is obviously true, particularly for the large tidal range in the Kyunggi Bay, where the
M2 amplitude may exceed 3 meters. An (1977) and Choi (1980) pointed out that the
resonance of the bay is responsible for the rough tide. The tidal current here is also
strong (Fig. 3) based on the computation by Fang (1971). A detailed structure can
be found in the paper by Choi (1981), who presented a numerical model with much
finer grids for this area. The computed time of the maximum velocity, however, is
likely to be later than the real time by about 40 minutes, because the computed
phase-lag of the M2 tide is about 200 larger than the observed (Choi 1980, Table 1).
An analytical model for the area was also given by Fang et aL. (1991), in which the
influence of the tidal distribution at the opening on the distributIon of tide and tidal
current in the interior region was investigated theoretically.
Ta hie 1. Vertical Profile of Tidal Current Ellipse ill the Bohai Strait
Diurnal current Semidiurnal current

Level below p=
surface (m) WI kl 01 XI W2 k2 O2 X2 W/W2
~ m/s) (deg.) ~deg.~ ~m/s) ~deg.~ (deg.)
Station!' Water depth=53 m, days of measurement=l, from Ogura (1936)
3 0.42 -0.10 332 189 0.38 -0.28 275 354 1.11
10 0.36 -0.09 316 190 0.34 -0.37 273 354 1.06
20 0.32 -0.03 310 201 0.42 -0.21 283 360 0.76
40 0.29 0.05 265 205 0.31 0.02 282 336 0.94
50 0.22 0.00 259 210 0.26 -0.08 279 327 0.85
Station G. Water depth=65 m, days of measurement=10, from Fang (1984)
5 0.349 0.04 316 28 0.434 -0.09 131 173 0.80
10 0.317 0.09 317 28 0.440 -0.20 126 174 0.72
20 0.270 0.26 301 38 0.466 -0.17 123 171 0.58
30 0.269 0.35 293 41 0.438 -0.16 124 165 0.61
63 0.206 0.45 282 40 0.313 0.01 127 154 0.66
Station H. Water depth=55 m, days of measurement=7, from Fang (1984)
5 0.619 -0.05 291 40 0.681 0.11 114 174 0.91
10 0.627 0.00 286 36 0.769 0.05 117 172 0.82
20 0.576 -0.07 282 32 0.723 0.01 112 174 0.80
40 0.420 0.37 273 27 0.649 -0.08 104 164 0.65
53 0.288 0.38 266 25 0.438 0.06 103 153 0.66
Note: tfI-m3Jor semi-aXIS, k elhpt,c,ty, b dlfeClion 01 major aXIS, X phase-lag 01 pnllclpai component.
The tidal current in the central Huanghai Sea is weak, and the structure of co-
phase lines (Fig. 4) is significantly different from that given by Boris. Owing to the
weakness of the tidal current, the harmonic constants extracted from observed data
are contaminated to a relatively greater degree by flows of non-tidal origin, so the
structure given in Fig. 4 is questionable. Further verification (by means of numerical
models and direct measurements) of the existence and the positions of these two
points is needed. The existence of the other two M2 current-amphidromic points, one
near the entrance of the Huanghai Sea and one off the northern coast of the
Shandong Peninsula, seems to be undoubted. The clockwise rotating current at and
around the former point is not weak (about 0.5 m/s), so that the distribution of co-
phase lines is fairly well determined. The current at the latter point is very weak, and
the current-amphidromic system covers a small area, so that the structure of the co-
phase lines is not well determined. Perhaps there exist a pair of current-amphidromic
points like those in the central Huanghai Sea, but with smaller scale.
Generally the diurnal current is not important in the Huanghai Sea. At the entrance
it is relatively strong, with a maximum value of Kl current exceeding 0.1 m/s (Fig. 6).
VII. THE BOHAI SEA

The tides in the Bohai Sea were carefully studied by Ogura (1936). Numerical
models by An (1977), Shen (1980) and Choi (1980, 1981, 1984) cover this area. Dou
et al. (1981) and Shan et aL (1983) computed M2 tide; Sun et aL (1981) computed
quarter-diurnal tides, and Fang and Yang (1985) computed diurnal, semidiurnal and
shallow-water tides simultaneously. Though there are many observed data, results of
Fang and Yang (1985) agree with the observed quite well and thus are adopted in
the figures. The tides in the Bohai Sea are rather complicated though the energy
dissipated in this area is not large (4.43 X 106 kW for M2 according to Fang and Yang,
1985).
The M2 tide in the Bohai Sea has two amphidromic points, one close to
Qinghuangdao, another off the Huanghe (Yellow) River Delta. The position and the
accompanying co-phase lines of the former have little uncertainty, but those of the
latter have great discrepancy. In the earliest charts (Ogura, 1933, 1936), there are
several co-phase lines (with an interval of 30°) in Laizhou Bay, indicating wave
propagation from west to east along the coast. Recent observations have shown that
the phase-lag has no great change along the coast, indicating the presence of a
standing wave in the bay. The latter character has been reproduced by numerical
models (Dou et al., 1981; Shan et al., 1983; Fang and Yang, 1985). The former
character has also been reproduced in the numerical models of An (1977) and Choi
(1980). Fang and Yang (1985) attributed this difference to the evolution of the
Huanghe River Delta. The computations of An and Choi were made in the later
1970's, but they used old (probably 100 years ago) coast line. Recent data show that
the amplitude of the M2 tide is only about 2 cm at the northeast tip of the delta.
This implies that the amphidromic point is very close to the coast. It can thus be
expected that the amphidromic point will disappear if the coast line moves further
outward.
Fig. 4 shows two M2 current-amphidromic points in the Bohai Sea. The northern
one was discovered early in the 1960's in the project "Chinese National Compre-
hensive Oceanographic Survey". The southern one was first plotted by Fang and Yang
(1985), but the existence of this point had not been verified and needed further study.
they also showed two current-amphidromic points for diurnal tide in the Bohai Sea
with the positions not far from those of M2 (not shown in the figures of this chapter).
Like M2, the northern one was discovered in the 1960's from observation, and the
existence of the southern one is subject to further investigation. The velocity of
semidiurnal current in the Bohai Strait, particularly in the north, is relatively strong
compared with that in most parts of the Bohai Sea. The velocity of the diurnal
current here is stronger than anywhere in the studied area. The narrowing of the
strait is obviously responsible for the strengthening of the current, and the existence
of a tide-amphidrOITIlc point here is another reason for strong diurnal current.
The Bohai Strait is a good site for studying the vertical structure of tidal current.
The first advantage is the strong diurnal and semidiurnal currents; the second is that
the inertial frequency here is larger than diurnal frequency and smaller than
semidiurnal frequency. Fang and Ichiye (1983) pointed out that the vertical structure
of tidal current has remarkably different characters for the cases of (J»f and w</,
where (J) and / are angular frequency of tidal wave and the Coriolis parameter.
To show the validity of the theoretical conclusions on the basic characteristics of
the vertical structure of tidaTcurrentJ, three vertical profiles of observed tidal current
(Ogura, 1936; Fang, 1984) are cited in Table 1, which shows the following rules: i)
The maximum velocity reduces with increasin~ depth for both diurnal and semi-
diurnal current; ii) The ellipticity increases with mcreasing depth for both diurnal and
semi diurnal current; iii) Vertical variation in the direction of the major axis is small
and ambiguous for semidiurnal current but large and with a clear trend for diurnal
current. From surface to bottom the direction of the diurnal ellipse always turns to
the left. The direction deflection for station I is 73°, even larger than the theoretical
maximum (Fang and Ichiye, 1983), due possibly to strong stratification in the period
of observation (August); iv) Vertical variation in the phase-lag of the major
component has a clear trend (small near bottom) for semidiurnal current and is
ambiguous for diurnal current.
When the tidal wave penetrates a shelf sea, the seasonal variations in
hydrographic condition in the sea will influence the wave. This coupling effect has
been considered in tidal analysis and prediction in China since the early 1970's by
introducing a series of astro-meteorological constituents (Fang et al., 1986). For each
principal astronomical constituent, such as Ql, 01, PI, K1, N2, M2, S2, M4 and MS4,
two or four accompanying astro-meteorological constituents are introduced. Fox
example, with respect to M2, MB, MA, MA and MB are introduced, where A
denotes annual modulation and B biannual modulation. These constituents have
angular frequencies of W MZ - 2w sa , WMZ-W Sa ' wMZ+W Sa and w MZ + 2(Ll Sa respectively, with
(j) denoting angular frequency.
Tides in the Bohai Sea are greatly affected by the seasonal variation of the
environment. A study on the behavior of the astro-meteorological constituents in the
Bohai Sea was carried out by Fang and Wang (1986). The combination of the
astronomical constituent with the corresponding astro-meteorological ones represents
the seasonal perturbation. The largest perturbation appears in summer and winter
with a magnitude ranging from 5% to 15%. The perturbation in summer tends to
enhance the tides, reduce the phase-lag of 01 and, for most stations, raise the phase-
lag of M2. The factors which cause the perturbation are not yet fully known, though
the seasonal variations of external input of the tidal waves, water depth, friction, and
freezing are considered responsible.
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TIDES, TIDAL CURRENTS AND STORM SURGE SET-UP OF
SOUTH CHINA SEA
HUANG Qi-zhou, WANG Wen-zhi, and CHEN Jun-chang

South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
Guallgzl/Ou 510301, China
Tidal oscillations in the South China Sea (SCS) are mainly co-oscillating tides spread
from tidal waves of the Pacific Ocean. The independent tide generated by the rising
force of the moon and the sun is much smaller, but is important to the deeper area
of the SCS and has strong effect to semidiurnal constituents.
Since 1950, many tidal stations have been set up, and many surveys have been
carried out in the northern SCS. Investigations on tides and tidal currents in sea
areas of the Nansha Islands started in recent years. Numerical simulations of tides
and tidal currents in the SCS or its portions have been conducted. This paper gives
a brief summary of the basic characteristics of tides and tidal currents III the SCS,
and of the storm surge set-up in the northern SCS.
I. TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS
A. Propagation of Tidal Waves
In the northern SCS and the Beibuwan and Thailand gulfs, ratios of constituent
amplitudes O/K, and SzlM z and the phase lag differences 0,- K, and S2- M2 change
slowly and slightly, except for areas very close to the amphidromic point. Therefore,
the cotide charts of 0, and S2 constituents are respectively similar to those of K, and
M2 (Fang, 1986). This similarity is supported by numerical simulations of tides in the
SCS (Minh, 1975; Shen et al. 1985). Thus, here we use K, and M z constituents as
representatives to describe the propagation of the tidal waves of diurnal and
semidiurnal constituents. Additional explanations are given to 0, and S2 tidal waves.
Fig. la shows that the K, constituent enters the SCS through mainly the Bashi
Channel and then the Taiwan Strait. Its amplitude increases gradually westward and
southward, reaching a maximum in the northern Beibuwan Gulf, where the free
oscillation cycle approximates to the diurnal constituent cycle, especially to the cycle
of 0, constituent, thus diurnal constituents almost resonate. This is a typical area of
diurnal constituents, and the amplitude of 0, constituent is obviously larger than that
of K,. The two sub-high values of K, occur in Mekong Estuary and the northern Gulf
of Thailand. The amplitude of K, reaches 30 cm in the deep-water areas of the SCS.
Numerical simulations gave similar results (Fang and Cao, 1993). The amplitude of
0, is slightly less than that of K, except in the Beibuwan Gulf. Two counterclockwise
tide amphidromic points appear respectively in the western mouth of the Beibuwan
113
Zhou Di et af. (eds.), Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 1, 113-122.
Gulf and in the Gulf of Thailand. In the Gulf of Thailand, the counterclockwise tide
amphidromic point of O[ tidal wave is very close to that of K[ tidal wave. But in the
Beibuwan Gulf, O[ tidal wave does not form an amphidromic system (Shen et aL,
1985). The cotide charts of the diurnal K[ and O[ constituents are rather consistent
in these two gulfs, but numerical results given by different authors for the open
portion of the SCS are not consistent.
2'·
N
a
20·
16"
------ 30 ___ _
,.
~~,,~~~~~=-~~-L~~~~-il~
Fig. 1. Iso-amplitude contours (dashed line, in cm) and iso-phase-lag contours (solid line, in degree, the
eastern eighth time zone) for (a) the K. constituent and (b) the M2 constituent (from Fang, 1986).
Fig. Ib reflects the propagation of M z tidal wave, which enters the SCS through
the Bashi Channel and spreads mainly southwestward, with a small branch entering
the Taiwan Strait. The amplitude of M z reaches a maximum of about 200 cm on the
western side of the northern Taiwan Strait. The other two sub-high values (> 100 cm)
are located in the Mekong Estuary and the Datu Bay of the Kalimantan. In the
northern coast of the SCS, the amplitude of M z first decreases from the east to the
west, reaches a minimum west of Shantou, and then increases again to the west. The
amplitude of M z is less than 20 cm in the deep-water areas of the SCS. There exist
three tide amphidromic points of M z from northwest to southeast between the Gulf
of Thailand and the area west of Kalimantan, the one in the middle is clockwise and
the other two are counterclockwise.
In the northern SCS, the distribution of M z constituent obtained by numerical
simulation by different authors are relatively consistent. But in the southwestern shelf
areas, including the Gulf of Thailand, results by different authors are different (Table 1).
The propagation process and distribution trend of Sz tidal wave are identical to
those of M z, but its amplitude is less than a half of Mz's amplitude.
Tides, Tidal Currents and Storm Surge Set-Up 115
Table 1. List of M, Constituent Amphidromie Point Obtained by Numerical Simulations for the SCS
Author Latitude Longitude Phase rotation direction Note

10041'N 100°51' Left • Originally mistaken
Sergeev (1964) 7°30'N' 104°03' Right as 35°
0016'S 106°33' Left
1l01O'N 100°40' Left
Thuy (1969) 8°30'N 104°00' Right
2°40'N 107°00' Right
11°22'N 100°40' Left
Minh (1975) 6°00'N 104°40' Right
2°30'N 107°50' Left
Ye and Robinson 9°19'N 99°58' Left Measured from figure
( 1983) 8°21'N 104°07' Right by author
11°12'N 100°30' Left
Shen et al. (1985) 7°36'N 105°00' Right
2°30'N 106°36' Left
1l015'N 99°30' Left
Fang and Cao 8°30'N 103°30' Right
(1993) 4°30'N 106°15' Left
2°30'N 106°30' Right
B. Distribution of Tidal Ranges
Like the cotide charts of Kl and M2 tidal waves, the distribution of tidal ranges
in the SCS given by different authors are also slightly different. But areas of strong
tidal ranges are consistent (Fig. 2). The maximum tidal range (6-7 m) occurs in the
middle and northern Taiwan Strait. Areas with large tidal ranges include the
Guangzhou Bay, the northern Beibuwan Gulf, the Mekong Estuary, top of the Gulf
of Thailand, and the Datu Bay of the Kalimantan Island. The amplitude sum
(HK 1 + Ho 1 + H M 2 + Hs)
2
of the four major constituents in other sea areas is less than
100 cm (Fig. 3).
The amplitude sum of the four major constituents in the Dongsha and Xisha
islands in the British tidal tables are less than 100 cm. This has been verified by our
short-term tidal observation in three reefs in the Nansha Islands (Huang, 1989; Qiu
et ai., 1991) and the 32-day tidal data at 9°12'N, 109°21'E (Bagdanovet al., 1990).
The probable maximum tidal ranges in the these stations were 2-3 m. These results
agree with those in Figs. 2 and 3.
C. Distribution of Tidal Currents
Due to the limitation of current data, this section discusses only the Kl diurnal
constituent and M2 semidiurnal constituent based on the data from the northern
coastal areas of the SCS. Fig. 4 shows the distributions of maximum current velocity
and appearing time of K 1• The strongest current (>40 cmls in velocity) appears in the
Qiongzhou Strait and the sea area southwest of the Hainan Island. The second
strongest current (about 30 cm/s) occurs in the mouth of the Gulf of Thailand. There
is about 12 hours lag for the appearing time of maximum current velocity of Kl tidal
current from the Taiwan Strait to the southern Hainan Island. Two counterclockwise
tidal current amp'hidromic points of Kl exist in the Beibuwan Gulf and the mouth of
the Gulf of ThaIland, respectively.
Fig. 3. (HK1 + HOI +HM2 +Hs) distribution (in

Fig. 2. Distribution of probable maximum tidal
range (in m) in the South China Sea (from Yu, cm) of the South Olina Sea (from Fang and Cao,
1984). 1993).
N
24· a 2r; b
2Cf
16"
4·
~~6"--L-~~--~,-L-~~L-~.-L-~~~~
Fig. 4. ObseIVed distributions of (a) maximum velocity (cm/s) and (b) its appearing time of the K, tidal
constituent in the northem South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand (From Fang, 1986).
Fang and Cao (1993) conducted a numerical simulation on the tides and tidal
currents in the SCS using a 0.25°xO.25° grid (Fig. 5). Distributions of strong current,
current velocity, tidal amphidromic points, and phase rotation directions are rather
similar to those in Fig. 4. The maximum velocity of M[ constituent in most areas of
the SCS are less than 10 m/s. Tidal amphidromic points of M[ appear east of the
Hainan Island, east of the Xisha Islands, in the western Balabac Strait, and in the
northwestern Datu Bay.
Fig. 5. Simulated distributions of (a) maximum velocity (cm/s) and (b) cotide lines (in hour and referred
to 1200E) of the M, [=(K, +0,)12] tidal constituent in the South China Sea (from Fang and Cao, 1993).
Observed maximum velocity and its occurrence time of the M2 constituent (Fig.
6) show that the velocity of M2 rises to a maximum over 100 cm/s in the southern
Taiwan Strait, over 40 cm/s near the Mekong Estuary and the mouth of the Gulf of
Thailand, and 10-20 cm/s along the Guangdong coast and in the Beibuwan Gulf and
Gulf of Thailand. Two amphidromic points appear in the Beibuwan Gulf; three in the
Gulf of Thailand. The phase lag of M2 from the Taiwan Strait to the South Hainan
Island is about 6 h. Simulated maximum velocity contours of M2 tidal current and the
distributions of cotide hour lines in the SCS (Fig. 7) are basically consistent with the
observations. The simulation gives a velocity of < 10 cm/s for the M2 tidal current in
other areas of the SCS. One amphidromic point appears in the Gulf of Thailand, and
7 such points in the area from the southern Taiwan Strait to the mouth of the Gulf
of Thailand. There is a rather strong sub-high value in Datu Cape of Kalimantan.
The phase of M2 is consistent in the northern SCS.
Available observations show that the long axis of the ellipse of tidal constituents
is roughly parallel to the coastline in the northern and southern SCS, and affected
by the basin topography in the central SCS. It extends along the axis in the Beibuwan
Gulf (Cao and Fang, 1990). Tidal observations at the Ren'ai Reef passage-way of the
Nansha Islands showed that in reef areas the tidal current is much faster than that
in open sea, and the current direction is much affected by topography.
N N
24" a 2'· b
20· 20"
IS" IS"
\) \)
) ./
.. ,.
~.~6"~~~~~~~-L~~-L~~-L~~-u~. ~~6"~~~I~O~Z~~~~~~,-~~,-L-~=-LU~
Fig. 6. ObselVed distributions of (a) maximum velocity and (b) its cotidal line (in hour and referred to
1200E) of M2 tidal current (in em/s) in the northern South Olina Sea and the Gulf of Thailand (from Fang,
1986).
Fig. 7. Simulated distributions of (a) maximum velocity and (b) its cotidalline (in hour and referred to
1200 E) of M2 tidal current (in cm/s) in the South China Sea (from Fang and Cao, 1993).
D. 1Ype of Tides and Tidal Currents
In this paper, the ratio (HK1 +Ho1 )/ HM,2 is taken as the basis of the division of tide
type, here H denotes one half of the tidal range. Tides in most areas of the SCS are
inferred as mixed tides (Fig. 8). Most areas of the Beibuwan Gulf and the Gulf of
Thailand, the areas between Sumatra and Kalimantan, near Zengmu Ansha, and the
coastal area of western Luzon are typical of diurnal tide. Simidiurnal tide appears
mainly in the northern Taiwan Strait. Table 2 lists the index values(Ho 1 +HK)/HM, 1 2
for twelve islands, reefs and a tidal station C in the SCS. These values are consistent
with those shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Distribution of tidal types in the South

China Sea (from Yu,1984).
Table 2. Index Values of Tidal Characteristics for the Twelve Stations in the South China Sea
Location
Position (Ho 1 +HK1 )/HM,2
E N
Weizhou Island 109°07' 21°02' 4.6
Dongsha Island 116°43' 20°43' 2.8
Xisha Island 112"20' 16°50' 3.3
Xian'e Reef 115°26' 09"20' 3.3
Meiji Reef 115°30' 09°52' 3.3
Xinyi Reef 115°57' 09°20' 3.3
Yongshu Reef 112°53' 09°32' 3.8
Pingshun Island 108°57' 10°30' 3.2
C 109°21' 09°12' 3.6
Kunlun Island 106°38' 08°40' 1.4
N amin Island 115°15' 05°17' 2.7
Bunguran Island 108°22' 03°48' 3.1
Statistic analysis shows that the tidal currents in the northern SCS and the
Beibuwan Gulf are also mainly of the mixed type (Fig. 9). This is consistent with the
nature of tides, except for the Beibuwan Gulf where the distribution of regular
diurnal tidal current is not concordant with that of the regular diurnal tide. The tidal
current in the southern SCS also belongs to the mixed type, as shown by the data
from the six tidal stations in the area.
105· 11 o· 115" 119"E
/
< 0.5/
0.5-/'
2"
N
'"' 0 , \ , / /-'
'-~,~.........../I//
20· .;.) .... /\,.1;) ,II""
/~>/
,,.,,,,,.-,,,
Fig. 9. The distribution of tidal
currents in the northem SCS.
II. STORM SURGE SET-UP

The upraise of sea level caused by strong wind from cold-air outbreak is much
smaller than the set-up caused by tropical cyclones which often bring about disasters
to the coastal areas of Philippines, China and Vietnam. Generally, there are few
trogical cyclones south of lOoN. The Guangdong and Hainan provinces take up about
60 ~ of all tropical cyclone landings in China, and are the areas having frequent
tropical cyclone set-ups, especially from July to September.
The tropical cyclone set-ups in the SCS are of two types according to the source
area. i) The tropical cyclones from West Pacific, which have two subtypes. The first
one passes through the Bashi Channel into the SCS and mostly lands at the Zhujiang
Estuary or to its east. These subtype of tropical cyclones (most of them are typhoons)
causes strong set-ups, for example, the Typhoon 6903 (Viola) which caused the
maximum set-up of 3.14 m in Shantou. The second subtype crosses the Philippine
Archipelago into the SCS and mostly lands on the coast west of the Zhujiang Estuary
to the eastern Hainan Island. In this subtype, the tropical cyclones landing at
Zhanjiang to Xuwen caused rather strong set-ups, for example, the Typhoon 8007
(Joe, 1980) landing in Xuwen caused a maximum set-up of 5.94 m, which is the third
strongest set-up in the world up to now. ii) The tropical cyclones from the SCS,
which mostly land in the eastern coast of Haman Island. The set-ups of this type are
generally small but occur suddenly, thus still threaten fishing vessels.
Since 1960, correlation analysIs of historical data has been used by hydrological
stations along the coast of South China to predict tropical cyclone set-ups for single
stations. Numerical simulation of tropical cyclone set-ups in the SCS started to
develop in the 1980's. By using a linear current model and finite-difference method,
Wu (1983) simulated the set-up process of Typhoon 8007 runnin~ from the western
Guangdong to the eastern coast of Hainan Island. By using a 2-dlmensional current
model and finite-element dispersed method (the Galerkin Method) on an irregular
triangle grid, the improved two-step Lax-Wendroff time-difference method, and the
approximation of concentrated mass matrix, the tropical cyclone set-ups offshore
Tides, Tidal Currents and StorDJ Surge Set-Up 121
Hongkong was simulated, including 107 cases of tropical cyclone set-ups in 1949-1983
in the area near the Daya Bay nuclear power station (Wang et aL, 1986, 1988; Huang
et aL, 1987) (Fig. lOa). Using a 3-dimensional (layered) finite-difference form, Yu
and Fang (1990) simulated the set-up process and the wmd current field of Typhoon
8309 (Ellen) in 1983, assuming constant horizontal eddy viscosity and mixed-length
vertical eddy viscosity (Fig. lOb).
4H(~)
Shanwei b
.:JH(m) Daikeng
4H( m) Gang kou 1.5
1.0~r8309
, ,
o 5 / ...
. -,,/"
0·°08 16 00 Oat(h)
8/9 9/9
Fig. 10. Simulations of the set-up process during Typhoon 8309 (Ellen) in 1983. Solid line, obselVed set-up
cUlVe; dashed line, simulated set-up cUlVe. (a) The triangular grid used in simulation and resulted cUlVes
for two stations (from Wang et al., 1986, 1988); (b) Resulted cUlVes for three stations (from Yu and Fang, 1990).
Up to date, the numerical simulation of tropical cyclone set-ups has been

hampered mainly by the inaccuracy of wind field and atmospheric pressure field.
Method for a joint prediction of turbulent eddy coefficient, mobile boundary, storm
surge set-up, and astronomical tide should be developed to improve the accuracy of
storm surge set-up prediction.
REFERENCES
Bagdanov, K. T., Nekrasov, A. B., and Lafrentiev, B. F. (1990) "Deep-sea mareograph study of tides in the
opcn part of the South China Sea", in: Selected Papers of Science Academy, Soviet Union, 733-735
(in Russian with English abstract).
Cao, De-ming and Fang, Guo-hong (1990) "A numerical model of the tides and tidal currents in Beibuwan
Gulf', Oceallologia et LiJllllologia Sillica 21(2), 105-113 (in Chinese).
Fang, Guo-hong (1986) "Tide and tidal current charts for the marginal seas adjacent to China", Chin. 1.
o/Oceallology alld Limnology 4(1), 1-16.
Fang, Guo-hong and Cao, De-ming (1993) "Numerical simulation for the tides and tidal currents in the
South China Sea", (accepted by Acta Oceanogica Sinica) (in Chinese).
Huang, Qi-zhou (1989) "A general introduction to the tides and tidal currents in Nansha sea area, in A
Comprehensive Research and Experiment Report of the Nansha Islands and the Adjacent Areas (I),
Science Press, Beijing, pp. 370-378 (in Chinese).
Huang, Qi-zhou, Wang, Wen-zhi, and Chen, lun-chang (1987) "Calculation on typhoon storm surge set-up
by the power station seashore of Daya Bay, Guangdong Province", in 1987 Proceedings of Coastal and
Port Engineering in Developing Countries, Vol. II, 2036-2045.
Huang, Oi-zhou, and Oiu, De-zhong "A sketch of tides and tidal currents in the areas adjacent to Nansha
Islands", (original manuscript).
Minh, D. C. (1975) "Propagation of tidal waves and tidal sea level variations of the South China Sea",
Okeanologia 15(4),580-586 (in Russian, with English abstract).
Oiu, De-zhong, Gan, Zi-jun and Yu, ling-ja (1991) "The tides in the areas of Nansha Islands I. A report
of tidal observation in Meijijiao", in Proceedings of Ocean Environmental Research in Nansha Islands
and the Adjacent areas (I), Hubei Scientific and Technologic Publication Press, Wuhan, pp. 46-50 (in
Chinese).
Sergeev, Y. N. (1964) "The application of the method of marginal values for the calculation of charts of
tidal harmonic constants 111 the South China Sea", Okeanologia 4(3), 595-602 (in Russian).
Shen, Yu-jiang, Hu, Ding-ming, Mei, Li-ming, and He, Guo-ping (1985) "Numerical computation of the
tides in the South China Sea", TraIlS. Oceano!. Limno!. 1, 1-110 (in Chinese).
Thuy, N. N. (1969) "Some peculiarities of the formation of tidal phenomena in the South Olina Sea",
Okeanologia 9(2), 235-249 (in Russian, with English abstracts).
Wang, Wen-zhi, Huang, Oi-zhou and Chen, lun-chang, Tou, S., and Wong, K. K. (1986) "Numerical
computation of waves in the sea around Hong Kong during Typhoon IRIS in 1976, I. Typhoon wind-
field and water depth variations", Nail/wi Studia Marilla Sillica 7, 129-142 (in Chinese).
Wang, Wen-zhi, Huang, Oi-zhou, and Chen, lun-chang (1988) "Numerical simulation of the typhoon surges
in the Daya Bay", in Proceedings of the Third Chinese Oceanology and Limnology Science
C-Onference, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 34-35 (in Olinese).
Wu, Pei-mu (1983) "A numerical prediction model for the storm surge in the coast of East and South
China Sea", Acta Dcean%gica Sillica 5(3), 273-283 (in Chinese).
Ye, An-Ie and Robinson, I. S. (1983) "Tidal dynamics in the South China Sea", Geophys. J. R. Astr. Soc.
72,691-707.
Yu, Ke-jun and Fang, Guo-hong (1990) "Three-dimensional numerical simulation of the storm surge and
current generated by typhoon 8309 (Ellen, 1983)", Ocean%gia et Limnologia Sinica 21(5), 433-441
(in Chinese).
Yu, Mo-geng (1984) "A preliminary approach to the tidal characteristics in South China Sea", Acta
Oceallologica Sillica 6(3), 293-300 (in Chinese).
STUDIES ON WAVE CLIMATOLOGY, STATISTICS AND
DYNAMICS OF BOHAI, HUANGHAI AND EAST CHINA SEAS
YUAN Ye-Ii
/flStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
This paper gives a general review of sea wave climate in Chinese waters and our
theoretical work on wave dynamics, focusing on the energy input process and the
nonlinearity in the wave developing process and wave statistics. The effects of weak-
nonlinearity on various statistical distributions of wave field, and that of wave
breaking on the distortion of spectrum shape and the energy loss are also addressed.
I. WAVE CLIMATOLOGY
A. Weather and Wind Field
The weather conditions and the wind field are the main factors influencing sea
waves. The summer and winter weather conditions in the Bohai, Huanghai and East
China seas have their own characteristics. The spring and fall are transitional.
In winter, due to the southward expansion of the westerly wind zone at high
altitudes, the in.tensity and the core of the westerly jet stream strengthen and become
stable around 30o N, while the easterly wind zone withdraws southward. The upper air
of East Asia is controlled by the westerly wind zone. On the ground weather charts,
the Mongolian high pressure around the Baykal Lake and the Aleutian and
Northeastern low pressures continuously strengthen, their core pressures reach to
higher than 1.045 x 105 Pa or lower than 1.000 x 105 Pa, respectively. Thus a stable
state standing facing each other is constructed that makes the pressure gradient of
the sea areas increase, so northerly winds frequently occur.
When the Mongolian high pressure moves or expands eastward, the Northeast
low pressure zone waves eastward preceded by a cold front. When the front passes
over the sea area, cold wave weather forms, and strong northerly winds develops. In
winter, the prevailing wind (occurrence frequency of about 20%) is northerly.
Throughout the China seas from the north to the south, wind directions tend to
rotate clockwise. In strongly anticyclonic cold waves, the northerly wind speed
generally reaches 10-12 m/s (the maximum >25 m/s). The main wind field generates
high waves in winter. Strong cold waves influencing this sea area have different
annual occurrences (Fig. 1), whose distribution is similar to a Posion distribution.
In summer, the southern branch of the westerly jet stream over East Asia
obviously moves northwards. Its intensity here weakens to the lowest value of a year.
Meanwhile, the easterly wind zone at high altitudes also moves northwards. During
123
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 1, 123-134.
124 Occanologgy of China Seas
mid-summer, the easterly wind zone controls South China. Ground weather charts
show that the Indian low pressure advances northward from the Indian peninsula and
gradually control the continent of East Asia. It stands facing the pacific high pressure,
jumps northwards and advances eastward. The southwesterly winds that often occur
in the Bohai, Huanghai, and East China seas (Fig. 4) are major forces generating
prevailing waves in this sea area.
Gales in the sea in summer are mainly caused by the arrival of tropical typhoons
where low pressure cyclones generated in tropical regions of the Northeast Pacific
Ocean and the South China Sea. The pressure gradient around the typhoon cores can
be as high as 0.040 x 105-0.050 x 105 Pa/lOO lan, and wind speed may reach 50-60 m/s.
The wind speed of No. 27 typhoon in 1958 reached 110 m/s. Typhoons are the
dominant forces that generate big waves in summer, These waves are usually higher
than 8 m, or even exceed 20 m.
Typhoons influencing this sea area move in westerly and northwestly directions
after their origination on the ocean surface east of Philippines. They land on the
Fujian and Zhejiang coasts after crossing the Taiwan Island and the Taiwan Strait.
At other times, after crossing the Ruykyu Islands, they land and move northwards in
the Zhejiang-Jiangsu regions, and then move eastward from the coast to the
Huanghai Sea. The frequency distribution of the annual occurrence of major
typhoons (Fig. 2) also is similar to a Poison distribution.
25%
2 4 6 8
Time Time
Fig. 1. The frequency curve of strong cold wave Fig. 2. The frequency curve of typhoon (thin line)
(thin line) compared with Poison's (A. =3.26, bold in the East China, Huanghai and Bohai seas
line ). compared with Poison's (A. =4.30, bold line).
B. Sea Wave Climatology of the Bohai, Huanghai and East China Seas
1. Geographic Distribution of Sea Waves

In winter, under the influence of relatively strong northerly monsoon winds,
waves in this sea area mostly move in northerly direction (Figs. 3 and 5). Monsoon-
generated dominant waves move in the same direction as the wind and have an
obvious tendency to rotate clockwisely from northwest to northeast and from north
to south. In the Bohai Strait, northerly waves are dominant in January. the average
wave height can be higher than 1.7 m. The average wave height of the Huanghai and
East China seas tends to be lower than 1.0 m.
In summer, under the influence of southerly monsoon winds, dominant southerly
waves tend to rotate clockwisely from south to north. All big waves depend on the
Studies on Wave Climatology, Statistics and Dynamics 125
arrival of typhoons. The wave direction is not as stable as that in winter. The average
wave height is high in the south and low in the north (Fig. 4).
NNE 6.2 ,
NNE 4.7 ,
Tanggu Qianliyan Zhangjtug Zhuashan Tanggu Qianliyan Zhangjing Zhuashan

Bohai Strait Lianyungang Bohai Strait Lianyungang
Fig. 3. Average wave height, period in main wave Fig. 4. Average wave height, period in main wave
direction, and occurrence rate of northerly waves direction, and occurrence rate of southerly waves
in winter. in summer.
N 13.6,
NE9~I'
NW7.7, NEIl.2,
N 8.6,
S 7.8 , S 198
NE SSE 13.7 , . ,
SE 5.1, 7.0,
ENE 8.3,
Fig. 5. Distribution of extreme wave height and
Tanggu Qianliyan Zhangjing Zhuashan
period along the China coast in winter and
Bohai Strait Lianyungallg
summer.
In spring and fall, wave directions are not stable. The average wave height is
quite low (0.5-1.0 m). In fall, because typhoons still influence the southern part of
the sea area, the average wave height can reach 1.4 m.
2. Geographic Distribution and Estimation of Maximum Waves
High waves in this sea area are mainly generated by strong northerly winds
caused by intensely cold waves in winder, and by strong cyclonic typhoons in summer.
The waves are high in the north and low in the south in winter and vice versa in
summer (Fig. 5).
Because distributions of annual occurrence times of cold waves and typhoons that
influence the sea area are not uniform, for extreme wave estimation it is not
appropriate to use the Weibull and Gumbell's distribution curves based on uniform
sampling. If the processes of sea wave are similar and distributions of occurrence
times of cold waves and typhoons are known, the distribution of extreme waves can
be expressed as a form of compound probability as shown bellow
F(x) - L Pk[G(xnl:- p o [ l-Q(x)] (1)

k-O
Here P k is the annual occurrence rate of k times of the extreme weather condition
that influeces the sea area, G(x) is an extreme value distribution for uniform
126 Oceanologgy of China Seas
sampling, and Q(x) is a technical compensation distribution function that is close to

one for large values of x. Because Pk fits Poison distribution, for extreme value
estimation in the sea area, we can obtain
1
G(x)-l+-lnR, (2)
A
where T= 1/(1- R) is the return period.

II. DYNAMICS AND STATISTICS OF SEA WAVES
A. Sea Wave Dynamics
1. The Study on Wind-Generated Wave Mechanisms

Our model is comprised of the following equations for a homogeneous,
incompressible and viscous fluid
-
av p
-V( - +gx3 ) + V( .... + (3)
aT - p II
0' .. )
II
V'V -0 , (4)
au. au.
V(_I +_/). The boundary
in which is Reynolds stress tensor, and
Tij 0' . . -
~I ax.I ax.
I
conditions at the sea surface.
(5)
(6)
(7)
a,
--u (8)
at 3'
and at the sea bottom,
(9)
In the k space, after applying Fourier transformation to the above equations and
dividing the momentum field into the potential part and the viscous part, the
evolution equation of the wave number spectrum of wave elevation can be derived
(10)
The solution of this equation. is

(t, t) - - (21t alrl L"W(k, t)e m(t-tt)21tH(t-tt)sin at (t-tt)dt t
I (t W(t ,t ) e m(t-t1 )sma )d t (11)

{
--Jr 1
·
1 t-t1
(
1 , when t>-O ,
- 0'1 0
o , when t:50
where
(12)
Under the assumption that the wind-generated wave field changes slowly, the
corresponding wavenumber spectrum can be obtained as
¢(k, t)- _1_(e 2mt _l) (t-"II(k, a)cosatdt

2mcr 10 (13)
- _1_(e 2mt _l)II(k, a)
2mcr
where II (k, a) is the wave number frequency spectrum of external disturbances.
This expression shows that the viscosity of sea water always plays a role of
damping in the developing process of sea waves exp { - 4 [v + M (k)] I k 12} , and the
energy of the wind can be put into the sea waves through normal and tangential
stresses, though the latter is not so large. The coupling energy absorption rate of
normal stress, (I k Iy)/p , and that of tangential stress, Ik IL, have an obvious
directionality. When the directions of wind and wave are the same, the above-
mentioned two energy absorption rates accelerate the growth of waves, and vice versa.
2. Evolution of Nonlinear Growing Waves
Waves display a remarkable nonlinearity. The nonlinearity of sea waves

determines their inherent randomness and the shape of the spectrum.
This problem can be described by so-called Stokes' equations in which the
coupling action between the atmosphere and the sea is considered
- oo-<z-< TJ (r, t) (14)
a¢ + l[IV¢~+ ( a¢i] + gz+ E.-o (15)

at 2 az p
aTJ -JI +Iv¢~ a¢ _ a¢ - VTJV¢

at an az (16)
) Z-TJ(r, t)
a¢ +l[lv¢~+( a¢i]+gTJ+ Pa _ o
at 2 az p
(17)
z--oo (18)
in which, according to Philli ps-Miles theory, the pressure field on the sea surface can
be written as
(19)
From these governing equations we can obtain the evolution equation of the main
part of the elevation, a(k, t)-EA(k, Elt, t)
aa~; t) -(y-i)GJ(k)a(k, t)--ifh 1 ff~ ffk:lT(k, kl' k1.' k3)xa*(kl' t) (20)
xa(k3 , t)a(k3' t)0(k+kl-k1.-k3)dkldk1.dk3

where
Ikl - GJ
y---p-y- (21)
2pGJ a
In the case of narrow band, the original image of the envelope of the main part,
B(x, t)
a(x, t)-B(x, t)exp[i(kox- GJot)] (22)
should satisfy a generalized Schrodinger equation derived as follows
aB(x, t)
_"":"-"':---'--Yo(.)o
B( X, t) + (1 +lYo
. )[ GJo aB(x, t)
+l. CtJo iJ2B(x, t)
at 2ko ax 8~ ax 2
(23)
-i (.)0iJ2B(x, t)]+i[l+iy(I-P)]lkoP IB(x, t)PB(x, t)-o
4kg ay2
where f3 = (3 - 2{f)12 ~ 1 is a constant much smaller than 1. This result proves that
the 3-order Stokes' approximation includes the solution of Schrodinger's equation.
The discretion of Eq. (20) can be realized by using the following procedure
a(k, t) - L Bj(t)exp [ - i GJ (kj)t] o(k - k) (24)

and
)dk (25)
Then the discrete form of Eq. (20) can be derived as

aB j
Tt-YjWjBj--1
•
L T(k j, kl' km' k")B;BmB,,
I, m. "
xexp[i( W j + W1- W m - W ,,)t] ·f1(k j+k l -k m -k,,)
in which
L1(k)_{I, as k-O, (26)

0, as hO.
Thus, the evolution equation of a nonlinear single wave should be
(27)
and
(28)
Its solutions can be written as
(29)
_ TRIB ~ _ (30)
B(t) - Boexp ( Y wt- i( 0 )[exp(2 Y wt) -Ill
2yw
The solutions indicate that in the initial stage of growth, the envelope of waves,
B, grows exponentiall; at the same time there is also a nonlinear factor of vibration
that is independent 0 the energy input rate. With growth the waves tend to reach an
equilibrium state because of nonlinearity. But generally speaking, this equilibrium
state is always larger that the breaking criterion. In a model of wind-generated
forecast, therefore, it is necessary to consider the resonance coupling energy input
and the breaking mechanism.
Because of the existence of the nonlinearity in the growing process, it is necessary
to consider the instability of the side-band of main waves. For this reason, we
suppose there are two disturbances, B(ko-k) and B(ko+k), to the main wave, B(ko),
and IB+1. IB_I~IBol·
From Eq. (21), the linearized governing equation of these two waves can be
derived as
ab - 2 - •
(31)
at
-± - (y W ± + i ()b ± - - ibo exp(2y wot)(Tl ± b~~ +21:2 ± b)
±
,
where
B ± -b ± exp[-i(TROlbo~+!n)t]
2
and
We confirmed that in the nonlinear growth processes of wind-generated waves, there

are three kinds of time scales: vibration, evolution and growth time scales,
(32)
In the nature condition, the evolution and growth time scales are quite separated,
so we can introduce a small parameter
(33)
Thus b:;:.(tl' t 2) can be expanded as shown below

. U)
b±-I: J,.l'b± (tp t2 ) (34)
j-O
(35)
If such a solution really exists, the phase of wave motion certainly satisfies the
following coefficient equation
and
ax+.
--+1(,) -
0
at2 +'
(37)
The calculation of the Eq. (36) indicates that in the growing process of nonlinear
wind-generated waves, instability of side band frequencies also exists.
With the increase of time, the position of the most unstable side-band waves will
shift away from the main wave number. This phenominon has been confirmed by
experiments.
B. The Statistics of Sea Waves
The statistical methodology of sea waves based on the linear wave theory that
was perfectly developed by Longuet-Higgins in the 1960's. However, because the real
sea waves are always nonlinear, their profiles are either up-down or front-back
asymmetric. The effects of the nonlinearities cause the practical statistics of sea waves
to deviate from theoretical results quite obviously. For this reason, the effects of
nonlinearity have become a major study field of sea wave statistics in recent years.
Studies on Wave Climatology, Stu tis tics and Dynamics 131
1. The Statistics of Weakly Nonlinear Sea Waves

Real sea which has gentle troughs and steep peaks is a random sample with a
quite narrow-band spectrum. Then the statistical model of sea wave can be described
as composed of a chain of Stokes waves with different wave heights, frequencies or
wave numbers, everyone of which is developed from a corresponding I-order (linear)
wave that satisfies Gaussian distribution. We have used this statistical model to
obtain the two-parameter Wallops spectral type. The correctness and practicality of
this spectral type confirm the efficiency of the model. Our statistical model can be
written as
(38)
where ~o=acoskoX is the linear base of sea waves that satisfies Gaussian distribution,
and ko is the random wavenumber of ~o. Then we have
(39)
A stationary wave field can be written as velocity
U= - (J) (k o) exp (koz)~o[1 + ~ (k; ~02+~/) ]H( ~ -z) (40)
- w(ko ) 1 2 I
w- - --exp(koZ) ([ 1 + -(ko (0 2 + (02 )]H( (-z) (41)
ko 2
and acceleration
Ax -g exp(kozg/(1 +kg~/)H(~ -z) (42)
Az- - gko exp(kozgo( 1 +kg~02+~/)H( ~ -z) (43)
Where H(~ -z) is the Heaviside unit function, which expresses that the velocity and
acceleration fields only exist under the wave surface. Using the perturbation methods
and the steepest descent we can easily obtain the distribution of wave elevation as
P ( ~~') = 1 (1 - 2 1121/2~.
.. + -3 1l2"~.2) exp [ - -(*2(1 - 1121/2&*
.. + -1 112 ..&*2)] (44)
(21t )1/2 2 2 2
r
where =~//-Lolrz is the non-dimensional elevation of sea waves. This is different from
the result of Longuet-Higgins,
(45)
Its peak position is
/:. __ 2 1/2 (46)
'" peak J.L2
We can find that the wave slope,

(47)
is the only parameter to express the effect of nonlinearity on wave elevation

distribu tion.
The P(!;') has three intersection points with the normal distribution,
1;' -0 , ±2 (48)
because
&*2 &*2 1
P ( (*) -p (C),;, - (21t tl/2 exp( - _c;._) (* (2 - -c;.-)Jl /2
N 2 2 2
These results are very close to the experiments.
An important property of wave field is that it only exists under the wave surface. In
the derivation of the following formulas we apply a special procedure on this.
Under the condition of
Z 1/2 1
~J..l2 <
Jlo
We can obtain the distribution density function of the velocity field in thex direction
feu,) - (27T t'f2J

2
cr'exp( --=-) dz8 (li) + (27T t'f2 exp[ _fJ*2
-'" 2
(49)
(1 - J.1. zfJ*Z)] (1 - ~ J.1.zf3'Z)H[fJ* (1 - -.!.. J.LzfJ*Z) -a'] iJ~'
2 2 iJu ,
where
Similarly, the distribution density function of the horizontal acceleration field, after
considering the effects of the wave elevation, is
feAt) - (27T t 'f2J cr· exp ( - ~) dz8 (A,) + (27T )-' r.'" [1 - J.Lz (2f3~2 _Z'2)]
-'" 2 J"
(50)
af3~ {I Z ,2 '2}
X_exp --[z' +13, (1-J.L 2 (f3, -z')] dz'
aA, 2
where
* Al (51)
f3 - 1/2 I/Z
gJ..Lz exp(J..Lz z*)
2. The Statistical Properties of Strongly Nonlinear Waves
Here "strong nonlinearity" mainly means the waves properties due to wave
breaking. To calculate wave energy loss, Longuet-Higgins in 1969 gave a statistical
model for narrow band sea waves. In order to consider the inference of spectrum
wideness, we extend the Longuet-Higgins model to the following form,
It means that for Gaussian and stationary original waves, breaking occurs at any point
on the surface where vertical acceleration reaches gl2 and the surface elevation is
reduced according to the ratio of gl2 to local acceleration 11;11 (t) 1 of the original
waves.
1) The relationship between the spectra of breaking waves and original waves.
Based on the statistical model of breaking waves mentioned above, it is easy to
get the covariance function. The first approximation of which is
- A lr "( "I r (4» (4)( r "I r (4»2 (53)

E( SblSbZ lZ - 2A I A zrlZr + A zr1Z
I: I: ) Z Z
and (54)
Thus, the relationship between the spectra of breaking waves and original waves can
be derived as follows
(55)
in which Sew) is the spectrum of the original waves and
wi-(A1/A z ) 1 r(4)lr " 1 (56)
This means that in first order approximation the spectrum of breaking waves can be
written as a product of the spectrum of the original waves and a factor that accounts
134 Oceanoioggy of China Seas
for the effect of wave breaking.

Furthermore we can prove that g/2a" is proportional to the square root of the
ratio of wave surface area to that of breaking waves so that g/2a"~ 1, and then Wi is
much larger than the mean frequency of the waves, i.e., Wi ~ ill, and the breaking
factor is less than unity, so the spectrum of breaking waves is always less than that
of original waves and reduced according to the law of (W2 - wi)2 in the high
frequency range.
2) Rate of energy loss due to breaking.
The presented wave breaking model specifies that waves break whenever the
vertical acceleration on the surface exceeds g/2 and the elevation of the wave is
reduced according to g/(21~" I). In this case the expected value of energy loss rate per
unit time should be
llE _ exp[ _ D ( 1 - ~) ] - D [ E2 ( 1 - E2) / (2 - E2) ]El [D ( 1 - ~) ]

E
(57)
_ 2 ( 1 - E2) exp [ _ D ( 1 _ E2 ) ]
2 _E2
in which P(I;, 1;") is the joint probability density function of ~ and 1;" per unit time; E
is a measure of the spectrum wideness. Eq. (57) is a generalized form of Longuet-
Higgins' result in 1969, which is the case of narrow-band. It can be proved that the
rate of energy loss indeed increase with spectrum wideness.
From Eq. (17) we also can prove that the spectral functions which correspond
to minimum rate of energy loss has an upper limit proportional to w- 5 in the high
frequency range.
REFERENCES
Gu, Dai-fang and Yuan, Ye-li (1983) "Dispersion relation of nonlinear waves in
developing process", Oceall%gia et Limnologia Sinica 4(3),
Huang, N. E., Long, S. R., Tung, C. c., Yuan, Ye-li, and Blevin, L. F. (1981) "A unified two-parameter
wave spectral model for a general sea state", J. Fluid Mechallics 112, 203-224.
Huang, N. E., Long, S. R., Tung, C. c., Yuan, Ye-li, and Blevin, L. F. (1983) "A non-gaussian statistical
model of surface elevation of nonlinear random wave field",1. Geophysical Research 88,7597-7606.
Liu, Teh-fu and Ma, Feng-shi (1980) "Predicting of extreme wave heights and wind velocities", J. of the
WatefWay, Port, Coastal and Oceall Divisioll 106(4),469-479.
Michaelde, St. Q. Isaacson et a/. (1981) "Long-term distributions of ocean waves: a review",1. of the
WatefWay, Port, Coastal alld Oceall Divisioll Vol 107(2),93-110.
Shun, Xang-qing (1981) Introduction of Ocean Hydrography and Meteorology of Chinese Coast, Science
Press, Beijing.
Yuan, Ye-li (1978) "A combined model for the resonance-coupling of normal pressure and shearing force
and the dissipation by eddy viscosity", Oceallologia et limllologia Sinica 9(2), 128-140.
Yuan, Ye-li, Tung, C. c., and Huang, N. E. (1986) "Statistical characteristics of breaking waves", in O.M.
Phillips and K. Hasselman (eds.), Wave Dynamics and Radio Probing of the Ocean Surface, Plenum
Publishing C'Almpany.
Yuan, Ye-li, Huang, N. E., and Tung, C. C. (1984) "On the nonlinear waves in a developing process, Part
1", Chillese J. Oceallo/. Limllo/. 1(3),258-271.
Yuan, Ye-li, Huang, N. E., and Tung, C. C. (1985) "On the nonlinear waves in a developing process, Part
2", Chillese 1. Oceano/. Lim/IOI, 2(1), 1-11.
Yuan, Ye-li, Tung, C. C. and Huang, N. E. (1985) "The nonlinear waves in a developing process", in Y.
Toba and H. Mitsugansr (eds.), The Ocean Surface, D. Reidel Publishing Company.
Wen, Sen-Chang and Yu, Zhou-wen (1984) Theory and C'Almputational Principle of Sea Waves, Science
Press, Beijing.
Zhu, Bin-hai (1962) The Climate of China, Science Press, Beijing.
WAVES IN SOUTH CHINA SEA
SUI Shi-feng
Soltth China Sea IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
Gltangzhou 510301, China
I. INTRODUCTION
In the northern hemisphere in winter, cold high prevails in the Eurasian continent,
while low pressure prevails in the Pacific Ocean. The South China Sea (SCS) is
invaded frequently by northeastly monsoons. In summer, the SCS, sandwiched by the
continental low and the Pacific subtropical high, is dominated by southwestly
monsoons. Under these wind fields, dommate' waves in the SCS are southwestward
in winter and northeastward in summer.
The SCS is subject to severe tropical storms. Tropical cyclones enter the SCS
from the West Pacific or occur within the SCS for more than 10 times a year, in
almost every month, but mostly in July, August, and September. The once-many-
years' rough seas in the SCS are all generated by tropical cyclones or by combinations
of tropical cyclones and cold gales.
A wealth of data on waves in the SCS are available from the observation stations
at the Dongsha Island, Yongxing Island, Yongshu Reef, and along the South China
coast, from four automatic buoys, as well as from scientific expeditions and routine
ship reports. Researches on waves have made significant progress in the last decade.
Notable results include the CHGS method for the numerical forecast of typhoon
waves (Sui, 1990; Zhang and Sui, 1989; Sui et at.; 1989; Cai et aI., 1989), the
procedure of the calculation of typhoon waves in the SCS (Zhang and Li, 1980), the
study of typhoon waves, cold gale waves, and whitecaps in the waters off Hongkong
and subsequent BSCS method for the numerical forecast of waves based on BMO
model (Wang et at., 1990). A study of wave characteristics and its forecast under the
common action of typhoon and cold gale is in progress.
II. SPACIAL VARIATIONS OF WAVES
Spacial variations of major wave parameters in the SCS in representative months
are compiled based on ship reports in 35 years (Figs. 1 and 2). In terms of wave
climate, winter is the months with prevailing northeastly monsoon; summer the
months with prevailing southwestly monsoon. Transitional seasons exist between
summer and winter. North of the 15°N, winter includes to next April; summer June
to Aug. South of the 15°N, winter goes from Nov. to next April; summer from June
to Sept. Of course the change from the north to the south is gradual.
135
.....
(;J
N 110" 115" ><". N 110" 115' "V-
25°1 .:~ n I k· :,. 2m I :R I }: y 0\
a b
5....
~
20" ~ .5-\'\,
"
.
V~I/ }\
)0'1)'0,' / \
...J. O - / + / ¥ \, ~
»,. - I / .... _ -
.. I I
I I
15" I /
···.1' /
Indo China Pen. <;:\ •0...,. /
,,' 5- ....
f! / ·5 .,:,,' "'- ~ /
~:~ , . \J
" I
0 I + / I
5
:0 I :; ' I + I
..~~
·
.
10"f- ."'/
/
. jf .i·'·)· ' :..·····1.
, I
I /
,I,~.
~~.
I::;::~" + /t- \ I .
.
A \
\ ,_ .... ....
.... ,_ .... /
tI
fI>
~
o
"~
::I
5" / o
0-
~ ~
o...
("'J
=-
Fig. 1. The distribution of (a) wind wave parameters and (b) swell parameters in the South China Sea in February. .I, the direction of the wave;
i"
[Il
- - , isopleth of average wave height; ----, isopleth of average period. ..
DO
til
N 110' 115' 1<" "
25"1 r ····r I 7" ff
a ~.
'"S·
l'
=
s:-
(')
~
rI:Il
, 0' ~
4~ "
I
15'
t t
J' \J
~.
~ ~:.5i) ~~J.
""
Vir
5'
~
..
Fig. 2. The distribution of (a) wind wave parameters and (b) swell parameters in the South China Sea in August. /t", the direction of the wave;
I.,;.l
- - , isopleth of average wave height; ----, isopleth of average period. --.J
A. Wave Direction
In winter, the SCS is dominated by NE-ward waves, and directions of wind waves
and swells are accordant (Fig. 1). In summer, both wind waves and swells are SW-
ward in the southern SCS, gradually turning SSW-ward to the north, and become
SSE-ward in nearshore areas (Fig. 2). Wave directions in transitional seasons are
more complicated, mostly NE-ward and E-ward in the northern SCS, SW-ward in the
south, while SE-ward in the central SCS and in the Beibu Gulf to the northwest.
B. Wave Height
In winter, the northly cold air intrudes the SCS frequently, once per 5-6 days in
average. A strong cold front may generate in the SCS a gale of 7-8 degree in wind
force scale and gusts of 9-10 degree (Chen et ai., 1985). Such gale is usually long-
lasting with a stable direction and a large range of influence. Thus it may result in
an extremely bad sea state and many sea accidents, although its wind force is not as
large as a tropical cyclone. Fig.1 shows that in February the average significant height
of wind waves exceeds 1.0 m in the SCS, over 1.5 m in the northeastern and central
portions, and over 2.0 m in the Taiwan and Bashi straits. The spacial variation of
average significant height of swell waves in winter is similar to that of wind waves,
only the values are about 0.5 m higher.
In summer, the wind in the SCS is less stable and less strong than that in winter.
The average force of the southwestly wind on the sea surface is mostly 3-4 degree.
Strong wind is primarily generated by tropical cyclone and sou thwestly monsoon. The
tropical cyclone occurs most frequently and strongly in the north, then in the center,
and least in the south. The monsoon wave occurs about five times each year and
affects mainly the southern sea area. Its influence is much weaker than that of the
cold wave in winter. Fig. 2 shows that in summer the average significant wave height
in the SCS is lower than that in winter for both wind waves and swell waves. Rough
seas appear only in the north of the Nansha Islands, with a strength similar to that
in winter.
May is the transitional season from winter to summer. The northern SCS is
affected by a relatively weak northeastly monsoon, and thus the waves are lower than
those in February and higher than those in August. In the southern SCS, the
southwestly monsoon is just starting with a weak force, thus the waves are lower than
those in August, even in the rough sea area in the northern part of the Nansha
Islands.
In the transitional season of November, the southward intrusion of cold air is less
strong and less frequent than that in February. However, waves in November are
obviously higher than those in February in the northern and central SCS; the average
difference may exceed 0.5 m in the north. This is due to the relatively high
occurrence of tropical cyclone in November, which often has a relatively southward
or westward path and affects more strongly the northern and central SCS. The
tropical cyclone appears seldom in February.
C. Wave Period
The seasonal variation of wave period is similar to that of wave height. The
period of wind waves is about 5 seconds in winter and 4 seconds in summer. The
period of swells are about 2 seconds longer than that of wind waves.
Waves in Soulh China Sea 139
III. OCCURRENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MAXIMUM ROUGH SEA

The occurrence of maximum big wave is an important environmental para-meter
to be considered for offshore development. Occurrences of maximum big wave in the
ses are almost all caused by tropical cyclones or by the combination of tropical
cyclones and cold gales, except those in the sea areas around the Nansha Islands
where the effects of southwestly monsoon is not ne~ligible.
The contour map of maximal significant wave he1ght during typhoon periods (Fig.
3) was obtained by a posterior calculation using the eRGS method (Sui, 1990) for
all the tropical cyclones that affected the sea areas north of 16°N during the 41 years
of 1949-1989. The maximum big wave was lower than 10 m in the Beibu Gulf, about
10 m in the Taiwan Strait, and over 12 m (14 m in average) in other areas concerned.
Two areas of greatest maximum big wave were found: one lies offshore east and
south Hainan Island, with maximum big wave over 16 m; the other in the north-
eastern ses adjacent to the Bashi Strait, with the maximum big wave up to 18 m.
The later was generated by the great sea waves carried to this sea area through the
Bashi Strait by westly or northwestly typhoons from North Philippines.
106" 108" 110" 112" 114" 116"

N
24"
Fig. 3. The distribution of maximum big wave in the sea areas north of 16°N of the South China Sea.
In the ses, in average tropical cyclones meet cold-air gales three times annually,
mostly in autumn. In such occasions the sea state is extremely bad, the big wave may
extend several times wider than its ordinary range, as shown by numerical simulation
(Fig. 4).
Except in the sea areas of the Beibu Gulf and south of the Nansha Islands, the
significant wave height greater than 10 m have been often reported by ships. For the
central and northern ses, including the Taiwan Strait, the maximum height of wind
waves is 12.5 m; that of swells 15 m. Off the Zhujiang (Pearl) River Mouth, an
automatic buoy has recorder a significant wave height of 9.5 m and a maximum wave
height of 17.3 m.
During the course of the No. 16 tropical cyclone (Lex) in late October, 1983, the
"Java" drilling ship of York was capsized; all the 81 crew members were lost. When
the No. 11 tropical cyclone (Fred) in mid August, 1991 attacked the sea area off the
Zhujiang River Mouth, the large engineering ship DB29 of the McDomt Co., who
was in the operation for pipe-line deployment, was sunk. These are examples of
extreme cases in the ses. The occurrence of rough sea state in the SCS threatened
offshore development and deserves enhanced observation and study.
106· 108" 110· 11Z' 114· 116· 118" 114· 116·

N
24. a
2Z'
20·
1~~ __~~____~__- L_ _~_ _ _ _4 -__~____~~'L-~~~____L -__- L_ _ _ _L -_ _- L_ _ _ _L -_ _~~
Fig. 4. Simulated contours of significant wave height generated by (a) tropical cyclone, or (b) the
combination of tropical cyclone and cold-air gale for the sea areas north of 16°N in the South China Sea.
REFERENCES
Cai, Qing-gui, Sui, Shi-feng, and Zhang, Jia-lin et al. (1989) "CHGS method for numerical forecasting of
typhoon waves-IV. Results and test", Tropic Oceanology 8(3), 44-51 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Chen, Shi-jian, Chen, Te-gu, and Xu, Xi-zhen et at. (1985) The Vast Expanse of South China Sea, Science
Press, Beijing (in Chinese).
Sui, Shi-feng (1990) "CHGS method for numerical forecasting of typhoon waves-I. Spectrum of waves
in growing phase", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 9, 343-352 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Sui, Shi-feng, Zhang, Jia-lin, Cai, Qing-gui, and Chen, Yu-rong (1989) "CHGS method for numerical
forecasting of typhoon waves-III. Wave grouth and swell waning", Tropic Oceanology 8(2), 13-20 (in
Wang, Wen-zhi, Chen, Jun-chang, and Li, Man-qiu (1990) "BSC'.s numerical forecasting method for ocean
waves", Tropic Oceanology 9(4), 9-15 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhang, Jia-lin and Sui, Shi-feng (1989) "CHGS method for numerical forecasting of typhoon waves-II.
C'-Omputations of the frictional correction coefficient and inner deflection angle of wind direction for
the gradient wind in the wind field of typhoon", Tropic Oceanology 8(1),58-66 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zhang, J in-han and Li, Shao-ying (1980) "A procedure of typhoon wave forecasting for the northern South
China Sea", Nail/wi Studio Marialla Sillica 1, 135-164 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
MARINE HYDROLOGIC FORECASTS IN CHINA
DU Bi-Ian
China IlIStitute for Marine Development Strategy, State Ocenic Administration
Beijing 100081, China
HAN Zhong-nan
Natiollal Marule Ellvirollmelltal Forecasting Center, State Oceanic Admillistration
Beijulg 100081, China
I. INTRODUCTION
From a practically non-existent basis before 1949, marine hydrologic forecasts in

China have been developed rapidly to meet the increasing needs of marine
exploitation. At the present, the main task of hydrologic forecasts in China is
undertaken by the National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center (NMEFC),
with regional centers in Qingdao, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Haikou, and some
coastal oceanographic stations under the State Oceanic Administration (SOA) and
its three sub-administrations. Additional relevant work has been done by
oceanographic research institutes, colle~es and meteorological services. A new marine
environmental monitoring and forecastlllg system is under rapid construction, and the
means for marine monitoring are being modernized. Besides routine observations by
island and coastal stations, there are sectional investigations by survey ships, auxiliary
observations by merchant ships, observations from data-buoy stations, and
observations from aircrafts and satellites. The improvement of marine monitoring
means has made it possible to get various synchronous and successive data in real
time for large areas and raised the accuracy of marine forecasts. For example,
satellite and aerial remote sensing of sea ice and sea surface temperature, which
undertaken in recent years, has provided satisfactory results and greatly upgraded
hydrologic forecasts. A preliminary marine monitoring network has been set up.
Accurate operational marine forecasts have been prepared, and the research on
predicting theory and methods has progressed rapidly. All these have laid a sound
basis for further development of marine hydrologic forecasts in China.
II. SEA WAVE FORECAST
Sea wave numerical forecasts in China started in the 1960's. Organized by the
Ocean Group of the National Science Committee, scientists from relevant units
studied the methods of sea wave prediction and tried out some operational
forecasting experiments based on the theory of general wind wave spectrum and swell
spectrum advanced by Wen (1973). On the basis of this research, NMEFC of SOA
has developed a mathematical statistic forecast method for sea wave with stress on
the synoptic method. After several years of research and tests, the numerical
141
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology a/China Seas. Volume 1, 141-154.
prediction of sea wave for large areas reached its operational stage. NMEFC began
September of 1982 to issue daily sea wave analysis charts and sea wave prognosis
III
charts of the Northwest Pacific by radio-facsimile to both domestic and foreign users.
A. Mathematical Statistic Forecast of Sea Wave
Wave height distribution and wave direction for 1-3 days are predicted on the
basis of weather situation forecasts, sea wave analysis by the use of sea wave
calculation charts in the Sea Wave Calculation Manual, and other calculation
methods. Sea wave analysis and sea wave prediction cover the Bohai Sea, the
Huanghai Sea, the East China Sea, the South China Sea, the Japan Sea and the
Northwest Pacific.
The sources of sea wave data are mainly the significant wave height and wave
period from national and international ship reports, the mean wave height and period
of 1/10 highest wave from coastal and island stations reports, and significant wave
height and period from reports of maritime drilling platforms. In the analysis
procedure, all data from different sources and with different properties are converted
into significant wave heights according to a certain relation.
The mathematical statistic method of sea wave field based on the actual sea wave
condition and synoptic situation forecast is adopted in making the sea wave forecast
charts. This method mainly considers typhoon, ever moderate temperate cyclones,
and other weather systems which produce big sea wave areas. Here we will introduce
a calculation method for wind wave and swell based on Wen's theory on wave
spectrum (SOA, 1973).
According to wave spectrum theory, complicated sea waves are the resultant of
the combination of infinite harmonics with different amplitudes, frequencies,
directions, and jumbles of initial phases.
(2.1)
where ( is wave height; an is amplitude of component wave; an is circular frequency,

and En is initial phase. The component waves with different frequencies have different
energies. AZ(a) represents the energy distnbution of relative component wave frequencies
and constitutes an energy spectrum. Its expression for wind wave in deep water is
(2.2)
where Fr is the function of speed U, fetch X, and duration t, of wind and K= 1.48x 104
cmz/s. It is a semi-empirical and semi-theoretical spectrum. Fr depends not only on
U, X and t, but also on the water depth h for wind wave in shallow water areas.
Therefore,
(2.3)
If spectrum AZ(a) is known, the significant wave height H1f3 and mean period T can
be calculated by using the following two formulas
Marine Hydrologic Forecasts 143
r"
HI/3 - 2.83 [Jo A 2 (0) do] 1/2 (2.4)
r- 21t[fo"A2(0)do I 10" ulA2(u)do]1/2 (2.5)
The effects of turbulent viscosity and scattering are considered for swell. A2(a, 0)
is shown as
(2.6)
where D is the decay distance, which is the propagation distance when sea wave
leaves the fetch rear; r=DIFmin , F min is the minimum fetch; 0 is the angle between the
propagation direction of the wave when it leaves the fetch rear and wind direction.
Swell is the strongest along the direction 0=0 and becomes weaker along other
directions. The influence of swells would theoretically disappear when 0= ±7T/2; K
and m are empirical constants. K is as mentioned above, and m = 1.5 glcm· s.
To forecast swell we should calculate not only the element of the swell which
arrive at a selected point but also the time when the swell arrives. so it is necessary
to calculate the swell's propagation time. It may be proved that when harmonics
travel continuously to a calm water area with speed C, they form an outstanding
group of waves propagating with a group speed of C/2. So the propagation time of
the swell can be calculated by
t -
D
!c0 D-(C/2)
- - !cD -dx
1 d x -41t
gOT
1
(2.7)
where ::r is the mean period of the swell.

In practice, it is necessary to make the 1-3 days forecast of a weather situation
and corresponding wind field prediction before determining, on the basis of such a
forecast, the duration, fetch, and speed of wind related to wind wave calculation.
Wind speed within the fetch at certain time may be determined from the geostrophic
wind derived from the air pressure gradient of the fetch
(2.8)
where p is air density, (u is geostrophic angle velocity, <p is latitude, and I1pll1n is air
pressure gradient. Then the wind speed above the sea surface is defined with the
following empirical formula
Us - (0.01.1 T + 0.70) Ug (2.9)
where I1T is the difference between water temperature and air temperature.
A series of nomograms may be used for the calculation of elements of wind wave
and swell. In this forecast method the calculated wave height is identical with the
observed height for waves produced by strong weather systems, especially by strong
cold air waves in winter, and is usually higher than 1.4-1.6 times the observed value
for waves produced by weaker weather systems. In practice, correction should be
made according to the forecast's experience.
B. Numerical Forecast of Sea Wave
Many researches on numerical sea wave forecast have been done in China. The
one among them that satisfies the operational requirements is a hybrid model
development by Wen et aL (1989a, 1989b), in which a parameterized method is
adopted at the wind wave forecasting part and the spectral components at the swell
forecast part.
The energy balance equation for the significant wave can be expressed as
aE a a .
-+-(cosO'C E)+-(smO·C E)-R
at ax g ay g (2.10)
C _ gT
g 41t (2.11)
where E is the wave energy per unit area of water surface, 9 is angle of wind
direction measured counterclockwise from the positive X-axis, waves generated travel
in the same direction, R is the net energy density, C g is the group velocity of
significant wave in deep water, t is time, T is the period of significant wave, and
g=9.8 m/s. R represents the net energy gained by the water column by adding up the
input from the atmosphere and dissipations through various processes, the effect of
nonlinear wave-wave interaction being also included in it. For deep water, we have
1 2
1 aH -- - aH aH
-pgH[- +8.576 U 3 H3 (cos~ +sinO-)]-R (2.12)
4 at ax cry
At the present, it is very difficult to deduce R by the dynamic method. In the

model, derived from the empirical growth relation of significant waves, R is a
function of wind velocity U, wave height H and period T of significant wave x.
When 0=0, R can be regarded as the net energy density on the right side of the
energy balance equation
1 2
R_ipgH(aH +6.41U- 3 H 3aH ) (2.13)
4 at ax
Applying the following fetch-limited growth relations
(2.14)
(2.15)
and the relation between the nondimensional fetch and duration
(2.16)
in Eq. (2.13), we can derive
R- 1. p g H(2.526 X 10-8 U 3.4 H-1.2) (2.17)

4
combining Eq. (2.12) and Eq. (2.17), we have
1 2
aH -- - aH aH
- + 8.576U 3 H3 (cosO- +sinO-) -2.526 x 10- 8 U 3.4 H-1.2 (2.18)
at ax ay
Applying the strategy used in Eq. (2.14) to Eq. (2.15) and Eq. (2.16), we have the
following growth relations for significant wave height and period:
(2.19)
(2.20)
x-O.01196th 1.3(1.4K d)"i1.3 (2.21)
where H=gH/U2 , T=gT/U, d=gd/lf, x=gx/lf, t =gt/U, K is the wave number, d is the
water depth, K=27T/L, L is the significant wave length.
Introducing Eq. (2.19), Eq. (2.20) and Eq. (2.21) into Eq. (2.13) and the energy
balance equation Eq. (2.12), we have the shallow water WInd wave prognostic
equation.
The swell forecasting model is based on the spectral energy balance equation,
namely
of ~ a
-+'\l'(C F)+-[(C ''\l'O)F]-S
~
(2.22)
at g 00 g
where Cg is the group velocity of constituent waves, S is the source function, F is the
directional spectrum, which represents the constituent wave with frequency w
and direction () and can be expressed as
(2.23)
where S(6J) is sea wave frequency spectrum.

The swell can be obtained through the calculation of sea wave spectra. The Wen
theoretical wind wave spectrum is applied in the model. The parameters of this
spectrum include zero moment of spectrum, peak frequency, peak factor, peak value
and the ratio of average wave height H to depth, etc. Because effective parameters
are adopted and the high frequency part of the spectrum is dealt with rationally, the
spectrum is consistent with the observed results.
The swell source function is mainly comprised of two terms, i.e.,
(2.24)
where Sin represents the energy dissipated by air drag when the swell propagates
against wind, Sdb is the energy dissipated by water-bottom friction.
(2.25)
where C is wave velocity, O=cjJ- V, and V are wind direction and wave direction,
respectively.
fgK 2 1c I <u>
s - g
(2.26)
db (6JchKd)2
where f is friction coefficient, <u> is the RMS velocity of water particle at the
bottom, namely
<u>-l!!( gk iF(6J,O)d8d6J]1/2 (2.27)

6JchKd
III. STORM SURGE FORECAST

In terms of causes, storm surges in China can be classified into two categories:
one is typhoon surge and the other is temperate cyclone surge, including those caused
by strong winds of cold air waves. At present, mathematical statistic methods are
mainly used in the preparation of forecasts of these two classes of storm surges while
numerical methods are supplementary only.
A. Forecasts of lYphoon Surges
In the forecasts of typhoon surges, a mono-correlated extremal forecasting

formula for storm surges IS commonly used
(3.1)
where ( represents the maximum surge level; tlPo =p.. -Po, with p .. denoting
the outside air pressure of the typhoon on the normal air pressure, and Po denotes
'0
the air pressure in the center of the typhoon; is the radius of the maximum wind
speed of the typhoon; , is the distance from the typhoon center to a certain station
where the maximum typhoon surge is located. The values of A and C can be
calculated on the basis of typhoon-track classification.
Another extremal forecasting formula considering both air pressure variation and
the effect of the maximum wind speed at the station in questIon is
(-aJ1P+bWZcos(} (3.2)
where tlP is the maximum air pressure-decrease at the predicted point; tlP=P-Po,
P and Po being the monthly mean air pressure and the minimum air pressure at the
station, respectively; W is the maximum wind speed at the predicted point; 0 is the
angle formed by the main wind direction on the sea surface and the maximum wind
direction at the station. For a bay or gulf, the direction of its main axis is often taken
as the main wind direction while, along an open coast, the direction perpendicular
to the coast is taken as the main wind direction. In the case of the least squares
method used in calculating a and b values for each station, hour by hour or every
other three hours, the above formula might be applied to process forecasts of
typhoon surges.
By using the [National Weather Service (NWS), NOAA, V.S.l SPLASH and
SLOSH numerical forecasting models for storm surges, the NMEFCbas made some
experiments in forecasting typhoon surges caused by landing typhoons. The results
showed that, as long as the forecasted areas conform with the requirement of the
models, the forecasting precision will be satisfactory.
On the basis of the nonlinear numerical computation of storm surges in the
Taiwan Strait, Wu (1983) made some numerical forecasting experiments on typhoon
surges along the southeastern coast of China. His results coincided quite well with
the actual conditions. This numerical model uses the following equations of motion
and continuity
a U a V a h ( ap a(" ,2(U2+ 0) 1{2 U

~+--~+--~-fv- --+--_Q -g(h+()-+~- b (3.3)
at h+(ax h+(iJy p ax ax p (h+(l
a(
-+-+--0
au av , u-f(uctz , v-f(vctz
at ax iJy -h -h
(3.5)
where U and V are the two components of the total current along the x and y
directions respectively, u and v the two components of the current speed along the
x and y directions respectively; h the water depth; rb z a bottom-friction factor;
p the density of seawater; f the Coriolis parameter; P a the air pressure on the
sea surface; 'Tax and 'Tayare two components of the wind stress along the x and y direc-
tions respectively, which can be determined from wind speed W at the layer 8 m
above the surface by an empirical relation: ¥=p ar2a I wi W, in
which P a is the density of air and ra 2 a constant of wind stress.
The initial conditions are as foHows
u-V-O, ( -KP (P -Pa )

(Ig '
when t-O;
where Kp is the dynamic coefficient.

The boundary condition of the coast: the total current along the direction
perpendicular to the coast equals zero.
The boundary condition of the water: (=Kp(P "" - Po).
The air pressure field in a typhoon can be represented by the foHowing
ll.P
P -P + 0 when O~r~R (3.6)
a 0 4 (r/R)3 '
P -P -i.ll. p R when r>R

a ~ 4 0 r ' (3.7)
where l1Po=P ",,-Po; Po is the air pressure in the center of the typhoon; P"" is the air
pressure at an infinite point; R is the radius of the strong wind of the typhoon; r is
the distance from the calculated point to the typhoon center.
The wind field of the typhoon can be expressed as
~- -r- (Vox-;"-+ Voy]-;"-) + WR ( - r )312-1 (Ai+ Ii)

W " , when 0 ~ r ~ R (3.8)
R+r ' R r
(3.9)
in which V(ll" and Voy are the two components of the velocity of a typhoon center along
the x and y directions respectively; W is the maximum wind speed near the typhoon
center;
A- -(ycosO+xsinO) , B - xcosO - ysinO
where () is the entering angle of the gradient wind.
B. Forecast of Extratropical Storm Surges

There are also two kinds of statistical forecasts for extra tropical storm surges: the
extremum forecast and the process forecast. At the present the further study made
by Zhang and Wang (1983) on the nonlinear coupling effect between storm surge and
tide is of realistic importance for the prediction of storm surge in the sea area with
relatively great tidal difference. They mput the sum of the four main constituents as
open boundary, simulating the coupling effect between storm surge and tide caused
by the Bohai Sea's primary synoptic situation. The equation of motion and steady-
state solution condition satisfy
au au au a( 1 "ax - "bx
- + u - + v - -Iv - - g - + _----=::c-'----= (3.10)
at ax ay ax p (h + ()
av av av I" a( 1 "ay-"by
- +u- +V- +JU- - g - + (3.11)
at ax ay aY p h + (
a( +~[(h+()u]+~[(h+()v]-O (3.12)
at ax ay
where To and Tb are the wind stress and bottom friction force respectively, namely
(3.13)
Tb - pge-2 VIVI (3.14)
c-!n Tr 1/6 (3.15)
where Wis wind velocity vector, V current velocity vector.

Initial condition: (=0; u=v=O, when t=O
Boundary condition: the normal component of current velocity is zero (Un=O)
for closed boundary;
4
(x, y, t)=L!;'Hj(x, y)cos[Ojt+(Vo+u')j-qj(x, y)]
j-l
for open boundary, and ( is obtained through the overlap of the four main
constituents M z, Sz, K 1, and 01' Hand q the harmonic constants of the constituents,
f the nodal factor and Vo+u' is the astronomical phase angle.
IV. TIDE AND TIDAL CURRENT FORECASTS
Due to the relatively intense non-linear effect of tides in river-mouth areas, which
makes it difficult to provide accurate tide prediction by means of the harmonic
analysis method, the Institute of Marine SCIentific and Technological Information
(IMSTI) began in 1976 to calculate the tidal levels of high and low waters for some
of the ports at river mouths by using Doodson's shallow:water harmonic corrective
method, which obviously increased the accuracy of tide forecasts but is not suitable
for the improvement of the hourly forecasting of tidal levels. In 1974, a new tide
prediction correlation method for shallow waters was presented, with which both the
high and low tides and the hourly tidal levels can be predicted simultaneously with
distinctly increased the accuracy.
Fang (1981), Fang and Yu (1981) further proposed a new method called quasi-
harmonic analysis for shallow waters. Having studIed the expression of the nonlinear
term in tide forecasts on a fairly rigorous, theoretical basis, the inventors of this
method rearranged the long period, diurnal and semi-diurnal tide groups into 6
quasi-harmonic components, so that the tide groups with frequencies higher than two
cycles per day can be expressed. In this case, the originally numerous constituents of
shallow-water tides are replaced by just a few harmonic components of such waters,
with parts of lower frequencies (i.e., 0, 1 and 2 groups) that remained to be
calculated by using harmonic analysis. The terms for the interaction between the
astronomical and meteorological tides and that for the frictional nonlinear effects are
introduced into the process. The accuracy of forecast by this method was much better
than that of the harmonic method using 60 constituents. By 1982 over one hundred
major ports of the country had been supplied with tidal forecasts. Nearly 20 thousand
copies of the Tide Tables are published every year.
With regard to tidal current forecasts, a new permanent forecasting method for
tide and tidal current was developed by Fang Guohong in the earlier 1970's. Based
on the intrinsic diversity among different harmonic constants in the same sea area,
this method expresses the tidal level of a station as a function of two variables, T and
D, where the value of T depends on the astronomical parameters of the diurnal and
semi-diurnal tides in the predicting time and plays a leading role, and the value of
D, varying around 1, is a correction factor of the tidal level, which is determined by
the astronomical amplitude coefficients of the diurnal or semi-diurnal tide groups.
When using this method, one should first look up the values of T and D at the
predicting time, and then find out the direction and speed of the tidal current
corresponding to T from the permanent tidal current tables. Then with the value of
the current speed multiplied by D, one can get the final forecast of the tidal current.
In recent years an extremum predicting method of rotary tidal current was proposed
by the IMSTI on the basis of the rotary features of tidal current. Using the insert
multinominal to approximate the curve of a tidal current, the time corresponding to
the maximum and minimum during a cycle of rotary tidal current can be obtained.
Since the curve of current speed is not smooth enough, the calculation is usually
made by general expressions of tidal current instead of by insert methods. Beginning
from 1983, the IMSTI has been engaged in the daily forecasts of tidal current for
some harbours, channels and fishing grounds.
V. TEMPERATURE FORECASTS
Given below is a brief introduction to the empirical orthogonal function
decomposed forecasting method developed by Du and Song (1982), and Du et al.
(1982) in which the matrix of the original temperature field data is separated into
spatial and temporal components. Using the property of the spatial component that
hardly changes in a short period, the temporal component is extrapolated by the
mono-elemental or multi-factorial forecasting method from the time series so that the
SST forecast for a large area can be achieved. The anomaly data of any SST field (N-
spatial stations, M-observational times) may be decomposed into the product of a
temporal component matrix MTK (K is the term number of the chief components) and
a spatial component matrix KXN
(5.1)
where X is an orthogonal matrix which is also called an empirical orthogonal
function. It can be derived from the covariance matrix R of the available SST data.
R is computed by using the following formula
(5.2)
where W' is the rotary matrix of the SST data; ~N is a positive definite and real
symmetric matrix. According to its properties, ~N could, through linear
transformation, be resolved by Jacob's method to obtain its characteristic value
A and the corresponding characteristic vector X. When the quantity of the
spatial stations of an SST field (N) is large while the observational time series (M)
is short, which leads to a too high order of the computed covariance matrix ~N' the
space-time transformation could be used in solving the covariance matrix. Having
obtained the empirical orthogonal function X, we may derive the following formula
of the time weight coefficient at the moment of the solution according to the
properties of orthogonality among individual characteristic vectors.
(5.3)
In the process of decomposition, 5-7 terms of the chief components (K) are
enough generally for the requirements of forecasts. Since the function X hardly
changes in a short period, the forecasting deviation of the future SST field can be
obtained by forecasting the future time weight coefficient (M+D)TK (D is the step of
forecast) and then mUltiplying it with the empirical orthogonal function.
Another field forecasting method used in producing SST forecasts is the
orthogonal complex factorial field decomposed forecasting method (Du et a/., 1982).
This is a regression forecasting method combining the empirical orthogonal
decomposition of the SST field with the empirical orthogonal decomposition of a
complex, relative factorial field. It considers not only the internal relation of
temperature among stations but also the interrelation between the sea temperature
field and the relative factorial field, thus reflecting the advantage of the field
prediction.
Since the complex factorial matrix is usually not linear independent, there are Z
characteristic values that equal zero. Therefore, only the Q chief components are
significant and linear dependent (Q=M+ 1-Z). TheM+ 1 line of matrixE is the time
weight coefficient related to the near time factors, so it will be the new near time
forecasting factor.
After separating the above two fields, we can obtain the chief component matrix
of the SST field MTK and the chief component matrix of the complex factorial field
MEQ. The statistical relation between them is established by the method of stage
regression and step-by-step regression to forecast the coefficient T of the SST field
in a future time.
Recently, Wang and Su (1991) proposed a limited-area forecasting model of sea

surface temperature, which IS an upper mixed two dimensional primitive equation
model. It includes low-frequency flow equations, dynamic equations consisting of a
drift equation, a thermodynamic advective equation and a physical equation based
on decreasing process of temperature caused by radiative heat, vaporization, air-sea
heat exchange, entrainment and Ekman pumpmg.
In addition to complementary current equations and drift equations applied in
the model, its thermodynamic equation was divided into a dynamic equation and a
physical equation. The dynamic equation may be written as
(5.4)
where Vc and Vd are vector of complementary current and of drift respectively, the
term in the left side of Eq. (5.4) is the temperature variation rate in the dynamic part
of the thermodynamic equation.
The expression of the physical equation is
aT 1 4
( - ) - - - " Q +P +E
at 2 Cph!;:t III II "
(5.5)
where C is specific heat, p seawater density, h the depth of upper mixed

layer, ~Qm(m=1, 2, 3,4) denotes the heating state on sea surface and is obtained by
4
L Qm-QI-QB-QE-Qs
m-l
(5.6)
where the four terms on the right side of the equation are the short wave radiation,
effective back radiation of sea surface, latent heat evaporation and sensible heat
transport respectively, and are all parameterized.
If the buoyancy variation is negligible and only the forcing effect of wind stress
is considered, the pumping and entrainment decreasing rate of temperature in
seawater surface may be expressed as follows
liT
P
"
--w-
P h (5.7)
liT
E
II
--W
e h
- (5.8)
where flT is the temperature difference over the thermocline, ~ the Ekman
pumping speed over the upper mixed layer of the sea, We the entrainment speed of
seawater, all of which are parameterized.
VI. SEA ICE FORECASTS

As of now, the areas for sea ice prediction have covered the Liaodong Gulf, the
Bohai Gulf, the Laizhou Bay and the northern part of the Huanghai Sea. At present,
sea ice forecasts in the country are based mainly on mathematical statistic predicting
methods and numerical modelling predicting method. The ice forecasts give
information on: ice grade, ice amount, and characteristic date of ice.
In 1988 a dynamic-thermodynamic sea ice model for the Bohai Sea was
developed by Wu and Lepparanta (1988), and quasi-operational short range sea ice
prediction was issued in winter of 1990-1991. In the model both thermodynamic and
dynamic processes that determined the open water or lead area within the sea ice
cover are considered. Based on the principle of the conselVation of heat the
thermodynamic process determines the freezing, melting and temperature structure
of the sea ice. The dynamic process based on the principles of the conselVation of
mass and momentum, determines sea ice drift and deformation.
The dynamics in the model is based on the steady state momentum equation and
mass continuity equation
(6.1)
-
am + V·(V.m)
~
- cjJ (6.2)
at I
where r;, and fware air and water stresses respectively, m is the sea ice mass per unit
area, f is the Coriolis para~eter, K is the unit vector upward normal to the surface,
V. is sea ice drift velocity, F is internal sea ice force and cf> a thermodynamic source
or sink term.
The sea ice thickness distribution is described with three idealized levels: open
water I-A, level ice thickness hi and rubble thickness hr. Thus
m-pj(h,+h,)A (6.3)
where Pi is the density of sea ice, A is sea ice compactness.
The continuity equations can be written for the three levels as
aA ~
---V.·VA+I/I +cjJ (6.4)
at I A A
(6.5)
ah, ~
(6.6)
at
---V.·Vh
I ,
+1/1 , +cjJ ,
In these equations, the first terms on the right side describe advection, the second
terms mechanical deformation and the third terms thermodynamic effects. From Eq.
(6.2) the mechanical redistribution functions I/IA' 1/1, and 1/1,
have to satisfy
(6.7)
where h=hr+hr•
The thermodynamic growth rates CPA' CPr and CPr must satisfy
(6.8)
The thermodynamic calculations center on the balance of the incoming and

outgoing energy fluxes at the air/ice, air/water and ice/water interfaces. The fluxes
included are solar radiation, incoming and outgoing long wave radiation, sensible and
latent heat, conduction through the sea ice layer, ocean heat flux and absorption and
emission of energy.
The internal ice force F is expressed as
F-V'o (6.9)
where 0 is the stress field within the sea ice. The stress depends on the strain rate
and ice thickness distribution, in particular the open water fraction. The stress law
formulation is presently under investigation. The air and water stresses are obtained
by using the ordinary quadratic stress law from the atmospheric and oceanic models.
Forecasting results are satisfied to show the evolution of ice conditions. Statistical
verification has been used for objective assessment of the model and the forecast
system.
REFERENCES
The State Oceanic Administration (1973) Sea Wave Calculation Manual (in Chinese).
Wen, Sheng-chang, Zhang, Da-cuo, Olen, Bo-hai, and Guo, Pei-fang (1989) "A hybrid model for numerical
wave forecasting and its implementation. 1. The wind wave model", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 8(1),
1-14 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Wen, Sheng-chang, Zhang, Da-cuo, Guo, Pei-fang, and Olen, Bo-hai (1989) "Parameters in wind wave
frequency spectra and their bearings on spectrum forms and growth", Acta Oceatlologica Sinica 8(1),
Wu, Pei-mu (1983) "A numerical model for predicting storm surge along the southeastern coast of China",
Acta Oceatlologica Sillica 5(3), 273-283 ~in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhang, Yan-ting and Wang, Yi-jiao (1983) 'The simulation of sea surface wind field and numerical
computation of storm surge in the Bohai Sea", Acta Oceatlologica Sinica 5(5), 261-272 (in Chinese,
Fang, Guo-hong (1981) "Quasi-harmonic constituent method for analysis and prediction of tides (III)",
Studia Marilla Sillica (18), (in Chinese).
Fang, Guo-hong and Yu, Ke-jun (1981) "A method for predicting the tides of shallow water ports",
Oceallologia et Limnologia Sinica 12(5),383-390.
Du, Bi-Iml and Song, Xue-jia (1982) "SST prediction for East China Sea and adjacent waters", Acta
Oceallologica Sillica 1(2),155-162 (in Chinese).
Du, Bi-Ian, Song, Xue-jia, and Zhang, lian-hua (1982) "An empirical orthogonal multi-factorial method
designed to predict sea surface temperature",Acta Oceallologica Sinica 4(2), 149-156 (in Olinese, with
English abstract).
Wang, Si-zhen and Su, Yu-song (1991) "A model of SST prediction for limited region. II. The model's
physical equation", Oceanologia et Limllologia Sillica 22(1), 69-77 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wu, Hui-ding and Matti, Lepparanta (1988) "On the modelling of ice drift in the Bohai Sea", in Internal
Report of Finnish Institute of Marine Research No.1, 1-40.
PART II
MARINE CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
The speciation, distribution, and interface exchange of substances in

sea water are the main study of marine chemistry in China.The interest
is concentrated to the sea-air, sea-sediments, sea-organisms, and sea-
river interfaces exchange in the Bohai Sea, the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea,
the East China Sea and the South China Sea. Many articles and books
have been published.
The book "Marine Chemistry of the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea and
East China Sea" (Editor-in-chief: Gu, Hong-kan, Science Press, 1991,
SOOp.) presents the results of marine chemistry of antiadsorption
electrode without reagent, homogeneous distribution, and water-water
vapor constant transfer of trace metal ions. The distribution and
transfer of main forms and species of Cr, Hg, Fe and As are discussed.
The Particulate-Cr is the main form of Cr in the Changjiang (Yangtze)
River water, and the Cr3+ is less than Cr6+. In the Huanghe (Yellow)
River water, the Cr3+ is more than Cr6 +. The Cr6 + in the Changjiang
River water is reduced to Cr3+ due to the high content of organic
matter, and is adsorbed on particulates and transferred to sediments.
The dissolved-As flux from the Huanghe River to the Bohai Sea was
83 t/a in 1984. The redox system of S, Fe and Mn in interstitial water
and the source of sediments are discussed on the basis of the pE/pH
and pS2-IpE. Cu, Pb and Cd complexing capacity show that the
formation of 1:1 complex Cu-humic acid is a quick process. The
complexing capacity is Cu>Cd>Pb in the Huanghe River Mouth. The
stripping polarogram in the reversible system was studied. The oxygen
maximum in the Huanghai Sea presents a new theory that the O 2
maximum in the summer thermocline is mainly conserved from winter.
This mechanism can explain almost all the O 2 maxima in the seas of
the world. Marine humic acid, hydrocarbons and amino acids are high
in the river mouth. The distribution of U, Ra, Th, Total {3, 137Cs, 3H,
4°K and 210Pb in the sea, and the sediment velocity rate measured by
21cPb and 7.39pu were studied. The chemical tracer is used to trace
155
156
upwelling. The Fe and N compounds in the Changjiang River Mouth

are not limiting factors of the growth of phytoplankton, and the
chemical and biological transfer of SiOJ-Si is not apparent. Petroleum
and organic matter are the main pollutants in the ChIna seas. Although
the area of pollution of heavy metal is small in the estuary, it is
possible that it may destroy the origin of life.
"Biogeochemical Study of the Changjiang Estuary" (Editor-in-chief:
Yu, Guo-hui et al., China Ocean Press, 1990, 898p.) shows that a large
amount of pollutants, such as heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbon,
halogenated hydrocarbon and other inorganic and organic materials are
discharged into the Changjiang estuary, but the concentrations of
various contaminants in the waterbody and sediments of the most
studied areas are close to the natural back~round levels except for few
stations. This can be explained by the dilutIng effect of the large runoff
of the Changjiang River, by the retention effects of pollutants by
several hundred million tons of mud and sand per year as well as the
fast degradation of most organic pollutants. This leads to an important
self-purification capacity of the Changjiang River and its adjacent sea
areas.
"Minnan-Taiwan Bank Fishing Ground Upwelling Ecosystem Study"
(Hong, Hua-sheng et at., Science Press, 1991, 703p., in Chinese)
presents evidences from hydrological, chemical and biological
observations in six cruises. Several zones of upwelling off the southern
Fujian and the shope-shelf break region south of Taiwan Bank were
identified. The upwelling in the Taiwan Bank area is more permanent
due to the effect of bottom topography and the northward currents.
Whereas, the upwelling nearshore Minnan is more dependent upon the
prevailing monsoon driving a process of Ekman pumping in summer.
The central fishing grounds coincide with the timing and functional
characteristics of an upwelling ecosystem. It is defined for the first time
that Minnan-Taiwan Bank Fishing Ground is an upwelling fishing
ground. Data showed that upwelling is an important source of nutrients
especially in summer. The new production is estimated to be nearly
20% in the aphotic zone. The food web of the dominant pelagic fish is
short and the turnover rate of organic carbon is rapid at this region.
"Marine Chemistry of the South China Sea" (Han, Wu-ying et al.,
Science Press, in press) presents the results of marine chemistry in the
South China Sea, especially the study of carbon cycle and flux on the
atmospheric carbon dioxide, carbon flux of the Daya Bay, parameters
of the carbon fluxes in the Zhujiang (Pearl) River estuary, and flux
model of the generative key elements In the South China Sea.
The selected papers in this book show the essential and new study
of marine chemistry in China seas.
GU Hong-kan
Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
MARINE CHEMISTRY IN NORTHERN SEAS OF CHINA
ZHANG Shou-Iin and GU Hong-kan

Qingdao 26607/, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Two famous rivers, the Changjiang (Yangtze) River and the Huanghe (Yellow) River,
flow to the sea and control the main feature of marine chemistry in the coastal
waters of the East China Sea (ECS), the Huanghai Sea (HS) and the Bohai Sea (BS).
Two current systems, a less saline current toward the east and the south on the
coastal side and a warm and saline Kuroshiro toward the north and the west on the
other side, control the main feature of marine chemistry in these seas. The influence
of biological factors on the distribution of chemical components in these waters is
only regional.
II. DISSOLVED OXYGEN
The distribution of O 2 in the three seas is mainly influenced by water

temperature, current, and biological factors (Gu and Lin, 1964).
The horizontal distribution of O 2 (ml/l) in 1959 (Fig. 1) was lower along the
coastal side in the BS from April to August, in the HS from April to October, and
in the ECS from May to August, and higher in other months. This is because of the
higher water temperature in coastal waters in summer. In the ECS, the O 2 (ml/l)
distribution is inversely related to the water temperature, and the O 2 content is lower
in the central bottom waters in the HS and the ECS, except in deep winter where it
may be influenced by thermoclines and the decomposition of organic matter. The
vertical distribution of 02 is homogeneous in winter and strongly stratified in
summer, and correlated with the thermocline (Fig. 2).
The seasonal variation of O 2 (ml/l) in the three seas is higher from February to
March and lower in August. This is correlated with the annual variation of
temperature. The tendency of the seasonal variation of 02% is similar to that of O 2
(ml!I), but the variation of O 2 is higher in spring due to the influence of temperature
and biological factors (Fig. 3).
The maximum vertical distribution of dissolved oxygen in the HS and its
mechanism were studied by Gu (1966, 1982). The oxygen maximum in the summer
thermocline is mainly conserved from winter. The vertical distribution of oxygen in
summer shows that the maximum oxygen appears in central regions of the North and
South HS, which is the region within the 12°C isogram of the Huanghai Sea Cold
157
Zhou Di et at. (eds.). Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 1, 157-170.
118" 120" 122· 124· Fig. 1. The horizontal distribution of O 2 (rul/l) in

the surface water of the East China Sea, the
Huanghai Sea, and the Bohai Sea in February,
1959.
OM~__~41~0~3~4~JO~1~4J~O~5~4~lO~6____~40~3~8_____4,039
10
20
35
50~ ______________________________ ~
Fig. 2. The seasonal distribution of O 2 (rul/l) in the

East China Sea in August, 1959.
Water Mass (HSCWM) (Gu, 1982). O 2 maximum is not produced in the BS and the
ECS. Therefore, the O 2 maximum is related to HSCWM.
Seasonal variations of vertical distributions of O 2 and T °C (St) correlate with
each other (Fig. 4). In winter, strong vertical mixing of water makes O 2 and T °C
vertically homogeneous; from spring to summer, O 2 (mI!I) in the upper water
decreases because of the increasing water temperature and decreasing O 2 stability.
O 2 % increases slightly in spring because the increase in water temperature is faster
than the release of O 2 to the air, and because photosynthesis increases the O 2
content. In the middle layer, variations of O 2 and T °C are very small, approximately
the same values as those of April. The T °C (&) in the lower water is similar to this
case. The T °C and & below the middle layer remain unchanged, which is a
characteristic feature of the HSCWM. This con-servative property can also be
observed in the O 2 content in the middle layer. Oxygen loses its conservativerroperty
in the lower bottom water because O 2 is consumed by the decomposition 0 organic
matter which correlates with the high contents of P0 4-P and Si03-Si, and with the
low pH. The slight difference between the O 2 maximum and the T °C or & vertical
distributions is due to the influence of advection, internal wave and biochemical
action. After autumn, every hydrographic component tends to become vertically
homogeneous because of the strong vertical mixing.
Marine Chemistry in Northern China Seas 159
T
"C
--0, (ml/L)
28
0, - - - 02 (%)
""--'T .("C)
% ml/L o Surface 26
114 • bottom
24
7.2
no
6.8 22
106
102
6.4 "'.~. 20
6.0 18
98
5.6 16
91
\
14
90
"' \ 12
86
4.8 "' ~ /
1. ,I '-\ /1 , 10
82 '&-...:::-.;:'':~?
'1. 0 8
D F M A M A S o N \)
1959
Fig. 3. The sectional variation of O 2 (ml/l) and 02% at Station 4038 off the Changjiang Estuary in
January-December, 1959.
Station No. 24 Jan. -Dec. 1959 Station No. 21 Jan. - Dec. 1959
8' 97 10 6 11 512. 1~2
o
321 4 12 5 11
6 10 7 9 8 o m
10
ii i i i I
qi i / Y i~~
i / J!.'I
10
\.
----r---=--==--!~ '.
\\, '\.'. .~!
\,~;
~ . . .~ iii
E '/..;.;::::~
. ", iii
:;1 J
20 iii./'-7/' .
I
:' _____ .~ ;~ "---1,.. \ i ~\ il
R 30
~ 40
iiVlf
in
.
III
.~~
~~ ~... .Xi rr
50L-~4~.~0~8~.~O~7.12~.~0~I~G.~0~2~O~.0~271.~O~28°.0 19.0 20.0 21. 0 22. 0 23. 0 21. 0 25. 0 26. 0
T "c
Station No. 21 Jan. -Dec. ,1959 Station No. 2·1 Jan. -Dec. ,1959
11
897106 125 1132 1112 108127634~
(\ i \1~ ; \,
I~l~'~·
19 \ i\'\
!~ ~()
20 ..... .
30
~~ ,-;;-,-;;---;--,::----::-,,/,::-/-:-1-:,--,ll"'-'.k'::-,,;N:,,-.I-;;-,-.
~~ \'.'." . .' ...
3. 0 1. 0 5. 0 6. 0 7. 0 8. 0 78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110
O,ml/l
0,%
Fig. 4. Seasonal variations of vertical distributions of rc, &, O 2 (ml/l), and 02% at a station (122°20'E,
38°1O'N) in the Huanghai Sea in January-December, 1959.
The monthly mean biomass of phytoplankton in the whole water column from
January to December, 1959 in the central region of the HS shows that the biomass
is low « 1 x 104-13 X 104 ind./m3) and that the biochemical action is not strong, which
correlates with the bottom 02% being higher than that in the ECS, and with the
lower nutrients in the thermocline (8t). Therefore, biochemical action can only
influence the O 2 maximum, but it is not a decisive factor. Clearly, the vertical oxygen
maximum in summer thermocline in the HS is mainly conserved from winter, which
correlated with the conservative property of T'C (8t). Oxygen content decreases both
above and below the thermocline due to the increase of T'C and the decomposition
of organic matter, respectively.
III. THE pH VALUE
The distribution of pH values in the ECS, the HS, and the BS (Fig. 5) is mainly
influenced by river runoff and biological factors (Gu and Lin, 1964).
The scale and time variations of pH in the three seas is smail, except in the
Changjiang Estuary. The pH value is lower in the estuary than offshore, about
7.70-7.90 to 8.00-8.20. The regional higher pH occurs together with a higher biomass
of phytoplankton. The lower pH in the summer bottom water is due to the
decomposition of organic matter.
IV. SILICATE
Distributions and variations of Si0 3-Si are mainly influenced by river water,
organisms, and currents (Gu and Lin, 1964). The horizontal distribution of Si03-Si
in the three seas (Fig. 6) is higher in estuarIes, especially in the Changjiang Estuary
and the Hangzhou Bay, where the content of Si0 3-Si is 2000-3000 mglm 3.
The vertical distribution of Si0 3-Si is homogeneous in winter with strong mixing,
and stratified in summer, when the surface Si0 3 -Si is lower than that in the
thermocline and bottom water, which correlates with the distribution of 02. The
seasonal variation of Si0 3-Si is higher in winter and lower in summer and is
influenced by the Si0 3-Si supply from organic matter and the consumption by
phytoplankton.
The conservative behavior in the dilution process of Si0 3-Si in the Changjiang
Estuary was observed (Hunag et aL, 1983; Edmond et aL, 1983). The linear
relationship between the Si0 3-Si content and salinity in both summer and winter is
possibly due to the large runoff of the Changjiang River and the short residence time
of river water in the mouth area (no enough time for transportation). Also, as the
suspended load is high, the environmental condition is not favorable for
phytoplankton bloom, so the transport by organisms is insignificant.
V. PHOSPHATE
In the three seas, the distribution and variation of P0 4-P and its control factors
are similar to those of Si0 3-Si, but the variation scale of P0 4-P is less (Gu and Lin,
1964) (Fig. 7).
Huang et al. (1983) observed that there was no significant relationship between
phosphate and salinity in the mouth of the Changjiang River in November, 1982, and
the variation of PO 4-P concentration was very small in a wide salinity range of 0.2-33.
In August 1981, the P0 4-P content was variable.
Marine Chelllistry in Northern China Seas 161
117· 118' 119· 123' 124· 125' 126' 127'

41
34 3
3
32
31
30·
30
29'
Fig. 5. The horizontal distribution of pH in the Fig. 6. The horizontal distribution of Si0 3-Si
East China Sea, the Huanghai Sea, and the Bohai (mg/m3) in the East China Sea, the Huanghai Sea,
Sea in August, 1959. and the Bohai Sea in August, 1959.
VI. NITROGEN CYCLE

Gu et al. (1982) reported the nitrogen cycle near the Changjiang Estuary. The
high contents of nitrogen compounds in the estuary are from the river water, whose
high content is not a limiting factor of the growth for phytoplankton.
The high NH4-N shows that the NH4 +=NOz-=N03- system is in a thermodynamic
non-equilibrium state. There may be every catalyst, especially enzymes, for the
nitrogen system in seawater because of the activity of organisms, so there may be a
relationship between the thermodynamic ~Go and the dynamic dc/dt of the nitrogen
system.
The monthly variation of N03-N shows that their contents at the middle and
upper layers are mostly lower in summer-autumn and higher in autumn-winter. The
N0 3-N contents in the estuary, deep layer, and bottom water are also higher in
summer-autumn (Fig. 8).
Fig. 7. The horizontal distribution of P04 -P

(mg/m3) in the East China Sea, the Huanghai Sea,
and the Bohai Sea in August, 1959.
The Concentrations of N03-N in the Changjiang River Mouth in recent years

(900 mg/m 3) was about four times higher than that in 1963 (220 mg/m3). This increase
was mainly due to the presence of chemical fertilizers which followed the increase of
fertilizer factories along the river, and with the decrease of green frogs, field snails
and snakes, etc. in the water field of rice.
In the Jiaozhou Bay, the correlation between monthly variations of nitrogen
compounds and phytoplankton shows that the inorganic nitrogen compounds are
limiting factors of the growth of phytoplankton (Fig. 9) (Gu et aL, 1982).
The N03-N, N0 2-N, NH 4-N, organic-N, P0 4-P, organic-Po pH, and Eh in bottom
sea water and interstitial water of a core from the Jiaozhou Bay were determined and
discussed by Gu and Li (1979) (Fig. 10). The high content of dissolved organic-N and
organic-Po and very low Eh showed the rich primary production of organic matter in
the Jiaozhou Bay.
VII. IRON
Iron is one of the micro-nutrient elements for phytoplankton. Observations were

carried out for total iron, particulate iron, and reactive iron in the sea water of the
region off the Changjiang Estuary in four cruises from May 1963 to February
Marine Chemistry in Northern Seas 163
l:\ '10
0:
c
'-
:)
..•.. ,jQ
./.:
--- <5
N03 -N l'\02- N
Aug. 1963 Aug. 1963
om
Fig. 8. Horizontal distributions of (a) N0 3-N, (b) N02-N, and (c) NH4-N (mg/m3) in surface water near
the Changjiang Estuary in August, 1963.
T-N
S-N
mgN/m'
2000
1000
800
600
400
2X lO'
neershore
off shore
M A M A s o N 0 J F M A M
1962 1963
Fig. 9. The correlation between mean monthly variation of nitrogen compounds and that of phytoplankton
at two stations in the liaozhou Bay in 1962-1963.
Org-N
NO l -NO l -NHi Org-- P
Bottum waler
, , ,, PO,
, "-
\
\
, ,,,, , , "-
\
I
\
\
, "-
"-
"- ,
pll Eh \ \ "-
\ "-
I , " " \ \ I
po~-p
(em) Org~P NOJ-NjPO-P
100 130 160 I ~o 220 250 300--600

ToLal inorg - N
13X 10' /POj-P
Clay mud SillY clay
mud
Fig. 10. The nitrogenous and phosphorus compounds in the interstitial water of a core from the liaozhou
Bay in October, 1964.
1964 (Ma et at., 1982). The iron content in this region was very high, and the
particulate iron was in a large fraction. The average content of total iron was 1020,
362, 3630 and 3720 /-Lg/I in May, August, November and February, respectively. The
fraction of particulate iron was 91.2%, 71.3%, 93.2% and 68%, respectively. The
content of reactive iron varied from a few JLgIl to tens of JLgIl. The average
concentration was the lowest (15 /-Lg/I) in August and the highest (52 /-LgIl) in
February in the four cruises.
Total and particulate irons showed a similar horizontal and vertical distributions
in this region (Fig. 11). Their concentrations were higher near the coast and increase
gradually with water depth. No obvious gradient or regularity was found in the
distribution of reactive iron.
The Changjiang River is the main source of iron in the ECS. It effuses more than
20 million tons of the total iron per year. The fraction of particulate iron is over
98%. Flocculation occurs in the process of mixing of the Changjiang River fresh
water with the seawater. It was interesting to note that for each station average
concentrations and the concentrations in the bottom layer of total and particulate
irons are negatively correlated to the salinity of the corresponding surface water.
Average concentrations of total and particulate irons in the water off the
Changjiang Estuary are related not only to the iron flux from the river, but also to
the pattern of the current flow. In summer, the direction of the coastal current in the
region is the same as that of the NE-flowing Taiwan Warm Current (TWC), and the
diluted water of the Changjiang River is forced to pour into the region over 32°N.
So the concentration of iron in August was the lowest in the four cruises, although
the flux of the river in August was the largest. In winter, the coastal current was
directed SW-ward and opposite to the TWC, the diluted water of the river poured
in to the region. So the February values were the highest in the four cruises.
Marine Chemistry in Northern China Seas 165
122· 121'
26·~----~
May. 1963
______ Aug. 1963 Nov. 1963 Feb. 1961
~__-L__~______-L__~__-L______~__~__-L______~~
Fig. 11. The distribution of total Fe (p,g!I) in bottom water off the Changjiang Estuary in 1963-1964.
Unlike that of phosphate, the vertical distribution of reactive iron is usually

minimum in the euphotic zone and increases obviously downwards. This indicates
that the reactive iron is not a limiting element for the growth of phytoplankton in this
region, because the amount of the iron utilized by phytoplankton is too small
compared with that in seawater.
Southwest of the Cheju Island, 21 stations were observed for particulate iron in
July, 1980 (Ma et ai., 1983). At 9 stations the curves of vertical distribution of
particulate iron were hyperbolas and may be described as
log [Fe] -loga + blogD or [Fe]-aD b
where Fe is the content of particulate iron in JLg/l at the layer D meters from the
seafloor, a the constant denoting the content of particulate iron at the layer one
meter from the seafloor. The loga ranges from 2.91 to 4.38, and b is a constant
ranging from -1.08 to 2.04.
Particulate iron in the area originates from 2 sources. At the surface it is from
the Changjiang River; in deep layers from the sediment resuspended by upwelling.
Iron in the seawater of the Jiaozhou Bay was observed monthly from June 1964
to June 1965 (Ma et al., 1981). In this water iron is mainly from the land runoff. The
iron in the sediment interstitial water is in a reduction state. The surface sea water
contains higher "active" iron and particulate iron than the sublayer water. Dissolved
iron might be assimilated by phytoplankton.
VIII. ZINC, CADMIUM, LEAD, COPPER, TIN AND BISMUTH IONS
Concentrations of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Sn and Bi ions are similar in un-polluted
Chinese sea water, river water, well water, snow water, rain water, Pacific water and
Antarctic sea water and ice (Gu et al., 1978a, b, 1983, 1984). The metal speciation
shows no significant changes throughout the natural water cycle (Fig. 12). The
homogeneous distribution of trace metal ions in natural waters shows the metal ions
are carried in 100% concentration in the cycle. No significant equilibration transfer
takes place between trace metal ions and particulates at the pH of natural waters.
Gu'" s function:
a-O. 627 ,b-O. 234
&=0.988,5=0.0721
Natural water cycle
The anomaly of thermodynamics
The homogeneous distribution in trace physico-chemical system
of Zn 2 + etc. in natural water:
± ]. 5~g/1
snoJ
Zn H 5. 0 Original natural water formed
Cd H O. 080 O. 025 from Zn2+ etc-saturated water vapor
PbH 0.030 O. 010
Cu2+ O. 70 O. 20
SnH 0.99 0.18 Theil Solubility" of Znt+ ,etc.
Snow
Bi 3 + O. 18 0.050 in watcr vapor
'water
Modeling proof: ZnH etC. in rain

Analytical method, water are the same' as in natural sea water
\
\ Anti -adsorption physically
\ coated mercury film electrode
\ inverse polarography Zn2+ etc. cycle in 100 % concentration
Qinghai- "" Zn 2+ -mHzO with water evaporation
~11 ~~
Tibet -... ........ River water
Plateau ----------::-...
Evaporat_io.....
n
Changjiang River
East China Sea Pacific Ocean
Fig. 12. The anomaly of trace Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Sn, and Bi ions in the natural water cycle.
In the natural water cycle, trace metal ions are carried with the water. The
transfer is not determined by the evaporation energy of the metal ions because of the
non-equilibrium in the evaporated concentration. When an ion occurs in trace
concentration, the influence of environment will be significant. Thus the
thermodynamic theory does not apply directly to physio-chemical processes at trace
levels, especially if trace ions are present together with macro-components. In this
case the free energy, ~Go, can not be used directly to predict the possibility of
physio-chemical processes (Gu et aL, 1984).
The Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Sn, and Bi ion cycle with water evaporation has been proved
by the model experiment as shown in Fig. 13. It shows that the transfer of trace Zn z+,
Cd 2+, Pb2+, and Cu z+ with water evaporation has a limiting concentration equal to its
base line in natural seawater. Two new concepts are obtained, namd¥, or~inal water
is formed from the water vapor saturated with Zn 2 +, Cd2+, Pb2+, Cuz ,Sn ,and Bj3+
(Gu et al., 1986), and the "solubility" of metal ion in water vapor (Li and Gu, 1984).
In these studies, anti-adsorption physically coated mercury film electrode inverse
Morine Chemistry in Northern Chino Seas 167
polarography was used, which determines only the free metal ions and unstable metal
complexes. Metal in suspended matter and in stable complexes were not determined.
a
Condenser
water vapor
None equilibrium Equilibrium

ZnH -mH 20
Condensation !f
Evaporation
Zn:~-nH,O
Fig. 13. The model experiment of Zn, Cd, and Cu Sea water
cycle with water evaporation (a) and its limiting
concentration (b).
b
Water vapor (from 1 L Content 8S Jeft. Water vapor (from 1 L
water) contains: Unmiting concentration water) contains;
of tranaler of Zn 2+ etc
Zn2 + 5.1 .,8 Zn 2 + 2.3 1'8
- \\Solubdlity" in vaper
CdH 0.088 None evaporated equilibrium CdH 0.050
Pb2+ 0.025 concentration. PbH 0.011
Cu 2 + 0.30
CuH 0.61
E vaporation Condensa tion

E vaporation Condensation E vaporation Condensation
Sea water 1 L contains; Sea water 1 L contains: Sea water I L contains:

Zn2'+ 5.2 I'g Zn H 10.0 1'8 Zn 2 + 2.1 I'g
CdH O. 090 CdH 0.19 CdH 0.052
Pb'+ 0.026 PIl+ 0.051 PIl+ 0.012
Cu'+ Cu2 + 1.1 Cu 2 + 0.31
Base line Spike Blank

Zhang et aL (1985) reported the form distribution of Zn, Cd, Pb, and eu in the
surface water from the Northwest Pacific to the ECS, and Liu et al. (1985) reported
the distribution of Sn and Bi. The free form metals are also in homogeneous
distribution, but the particulate form metals are in a larger quantity in the ECS,
which is related to the higher suspended load from the Changjiang River.
Water vapor ion concentration is estimated by Gu's function (1991)
I~
-Z- - -1-
VN b
a+-
C
a=0.627, b=0.234, R=0.988, S=0.0721
where liZ is specific electron affinity (hydration force); I z the last ionization
potential; Z the ion valance; V the ion volume; N the coordination number (hydration
number); C (J-Lgll) the ion concentration in condensed water of water vapor; R the
correlation coefficient; S the standard deviation; a and b constants.
IX. URANIUM
The content of uranium in seawater over the continental shelf of the ECS in 1978
was determined by Li et aL (1982). Uranium in seawater was generally uniform. Mean
concentration of U was about 2.98 J.Lg/I. The content of U in surface seawater west
of 124°E (2.8 J-Lg/I) was lower than that in the area of 126°-129°E (3.0 J-Lg/I). This may
be related to the dilution of the Changjiang River water. The vertical distribution of
U is uniform in areas of great water depths but varies in shallow areas. The later may
be caused by river water and seston. The distribution of U in bottom water is not
uniform and many be related with the types of sediment and sestonic materials. High
values occur mainly in shelf areas where the seafloor is composed of fine sand and
silt. Low values are mainly associated with coarser seabed in outer shelf areas. The
residence time of U is 1.1 X 104 years.
X. HUMIC SUBSTANCES
Humic substances in the ECS and the Changjiang Estuary were observed in
1981-1983 (Cao et aL, 1984). From Nanjing to the Changjiang River mouth, contents
of humic substances are 650-720 J-Lg/I. From the estuary to 123°E, contents of humic
substances and ethanol-soluble organic matter in surface water decrease from 435 to
160 J-Lgil and from 486 to 320 J-Lg/I, respectively, and correlate negatively with salinity.
Further eastward, these contents decrease to 100-150 J-Lg/I and 180-300 J.Lgll,
respectively. Southwest of Ryukyu, the content of humic substances is < 100 J.Lg/I.
The amino acids in humic substances from the Qingdao coastal water are similar
to those from soil, sea sediments, and sea plankton (Cao et al., 1984).
XI. DISSOLVED CARBOHYDRATE
The seasonal variation in the content of dissolved carbohydrate in the upper layer
at four stations in the Jiaozhou Bay from August, 1980 to June, 1981 was determined
by Ji et al. (1983). Results showed that the content of dissolved carbohydrate in
Marine Chemistry in Northern Seas 169
seawater was below 1 mg/l throughout the year, averaging of 0.42--0.78 mg/l monthly.
The seasonal variation in the upper, middle, and lower layers of seawater showed
similar patterns, two peaks in September and January-February, and a valley in
November, although the upper layer had greater variations in most months. This
seasonal variation is similar to that of DOC in the bay. The annual average at the
center of the bay was <0.5 mg/l. Higher values (annual average of 0.63 and 0.68)
were observed at the 2 stations with large flow of waste water from rivers.
XII. INTERSTITIAL WATER
Concentrations of Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Sn and Bi in interstitial waters of the ECS in
June-July, 1978 were about 2-6 times higher than those in seawater (Liu et al., 1981).
High ion contents were found in mud where Eh was negative and 'pH was around 7.6.
Low ion contents were in sand. This was caused by the decomposItion of bio-organic
matter in mud, and at low pH and negative Eh these ions were transferred into
interstitial water.
Li et al. (1983) reported that geochemical characteristics of sediments and
interstitial water in the sea area adjacent to the Changjiang Estuary are related to the
hydrological and geological conditions.
The distribution of Si0 3-Si and P0 4-P in the seawater of the ECS and in the
interstitial water of surface sediments of the Okinawa Trough in July-August, 1981
was reported (Shen et al., 1984). A concentration of 168-370 mg/m 3 for Si0 3-Si and
9.2-15 mg/m 3 for P0 4-P was found in the seawater. The contents decreased from the
Changjiang Estuary seaward. P0 4 -P increased with depth, which is mainly controlled
by biological factors, was consistent with the temperature distribution. Si03 -Si and
P0 4-P in the interstitial water of the Okinawa Trough were much higher than those
in seawater. Their high concentrations in the northern part of the trough were due
to the Kuroshio Current and consistent with the biological distribution in sediments.
A high concentration area in the middle of the trough was related to the nature of
the sediment and the distributions of redox potential and sulphur ion in the area.
XIII. THE THERMODYNAMIC STATE OF CHINA COASTAL WATER
Gu (1976) and Gu and Liu (1976) concluded from field data and lab research of
I, N, Fe and trace metal ions that the oceans are not in an equilibrium state in
nearshore regions, especially near river mouths, where biological activity, movement
of water masses and chemical transformations take place. Once the sea-water is away
from the continental influence, it shifts toward a thermodynamic stable state.
REFERENCES
Cao, Wen-da, 1i, Ming-hon, and Han, Li-jun (1984) "Amino acids on humic substances from Tsingtao
coastal sea water", in Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on Humic Acid Chemistry, pp.
Cao, Wen-da, Oiu, Xiang-quan, Han, Li-jun et of. (1984) "Humic substance in sea water of the East China
Sea and Changjiang River Estuary", in The Annual Meeting off Chinese Society of Oceanology and
Limnology, 1984, Abstract (in Chinese).
Edmond, 1.M., Spivack, A. Grant, B.C.et 01. (1983) "Ole mica I dynamics of the estuary of Changjiang
River", in Proceedings of International Symposium on Sedimentation on the Continental Shelf, With
Special Reference to the East China Sea, Olina Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 251-262.
Gu, Hong-kan (1966) "The maximum in vertical distribution of dissolved oxygen of sea water", Oceanologw
el Limnologia Sillica 8(2), 85-91.
Gu, Hong-kan (1976) "On the thermodynamic equilibrium state of nitrogen cycle in the sea", Studw Marina
Sinica 11, 1-6 (in Chinese, with English abstract).

Gu, Hong-kan (1982a) "Maximum vertical distribution of dissolved oxygen in the Huanghai Sea and its
mechanism", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 1(1),71-76.
Gu, Hong-kan (1982b) "The nitrogen cycle near the estuary of the Yangtze River", Collected Oceanic Works
5(1), 4~66.
Gu, Hong-kan (1991) "Water vapor chemistry ion concentration estimated by Gu's function", in The
Intemational Symposium on Marine Sciences of the Yellow Sea (ISMY-I1 Qingdao), Abstracts, p.3l.
Gu, Hong-kan and Lin, Qing-li (1976) The Distribution of 02' P0 4 -P, Si03 -Si and pH in China Coastal
Sea Water, Special Report, 300pp. (in Chinese).
Gu, Hong-kan and Liu, Ming-xing (1976) "The thermodynamic state of sea water", Studia Marina Sinica
11, 25-32 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, Bao, Wan-you et al. (1978a) "The distribution of some trace metal ions in
China coastal water", Studia Marilla Sinica l3, 1-7 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, Bao, Wan-you et at. (1978b) "On the concentration of trace metal ions in
sea water", Studia Marina Sillica 14, 23-28 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan and Li, Guo-ji (1979) "The nitrogenous and phosphorus compounds in interstitial water of
Jiaozhou Bay", Oceanologia et Limllologia Sinica 10(2),103-111 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan et al. (1982) "The geochemistry of nitrogen in sea water of Jiaozhou Bay", TraIlS. Oceano/.
Limnol. (3), ~17, (4),37-44 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, Li, Gou-ji, et al. (1983) "On the homogeneous distribution of trace metal
ions in natural waters", Kexue Tongbao (Science Bulletin) 17, 1047-1049 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, Li, Gou-ji et al. (1984) "Some trace metal ions in natural waters of
Tianshan Mountain and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau-An evidence of the homogeneous distribution of
trace metal ions in natural waters", Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol. 2(1), 81-87.
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, Li, Gou-ji et al. (1984) "The anomaly of thermodynamics in trace
physicochemical system", Chi. J. Oceano/. Limnol. 2(2), 125-l32.
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, Li, Gou-ji, Bao, Wan-you, and Zhang, Shou-lin (1986) "Original natural
water formed from Zn2+ etc. saturated water vapor", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 5(2), 229-234.
Huang, Shang-gao, Yang, Jia-dong, Ji, Wei-dong, and Chen, Gou-xiang (1983) "Silicon, nitrogen and
phosphorus in the Changjiang River Mouth water", in Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Sedimentation on the C-Ontinental Shelf, with Special Reference to the East China Sea, China
Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 241-250.
Ji, Ming-hou, Cao, Wen-da, and Qiu, Xiang-quan (1982) "Distribution of dissolved carbohydrate in sea
water of Jiaozhou Bay", TraIlS. Oceanoi. LinUIO/. (2),40-44 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Li, Pei-quan, Zhu, Xiao-bin, Wang, Pin-ai, and Yu, Yin-ting (1982) "The content of uranium of sea water
in continental in the East China Sea", Oceanologia et Limno{ogia Sinica l3(6), 514--522 (in Chinese,
Li, Yan, Hu, Zhao-bin, and Zhu, Xiao-bin (1983) "Geochemistry of the interstitial water in the adjacent
sea area to the Changjiang River Estuary", Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 14(5), 460-472 (in
Li, Xu and Gu, Hong-kan (1984) "The 'solubility' of metal ion in water vapor", in The Annual Meeting of
Chinese Society of Oceanology and Limnology, 1984, Abstract (in Chinese).
Liu, Ming-xing and Gu, Hong-kan (1981) "The concentrations of some trace metal ions in interstitial waters
from the East China Sea", Oceaflologia et Limflologia Sinica 12(1),53-60 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Liu, Ming-xing, Zhang, Shou-lin, Li, Gou-ji, and Gu, Hong-kan (1985) "The Sn and Bi forms in sea water
of northwestern Pacific", Acta Oceanologica Sillica 7(2), 181-186 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Ma, Xi-nian, Li, Quan-sheng, Hua, Wen-zheng, and Huang, Hua-rui (1981) "Iron in sea water of Jiaozhou
Bay", Studia Marina Sinica 18,49-71 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Ma, Xi-nian, Li, Quan-sheng, Huang, Hua-rui et al. (1982) "Iron in sea water of the region off Changjiang
River Estuary", Oceanologia et Limnologia Sillica l3(3), 241-253 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Ma, Xi-nian, Li, Quan-sheng, Shen, Wan-ren et al. (1983) "Particulate iron in the cold water region on the
southwest of Chejudao Island", Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 14(3),279-285 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Shen, Zhi-liang, Diao, Huang-xiang, and Zhu, Xiao-bin (1984) "Distribution of silicate and phosphate in
sea water and interstitial water of the sediments in the East Olina Sea", Oceanologia et Limnologia
Sinica 15(3), 214-221 (in Chinese, with English abstract),
Zhang, Shou-lin, Liu, Ming-xing, Li, Gou-ji, and Gu, Hong-kan (1985) "The form distribution of Zn, Cd,
Pb, Cu in surface water of Northwest Pacific and East China Sea", Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica
Special issue (in Chinese, with English abstract).
MARINE CHEMISTRY OF SOUTH CHINA SEA
HAN Wu-ying, LIN Hong-ying, CAl Yan-ya, and RONG Rong-gui

South China Sea IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
Guangzhou 510301, China
In 1978 we started a systematic study of the marine chemistry of the South China
Sea. The book named "Marine Chemistry of the South China Sea" (Han et aL, 1991)
gives a comprehensive summing-up of the study. The present paper concentrates to
the study of carbon flux of the South China Sea.
Carbon is one of the major elements of life, which has a particular position in
ecological cycles and important influence on global environment. Since 1984, the
study of the marine chemistry of the sea has been centered on carbon.
I. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE
In 1986-1987, atmospheric carbon dioxide sampling at 9 stations in Guangzhou,
month by mouth for one year has been conducted (Fig. 1) (Han et al., 1991).
450
E 400
c.
E-
o
0';'
350
Fig. 1. Monthly variation of the atmospheric carbon

dioxide in Guangzhou, 1986-1987. O ---:':-1l----,lJ2-JL--!::2---:'3~4 Month
3001,--5----!-6---,1-7-+S---':g---:JL
1986 1987
Observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide also were conducted in the tropical

waters of West Pacific once a year from 1985 to 1989, in the Lingdingyang (the
estuary of the Zhujiang River) in 1987, and in the waters of Nansha Islands in the
southern South China Sea in 1989.
II. CARBON FLUX MODEL OF THE DAYA BAY
The Daya Bay lies east of the Zhujiang River Mouth near Hongkong. We
171
determined the forms of existence and variations of carbon in the Daya Bay (Han et
ai., 1988a; Cai et ai., 19?), classified carbon reservoirs, and calculated the carbon
reserves in each reservoir (Han et ai., 1990) (Fig. 2). The equation of the seawater
replacement rate and the renewal time in the Daya Bay was established (Han et al,
1986b, 1990b). Results of calculation are listed in Table 1.
1t.-===t" PO
Ie
Fig. 2. Carbon distribution in the Daya Bay. B, Biology; DB, Demersal biota; F, Fishes; IC, Inorganic
carbon; OC, Organic carbon; SS, Surface sediment; P, Phytoplankton; PO, Particulate offal; S, Seawater;
TO, Tidal organisms; Z, Zooplankton. a, Total carbon distribution; b, Organic carbon distribution; c,
Inorganic carbon distribution; d, Organic and inorganic carbon distribution in seawater reselVoir; e,
Organic and inorganic carbon distribution in surface sediment reselVoir; f, Carbon distribution in biota
reselVoir; g, Organic and inorganic carbon distribution in particulate offal reselVoir.
Table 1. Rate of Replacement F and Renewal Time T of the Seawater in the Daya Bay
F T
Season Layer (day)
One month Two months Three months
Upper 0.78 0.99 0.999 9.9
Summer Lower 62
0.32 0.54 0.68
Winter 0.24 0.43 0.57 86
Based on the seawater renewal time and the rate of replacement in the Daya
Bay, we determined the time scale of the carbon reservoir variation and finally set
up a model of the carbon fluxes in the Daya Bay (Han et ai., 1989) (Figs. 3-6).
III. PARAMETERS OF CARBON FLUXES IN ZHUJIANG RIVER ESTUARIES

The Zhujiang (Pearl) River estuaries have different water power conditions from
those in the Daya Bay. The Zhujiang River water, after passing through eight large
Marine Chemistry of South China Sea 173
Capture
r---
I B 0.310
L
I
1 :r 0.638: 0
::; ~ c
;;
'"., g.c
1 Q;
::s M
l\
;.,
~
J
..., ~
n' "
'"'"
'" 1.559
0.507 1 ~ ~
cr
'":!;
~
0
I ::s ~
F
1
1
1___ _
0.63, K
Fig. 3. Daya Bay carbon cycle in spring-summer (x 107 kg).
Capture
1---- - - - -- ------ -
0.150
-------..,
O.455!JIC==------;::=::;:j
I
1 A L I
0.592'1
I I
1
N I J 1M
1.269, I 0.221
I I
1 F I
I 1
0.290 E
----'
Surface deposit sediment
Fig. 4. Daya Bay carbon cycle in summer-autumn (x 107 kg).
mouths, enters the estuaries of Lingdingyang, Modaomen, and Yam en. Owing to the
joint actions of river runoff and the seawater in estuaries, the residence time of
seawater is very short. Since estuaries play an important role in controlling the
material flux through the land-sea boundary, the calculation of flux parameters in the
estuaries is crucial.
First, we established equations for the seawater renewal time and the rate of
replacement in estuaries (Lin et al., 1990). Then used the observation data to
calculate the seawater renewal time and the rate of replacement. Results are listed
in Tables 2 and 3.
Capture
L 1
0.6921
1
N C M
0.151 11.073
1·880 I
I
I o I
1 I
1.043
L __ _ ___1
1
I
0.199 E 0.688 K
Surface deposit sediment
Fig. 5. Daya Bay carbon cycle in autumn-winter (x 107 kg).
Capture
,---
I B 0.267
I
I
I
N
0.7401
I
1
1
sediment
Fig. 6. Daya Bay carbon cycle in winter-spring (X 107 kg).
Table 2. Statistical Renewal Time in Estuaries of the Zhujiang River Mouth
Statistical renewal time (day) Lingdingyang Modaomen Yamen

'T 4.9 1.8 6.8
'T, 56.6 2.8 16.5
'To 5.4 4.8 11.7
'T, and 'To are the statistical renewal time of river water and the outside seawater,
respectively.
Table 3. Rate of Replacement for the Zhujiang River Estuaries
Rate of Lingdingyang Modaomen Yamen

replacement
15 days One month 15 days One month 15 days One month
F 95 99.8 100 100 89 99
F, 23 41 99.5 100 60 84
Fo 94 99.6 96 99.8 72 92
Fr and Fo are the average rate of replacement when the river water and seawater
flow into the estuary and to replace the water, respectively.
After determining distribution and variation of the forms of carbon, we
calculated the transformation rate, and the carbon reserve (Cai and Han, 1990; Cai
et aL, 1990).
Based on the residence time of seawater and the transformation rate of carbon
in estuaries, we obtained the parameters used to indicate the characteristics of the
carbon fluxes in estuaries (Han and Lin, 1990) (Tables 4-7). The transformation
coefficient stands for the transformed fraction of carbon in the estuary. The flux coef-
ficient stands for the ratio of the output from the estuary to the input of runoff. The
residence time is the time of a form of carbon to stay in the reservoir. The change
coefficient expresses the variable fraction of a form of carbon within the time of stay
in the estuary.
Table 4. 'fransformation Coefficient of the River Water in Estuaries (%)
DOC POC PIC L:C02 L:C

Lingdingyang -053 21.43 49.06 3.22 4.3
Modaolllen -2.01 16.09 37.28 -11.94 -9.64
Yalllen 4.32 9.25 22.25 -3.68 -2.49
Table 5. lransformation Coefficient of the Outer Seawater in Estuaries (%)

Lingdingyang -0.26 10.68 24.46 1.6 1.69
Modaomen -2.38 19.01 44.03 -052 -0.50
Yamen 3.89 8.33 20.02 -3.31 -2.93
Table 6. Flux Coefficient in Estuaries (%)

Lingdingyang 101.8 59.6 -21 77 76.4
Modaomen 103.9 82.2 39.2 123.0 119.2
Yalllen 93.5 85.6 69.8 108.9 106.8
IV. THE FLUX MODEL OF THE GENERATIVE KEY ELEMENTS IN THE

SOUTH CHINA SEA
We divided the water of the South China Sea into three homogeneous layers,
the upper, middle, and deep basin layers and established the box model of carbon
and then calculated the fluxes of each generative key element in the South China Sea
(Han and Wang, 1991; Han et aL, 1990; Lin and Han, 1989) (Figs. 7-11).
Table 7. Residence Time and Change Coefficient for the Carbon in Reservoirs of Estuaries
Estuary Carbon form Residence time (tide period) Change coefficient (%)
DOC 0.57
Lingdingyang
pac 64.6 -15.1
PIC 17.1 -57.3
LC02 539.8 -1.8
DOC 2.96
Modaomen
pac 15.6 -22.7
PIC 3.9 -91.2
LC02 15.3
DOC 318.1 -4.3
Yamen
pac 138.2 -9.9
PIC 46.2 -29.6
LC02 4.6
River water River water Precipitation Air-sea interface
v II
; .!l
~
~ I-----I~
~
~
v "
v
E
'0
434
,-----I~
Jl
201
"
0
1 _____
"
0
m
197 163.5
Sediment Sediment
Fig. 7. Phosphorus flux model in the South China Fig. 8. Carbon flux model in the South Olina Sea.
Sea.
The models presented in the paper are still rough and need to be verified and
improved. We are studying the flux of the generative key elements in the South
China Sea, the carbon chemistry in tropical waters of the West Pacific, and the
nutrient dynamics of coral reefs and lagoons.
Air-Sea
River water Precipitation interface
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Mineraliza tion
Respiration
Mineralization
Fig. 9. Dissolved oxygen flux model in the South China Sea.
1;; " c "

~ "
E ~
"
VJ :0 ~
"
~"
VJ
II
II il:;"
----- "
0 0
III 161
47
2700
m
10224
Sediment
Fig. 10. Nitrogen flux model in the South China Fig. 11. Silicon flux model in the South China Sea.
Sea.
REFERENCES
Cai, Yan-ya, Han, Wu-ying (1990) "Organic Carbon in Pearl River Mouth", Marine Environmental Science
9(2),8-13 (in Chinese).
Cai, Yan-Ya, Han, Wu-ying, and Lin, Hong-ying (1989) "Organic carbon in Daya Bay", Environmental
Chemistry 8(5), 1-6 (in Chinese).
Cai, Yan-ya, Han, Wu-ying, and Rong, Rong-gui (1990) "Carbon reserve calculation on the waters of Pearl
River Mouth", Enviro/lmental Science 11(2), 12-17 (in Chinese).

Han, Wu-ying (1990) Carbon Cycle of the Daya Bay and Pearl River Mouth, Science Press, Beijing (in
Chinese).
Han, Wu-ying (1991) Marine Chemistry of the South China Sea, Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese).
Han, Wu-ying, Cai, Yan-ya, and Wu, Lin-xing (1990) "Seawater carbon dioxide system of the Nansha
waters", Marine Science Bulletin 9(1),27-33 (in Chinese).
Han, Wu-ying and Lin, Hong-ying (1990) "Carbon flux in Pearl River estuarine bays", Chin. J. Oceanol.
Limnol. 8(2), 150-157.
Han, Wu-ying, Lin, Hong-ying, and Cai, Yan-ya (1989) "The Carbon cycle in Daya Bay", Chill. J. Oceano/.
Limnol. 7(4),360-367.
Han, Wu-ying, Lin, Hong-ying, and Huang, Xi-nen (1988) "Study on the water exchange of Daya Bay in
Guangdong", Marine Science Bulletin 7(3), 1-6 (in Chinese).
Han, Wu-ying and Ma, Ke-mei (1991) "Seawater mix and exchange characteristics in Daya Bay", Ocean
Science (2), 64-68 (in Chinese).
Han, Wu-ying and Wang, Han-kui (1991) "Study on the NO-N micro-layer in South China Sea", Acta
Oceanologica Sinica 13(2), 200-206 (in Chinese).
Han, Wu-ying, Wang, Han-kui, and Wu, Lin-xing (1988) "The system of carbon dioxide in sea water of
Daya Bay", Environmental Chemistry 7(5), 83-88 (in Chinese).
Lin, Hong-ying and Han, Wu-ying (1989) "Preliminary research on dissolved oxygen maximum of seawater
in low latitude of China", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 8(4), 549-558.
Lin, Hong-ying, Han, Wu-ying, and Ma, Ke-mei (1990) "Preliminary research on water exchange at the
Pearl River estuaries", Chinese Science Bulletin 35(18), 1547-1551.
GEOCHEMISTRY OF MAJOR CHINESE RIVER-ESTUARY
SYSTEMS
ZHANG Jin, HUANG Wei-wen, and LIU Min-guang

Department of Marine Chemistry, Ocean University of QUlgdao
QUlgdao 266003, ChulO
I. INTRODUCTION
The annual seaward water discharge of Chinese rivers accounts for 5% of the world
fresh water flux, but these rivers represent approx. 15%-20% of world seawrads
sediment load. Consequently the adjacent continental shelf is one of the most active
land-sea interaction regions in the world. The geochemistry of some large Chinese
estuaries have been studied in last decade especially within the framework of
international cooperative programs.
The total seaward water discharge of Chinese rivers averages 1.8 X 10 12 m 3ja,
corresponding to the sediment load of 2.0x10 9 t/a (Cheng and Zhao, 1984). The
water and sediment loads of individual rivers are highly variable. For example, the
water and sediment fluxes of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River and Huanghe (Yellow)
River in flood seasons (July-September) may account for 70%-80% of the whole
year's values. Recent studies indicated that the Chinese continent is subject to the
most serious physical and chemical weathering in the world. The sediment yield in
Chinese continent may exceed 5x 103-10 x 103 t/km2· a, the chemical flux of the rivers
in China is higher than that of the Amazon and Zaire and accounts for 15%-20% of
the whole world fresh water load (Zhang et al, 1990a).
The present work summarizes the results of geochemical studies on ten large
Chinese river-estuary systems (Fig. 1) from 19 cruises and pertinent Chinese
publications· during the last decade.
II. RIVER CHEMISTRY

A. Hydrographic Regimes
Table 1 tabulates drainage areas, water and sediment loads of major rivers in
China. These rivers represent altogether 80%-90% of the seaward water discharge
and approx. 95% of the suspended sediment load from the whole country. Drainage
basins of these rivers cover a wide climate zone from the semi-arid temperate to the
humid subtropical zone. Rainfall in these regions ranges from 100-600 mm in the
north to 1600-2000 mm in the south. Rivers in the North China have relatively low
water loads and high sediment concentrations, whereas those from the South China
show abundant water discharges and lower sediment concentrations.
179
© ) 994 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
110" 115" 120" 125" 130"
CHINA
45"
40"
Huanghai Sea
35"
25"
South China Sea
20'
Fig. 1. Map of the East China showing the large Chinese river/estuary systems in this study.
Geochemistry of Major River-Estuary Systems 181
Table 1_ Drainage Areas, Water and Sediment Loads of Large Chinese Rivers a
River Drainage area (km 2) Water discharge (x109 m 3/a) Sediment load (xlOS tla)
Daliaohe 27334 9.4 110
Luanhe 54412 4.2 20
Haihe 264 617 9.6 80.7
Huanghe 752443 41.0 1100
Changjiang 1808500 928.2 500
Qiantangjiang 41700 35.3 6.7
Jiulongj iang 14741 14.7 3.1
Minjiang 60992 58.4 7.5
Hanjiang 34314 29.7 7.5
Zhujiang 442585 316.4 110
a See Fig. 1 for river locations.
B. Heavy Metals
Suspended sediments of large Chinese rivers have relatively low concentrations

of heavy metals compared to polluted river systems in Europe and North America
(Table 2). Variations in element concentrations seldom exceed a factor of two in
individual rivers, although where large variations of water and sediment loads are
high. Differences in heavy metal levels between the rivers are generally within a
factor of five, in spite of variabilities of weathering over the watersheds and of water
and sediment origins. Table 2 reflects the actual situation of large Chinese rivers,
since sediments have close correlations in chemical compositions with rocks/soils over
drainage basins (Qu and Yan, 1990; Zhang et al., 1990b). Comparison with other
large world rivers reveals a general similarity. However suspended sediments from
Chinese rivers may show lower element concentrations than those from polluted
rivers such as the St. Lawrence River (Yeats and Bewers, 1982). Values of Cd, Cr,
Cu, Pb and Zn reported from the Rhine River (Hellmann, 1987) are one order of
magnitude higher than those from Chinese rivers.
Table 2. Heavy Metal Concentrations (p.g/g; Fe, %) in Suspended Sediments from Large Chinese Rivers
River Cd ('..0 Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn
Daliaohe 83.8 93.0 50.7 5.17 1470 171 144 171
Haibe 0.94 89.0 51.9 77.5
Huangbe 0.18 14.0 76.9 26.7 3.72 767 40.3 16.4 69.8
Cbangjiang 0.32 19.0 122.5 62.3 5.2 1109 124.0 50.1 120.2
Qiantangjiang 0.30 161.8 89.3 92.6 76.0
J iulongj iang 0.54 22.7 39.5 5.12 1620 81.0 60.6 228
Minjiang 0.29 37.7 78.8
Zbujiang 0.65 19.0 49.0 5.77 978 60 147
Compared to the solid phases, heavy metals in dissolved phases are still poorly
known. Distributions of dissolved trace metals (Table 3) are generally one or two
orders of magnitude lower than those currently reported by the environmental
monitoring and protection agency. Similar conclusion has been reported from the
Mississippi (Shiller and Boyle, 1987). The low concentrations of heavy metals in large
Chinese rivers can be attributed to: i) the abundant water and sediment loads which
may eliminate the pollution through adsorption and/or dilution; ii) the low intensity
of industrial and domestic activities over the drainage basins, and iii) the high pH
value of the rivers which favors the adsorption and precipitation of oxides and
hydroxides and salts, especially in rivers of high mineralization (e.g., Huanghe).
Table 3. Dissolved 'frace Element Concentrations (nmol/I) in Some Large Chinese Rivers
River Cd Co Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb L
Huanghe 0.Q3 0.30 20 238 25 7.5 0.13 3
Changjiang 0.03 26 327 18.2 0.26 0.9
Minjiang 0.04 14.2 0.63
Jiulongjiang 0.03 0.14 12.6 16.1 1.4 0.07 7.7
C. Nutrient Elements
Concentration of nutrient element in large Chinese rivers (Table 4) are higher
than those from other large world rivers in tropical and sub-tropical zones (e.g.,
Amazon, Zaire and Orinoco) but comparable to those from heavy polluted and/or
eutrophic rivers in Europe and North America (e.g., Rhone, Rhine and Loire, etc.)
(Hellmann, 1987; Meybeck et aL, 1988; our unpublished data). However the simple
comparison between rivers can not provide precise information of contribution from
natural weathering and anthropogenic activities over the watersheds. If one
normalizes the nutrient levels to dissolved silicon (which is nearly free from pollution
and supplied entirely from the weathering and erosion), the Chinese rivers have
similar P/Si and higher N/Si values compared to European polluted and eutrophic
rivers. Elevated nutrient levels in Chinese rivers are attributed to the reclamation and
cultivation (e.g., the use of chemical fertilizers) over the watersheds, since China is
an agricultural country and tillage is the most important anthropogenic activity.
Moreover, the population density over these drainage basins is much higher than
those of other large and less disturbed world rivers.
Table 4. Concentrations (p,mol/I) of Nutrients in Some Large Chinese Rivers
River N03- N02- NH.+ Si0 2 PO/-

Daliaohe 7.5 4.4 12.5 29.3 1.71
Luanhe 66.8 0.2 78.3 0.39
Huanghe 78.9 0.6 159 0.16
Olangjiang 32.9 0.6 14.6 95 0.57
Zhujiallg 62.0 5.8 15.8 150
Qinjiang 5.8 1.2 81.8
III. ESTUARIES
A. Solid Phases
Extensive studies of element compositions associated with suspended sediments
of estuarine systems have been focused on the Huanghe and Changjiang estuaries,
since they are the most important sediment sources to the coastal areas of NW
Pacific Ocean. Results show that most of the particulate elements (including heavy
metals and REE) have stable distributions in the estuaries. This is more evident if
absolute element concentrations are normalized to AI (E/AI) and Sc (E/Sc). The

distribution of particulate elements in these two large Chinese estuaries can be
described as (Zhang et aI., 1990c)
EF- [(Else).j (ElSe) x-LO] xl00%
where the subscript r indicates river, and the subscript e denotes estuary (chlorinity
up to 19%0). Examination of the data reveals that >80% of elements have variations
of EF< 10%-15% over the whole mixing zone. Exceptions are observed for elements
which are major components of sea salts and poorly determined and/or susceptible
to biological productIOn (e.g., CI, Br, Na, Ca, K, Ag and Au, etc.) (Zhang, 1988).
Variabilities of 10%-15% should include uncertainties associated with sampfe
collection and analysis. Such a distribution model of particulate elements is quite
different from the observations from European and North American macrotidal
estuaries, where a general decrease of element concentrations with increase of
chlorinity was found (cf. Zhang, 1988 and references within). This can be attributed
to that: i) the intense tidal dynamic conditions in macrotidal estuaries results in
longer residence time of particles in water column and modifies sediment regimes
through more frequent resuspension-deposition cycles, which will increase the contact
of particles with different water masses and enchance the exchange at water-sediment
interfaces; ii) the trace element mobilizations may be greater in European and North
American estuaries because the labile fraction of particulate trace elements is often
increased by the anthropogenic activities; iii) the biological production is largely
limited in Chinese estuaries due to abundant river sediment load and elevated
turbidity in river effluent plume; sedimentology is of the first importance in
controlling the fate of particulate trace elements, and iv) the predominance of
mineral particles and insignificant pollution in large Chinese rivers lower the
particulate trace element concentrations. It should be kept in mind, however, that a
large portion of these riverine sediments is deposited in coastal areas, which
dramatically decreases the mass balance of large Chinese rivers compared to rivers
draining directly into the open ocean. As an example, approx. 50% of the Changjiang
sediments is deposited in the shallow water «50 m) areas of the estuary, and the net
sediment transport to the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea from Huanghe is limited to
6x10 6 tja (Shen et al., 1986; Zhang, 1988).
B. Dissolved Phases
Dissolved trace elements in large Chinese rivers may have either conservative or
non-conservative distributions or both (Table 5), depending upon the elements and
estuaries (residence time, river stage and in situ biological production, etc.). Co, Cu,
Pb and Zn may have conservative and quasi-conservative distributions in the estuaries
of Changjiang, Minjiang and Jiulongjiang, but non-conservative distributions in the
Huanghe estuary; whereas Cd, Fe, Mn and Ni have non-conservative behaviors in
these estuaries (Edmond et aI., 1985; Li et aI., 1988; Lin et aI., 1989; Elbaz-Pouchet
et al., 1990; our unpublished data). Where non-conservative distributions of dissolved
trace metals are observed, iron may be either remobilized or removed/scavenged
from water column, whereas mobilizations from solid phases is predominant over the
other element distributions. The mobilization of trace elements includes both the
desorption of riverine sediments due to the rise of ion strength in the estuary and the
release from bottom sediments owing to oxidation-reduction cycles and degradation
of organic materials. Flocculation and biological uptake could scavenge trace metals
from dissolved phase. In high turbidity estuaries (e.g., the Huanghe estuary),
however, the desorption of only 5% of particulate trace metals will dramaticalfy
change element regimes in dissolved phases (Zhang, 1988).
Table 5. Features of Dissolved Traee Elements in Some Large Chinese Estuaries
Estuary Cd Co Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn
Huanghe r r r r
Changjiang r c/r s r r c
Minjiang r c c/r
J iulongj iang r c c s r c C
Note: Co conselVative or quasi-conseJV3tive; r, remobilized; s. scavenged.
Similar phenomena have been found for nutrient elements (Table 6). It appears,
however, that river water stages (e.g., dry or flood seasons) and in situ biological
production have important impact on nutrient element distributions in estuaries.
Briefly conservative distribution of nutrient elements was observed in 1984 cruise of
the Huanghe estuary and 1980-1981 cruises in the Changjiang estuary (Edmond et
aI., 1985; Lu et al., 1985), but non-conservative behaviors were found from cruises in
1985 in the Huanghe and cruises of 1986 in the Changjiang estuaries (except for
dissolved SiOz). Nutrient elements behave non-conservatively in the Daliaohe and
Luanhe estuanes, whereas in the Zhujiang estuary dissolved SiOz is conservative, but
nitrite and nitrate are non-conservative (Chen et aI., 1990; Yu, 1990). Remobilizations
of nutrient elements in low salinity regions was observed when the non-conservative
distribution of nutrients occurs in the estuary. This is most likely due to the release
of nutrient elements from solid phases with increase of ion strength, which occurs
geographically within the river effluent plume where high turbidity restrains the
biological production (Zhang, 1988). In high salinity regions (green water), nutrient
elements may become depleted due to their uptake by photosynthetic organisms
(Edmond et al., 1985). Also the decomposition and/or degradation of organic matter
in deep water of estuaries (e.g., the Changjiang estuary) may release nutrient
elements and hence modify nutrient fluxes through estuaries (Zhang, 1988). More-
over, the biological production in Chinese estuaries and coastal areas is most likely
phosphorus limited since the NIP ratios of these rivers are generally great than 16.
Table 6. Behavior of Nutrient Elements in Some Large Chinese Estuaries
Estuary N03 - N02- NH4+ Si0 2 PO/-

Daliaohe n n n n n
Luanhe 11 11 n 11
Huanghe c/n C/11 C/11 c/n
Changjia11g c/n c/n c 11
Zhujia11g n 11 11 C
Note: c, conservative or quasi-conseIVative; n, non-conservative.
C. Speciation and Size Control of Heavy Metals in Estuarine Sediments

Sequential extraction methods have been widely used to specify the chemical
association of heavy metals with sediments. Fig. 2 shows the partitIoning of some
Geochcmistry of Major River-Estuary Systcms 185
heavy metals among different chemical and mineral phases of large Chinese estuarine
sediments. The predominance (~50%-60%) of mineral phases (II + IV) is obvious in
carrying heavy metals to ~hinese coastal areas. Contributions of hydroxides (III) and
organic matter (IV) fractions are higher in southern estuaries (40%-50%) than in
northern estuaries (20%-30%), which is consistent with the weathering features. As
a result of climate control, concentrations of oxides/hydroxides in soils increase from
the north to the south, and the subtropical vegetation is well developed in South
China (Zhang et aL, 1990a). However, uncertainties of sequential extraction may be
large due to the imperfections associated with sample treatment and experimental
parameters, results of Fig. 2 provide only the general trend.
Ye Da Ch Qi Ha Zh
Fig. 2. Speciation of heavy metals (Cu and Pb) in bottom sediments from large Chinese estuaries. See the
text for explanation. I, exchangeable fraction; II, carbonates fraction; III, oxideslhydroxides fraction; IV,
organic matter and sulphide fraction; and V, residual fraction.
Fine sediments (e.g., clay minerals) have elevated element combination capacity
due to their large specific surface energy and lattice characteristics (e.g., defects and
substitution). However, coarse particles (e.g., heavy minerals) in sediments may be
the natural hosts of heavy metals and therefore have high element concentrations.
The currently adopted sediment size separation procedures include sieving (dry and
wet) and deposition following the Stoke's law. These methods may introduce artifacts
since the exact size separation of sieving is 1.0-1.4 (1_21/2 of particulate fraction) and
the Stoke's law applies only to uncharged spherical particles and stagnant water
conditions. Fig. 3 shows the partitioning of some heavy metals in different size
fractions of bottom sediment in some Chinese estuaries (Zhang et ai.,1984;
Zhang,1985; Yu,1990). Heavy metal concentrations in the Daliaohe estuary increase
with the decrease of sediment size, whereas heavy metals may be concentrated in
coarse size fractions of the Huanghe (63-125 /Lm) and Jiulongjiang (> 125 /Lm)
estuaries. Considering the higher labile fractions of heavy metals and more serious
pollution of the Daliaohe, partitioning of heavy metals in this estuary is quite similar
to the polluted Rhine (Hellmann,1987). High concentrations of heavy metals in
coarse sediment fractions from the Jiulongjiang estuary is attributed to the biological
enrichment (Zhang et al.,1984), whereas partitioning pattern of heavy metals in the

Huanghe estuary indicates the contribution of heavy minerals and insignificant
pollution effect.
90
Cu: Jjglg
80
70
60
50
40
30
20:
10
I'm
16-63 4-16 <4

Daliaohe R. Huanghe R. Jiulongjiang R.
110
Pb: Jjglg ~
100
90
80
70
~ ~
60 .---
0
0 ~
r-
.---
30 ~
20
0 I'm
0
16-63 4-16 <4
n
>125 >125 <63
n
<4 > 125 40-125 <40
Daliaohe R. Huanghe R. Jiulongjiang R.
Fig. 3. Partitioning of heavy metals (Cu and Pb) among different size fractions of bottom sediments from
the estuaries of Daliaohe, Huanghe and Jiulongjiang. See text for the data sources.
IV. GENERAL REMARKS
Low concentrations of trace metals and high levels of nutrient elements are
common features of large Chinese river-estuary systems resulted from the intense
agricultural and domestic activities in the country and abundant water and sediment
loads of large Chinese rivers. Extensive tillage over the watersheds introduces
elevated nutrient budgets to the estuaries and has a significant impact upon the
coastal eco-social systems and induces catastrophic events (e.g., phytoplankton
bloom).
In estuarine systems particulate elements have stable distributions against
chlorinity when absolute concentrations were normalized to Al or Sc. This implies the
predominance of sedimentology over the particulate element behaviors in large
Chinese estuaries. However, dissolved species oftrace elements and nutrients in these
estuaries may show either conservative or non-conservative distributions or both,
depending upon elements, river stage and estuaries. Wherever non-conservative
distributions are observed, most trace elements show remobilizations from solid
phases at low chlorinity areas, except for iron which may be either remobilized or
removed from the dissolved phase. When nutrient elements show non-conservative
distributions in the estuary, they are remobilized within river effluent plumes and
depleted in green waters corresponding to the increase of ion strength in upper
estuaries and the biological uptake in lower estuaries. Decomposition of organic
matter may release nutrient elements from solid phases in deep waters and modify
their flux through the estuary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by the China's National Education Commission and Fok
Ying Tung Education Foundation. We thank Drs. 1. Z. Cui, Q. Yu and 1. H. Wang
for the assistance in field and laboratory work.
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a historial view", Water, Air, and Soil Poll. 13, 481-494.
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and coastal areas off Zhejiang Province", Mar. Environ. Sci. 5,34-40 (in Chinese).
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thesis, Shandong ColI. Oceanol., Qingdao (in Chinese).
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Yangtze River)", Ph.D. dissertation, Universite Pierre et Marie Curie (Paris 6), Paris (in French).
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major element transport in two large Chinese rivers (Huanghe and Changjiang)", 1. Geophys. Res. 95,
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metals in the Changjiang (Yangtze River)", Water, Air, and Soil Poll. 52, 57-70.
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Changjiang estuary and the East China Sea", in Guo-hui Yu, J.M. Martin and Jia-yi Zhou (cds.),
Biogeochemical Study of the Changjiang Estuary, China Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 220--240.
Zhang, Jin and Huang, Wei-wen (1993) "Dissolved trace elements of the Huanghe: the most turbid large
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE RADIOCHEMISTRY IN CHINA
LI Pei-quan and YU Yin-ting

QiJlgdao 266071, China
WUYun
Qingdao University
The first study of marine radiochemistry in China was carried out in 1959 in order
to understand the radioactive pollution caused by nuclear weapon tests conducted by
the U.S., USSR and France. Since then investigations of artificial isotopes were
gradually unfolded, and the study of natural radioisotopes was initiated. This chapter
summarizes the development of marine radiochemistry in China during the past three
decades.
I. DISTRIBUTIONS OF RADIOACfIVE ISOTOPES IN SEAWATER AND

SEDIMENTS
Distributions of artificial radioisotopes (9OSr, mCs, gross (3, 3R, 239+ 240pU etc.) in
the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea, the Bohai Sea and the East China Sea (ECS) were
reported by Li, Yu and Yan (1982); Li and Liu (1983); Kang et al. (1984); Li, Zhu
et al. (1987); and Zhao et al. (1988). The data and variation rules of these isotopes
in these waters (Tables 1 to 3) are similar to those obtained in other countries.
Table 2 shows that there was no obvious difference for gross G, 90Sr and mCs
between surface and deep waters. The ratio 137CsfOSr was 0.64 in the surface water
and 0.74 in the deep water. The ratio of 137CsfOSr decreases from 1.88, 1.54 in 1961
and 1962 to 0.64, 0.74 in 1980 and 1981, respectively. This trend indicates the
differentiation of 137Cs and 90Sr in seawater because 137Cs can be combined easily with
suspended material in seawater and preferentially deposit to the sea floor. Fig. 1
shows the annual variation of 90Sr in the water of the East China Sea from 1958 to
1990.
The content of 3H (Table 1) is higher than that reported by foreign scientists. It
may be related to the Chinese nuclear explosion on May 15, 1978. Contents of 90Sr
and Pu in sediments showed 2-3 and 3-4 order of magnitude higher than that in
seawatel? respe~tivelx. The mean C(:llltent of p~ is 1.87 X 10-5 Bq/l in. seaw~ter a~d
7.0xlO-· Bq/g III sedIment. The ratIO Pu/137Cs IS 3.4% (1.4%-9.1%) III sedIment III
the Bohai Bay.
The absorption property of 137Cs in sediments was studied by both direct
determination of its content and modeling the contaminated marine environment by
adding isotopes as tracer (Yin and Liu, 1983). The distribution coefficient of 137Cs
was nearly proportional to the average grain size of the sediments.
189
Table 1. Concentrations of "Sr, 137CS and 'H in the Surface Water of the ECS and Adjacent Areas in 1978
No. of Longitude Latitude Date of Depth 90S r 137Cs 3H

137CsfOSr
station E N sameling ~m} ~Bq/l) ~Bq/l} ~TU)
001 126° 32°30' 5.29 95 5.9 8.6 12.2
003 128° 32°30' 5.30 184 6.3 5.2 0.82
005 128° 31°30' 5.30 147 3.7 5.4 1.11 1.44
007 126° 31°30' 7.2 70 4.4 5.9 1.33 13.2
009 124°15' 30°30' 7.3 53 3.7 5.6 1.50 31.6
010 123°30' 30°30' 7.3 63 4.1 0.2 0.45
011 126° 30°30' 7.2 72 5.6 5.6 1.00
014 129 30°30' 6.30 800 2.9 3.7 1.25
016 126° 29°30' 6.29 1035 5.6 9.4
019 123°15' 29~O' 6.4 59 4.1 6.7 1.64 27
024 128° 28°30' 6.6 1090 4.1 23
025 128°30' 28°30' 6.6 1400 4.8 6.7 1.38 21
026 127°30' 2nO' 6.7 680 4.4 4.4 1.00
027 126° 27°30' 6.7 3.3
029 125°00' 26°28' 6.10 6.3
031 123°00' 26°28' 6.11 5.2 18.2
021 125°01' 28°51' 6.5 6.4
015 128°51' 29°34' 6.30 19.1
030 124°00' 26°34' 6.11 14.4
028 125°57' 26~O' 6.9 14.5
Total mean 4.49 5.35 1.19
Table 2. Concentrations of Gross 8, 90Sr and 137Cs in the Water of the Bohai Sea in 1980 and 1981
Gross f1 (x 10- 2 Bq/L} 90Sr ~XI0-3 Bq/L} 137Cs ~XI0-3 Bq/L}

Date
Surface Bottom Surface Bottom Surface Bottom
August Max. 15.5±2.5 9.2±0.7 11.1±0.7 9.3±1.1 24.4±2.96 11.84±1.48

1980 Min. 5.6±0.70 5.9±1.11 2.96±0.37 5.18±1.8 8.53±0.4 7.4±1.5
Mean 9.3±1.6 8.1±0.9 7.4±0.2 7.4±1.1 12.2±1.7 9.6±1.5
Max. 16.2±1.5 15.2±1.1 12.95±1.1 10.7±1.5 15.5±2.6 11.47±0.03
October Min. 7.7±0.7 6.7±0.7 1.1±0.03 5.6±1.1 7.0±0 6.7±0
1980 8.9±0
Mean 11.1±1.1 10.0±0.9 8.1±0.6 8.5± 1.3 1O.7±1.3
Max. 12.2±1.1 11.47±1.1 1O.4±1.5 1O.0±1.9 17.0±1.9 15.5±0
May 1981 Min. 6.7±0.7 7.0±0.7 4.8±0.4 4.0±1.5 8.5±l.111 7.0±0
Mean 6.7±0.9 8.5±0.9 7.0±0.9 6.7±0.9 .8±1.6 11.1±0
Total mean 9.8±1.2 8.9±0.9 7.4±0.6 7.4±1.1 11.5±1.5 10.0±0.5
Ratio of 137CsfOSr 0.64 (surface) 0.74 (bottom)
Table 3. Contents of Pu in Seawater and Sediment in Some Regions in China Seas in 1984, 1988 and 1991D
Location Pu in seawater Location Pu in sediment

East China Sea 1.97 Bohai Bay 20
Okinawa Trough 1.78 Lower reach of Huanghe R. 4.4
Mean value 1.87 Estuary of Huanghe R. 9.6
Mean Value 7.0
Q
Unit in 10-' Bq/l; after Li. Yan and Yu, 1988; Yan and Liu, 1990; Li and Yu, 1991.
Development of Marine Radiochemistry 191
II. RADIOACI'IVE INVESTIGATION OF EDIBLE MARINE PRODUCT IN CHINA

Investigations showed that almost all edible marine products in China were
contaminated in various extent by artificial radioisotopes (Table 4). But for most
woducts the level of contamination was lower than 3.7 Bq/kg. The level of 90S r and
37Cs was much lower than national standard. Only for a few marine products the
contamination seemed to be serious. The contents of U, Ra, Th were lower than the
Table 4. Contents of Radioisotopes and Some Stable Elements in Marine Organisms from China Seas
OrganisnlS
Nuclide
Crustacean Seaweeds Fish Mollusc
T.U. (Bq/kg) 11.1-15.6 7.9-15.8 5.4-36

'H Arithmetic mean 35-91 17-27 23-36
Geometric mean 66 24 29
He Arithmetic mean 12.8 11.4 12.8

Content (Bq/kg) 0.6-2.87 1.4-11.3 1.8-4.0 0.65-3.2
Arithmetic mean 1.7 7.1 2.9 1.7
K
Geometric Mean 1.5 5.7 2.9 1.4
Ca Content (glkg) 0.29-9.9 0.16-1.5 0.1-2.2 0.1-1.2
Fe Content (mglkg) 13.2-9.9 16-230 8-60 12-258
"Fe Bq!kg 0 0 a-3.3 a-3.1
Bq/kg 0.02-0.81 a-G.81 0.3-3.2 4x 1O-'-7x 10-'
"'Co Arithmetic mean 2x 10-' 2.3 X 10-' 2.7XIO-· 1.3X 10-'
Geometric mean 7x 10-' 5.9xlO-' 2.4 X10-' 4.4xIO-'
Zn Content (mglkg) 7.7-19 1.4-208 4.4-30.00 11-79
MZ n Bq/kg 3.lxlO-· 0-4.5xl0-· a-6xlO-' 0-4.7xlO-·

Arithmetic mean 1.3x 10-' 1.9x 10-' 9xl0-' 1.3xlO-·
Sf Content (mglkg) 1-133 2-43 a-3 0.7-11.6
Bq/kg 3.0xlO-' 1.9x 10-' 1.9x 10-' 4.8X 10-'

"Sf 9.3 X 10-' 2.S 2.3xl0-· 8.SxIo-·
Geometric mean 6.9 12.6 1.9 9.4
I06Ru Bq/kg a-1.22 7XIO-'-1 0-1.1XIO-· 0-8.1xlO-·
H7CS Bq!kg 8.1 x 1O-'-S.6X 10-' 8.lx 1O-'~.7x 10-' 2.0x 10-'-1.24 0-9 X 10-'
Geometric mean 2.4 X 10-' 2.2x 10-' 5.3 X 10-' I.Sx 10-'
I«Ce Bq/kg 0-7.0 X 10-' 0-3 10-3.SX 10-' 0-4.410-'
ZIOpO Bq/kg 0-7.0 X 10-'-3.5 1.3 x 10-'-5.2 3.6-70.3

Geometric mean 1.3 21.5
2lOPb Bq/kg 1.3 X 1O-·-5.6X 10-' 6.3x 1O-·-S.2x 10-' 1.2x 1O-·-S.2x 10-' 4.4x 10-'-2.7
Geometric mean 2.9x 10-' 1.33
"'Ra Bq/kg 0-1.22 8.5x 10-' 0-7 X 10-' 3.5x 10-'
Contents (Jtglkg) 1.3-23 0-58 0.8-5.3 1-110

Th Arithmetic mean 7.0 16.6 2.4 22
Geometric mean 4.0 7.1 2.2 11
Contents (Jtglkg) 0.9-1.3 6.3-22 0-4.8 1.6-49
U Arithmetic mean 3.9 15.3 1.5 14
Geometric mean 2.3 14.S 1.4 9.5
Contents (Bq/kg) 2.2X 1O-'~.7x 10-' 1.2x 1O-'-1.7x 10-' 1.1 X 10-'-1.1 xlO-' 2.9x 1O-},2.3x 10
"'I'u Geometric mean 4.8xlO-'
2.2xlO-'
"Sf S.U. 1.6-64 4.6-99 0.8-18 5.4-160

137CS C.U. 2.~.3 0.18-13 0.2-9.3 0-38
national limits. The contribution of 2lOpo in radioactivity is remarkable, especially for

mollusc whose radioactive level is 70.3 Bq/kg.
48.1
;:J
x
~c- 40.7 ~ Data of difference
'"
~ 33.3
L>
X
E- 25.9
:~ 18.5
o
~ 11.1
3.7 -0-0- Fig. 1. Annual variation of 90Sr in the water of the

1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 Year
East China Sea from 1958 to 1990 (from Li, 1987).
III. THE TRACERS IN OCEANOLOGY STUDY
A. The Determination of Sedimentation Rate with 210Pb Method
The integration method, i.e., the CRS method (constant rate of supply and slope
method) together with the CIC method (constant initial concentration), was applied,
when the sedimentation rate is calculated with 210Pb dating technique (Chen, 1983).
According to the CRS method,
Ai! LA.
e -M _ e v - 1 - __,
LA""
where 2/4i is the total unsupported 210Pb activity from the surface to the depth i and
that 2/4", the sum of unsupported 210Pb in all sediments considered in the experiment.
The sediment depth h=vt if the sedimentation rate is constant.
If we introduce a determining figure into the equation, the sedimentation rate
would be obtained. It is about 1.8 mm/a for core No.3 (Fig. 2). which corresponds
to 0.13 gla·cm 2 (Kang et ai., 1984).
5.0+++ +
+ +
b;, 4.0 ++ +
E 3.0 + + ++ +
$ + +
2.0
.a
p.. +
'8
"
1.0 +
.'Ii
~
0
0
0.5
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Fig. 2. The vertical distribution of 210pb ill core No.

Depth (em) 3 (36°30'N, 121°14.9'E).
For the CIC method,
IgA - -.A.tlge+lgAo
IgA - - A. h/v + 19Ao
It can be seen from Fig. 2 that there are three forms of variation of 210Pb in
sediments, the irregular variation in the surface mixing layer, the regular variation in
the middle disintegration layer, and the background in bottom layer.
Table 5 shows the sedimentation rates and fluxes for four cores in the South
China Sea in 1988.
Table 5. Sedimentation Rates and Fluxes in Cores From the South China Sea in 1988
Location Water Water Dry Sedimenta- Fluxes

Station depth content capacity tion rate (glcm2'a)
E N (m) (%) (g/cm 3) (cm/a)
K3-3 20°27.14' 112°40.53' 68 27.99 1.29 0.36 0.47
K22-4 18°03.28' 110°33.25' 157 36.02 1.09 0.47 0.51
K3-6 21°50.17' 109°20.37' 22 36.95 1.02 0.44 0.45
K31-1 17°16.87' 108°53.52' 27.14 27.14 1.33 0.19 0.26
The determination of sedimentation rate on the continental shelf in the East

China Sea has been carried out by Huang et al. (1983) using the 210Pb dating
technique. The compaction effect always occurred and significantly altered the 2!OPb
activity in the vertical section. So it is necessafrX to consider the problem of
compaction for understanding the distribution of 21 Pb in core and for determining
the sedimentation rate. The in-situ densi~ was used to correct the in-situ depth for
each section. The in-situ density Pi (glcm ) of each section can be defined by
Wdl
p. - - - - " - - - -
I Wd l W w+ Ws
- - + --"----'-
Ps PL
where Pi is plotted against depth D i, and the curve obtained is extrapolated to Di=O.
Po corresponding to Di=O should be the in-situ density of the sediment-water
interface. Thus, a correction coefficient (~;) for the effect of compaction and- salt
dilution for each section can be found by
Ll._P;-Po
I
Po
The corrected thickness for the thickness hi (cm) should be hi(1 +~i)' and the
corrected depth Di should be Di='2.hi+'2.hi~i'
If the sedimentation rate of the sediment-water interface is So (cm/a), the
equation
, D.
In ( 210Pb )A -In( 210Pb ) - J _,
ex' Di ex' 0 S
can be rewritten into
where K is the slope of the straight line of InCZlOPb".)Di' versus D;'. Since the
accumulation fluxes F(g/cm z . a) of the sediment for different Pi should have the same
value, i.e.
once so is achieved, the sedimentation rate S under any compaction states could be
obtained conveniently.
B. Study on Diffusion Rule of Seawater with 60Co as Tracer (Liang, 1980; Li et aL,
1984; Tian and Ye, 1984)
Experiments of diffusion rule of seawater were carried out in 1980-1983.
Radioisotorce 6OCO mixed with red dye or radamine-B was used as tracer. At first,
10-20 mci °Co was put into a 60 L polyethylene tank which was full of seawater or
freshwater with 20%-40% alcohol. Then the solution was discharged carefully on the
surface seawater in instantaneous point source, according to the time of stipulated,
measuring y ray by counter with NaI crystal. The diffusion factor was calculated
based on varying concentration of 6OCO or red dye, and diffusion rule was also found.
The statistic model of turbulent diffusion in horizontal direction for instantaneous
point source is
where Pm is the peak concentration of 60Co in cloud mass; U the mean velocity of
current; t the time; Lx and Ly the mean standard divisions of diffusion distance for
60Co tracer along x and y axes; xo= Ut and yo=O the coordinates of cloud mass center.
It is ~enerally agreed that the square error of diffusion velocity along x and y
directIon is a function of time, so we suppose that there is a relationship among
different parameters (8 u ' 8., m and t) as
where m is a dimensionless parameter; 8u , 8. the diffusion parameters unchangeable

with time (t); Q the content of discharge material or radioactivity of 6OCO isotopes.
Pm and t were obtained based on the experiments completed by Chinese scientists in
different sea areas in China. Then plotting regressive line for 10gPm -logt (Fig. 3) and
computing the correlation coefficient r and the diffusion parameter m.
10'
\ \~ 28
10 \~
29
30
E 1.0
~ • 28
00
o 29
"c
~ A 30
0
u 10- 1
E
"-
10 -2
10
,
Fig. 3. logPm-logt regressive lines for the stations 1 10 10'
in the Liaodong Bay. t (s)
C. Study on Hydrology in Estuaries and Bays Using Uranium as Index
The study on hydrology was carried out by using the concentration of uranium
and 234uj23Su ratio in the Jiulongjiang River and Xiamen Bay, Fujian Province (Xian
and Zhang, 1983). The mixing extent between seawater and river water was studied
with the model of two components in these areas. One component is seawater; the
other component is freshwater. It was concluded that water in the areas consists of
freshwater and seawater. The freshwater contains about 0.24 J-Lg/l uranium in average
with the active ratio of 1.22 in the rainy season. The concentration of uranium and
its ratio in mixed water varies from 1.20 to 2.60 J-Lg/l and from 1.09 to 1.14
respectively. The proportion of freshwater gradually decreased from 69% to 27%
along the estuary bank.
D. Study on the Movement of the Sediment in Sea and River with Radio-Spiked Sand
The transport direction and the lateral and vertical diffusion of clay and sand can
be determined with the radio-spiked sand method (Chen, 1983). Yin et aL (1992)
used 46Sc-labelled traceable sand to study the movement of clay and sand III the
Jiuzhou Port, Zhuhai, Guangdong. Some interesting results were obtained.
IV. THE EVALUATION OF RADIOACfIVE POLLUTION
A. The Survey of Radioactive Pollution in the Seawater off Qingdao
The city Qingdao is located on the western coast of the South Huanghai Sea. The
radioactive pollution in the Qingdao area was studied (Li, 1983, 1984). Analytical
samples included seawater, fish, seaweeds, drinking water, radioactive fallout, milk,
vegetables, and soil. The items of determination were 9OS r, l37Cs, and gross {3.
The contents of 9OSr, l37Cs in seawater off Qingdao (Table 6) were high in 1960
and 1961 because there was a serious atmospheric radioactive fallout caused by
nuclear weapon tests in the USSR. The gross {3 in fallout increased by 10-20 times
in general and 165 times in maximum compared with the background value.
The first and second Chinese atomic bomb tests were conducted in the western
China in October 1964 and May 1965, respectively. The gross {3 in fallout had
increased by 100 times after the fust test and by 765 times after the second. But the
air pollution lasted only for about seven days.
Table 6. Contents of "Sr and 137Cs in Seawater off Qingdao in 1960 and 1961 (in 10-1 Bq/L)
1960 1961
Month 137esrSr 137esfOCs
90S r 137es 90S r 137es
January 7.8 7.7

Febuary 6.8 5.1
March 4.4 16.4 6.2 8.1
April 5.9 12.0 3.2 8.9
May 5.6 16.8 4.6 17.7
June 7.3 9.6 6.5 6.6
July 6.4 7.9
August 6.5 11.3
September 8.9 13.2
October 5.6 9.8
November 6.5 ll.5
December 7.2 12.1
Mean value 6.40 12.0 1.88 5.85 9.02 1.54
B. The Evaluation of Radioactive Pollution in the Bohai Sea
The evaluation of radioactive pollution in the Bohai Sea was carried out in
1980-1981 (FlO, 1983). Factor and standard of the evaluation are shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Factors and Standard of Evaluation in Marine Environment for Some Radioactive Isotopes
Pollution factor Seawater (Bq/kg) Sediments (Bq/mg) Biota (Bq/kg)

2.610-1 2.610+2 25.9
3.7 3.710+3 3.710+2
11 1.1 10+4 1.1 10+3
0.05 4 0.4
9.0
The weighting coefficient of pollution factor K; was found out by "accepted

capacity in environment" for radiOIsotopes.
where
Development or Marine Radiochemistry 197
Co is the standard of evaluation; Cs the basic value (normal content).

In practice, the "mean weighting procedure" was applied. The weighting
coefficient of 9OSr, 137Cs, U, Th and I06Ru was 0.2 for sediment, and that of 9OSr, 137Cs,
U and I06Ru was 0.25 for seawater and biota. The model of evaluation for single
environment factor can be expressed as
II
P k -P IKI +P2K2 +······+PnKi l -Ep.K.

II
i-I
where P k is the synthetic pollution exponent; Pi the pollution exponent for single
pollution factor (C/Co); K j the weighting coefficient for single pollution factor.
The model of totaf evaluation for seawater, sediment and bIOta can be expressed
as
P total - Ks .w . p •.w . + Ksed. PsM. + Kbio. P bio.
where P lotal denotes the pollution exponent; K the weighting coefficient; subscripts
total, S.W., sed. and bio. denote seawater, sediment and biota, respectively. In
practice, K s.w ., K sed . and K bio . equal to 30%, 20% and 50%, respectively.
Finally, the evaluation of environmental quality was made by classifying the total
pollution exponent. It was indicated that the radioactive contamination was not
serious in the Bohai Sea. Its total pollution exponent fluctuated from 1.3 to 1.6
(x 10-2 ) and may be classified into the "clear" class.
C. Study on the Derived Limit Concentration of Radionuclide in Seawater
It is important to understand the limited concentration of radionuclides in
seawater for public health and environmental protection. The assessment model for
the dose equivalent of the radioactive materials disposed into the sea and received
by public individuals via various route were put forward by Wang et al. (1985). The
differential equations describing the kinematic behavior of radionuclides in marine
environment are derived. The Derived Limit Concentration (DLC) of 90 radio-
nuclides in seawater is calculated for the equilibrium condition. Local fishermen
served as the critical group, one third of yearly dose equivalent limit for these
individuals (i.e., 1.7 mSv/a) is taken as dose limit in the ocean which is polluted by
radionuclides.
V. ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR ISOTOPES IN THE SEA
A. The Determination of Isotopes in Seawater

The determination of the gross {3 radioactivity in seawater (Li and Li, 1978) was
carried out by using the fallout as an isotopic tracer and with Barium chloride-ferric
ammonium alum as the concentrator. The recovery rate varies with the changes of
pH, and the optimum value of pH is 0.6-7.8. Heating increases the rate of recovery
obviously, and 2-6 hours of settling after boiling give a recovery of 95%. A recovery
rate of 88% was obtained at the addition of 0.5-10 mg Fe and 2.5-10 mg Ba was
suitable.
Analytical methods used in carbonate di (2-ethylhexy) extraction with phosphoric
acid in methylbenzene solution, preparation of the source with strotium oxalate, then
90y {3 ray detecting.

For 137Cs in seawater, ammonium phosphmolybdate deposition (AMP method).
For U in seawater, a-nitroscrj3-naphthol coprecipitation, showing color with
arsenazo III, then colorimetric analysis.
The analysis procedure of Pu in seawater and sediment has been established by
Yan and Liu (1990). Pu in seawater is concentrated with the coprecipitation of
hydroxides of calcium and magnesium. The Pu is separated and purified by the
extraction-chromatography column of TOA-silicon white carrier. The column is
washed with 10 mol/l HCl and 3 mol/l HN0 3 • Finally Pu is electro-deposited in a
stainless steel plate and is measured by a low-background alpha counter or alpha
spectrometer. The decontamination factors of important nuclide measured by using
this method are over 104 • The rate of recovery for Pu in seawater in 50 L seawater
is over 69%. The lowest detection limit is 6.5 X 1010-6 Bq/l. If the sediment sample
is analyzed, the sediment is first dissolved with RN0 3, the filtrate is extracted from
the solution. Pu of the filtrate is analyzed by the above-mentioned procedure.
B. The Determination of Isotopes in Sediments
A study of the direct determination of five isotopes in seawater was carried out
with 8180-4K Ge (Li) y spectrometer in 1982 (Li et ai., 1983; Li and Zhao, 1983).
The mixed standard radioactive source was made with standard source of U, U-Ra.
Th, KCI and 137Cs produced in China. The form of the source is annular with a
volume of 450 ml and weight of 450 g. Compositions of the standard source shown
in Table 8.
Table 8. The Intensity or Standard Source Series
Source standard Content of componcnt Amount Specific intcnsity of Relative

(gig) added annular standard standard
~g~ source ~g/g) error
U ore power U:(0.106±0.OO2) x lO-2 15 2.94xlO- 5 ±3
Th ore Th:(0.063±0.021 x lO-2 15 1.75xl0-5 ±3
power-Ra ore U:(0.OO62±0.OO )xlO- 2 15 1.72 x lO-5 ±2
power Ra:2.000xlO- lo .56x 10- 2 ±2
KCI K:0.523 40 3.89xlO- 2 ±2
137Cs solution 41.44 dpm/mg 0.962 3.33 x lO-11 ci/g ±3
The energy spectra adapted are 93 ke V (UX1), 352 ke V (Ra B), 238.6 (Th B),
662 keY, and 1460.8 keY, respectively. The peak area is calculated with the total
peak area method.
where Land h represent the counts on channel No. i in the region of channel i and
background channels on each side of the peak, respectively. This method is rapid and
accurate enough in determining the radioactivity of sediments.
The determination methods for gross {3, 6OCO, i37Cs, 9OS r, 226Ra, U, Th, 3R, Pu etc.
were summarized by EGRI (1983). The national standard analytical method for
radioisotopes in ocean was published in 1979 (SOA, 1979). The book "Standard
Method for Marine Pollution SUlvey" was fublished in 1991 (SOA, 1991) in order to
insure the consistency of data taken by al research institutions in China.
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Oceano!. Limnol. (3), 33-37.
Chen, Jin-xing (1985) "The application of radio-spiked sand on the research of mud and sand movement",
Trails. Oceano/. Limnol. (2),72-77.
EGRI (Editorial Group of Radioactive Investigation in Marine Edible Product) (1983) Radioactive
Investigation of Marine Edible Product, Atomic Energy Press, Beijing, pp. 1-303.
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1-8l.
Huang, Yi-pu, Shi, Wen-yuan, and Chen, We-qi et al. (1983) "Determination of sedimentation rates of
continental shelf in the East China Sea using 210pb dating technique", in Proceedings of International
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Kang, Xing-Iun, Yuan, Yi, Li, Pei-quan, and Lu Guang-shan (1984) "The determination of 3H in the East
China Sea", Marille Science (4),20-22.
Li, Feng-ye (1988) "Determination of resent sedimentation rates by 210pb method in the South China Sea",
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Li, Pei-quan (1984) "The air deposits in Tsingtao region after the Chinese second nuclear explosion" Trans.
Oceanol. Limno/. (4),67-72.
Li, Pei-quan (1987) "The advance of marine radiochemical studies in China", Advance in Science o/China,
Earth Sciences 2, 95-115.
Li, Pei-quan and Li, Jin-ling (1978) "A study of the method of the determination of the gross beta
radioactivity in sea water with barium chloride-ferric ammonium Alum", Oceanologio et Limnologia
Sillica 9(1), 43-48.
Li, Pei-quan and Li, Jin-Iing (1981) "The determination of 90Sr and gross beta in surface seawater in
Chinese ('..oasts", Oceanologia et Limll%gia Sillica 12(4),332-340.
Li, Pei-quan and Liu, Zhi-he (1990) "The determination of radioisotopes in surface sediment from lower
reach and estuary of Huanghe River", Marine Science (5), 39-42.
Li, Pei-quan, Liu, Zhi-he, and Lu, Guang-shan et a/. (1983) "Determinations of U, Ra, Th, 40J( and 137Cs
in the surface sediments in the offshore area of western Bohai Sea with Ge (Li) y spectrometer",
Oceall%gia et Limnologia Sillica 14(4),334-341.
Li, Pei-quan, Liu, Zhi-he, Lu, Guang-shan, and Su, Xie-ming (1984) "The geochemical studies of U, Th,
Ra, 4°K in sediment of Okinawa Trough", Oceallologio et limllologio Sinica 15(6),357-366.
Li, Pei-quan, Yan, Qi-min, and Yu, Yin-ting (1988) "The determination of Pu in surface seawater of
Okinawa Trough and East China Sea", Marine Science (3), 43-46.
Li, Pei-quan and Yu, Yin-ting (1991) "Concentration of Pu in surface sediment in lower reach and estuary
of l-luanghe River", Marine Sciellce (1), 47-5l.
Li, rci-quan, Yu, Yin-ting, and Yuan, Yi (1982) "The contents of strontium V 90 in surface seawater in
East China Sca and its adjacent region", TraIlS. Oceallo/. Limllo/. (3), 18-22.
Li, Pei-quan, Zhao, Fa-gao, and Ren, Guang-fa et al. (1984) "A study on diffusion rule of sea water in
Bohai Sea", Oceallologia et Limllologia Sillica 15(2), 126-135.
Li, Pci-quan, Zhu, Xiao-bin, Wang, Pin-ai, and Yu, Yin-ting (1982) "The content of uranium of sea water
in continental shelf in East China Sea", Oceallologia et Lillmologia Sinica 13(6),514-522.
Li, Shu-qing, and Zhu, Hang-min et al. (1987) Radiation Lever in China Coast, China Ocean Press, Beijing,
pp. 1-211.
Ling, Bei-bei (1980) "A study of the laws of small-scale horizontal turbulent diffusion near the Chinese
coastal areas", Oceallologia et /imllologio Sillica 11(1), 1-12.
Liu, Zhi-he and Zhao, Shu-qian (1983) "The measurment of 137Cs, 4"1<:, U, Ra, Th in sediment with Ge (Li)
y sepectrometer", Marine Sciece (1),24-27.
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Beijing, pp. 341-43l.
SOA (State Oceanic Administration) (1991) Standard Method for Marine Pollution Survey, China Ocean
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Sunjito, Zhao, Shu-quan, and Yang, Xiao-mei (1982) "Hydrochloric acid reflux method for extraction of
caesium-I37 from sediment and soil",1. of Marine Science (6),25-626.
Tian, Wu-xun and Ye, Zhong-xian (1984) "Determination of radioactive dilution factor of seawater and
study of methods", Marine Science (4), 23-26.
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derived limit concentration of radionuclides in seawater", Oceanologw et limnologw Sinica 16(4),
284-297.
Xian, Ming and Zhang, Cheng-hui (1983) "Uranium concentration and 234U;mU disequilibrium in water
as an aid to hydrologic study of the Xiamen Bay", Marine Science (I), 1-5.
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Qi'ao island upon the siltation in ship channel in the Zhuhai Jiuzhou Port", Oceanologw et Limnologia
Sillica 23(3),260-263.
Yin, Yi and Liu, Guan-zhang (1983) "A preliminary study of 131es adsorption by offshore sediments",
Marille Science (I), 18-20.
Yan, Qi-min, and Liu, Shou-sou (1990) "Determination of plutonium in environmental water", in China
Nuclear Science and Technology Report, Atomic Energy Publishing House, Beijing, p.p. 1-8.
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BIOGEOCHEMICAL STUDIES OF BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT
ELEMENTS IN THE TAIWAN STRAIT
HONG Hua-sheng and DAI Ming-han

Environmental Science Research Center, Xiamen University
Xiamell 361005, China
I. INTRODUCTION
The Taiwan Strait, as "sea corridor", connects the South China Sea to the East China
Sea. It is within the subtropical SW to NE trade-wind belt. The most distinctive
characteristic of this region is seasonal monsoons, which lead to the major differences
in water masses, circulation and chemical fluxes. Due to the wind stress and the
interaction of bottom topography with currents, upwellings are induced near the
shore and near the shelf-break. Upwelling stimulates biological production and
supports the fisheries. The seasonal forcing of physical and biological cycles in this
subtropical region leads to major variation in chemical distribution and makes this
region an unique environment for marine biogeochemical studies. In this paper, the
biogeochemical features of biologically important elements in Taiwan Strait region
are summarized mainly based on the studies by Chinese scientists in 1983-1988.
II. METEOROLOGICAL AND HYDROGRAPHIC FEATURES
A. Monsoons
Prevailing winds in the Taiwan Strait from October through February are from
the northeast. They bring the cold and dry continental air from the northern Asia.
From June through August, the prevailing winds are from the southwest and
southeast, which transport moist oceanic air from the western equatorial Pacific and
the eastern Indian oceans. May and September are months of transition. The reversal
of wind patterns may modify the circulation of waters, producing a large seasonal
variation in rainfall and, consequently change river discharge which provides the
source of nutrients from the land. Several aspects of the seasonal variation associated
with monsoons are summarized in Fig. 1.
B. Currents
The seasonal variation of currents in the Taiwan Strait is significant. Three
current systems have obvious influence on the circulation of the strait: the China
Coastal Current, South China Sea Current, and a branch of the Kuroshio (Wu, 1984).
In the winter time, surface currents flow southwestward when the NE monsoon
201
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 1,201-212.
is strongest, particularly a coastal flow from the north to the southwest along the
shore of ZheJiang-Fujian in winter. Kuroshio waters do flow into the Taiwan Strait,
although the process is still controversial (Wang and Chen, 1988). Therefore, the
hydro~raphy in the Taiwan Strait during the winter is influenced mainly by multiple
intrusIOn events from the China coastal water and Kuroshio surface water.
In summer, with the action of SW monsoon, the entire strait is under the control
of the northeastward flow. The Taiwan Strait Warm Current (TSWW), which consists
of the South China Sea Warm Water and the offshoot of Kuroshio Water, constantly
flows northeastward throughout the year (Guan, 1978; Su and Wang, 1987).
! J I F ,M ,A I M I J I J I A I S ,O,N I D,
I N.ENE I Is.wswl IN.ENEI
100 ," a
" I I
);< 80 I I I
... 60
I I I
~
u Ii
I
~ 40 I
~
.. 20
0
I
20 I b
I
~ I I
15 I---j
..... 10
.s 5
~
oL-·~-L~~L-~~-L-LJ
:: 800
........ 700
"8 600
-; 500
..: 400
""' 300 Fig. 1. Seasonal variations associated with the
:; 200 monsoon cycle. (a) Average frequency with
.~ 100 prevailing wind direction at Dongsan from 1954 to
0:: I
o 1980; (b) Average monthly rainfall at Xiamen from
,J,F,M,A,M,J,J,A,S,O,N,D, 1954 to 1976; (c) Average river flux of Jiulong
Month River from 1950 to 1970.
C. Upwellings
Evidences of upwelling are observed in the Taiwan Strait. The most effective
factor in the production of upwelling is the summer monsoon from the southwest,
which blows along the coastline. Upwelling is observed between the Xiamen-Shantou
coast and in the eastern side of Haitan Island (Chen et ai., 1982). These upwellings
are principally dependent upon the surface winds driving Ekman pumping in summer
(Cal and Lennon, 1988). The bottom topography of the Taiwan Strait is complicated.
The shelf edge off the southern strait drops sharply from 50 m to 2000 m. There are
many canyons and gullies between the Taiwan and Penghu Islands. The current from
the South China Sea flowing northward through the canyons may induce ascending
motion. Upwelling was observed within a few miles off the Penghu Island, but the
Biogeochemical Studies of Biologically Important Elements 203
centre of the upwelling was found to shift with seasons (Hung et al., 1986).
The Taiwan Bank defined by the 36 m isobath consists of hundreds of sand bars
and reefs, with the shallowest site less than 8 m. Upwelling is observed at the south
of the bank where strong northward current interacts with the shallow bank bottom
(Hong et al., 1991). An oceanic front north of Taiwan appears to be the result of
topographically forced upwelling of Kuroshio water (Lin and Pai, 1987).
III. SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF NUTRIENTS AND OXYGEN
In this part, we will focus on the seasonal variation of nutrients and dissolved
oxygen influenced by various types of water under the monsoon in the central and
northern part of the strait (Chen and Zhang, 1992).
A. Winter (January to March)
During the winter time, northeastern monsoon prevails within the strait, thus the
Zhejiang-Fujian Coastal Water (ZFCW) with rich nutrients and high dissolved oxygen
flows southward along the coast and plays an crucial role on chemical distributions.
In January, water with high dissolved oxygen and nutrients expands to near the centre
of the strait. Concentrations of nutrients and dissolved oxygen decrease from the west
to the east and from the north to the south with a highest value at the mouth of the
Minjiang River estuary where the concentration of nitrate was 20.9 /Lmol in the
surface layer and 17.0 /Lmol at the bottom (Fig. 2). In February, water rich in
nutrients and oxygen continuously expands southwest, and contents of nutrients as
well as dissolved oxygen reach their annual highest values, being 0.55 /Lmol for PO/-;
20.1 /Lmol for Si0 34 -; and 9.1 /Lmol for N0 3 -, respectively. The chemical distribution
in March is quite similar to that in January. This indicates that the ZFCW does have
a dominant influence in the wintertime from December to March. Its effect
strengthens at first, peaks in February, and then starts to decrease in March.
Although ZFCW surely controls the chemical distribution, the influence of
TSWW cannot be ignored in winter. It is observed that a tongue with relatively high
temperature, high salinity, low dissolved oxygen and poor nutrients (less than 2.0
/Lmol and 0.2 /Lmol for N0 3 - and PO/- respectively and about 2.0 /Lmol for Si034 -)
expands northeastward, reaching 24°45'N at the surface and 25°00'N at the bottom
in January (Fig. 2). The influence of TSWW decreases further in February when
ZFCW gets the most control. In March, TSWW surface tongue migrates again
beyond 25°00'N, indicating that TSWW starts to strengthen from March when the
influence of ZFCW begins to diminish. Unlike the areas influenced by ZFCW,
regions controlled by TSWW are characterized by low nutrients.
B. Spring (April to June)
Spring is the season when the southwest wind is replaced by the northeast wind.
The TSWW with high temperature, high salinity, low nutrients and dissolved oxygen
gradually strengthens and controls the southeastern part of the strait (Fig. 3). The
area with low nutrients expands further northwestward in May, the effect of TSWW
consolidates with month. ZFCW still has a considerable influence on the western
coast in April. In May, however, the water with hi~her dissolved oxygen and nutrients
only exits in a small region near the Minjiang RIVer estuary, while the influence of
ZFCW obviously decreases. In June, the influence of ZFCW disappears completely.
26· N
25· 25·
Taiwan
121"E
26·N 26· N
")\~.l
Q '-' ,~ ~.
\<5.2
-6.0
25" 25·
~u~
«>
I
/,<:~\ Taiwan
j\ /'
120· 121"E
26· N 26"'N
J
6 f{
Fujian
/Q.b, "'~
///;' ( < 0.2
25·
~"'~~J Taiwan
Fig. 2. Surface distributions at the central and northem part of the Taiwan Strait in January 1983. (a)
Salinity (%); (b) Temperalure (0C); (c) Oxygen (ml!l); (d) NO/- (p.mol); (e) P0 44-(p.mol); (t) Si0 34 -
(p.mQI) (from Chen and Zhang, 1989).
c. Summer (July to September)

With the northeastern monsoon abating from June, the effect of ZFCW becomes
weaker and weaker, whereas southwest wino strenghtens and leads to the dominant
Biogeochemical Studies of Biologically] mportant Elements 205
influence of TSWW in the strait. Since TSWW is characterized by a water mass with
high temperature, high salinity, poor nutrients and low concentration of dissolved
oxygen, the values of nutrients and oxygen of the areas are the lowest of the year.
26°N
25°
121°E 119° 120° 121°E
/ ,g~f
26°N
Fupan
7"q
~"
< 0.2
25°
Taiwan
Fig. 3. Surface distributions at the central and northern part of the Taiwan Strait in April 1983. (a) Salinity
(%); (b) Temperature ("C); (c) Oxygen (ml/l); (d) NO/, (p.mol); (e) pot (!Lmol); (f) SiO/" (!LillO I) (from
Chen and Zhang, 1989).
121°E
Taiwan
121°E 121°E
26"N
d
25°
Taiwan
121°E 121"E
26° N
25°
Tai waD
Fig. 4. Surface distributions at the central and northem part of the Taiwan Strait in July 1983. (a) Salinity
(%); (b) Temperature (0C); (c) Oxygen (ml/l); (d) NO/- (!.tmol); (e) PO/- (!.tmol); (f) Si034- (!.tmol) (from
Chen and Zhang, 1989).
Their average values are 4.6 ml/l for Oz, 1.49 J.Lmol for N0 3 - and 0.13 J.Lmol for
PO/-, respectively. The high bioactivity in summer also causes the low nutrient
values, basically because the consumption rate of nutrients by the phytoplankton is
higher than the replenishment rate by water circulation, especially at the surface (Fig. 4).
D. Autumn (October to December)
Autumn is the NE-SW reversal time of the monsoon. With a long transient of
northwest wind, ZFCW begins to affect the strait again (Fig. 5). Its influence streng-
120" 121"E
26"N 26"N
Q\ t~·
25" 25" / ) \ q,
Tai w an Taiwan
120" 121"E
26"N
,f <f / '--5 .6.......... c
<O.~. '"
/ / "". "'
0
Fujian
1
'\ (5. 2""

25" ) \ < 5.2
~l· '" "

< 5.2
Taiwan Tai w an
Taiwan Taiwan
Fig. 5. Surface distributions at the central and northern part of the Taiwan Strait in October 1983. (a)
Salinity (%); (b) Temperature (0C); (c) Oxygen (ml/l); (d) NO/ (!Lmol); (e) PO/" (!Lmol); (t) SiO/" (}Lmol)
(from Chen and Zhang, 1989).
thens with time. At the same time, TSWW constantly flows northward at the bottom,
occasionally in the middle layer, and influences the eastern and southern parts of the
region. Under this circulation, the chemical distribution are rather similar to that of
Spring. Owing to the influx of ZFCW, and the vertical mixting, contents of nutrients
(4.3lLmol for N0 3 -, 0.251Lmol for PO/- and 7.241Lmol for SiO/-) are much greater
than that in summer, although there is a phytoplankton peak in Fall.
In summary, seasonal shift of currents are determined by monsoons, and the
seasonal variations of chemical distribution are mainly subject to the influences of
TSWW and ZFCW, as well as to bioactivity.
IV. CHEMICAL DISTRIBUTION RELATED TO UPWELLINGS
Upwellings bring cold water with high contents of nutrients from subsurface into
the surface layer. Areas of upwellings are marked at the surface by high biological
productivity because of the rich supply of nutrient elements. Therefore, upwellings
may induce horizontal anomalies in the distributions of physical, chemical and
biological parameters that normally give vertical gradients.
From the study of Hung et aL (1986), anomalous salinity, temperature and
nutrients were observed in a series of vertical sections which showed evidences for
seasonal variation of upwelling. For instance, the vertical section of a station line
along 119°30'E, 23°30'-22°N obtained in August, 1985 clearly indicated that cool
waters with relatively high salinity and high concentration of phosphate and nitrate
intruded upward a few miles off the southern coast of the Penghu Island. At edges
of the upwelling, the biological activity, showed as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ,
increased due to the continuous supply of nutrients (Hung et at., 1987). In an
upwelling ecosystem study at the southern Taiwan Strait, the horizontal profiles of
hydrographical and chemical distributions during the period from December, 1987
to Norvember, 1988 presented clear evidences of upwelling near the shore and south
of the Taiwan Bank. We will take Ca and P as examples to briefly discuss the
distributional characteristics of chemical elements within the upwelling regions.
1) Ca. Ca usually has a constant ratio with salinity. The content of Ca in seawater
often increase with the distance away from the shore. In the upwelling region,
concentration of Ca is in the range of 339-500 lLg/g. It showed significant linear
relationship with salinity. The regression equations is
ea (lLg/g) =63.7+ lOo4xS% (r=00454, n=383)
However, the horizontal distributions of Ca In July and November, 1988 are quite
different (Fig. 6). In November, 1988, Ca showed a normal distributional pattern with
low values near the shore and increased offshore with salinity. The contours are
parellel to the coastline. On the contrary, during the upwelling event in July, 1988, higher
value of Ca was observed along the shore and decreased offshore (Hong, et aL, 1991).
2) Phosphorus. The upwelling is characterized first by the nutrient-rich water that
is brought into the surface layer from deeper layer. The upwelling must have direct
relationship with nutrients. In the upwelling ecosystem study, several phosphorus
species were measured during cruises from December, 1987 to Norvember, 1988 (Dai
et at., 1991). A significant feature of phosphorus in this region is the relatively high
dissolved organic P and its percentage (45%) to the total phosphorus (TP), which
might be attributed to the dramatic biological activity in this upwelling region. In
principle, nutrients are enriched near the shore and decreases when move away
offshore. In most seasons at the southeastern part of the Taiwan Strait, data did show
such a pattern. The distribution of TP in Dec. 1987 also illustrates the input by
Biogeochcmical Studics of Uiologically Important Elcmcnts 209
ZFCW (Fig. 7a). However, in July-September, when upwelling waters steadily

occured both near the coast and at the shelf break, two zones of high TP values
appear (Fig. 7b), which verifies the influence of upelling on the TP distribution.
116' 118' 119' 120' 116' 118' 119' 120'
24'
23' 23'
22'
Fig. 6. Horizontal distributions of Ca in the southern Taiwan Strait surface water (a) in November and (b)
in July, 1988.
116' 117' 118' 119' 120' 116' 118' 119' 120'
22'
b
Fujian Fujian
24'
----\.\
l; 'V _ _\.() Jlj?, Jl,?_
~O.9"'"
~.8_
~h
~~~
22' O.3~ 22'
Fig. 7. Horizontal distribution of total phosphorus (!Lmol) in the southern Taiwan Strait surface water (a)
in December and (b) August, 1988.
V. CHEMICAL DISTRIBUTION RELATED TO BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
A. Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC)
It was suggested that the fraction of primary production which is lost as DOC is
at least 10%, and DOC provides the main substate for bacterial growth in the ocean.
Variation in DOC concentration may represent a shift in carbon storage which is
larger than the standing crop of detrital particulate carbon and living biomass.
Therefore, DOC may contribute important role to carbon cycling in the seawater
which we poorly understand yet. In the following we will present the priliminary
results about the seasonal variation of DOC and its relationship with biological
activity in the southern Taiwan Strait (Hong and Yao, 1991).
By using the K 2S20 S wet combustion method, the measured DOC is averagely
3.06± 1.96 mg/l in this area, which is about three times as much as that of the world
ocean (1.33 mg/l)(Romankevich, 1984). This relatively high concentration of DOC
probably implies the strong bioactivity in this upwelling region, as we know a large
fraction of DOC is biological origin. It must be point out that the bacterial biomass
(BB) is also relatively high with annual average value of 16.9 mgC/m3 and the average
values is the highest (22.~ ~gC/m3) in July. ~ negative c~rrelation was found as
Dbc- 0040BB+4o47 (r- -004562, p-0.01).
At most locations, large biomass of phytoplankton is also observed at the surface
layer of 10-30 m, where DOC showed maximum (Fig. 8). From above observations
we might argue that the vertical distribution of Dbc are, in some cases, controlled
by bacterio-phytoplankton activity. In the horizontal direction, DOC distribution is
influenced by water circulation and biological activity. A very crucial feature is that
at the central zone of upwelling, a low content of DOC exits, while a high value is
obtained at the edge of upwelling centre. This phenomenon is quite in agreement
with other authors' finding in upwelling studies.
0 200 400 600 800

0
10
~20 ~20
.c .c
0.. 0..
Q 30 Q 30
40 40
Fig. 8. Vertical distribution of dissolved organic
carbon (DOC) and bacterial biomass (BB) at sta- BB DOC DOC BB
tion 117°E, 22SN. (a) April, 1988; (b) July, 1988. 50"--_ _ _ _--' 50
B. Particulate Organic Carbon (POC)
The particulate organic carbon represents both living (e.g., phytoplankton and
zooplankton cells) and nonliving (organic detritus including the newly dead
organisms) suspended particulates in natural waters. Basically, the concentration of
POC at any given location and in certain season is influenced by the amounts of
phytoplankton and detritus. Table 1 shows the POC as well as PON (organic
particulate nitrigen) contents obtained in the southern Taiwan Strait and in
comparison with the results of other studies.
l'lblc 1. poc Contcnts in the Southcrn Tlliwan Strait and in Somc Other Rcgions
Location POC (mgC'fi) PON (mgN/I) Reference
Southem Taiwan Strait 0.144+0.082 0.013+0.010 Hong & Guo, 1991
Southwest off Taiwan 0.154+0.029 Hung et al., 1986
Southwest off Taiwan 0.116+0.046 Hung et al., 1987
Northwest Africa upwelling 0.082-0.195 0.011-0.031 Alcaraz et aI., 1985
Southern Pacific Ocean 0.144 0.021 Tregner et al., 1988
If we consider part of the living POC in seawater composed of phytoplankton,

the contribution of phytoplankton carbon could be estimated from chla times a factor
ranging from 25 to 250, depending on the environmental conditions. When this
product is subtracted from the total POC, it gives the non-living particulate detris as
POC (detritus).
A regression equation: POC= 125.7+ 18.6xChl-a (n=258, r=0.2126) is obtained
in this region. Obviously, POC in the southern Taiwan Strait is mostly composed of
detritus. As a whole, there are 86% of non-living and 14% of living organic carbon
in total POC, respectively (Hong and Gao, 1991). The study by Hung et al. (1987)
along the southwestern coast of Taiwan, including the Penghu coastal area, found the
percentage of living organic carbon ranging from 16%-63%, whereas nonliving
organic carbon rangin~ from 0.2% to 86.4% in total POC, and the percentage varied
with season and locatIon.
C. Residence Time of Organic Carbon

As POC is only 5.8% of the total organic carbon, in the following discussion, we
may only tentatively estimate the residence time of dissolved organic carbon in the
photic layer in the southern Taiwan Strait.
The surface area is considered of 7.59x104 km 2 and the mean depth of photic
layer is 30 m. Input means is used to calculate the residence time, the major Inputs
considered are by photosynthesis, by upwelling and by river inputs (Table 2),
assuming that other inputs such as by atmosphere etc. are negligible (Stumm and
Morgan, 1981). The average concentration of DOC in the photic layer is 3.20 mgC/I,
the total amounts of dissolved organic carbon of the photic layer calaulated is
7.70 x 1015 mgc. Thus the residence time of DOC in the photic layer equals to the
total amounts divided by the sum of input, resulted in a value of 1.04 years, which
shows that organic carbon cycling in the studied region is much faster than that in the
world ocean where the residence time of organic carbon is 20 years in the surface
water and 15 000 years for the deep ocean (Stumm and Morgan, 1981).
Table 2. The Input Dissolved Organic Carbon to the Photic Layer
Source Amounts (mgC/y)

by photosynthesis" 2.28xlO t5
Input to the photic layer by upwellingi' 4.43xlO t5
by river 1.2 x lO t4
Notes: • The average primary production during December, 1987 to November, 1988 of the studied region is 0.55 gC/m'd (provided hy Li
Wen-quail, Xiamen University). assume that 15% is released as DOC; " The mean velocity of the upwelling in the region is estimated as
L5x 10-> cm/s, the average concentration of DOC in deep layer is 2.50 mgCII. the upwelling area is about one fifth of the studied region and
the active upwelling time is assumed three months during summer; e The annual river flux which mainly influence the region is 2.42 X 1010 m)
(FIShery, 1980), and we suppose that the concentration of organic carbon is 5 mgC/I which equals to the world river value (Meybeck, 1982).
VI. CONCLUSIONS
1) One of the distinctive features of the Taiwan Strait is the seasonal monsoons,
which affect strongly the water patterns in the strait and, consequently, the seasonal
distribution of nutrients and dissolved oxygen.
2) Abnormal horizontal and vertical distributions of nutrients and organic matters
are observed due to upwellings induced near the shore (southeast off the mainland
and southwest off Taiwan Island) and at the shelf break. The occurence of upwelling
events may stimulate the biological production on this shelf and must be important
to the fisheries.
3) High concentration of organic carbon presents in the water of the strait, owing
to the biological activity. The residence time of dissolved organic carbon are estimate
as 1.04 years for the photic layer. This indicates a rather fast turnover time of
biological important elements in these shallow coastal waters.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation for all the authors whose studies have
been referenced in this paper. We particularly thank the participants of the Minnan-
Taiwan Bank Fishing Ground upwelling ecosystem study for their assistance in work.
This work was supported by State Educational Commission and Fujian Science
Council.
REFERENCES
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biomass in oligotrophic and upwelling system", in C. Bass, R. Margalef, and P. Rubies (eds.),
Intemational Symposium on the Most Important Upwelling Areas off Western Africa (Cape Blanco
and Benguela), Instituto de Investigacines, Pesqueras, Barcelona (Spain) 1,435-448.
Cai, W. and Lennon, G. W. (1988) "Upwelling in the Taiwan Strait in reponse to wind stress, oceanic
circulation and topography", Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 26(1), 15-3l.
Chen, Jin-quan, Fu, Zi-Iang, and Li, Fa-xi (1982) "A study of upwelling over Milman-Taiwan Shoal fishing
ground", 1. of Oceanography in Taiwan StraiJ 1(2),
Chcn, Slmi-tu and Zhang, Li-ping (1992) "Distributions of chemical elements with relation to major water
circulation in the central and northem parts of the Taiwan Strait", Oceanologia alld Limllologia
Sillica 10(2), 168-177.
Dai, Min-han, Hong, Hua-sheng, and Chen, Slmi-tu (1991) "The study of phosphorus in Milman-Taiwan
Bank fishing upwelling regions", in Hua-sheng Hong et al. (eds.), Minnan-Taiwan Bank Fishing
Ground Upwelling Ecosystem Study, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 197-203 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Fishery Resources of Minnan-T."liwan Shoal Fishing Ground (1980) Science Report (1), 256p. (in Olinese).
Hong, Hua-sheng, Qui, Shu-yuan, Ruan, Wu-qi, and Hong, Gang-c1lUan (eds.) (1991) Milman-Taiwan Bank
Fishing Ground Upwelling Ecosystem Study, Science Press, Beijing, 703pp (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
I-long, Hua-sheng and Guo, Lao-dong (1991) "Distribution and variation of POC in the southern Taiwan
Strait", in Hua-sheng Hong et al. (eds.), Minnan-Taiwan Bank Fishing Ground Upwelling Ecosystem
Study, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 230-238 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Hong, Hua-sheng, Hong, Li-yu, and Shang, Shao-ling (1991) "Investigation of Ca, Mg in Milman-Taiwan
Bank fishing ground water", in Hua-sheng Hong et al. (eds.), Milman-Taiwan Bank Fishing Ground
Upwelling Ecosystem Study, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 254-264 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Hong, Hua-sheng and Yao, Wen-sheng (1991) "Dissolved organic carbon in Minnan-Taiwan Bank Fishing
Ground upwelling ecosystem", in Hua-sheng Hong et al. (eds.), Milman-Taiwan Bank Fishing Ground
Upwelling Ecosystem Study, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 217-222 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Hung, T., Tsai, C. C. H. and Chen, N. (1986) "Chemical and biomass studies: (1) Evidence of upwelling
off the southwestem coast of Taiwan", Acta Oceallograpltica Taiwanica 17, 29-44.
Hung, T., Han, B., and Hsa, D. (1987) "Chemical and biomass studies: (2) Biological activities in upwelling
off the southwestern coast of Taiwan, including the Penghu area",Acta Oceanographica Taiwanica 18,
62-74.
Lin, C.-T. and Pai, S.-c. (1987) "As Kuroshio turns: (II) The oceanic front north of Taiwan", Acta
Oceanograpliica Taiwallica 18,9-61.
Meybeck, M. (1982) "Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus transport by world rivers",Am. 1. of Sciellce 282,
401-450.
Romankevich, E. A. (1984) Geochemistry of Organic Matter in the Ocean, New York, 27-39.
Stumm, W. and Morgan, J. (1981) Aquatic Chemistry, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 78Op.
Su, Ji-Ian and Wang, W. (1987) "On the sources of the Taiwan Warnl Current from the South China Sea",
Chill. J. Oceano/. Linmoi. 5(4),299-308.
Wang, J. and Chen, c.-S. (1988) "On the Kuroshio branch in the T."liwan Strait during wintertime", Progress
of Oceanography 21(3-4),469-491.
Wu, B. (1984) "Some problems on circulation study in the Taiwan Strait", Collected Oceanic Works 7(1),
24-35.
Treguer, P., Guene1ey, S., and Kamatani, A. (1988) "Biogenic silica and POM from the Indian sector of
the southern Pacific Ocean", Marine Chemistry 23, 167-180.
POLLUTION AND POLLUTION MONITORING IN NORTHERN
SEAS OF CHINA
ZHANG Shou-Iin and GU Hong-kan

IllSlilule of Oceallology, Academia Sillica
I. INTRODUCTION
In the vast central waters of the East China Sea, the Huanghai Sea, the Bohai Sea
and the estuaries of the Changjiang River and the Huanghe River, pollution is
insignificant, locally, and in baseline level only. Pollution conditions are summarized
as follows
• Rivers are the chief sources of marine pollutants, followed by the direct
discharge of factories, ships, sea ports, and offshore platforms;
• Oil is the main pollutant in the sea, and is more serious in some coastal
regions of the Bohai, the Huanghai, and the East China seas;
• Organic pollution (coinciding with high COD) and nutrients are more
evident than oil pollution in some coastal regions;
• Heavy-metal pollution is not serious, except in some small parts of the
inshore and estuarine waters;
• Air pollution is heavy over the cities, especially over the steel works.
The environmental pollution in the coastal zone of China was summarized by
Coastal Zone Office (1989).
II. OIL AND PAH
Gu et al. (1981), Huang et al. (1981) and Zheng and Huang (1981) reported the
identification of pollution sources of crude oil floating on the sea surface of the
northern South Huanghai Sea in 1975-1976. Floating crude oil was detected by the
following methods: ultraviolet spectrographic analysis of its absorption ratios (UV
ratio 228/256 nm), analysis of its total sulphur content (total-S), and by a
chromatographic analysis of its normal paraffin (GC n-paraffm), etc. It was then
compared with the crude oil from the China oil fields of Daqing, Dagang and
Shengli. The results show that the UV ratio of 7 floating crude oil samples ranges
from 2.0 to 2.2; the total-S from 0.11 to 0.23%; and the GC n-paraffin main peak is
in C l6-CZ3 ' with the highest peak in C l9 [or (Czl+Czz)/(Czg+Cz9)]' which is similar to
that of Daqing and Dagang crude oils mixed with sea water. The UV ratio of another
seven floating crude oil samples ranges from 1.4 to 1.9; the total-S from 0.80% to
2.4%, and the GC n-paraffin main peak is in C l9-C2.'j, with the highest peak in C 23 ,
which is similar to that of Shengli crude oil soaked with sea water.
213
Zhou Di et al. (eds.). Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 1,213-224.
This floating crude oil originates from the Bohai Gulf (the Shengli and Dagang
oil fields), Qinhuangdao (the end of oil fipe from the Daqing oil field), and Dairen
oil factory, and is driven there by coasta current and wind, as proven 6y drift cards.
In recent years, the floating crude oil has reduced, as now the oil fields, factories
and ships have paid more attention to the pollution problem.
Several accidents from oil shipping in Qingdao (the end of oil pipe from the
Shengli oil field) happened, and much crude oil flowed into the sea from the
damaged oil ships and polluted swimming beach and coastal parks.
The oil content in the surface water of the whole Huanghai Sea in May, August
and October of 1982 was about 0.05 mg!l, but was higher than 0.1-0.2 mg!l in the
nearshore waters of Dairen to the Yalujiang River (Fig. 1) (SOA, 1984).
:lYo Boha; Sea
North Huang/w; Sea

38°
)"-~!''',"",,",,,,, ~
U 05- - - -
36°
Soulh Huanghai Sea
Fig. 1. The oil content (mg/l) in the surface

water of the Huanghai Sea ill August, 1982 (from
SOA,1984).
120" 121 0
In the surface water of the Bohai Gulf in May, August, and October in 1979 and
1980, the annual mean oil content was 0.082 and 0.086 mg!l, respectively. The high
content of 0.1-0.4 mg/l was found in the nearshore waters, and the low content of
0-0.05 mg!l in the offshore waters (Fig. 2). The pollution was from oil field, ships,
and the city drainage of Beijing and Tianjin (IOAS, 1982).
Marine environmental pollution data obtained by airborne remote sensing and
monitoring of sea surface oil spill in the Bohai Gulf conducted by the SOA in
September, 1983, were analyzed by Zheng, et al. (1985). The monitored targets
included the Xingang Harbor, Tianjin, drilling and production platforms of the Bohai
oil field, and the western and southern coast of the gulf. Results showed that the oil
spills on the sea surface distributed widely. Anomaly in the color of the sea water
caused by urban and industrial waste mainly distributed near the mouth of the Haihe
River at the top of the gulf. Yellowish-white foam floated on the sea surface of the
Dagu anchorage. Comparison with the monitoring results obtained by environmental
remote sensing tests of the Tianjin-Bohai district in 1980 showed that although the
sea surface oil spillage near the area of drilling and production platforms of the oil
Pollution and Pollution Monitoring 215
field had decreased to a certain degree, oil spillage in the harbor had not decreased,
and that waste pollution showed a tendency of increase.
Dai and Zhou (1983) reported the PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon)
distribution in surface coastal water of the Bohai Gulf is the highest in the estuaries
and around oil platforms, and the lowest further offshore (Fig. 3).
Bohai Gulf
Bohai Gulf
PAR
_>0.1 _500-3000.
ng/l
~ 0.05-0.1 ~ 60-500
~ <0.05 ~ 0-60
Fig. 2. The oil content (mg/l) in the surface water Fig. 3. The distribution of PAH in the surface
of the Bohai Gulf in August, 1980 (from IOAS, water of the Bohai Sea in August, 1980 (from Dai
1982). and Zhou, 1983).
Dai and Zhou (1984) reported that the PAH in sediments of the Bohai Gulf is
high in estuaries and nearshore waters, ranging from 0-300 /Lg/kg.
The PAH, mainly from crude oil, includes the toxins phenanthrene, fluoran-
thene, pyrene, chrysene, benz (a) pyrene, benz (e) pyrene, perylene, etc. The
pollution sources of PAH are simifar to that of oil.
Wang et al. (1984) determined the trace benzene in the sea water of the
liaozhou Bay. The concentration of benzene ranges 0.3-7.6 X 10-7 g/l. The high
concentration is in the harbor water where much oil floated.
III. COD
The COD in the Huanghai Sea in May, August and October, 1982, was about
0.6 mg/l from surface to bottom water, the high value of > 1.0 mg/l was only in the
nearshore water near the estuary of the Yalujiang River (Fig. 4) (SOA, 1984).
The COD in the surface water of the Bohai Gulf in May, August and October,
1979 and 1980, had an annual mean value of 1.73 and 1.76 mg/l, respectively. The
higher value was in nearshore waters (Fig. 5) (IOAS, 1982), which is related to the
higher P0 4-P (0.05-0.5 mg/l) and NH4-N (0.2-0.5 mg/l) in the organic matter from
the city drainage.
Bu/wi S"ca
Bohai Gulf
38~
'!,.,
36"
~'"''''!J0)
.; 6)
'~6
)
~
South Huanghai Sea
06
>06
0
COD
,,<2.
',~06 ~6 <06 ~>2
-0.6
J _O.S
120" 1230 J24°
Fig. 4. The COD (mgll) in the surface water of the Fig. 5. The COD (mgll) in the surface water of the
Huanghai Sea in May, 1982 (from SOA, 1984). Bohai Gulf in August, 1979 (from IOAS, 1984).
Kuang and Zhang (1985) reported a study on a correlation analysis of the COD
concentration change in the Western Zhiwu Bay of Yantai. The tropic equation
shows that the correlation between the COD (1.0-1.3 mg/l) and the tide level is
negative north of this bay, and positive to the south near the estuary, which relates
to the direction of current flow.
IV. 666, DDT AND PCB
The content of 666, DDT and PCB in the seawater, sediment and suspended
matter of the Bohai Gulf in August, 1980, is listed in Table 1 (IOAS, 1982).
The distribution of 666, DDT and PCB in the surface water of the Bohai Gulf
in August 1980, is shown in Fig. 6.
The distribution of 666 and DDT content in the surface water is obviously
higher inshore and lower offshore. The distribution tendency of PCB is not obvious
and its content is at a lower level.
Table 1. The 666, DDT and PCB in the Bohai Sea in August, 1980"
Media 666 DDT PCB

Range 55-324 1.3-5.2 3.5-6.7
Mean
Seawater (ng/l) Total 152 2.2 5.0
Inshore 225 2.6 5.0
Offshore 129 1.7 5.0
Range 5.6-36 0.27-3.2 2.2-8.8
Mean
Sediment (ng/g) Total 22 0.69 5.0
Inshore 18 0.42 5.0
Offshore 25 0.55 5.0
Suspended matter (ng/l) Range 66-110 229--486

Mean 95 319
aFrom IOAS, 1982.
118 0
119 0
Bohai Gulf Bohai Gulf Bohai Gulf
38°
666 DDT
~!00-200 ~l. 0-3. 0
_ 200- 300 ng/! _ 3.0-5.0 _ 6,0-7, Ong/!
E3 50-100 §<1.0 a 3.0-5.0
Aug. 1980 Aug. !980
Fig. 6. The distribution of 666, DDT and PCB (ng/l) in the surface water of the Bohai Gulf in August, 1980
(from IOAS, 1982).
V. Hg, Cr, Zn, Cd, Pb AND Cu
The concentration of Hg, Cr, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu in the Bohai Gulf in May,
August, and October 1979 and 1980, is listed in Table 2 (IOAS, 1982).
The concentration of Hg and Cr in the sea water decreases from inshore to
offshore. Other metals are in higher concentrations in estuaries only (Fig. 7). The
concentration of metals in sediment and interstitial water is higher in estuaries and
inshore, too, and the concentrations in most offshore regions are at low and baseline
levels (Li and Lin, 1983).
Zheng and Zhang (1985) determined the total-Hg in the sediment and sea water
of the Bohai Gulf in August 1981. They pointed out that concentrations of Hg in
sediments correlated closely with the amount of organic matters in sediments, of
218 O(eanology of China Seas
Table 2. The concentration of Hg, Cr, Zn, Cd, Pb and Cu in the Bohai Gulf in May, August and October,
1979 and 1980"
Seawatei' (JLg/l) Sediment (mglkg) Interstitial (lLg/l)

Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean
Hg Trace-O.049 0.017 0.005-0.56 0.065
Cr Trace-1.6 0.04 27-67 49
Zn 1.3-30 7.6 35-151 74 10--18 14
Cd 0.02-0.40 0.18 0.04-0.54 0.15 0.067--0.17 0.11
Cu 0.28-1.6 0.88 7.8-3.6 26 1.9-5.6 2.9
Ph 0.02-0.18 0.068 12-41 22 0.67-1.2 0.85
a From IOAS. 1982; 8 Dissolved metals, except total.Hg.
118 0 l1W 119 0 118 0

119 0
Dagu~==
Bohai Gulf
Bohai Gulf Bohai Gulf
Total-Hg
_
§
m
>0.03
<0.01
>Igil
0.01-0.03
May 1979
-
Cr
II!§§lI
E3
~
0.5-0.7
0.3-0.5
<0.3
=
Cd
-
!!
~
>0.03
0.20-0.30
0.10-0.20
<0.10
>,gil
Aug. 1979
Bohai Gulf
38 0
Pb
_ >0.10 >Igil
Il!IlIl8 0.030-0.10
§ <0.030 Fig. 7. The Total-Hg (p,g/l), dissolved Cr (JLg/l), Cd ion (p,g/l) and Ph
May 1979 ion (JLg/l) in the surface water of the Bohai Gulf in 1979 (from
IOAS, 1982).
particle Hg present in suspended matter, and of the S%o of sea water. It shows that
the main transport process of Hg in the water of the Bohai Gulf was the adsorption
of organic particles.
Wu and Li (1985) pointed out that accumulation in sediments of some heavy
metals Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, Fe, Cr, and Ni from sewage drainage of the Bohai Gulf
is mostly found within the isobath curve of 3-5 m off and between the Dagu and
Beitang estuaries, forming a sewage-influenced zone represented by the distribution
of Pb (Fig. 8).
38 0
rn:mm
<12
E3
12-15
['ZZZZZJ
15-20
Fig. 8. The distribution of Pb (mg/kg) in the

surface water of the Bohai Gulf in 1979-1980 ~ emmI3
25-30
_Pb
>30 mglkg
20-25
(from Wu and Li, 1985).
The accumulation of heavy metals from sewage drainage in the estuaries of the
Bohai Gulf is not serious partly because of the large silt discharge and high
sedimentation rate.
Liu et al. (1983a) reported the form distribution of Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu in the
waters of the northwestern Bohai Gulf, and high contents were found in estuary
waters with a special particulate form. Huang and Pang (1985) reported the Cr
speciation in the sea water of the Bohai Gulf and observed that the Cr6 + (not Cr3+)
content is higher in estuary waters.
VI. As
The content of As in the sea water of the Huanghai Sea in May, August, and
October, 1982, had a mean value of 0.5-1.0 mgll and was homogeneous in
distribution (SOA, 1984).
Li et al. (1984) reported the distribution of arsenic in the waters of the Bohai
Gulf (Fig. 9) observed during two cruises in August of 1980 and 1981. Some primary
conclusions are as follows
45' !l8' 15' 30' 45' ll9' ~5' 118' 15' 30' ~5' ]]9'
a
15'
39,~~i~~
;1.61~
45' Dagu /'68
Bohai Gulf
"'---J.~ _____
30' \\
\\ \
15' <1. ~ 15'
38' ~""'."" 38'
~5'
30' Aug. -Sept. 1980

/ 15'
Aug. 1981
30''-------------'---'
Fig. 9. The distribution of dissolved As (p.g!l) in the surface water of the Bohai Gulf in August -September,
1980, and August, 1981 (from Li et ai., 1984).
The averages (1.79 J,Lgll and 2.04 J,Lgll) of dissolved arsenic concentrations in the
surface waters of the Bohai Gulf are higher than that in oceans. But their differences
are not significant. The horizontal distribution has an obvious gradient with a
decrease from the northwest of the gulf toward the southeast. However, the vertical
distribution is relatively uniform.
Major factors affecting the variation of the arsenic concentrations and their
horizontal gradient are the inputs from the Beitang estuary (the Jiyun River and
Yongdingxin River) and the Haihe River.
The salinity ran~es from 27 to 32 within almost the entire region of the gulf
durin~ these two crUIses. A good negative correlation exists between the dissolved
arsenIC concentrations and salinities in the surface water of the gulf. This suggests
that the behavior of dissolved arsenic in the gulf is of a conservative nature.
The average of arsenic contents in the surface layer of sediments are 13.8 ppm.
This value is within the variation range of 5-15 ppm of arsenic contents in shales, and
is close to the background value (10 ppm) of oceanic sediments.
Rain and dust from the atmosphere are probably significant sources of arsenic
for this gulf. 50 surface sediment samples from the gulf were analyzed for total As,
Fe, Mn, Ti and organic matter, and their correlations were studied (Ma et aL, 1984).
The distribution of total arsenic in sediments of the Bohai Gulf shows that the
arsenic is related to the type of sediment. They were lower in silty sediments and
higher in muddy sediments. This arsenic is mainly derived from the suspended matter
in rivers, and secondarily from land effusion, or from the coprecipitation with hydrous
oxide of iron, aluminum and manganese in sea water.
The Bohai Gulf may be divided into two parts according to their Eh values,
0--50 mV in the north, and 0-+70 mV in the south.
The multiple correlation coefficients of As with Fe, Mn, Al and organic matter
in the surface sediments of the Bohai Gulf are higher in the south (0.819) than in the
north (0.511). The extractable As in the southern part of the gulf may be expressed
as a regression equation
Pollution and Pollution Monito.-ing 221
As=1.23+0.928 Mn+9.43 AI+3.35 Fe-0.903 Org.

where, As is in x 10-4 %, Mn in x 10- 2 %, and AI, Fe, and Organic matter in %. The
regression equation shows coprecipitation of 1000 fLg of Mn, Al and Fe with 9.28 fLg,
0.943 fLg and 0,335 fLg of As, respectively.
The partial correlation coefficients of the extractable As, AI, Fe, and Mn are
also higher in the south than in the north. Because the partial and multiple
correlation coefficients of Fe, Ti, Mn, and As in residues of sediments extracted by
a Tamm solution are higher, it appears they are intergrowths in aluminosilicates.
VII. 90Sr, 137Cs, U, Ra, Th and 40K
Artificial radioactive contamination by strontium-90 in sediments of the Bohai

Gulf was determined by Li and Gu (1983). The mean concentration of 90Sr is about
86pCi/kg (dry weight) which is higher than other regions of the world. This is much
lower than that of 4°k which is mainly a natural radioactive isotope in seawater and
sediment. It indicates that the radioactivity of 90Sr is only about 4.5 X 10-3 times that
of 4°K in sediment. So we can say that the pollution and danger caused by 90Sr are
not obvious, The ratio of 137CsfOSr (about 2.3) shows that 90Sr is concentrated well
in this region. The distribution of 90Sr in sediment shows that it is closely related to
the sediment type and the movement of sediment and seawater. The concentration
of 90Sr is in general higher in clayey mud than in sandy clay and clayey silt, and low
in sediment in regions where seawater moves fast. For example, the lower concentra-
tion is in anchorages and channels, the higher value in the mouth of Beitang (the
Jiyun River) (Fig. 10). The high value may also be related to the carrying and
cleaning effects of silt and other material in seawater. The cocrystal of carbonate (Ca,
Mg), the adsorption effect of suspended material, and the carrying effects of silt may
117°45'
39° 29
Bohai Gulf
38°30'
Fig. 10. The distribution of 90S r (pCi/kg) (dry

weight) in the surface sediment of the Bohai Gulf
in 1981 (from Li and Gu, 1983).
be the main pathways of transport from seawater to sediment for 9OSr. Biological
adsorption as well as adsorption of sediment, mar: be less effective than the pathways.
The determinations of U, Ra, Th, 4°K and 37CS in the surface sediments of the
Bohai Gulf were mad~ wit~ a. Ge (Li) y ~pectrometer (Li et al, !983). J'!Ie
contents of 4 natural radIOactIve Isotopes III sedIments are 2 X 10-6, 11 X 10 6, 7 X 10 13
and 3 X 10-6 gig (or 20 pCi/g) respectively. Distribution of the 4 isotopes is uniform.
The 4 isotopes' low values, which are closely related to the sandy mud, are found in
the area of anchorage, indicating that the desorption and resolution of isotopes are
easy in this region where the water and sediments move about swiftly.
The mean content of 191.8 pCi/kg (dry weight) of artificial radioactive isotope
i37Cs is much higher than that in the seawater of 0.1 pCi. The high value is found in
places where the suspended matter deposits easily. This indicates that 137Cs can be
concentrated by sediments. Its distribution is, however, not uniform but decreases
generally seaward, with a low value also in the area of anchorage (Fig. 11).
39°
45'
Bohai Gulf
\. . . . ~250)
30'
Fig. 11. The distribution of 137Cs (pCi/kg) (dry

weight) ill the surface sediment of the Bohai Gulf
118° in 1981 (from Li et af., 1983).
VIII. THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON THE ECOSYSTEM IN THE BOHAI

GULF
Observations and experiments (IOAS, 1982; HIF, 1982; Zheng and Zhang, 1981;
Liu et al. 1983b) show that the quantities of phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish eggs
and young fish are high in the Beitang estuary of the Bohai Gulf in 1979-1981, and
that the pollutants are in normal levels in fish but high in shells. The effect of
pollution on the ecosystem in the Beitang estuary waters is not otherwise evident. In
the Beitang estuary in May and September, 1981, the population densities of
phytoplankton and zooplankton were 549-1645 x 104 individuals/m 3 and 2012-3177

mdividuals/m 3, respectively.
REFERENCES
Coastal Zone Office (1989) Environmental Pollution in Coastal Zone of China. China Ocean Press,
Beijing, p. 584.
Dai, Min-ying and Zhou, Chen-nian (1982) "The determination of PAH in sea water by the HPLC-UV
technique", Maritle Sciences 4,33-35 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Dai, Min-ying and Zhou, Chen-nian (1983) "PAH in sea water from Bohai Gulf', Marine Sciences 4,
Dai, Min-ying and Zhou, Chen-nian (1984) "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from Bohai
Bay", Marine Sciences 3, 3-36 (in Olinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan and Liu, Ming-xing (1973) "Physically coated mercury film electrode single cell differential
inverse polarography", Analytical Chemistry 1(1), 15-22 (in Chinese).
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, and Bao, Wan-you (1980) "A study of the anti-adsorption membrane of
electrode", Acta Chemica Sillica 38(4), 381-386 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan and Liu, Ming-xing (1981) "A method for the determination ofSn and Bi in sea water using
physically coated mercury film electrode inverse polarography", Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica
12(5),427-432. (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Gu, Hong-kan, Liu, Ming-xing, and Bao, Wan-you (1983) "Anti-adsorption physically coated mercury film
electrode for inverse polarography", J. Oceanology and Limnology 1(1),76-81.
Gu, 'Hlllg-xiu, Zhang, Tian-fo, Hu, Zhao-bin, and Guo, Ru-xin (1981) "The source identification of crude
oil pollution in the north of South Huanghai Sea", Studio Marina Sinica 18, 73-85.
HIF (Huanghai Institute of Fisheries) (1982) "The observation of pollution in Bohai Gulf in 1981", Special
Report (in Chinese).
Huang, Hua-rui, Zheng, Shun-qin, Gu, Tang-xiu et al. (1981) "Identification of marine oil pollution
source", TraIlS. of Oceanology and Limnology 3, 23-27 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Huang, Hua-rui and Pang, Xue-zhong (1985) "Chromium speciation in seawater of the Bohai Gulf', Acta
Oceanologica Sinica 4(1),52-63.
IOAS (Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica) (1982) "The observation of pollution in Bohai Gulf in
1979-1981", Special Report (in Chinese).
Kuang, Guo-rui and Zhang, Yan-chen (1985) "A study on correlation analysis of the COD concentration
change in the Western Zhi Wu Gulf', TraIlS. of Oceanology alld Limnology 1, 12-18 (in Chinese, with
English abstract)
Li, Guo-ji and Liu, Ming-xing (1983) "A new portable decontamination sediment core sampler", TraIlS. of
Oceanology and Limnology 2, 79-82 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Li, Yan, Wang, Qing-zhang, Zhu, Xiao-bin, and Hu, Zhao-bin (1983) "The distribution of Cu, Pb and Cd
in interstitial water of Bohai Bay", Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae 3(2), 164--170 (in Olinese, with
English abstract).
Li, Pei-quan, Liu, Zhi-he, Lu, Guang-shan, Su, Xie-ming, and Yuan, Yi (1983) "Determinations of U, Ra,
Th, 4~ and !37Cs in sediments of Bohai Gulfwith Ge (Li) Spectrometer", Ocean%gio et Limnologia
Sillica 14(4),333-341 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Li, Pei-quan and Gu, li-lai (1983) "A study of 90Sr in sediment of the Bohai Gulf', Oceanologio et
Lill1l1ofogia Sillica 14(6),565-570 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Li, Quan-sheng, Shen, Wan-ren, and Ma, Xi-nian (1984) "A study on arsenic in Bohai Bay, J. Shandong
College of Oceanology 14(2), 27-39 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Liu, Ming-xing, Bao, Wan-you, Li, Guo-ji, and Gu, Hong-kan (1983a) "The form distribution of Zn, Cd,
Pb and Cu in the water of northwest Bohai Gulf', Acta Oceanologica Sinica 2(1), 64--76.
Liu, Ming-xing, Li, Guo-ji, and Gu, Hong-kan (1983b) "Trace metal concentration III fish, crustacea and
mollusca of the Bohai Bay", Acta Scientiae Circumstalltioe 3(2), 149-155 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Ma, Xi-nian, Li, Quan-sheng, and Shen, Wan-ren et af. (1984) "The relationships between arsenic and
-other elements (Fe, AI, Mn etc.) in surface sediments of Bohai Bay", Oceanologia et Limnologia
Sinica 15(5), 448-456 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
SOA (State Oceanic Administration) (1984) "The observation of pollution in Huanghai Sea in 1982",
Special Report (in Chinese).
Wang, Zhong-zhu, Liu, Xue-qian, Gui, Xian-zhou, Lai, Xu, and Pu, Bing-hua (1984) "The concentration
and gas chromatographic determination of trace benzene in sea water with stripping and polymeric
microbeads GDX 502", Marine Science Bulletin 3(5), 17-22 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wu, Jing-yang and Li, Yun-fei (1985) "Environment geochemistry of some heavy metals in the sediments
of Bohai Bay. I. The distribution pattern of heavy metals in the sediments and their background
values", Oceallologia el Lil1lnologia Sinica 16(2),92-101 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zheng, Shun-qin and Huang, Hua-rui (1981) "The identification of the source of oil pollution in the north
of South Huanghai Sea with UV-spectrophotometry", Marine Scumces 3, 17-19 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Zheng, Shun-qin and Zhang, Shu-mei (1981) "Mercury content in Arca subcrenata Lischke from Bohai
Bay", TrailS. of Oceallology alld Limllology 4, 29-33 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zheng, Shun-qin and Zhang, Shu-mei (1985) "Mercury in sediments of Bohai Bay", Oceanologia et
Limllologia Sillica 16(2), 121-126 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zheng, Quan-an, Sun, Yuan-fu, Sun, Yu-xung, Xu, Cheng-de, Shi, Yuan-xun, Ma, Hou-jin (1985)
"Analyses of results monitoring marine environmental pollution by airborne remote sensing III the
Bohai Bay", J. Oceanography of Huang/wi and Bollai Seas 3(1), 63-70 (in Olinese, with English
abstract).
PART III
MARINE BIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Global oceanography had its beginnings in biological studies of marine

plants and animals, including such aspects as floristic and faunistic
studies, the abundance, distribution and community structure of various
ecological groups, their aquatic production and productivity processes,
their reproduction and growth processes, interaction between the
ecosystem and environment, etc.
In the more than 40 years following the founding of the People's
Republic of China, as a result of comprehensive marine biological
investigations carried out not only in nearshore, shallow shelf seas,
including the South China Sea islands ofXisha, Zhongsha and Nansha,
but also in bathyal regions, provided great impetus for nation-wide
research on the taxonomy and distribution of major groups of micro-
and macro-algae, invertebrates, fishes, and mammals, and culminated
in the compilation of floristic and faunistic works, atlases and
numerious other published works. In the field of marine ecology,
studies have been carried out on primary productivity of phytoplankton
and community structure, distributional trends of abundance, diversity,
and dominance of the plankton, benthos, and nekton.
Emphasis was given to the study of reproduction, developmental
biology, population dynamics, and recruitment of major economic
species in connection with their mariculture potentiality. On the basis
of taxonomy and ecological studies, marine biological resource
assessment and fisheries prediction programmes have been worked out
and implemented. In connection with problems arising from the
development of marine living resources to serve human needs,
proposals on their rational exploitation, conservation, and protection
have been advanced. Measures for the improvement of faunal stocks
and enhancement of resouces have also been implemented.
Results of studies on biological and experimental ecology of major
economic groups of marine plants and animals laid the basis for the
development of artificial propagation and culture techniques. Our first
225
Zhou Di et al. (eds.). Oceanology oj China Seas. Volume 1.225-226.
226
success in the development of marine living resources was achieved

with phycoculture of the Japanese kelp Laminaria japonica in the early
fifties. This was followed by the phycoculture of the purple lavers
Porphyra yezoensis and P. haitanensis in the late fifties and sixties.
Success in phycoculture was followed by that in mariculture of the
mussel Mytilus galloprovincia-lis in the 1970's, mariculture of the
Chinese shrimp Penaeus chinensis in the late 1970's and the 1980's and
mariculture of the local scallop Chlamys farreri in the 1970's and the
bay scallop Argopecten irridians in the middle 1980's. Traditional fish
cultivation of the mullet Liza haematocheila was effected in the so-
called inlet cultivation together with the shrimp Penaeus chinensis some
hundred years ago but production was very small. Scientific mariculture
including induced spawning and artificial larval rearing of the mullet
succeeded in the seventies, but due to the low price of the fish, its
mariculture remains very limited. Recently problems relating to the fry
rearing and mariuclture of the more expensive fish, such as Pagrosomus
major, Sparus macroce-phalus, Epinephelus spp., have been solved and
their mariculture has already started in different places along the
China coast, yielding only about 3600 tons per annum. We strongly
believe that fish mariculture will soon dominate the mariculture
industry of China. Successes have greatly pushed forward the rapid
establishment and growth of mariculture production industries, such
that a total production of scarcely 10 000 tons in 1950 had increased
to some 1.62 million tons in 1991, making up about 1/4 of the total
marine fisheries production. Large scale resource enhancement
measures (releasing artificially reared juvenile Chinese shrimp) have
also succeeded in northern and eastern China coastal provinces, so that
the shrimp catch increased several times in the local fIsheries. 2Marine
biological research indeed contributed a major role in our national
economic development.
This volume presents a summary and review of major achievements
in Chinese marine biological research. The chapters that follow cover:
i) phytoplankton and primary production, ii) zooplankton, iii)
foraminifera, iv) radiolaria, v) nekton, vi) biofouling organisms, vii)
mariculture of economic algae, viii) mariculture of scallops, and ix)
mariculture of shrimp.
Due to limitation of space, it is not possible to cover
comprehensively all aspects of marine biological researches, but it can
be said that some of the information are for the first time synthesized
and presented. It is hoped that this volume may serve as useful
reference to readers who wish to be briefed on Chinese marine
biological research.
ZENG Cheng-kui (C. K. Tseng) and ZHENG Shou-yi

/lIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND PHYTOPLANKTON
IN CHINA SEAS
GUO Yu-jie (Y. J. GUO)

I. INTRODUCTION
Phytoplankton are at the head of the marine food chain, so their species distribution,
succession and quantitative variations play an important role in the rrimary
productivity and circulation of chemical nutrients and the augmentation 0 fishery
resources.
The Bohai Sea (BS), being an inland sea of China, is controlled by the fertile
neritic waters the whole year; its hydrology is simple and primary productivity is high.
The Huanghai (Yellow) Sea (HS) and East China Sea (ECS) are more complicated
in hydrology because of the presence of mixed regions with cold water mass, the
Kuroshio Warm Current (KWC) and its branches, the Huanghai Sea Warm Current,
coastal upwellings and the Changjiang (Yangtze) River runoffs. The South China Sea
(SCS) is a tropical marginal sea with large runoff and is affected in the offshore by
the South China Sea Warm Current (SCSWC) throughout the year.
II. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
A sea area's primary productivity, an important aspect of marine science, can

be used to estimate the aquatic resources, and is an important basis for planning
rational exploitation and conservation of the fishery resources.
A. General Distribution of Primary Productivity
In general, phytoplankton abound in high transparency nutrient-rich waters in

the peripheries of estuaries, neritic sea areas and gulfs, so the primary productivity
in these above waters is higher than that in offshore waters.
In China seas, the value of primary productivity averages about 300 mgC/m 2 • d)
in the broad neritic sea areas over the continental shelf because of the nutrient-rich
runoff from the adjacent land. In the Daya Bay of the SCS, the primary productivity
in autumn doubles that in other seasons (Huang et aL, 1989). The maximum primary
productivity in the ECS, BS and HS occurs in summer (June-September). Annual
primary productivity surveys have been conducted in the Jiaozhou Bay, the BS, the
estuaries of the Huanghe (Yellow) River and the Changjiang River and the Taiwan
Strait. The Primary productivity in the BS averages 308 mgC/m 2 • d and 408 mgC/m 2 • d
227
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology a/China Seas. Volume 1, 227-242.
© 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
in its southern part which receives nutrient-rich runoffs from the Huan~he River and
has become famous spawning and nursing ground of many aquatIc animals of
economic value. The HS is also a marginal sea with high primary productivity. In the
Jiaozhou Bay at the southern coast of the HSi the primary productivity ranges from
25.78 mgC/m 2 ·d (in January) to 1193 mgC/m ·d (in June), and is 422 mgC/m 2 ·d in
annual average. Latest data showed that among the Chma seas, the ECS has the
highest primary productivity. Nutrients input by the Changjiang River runoff and
upwelled near the coast of Zhejiang Province lead to the high primary productivity
(about 1000 mgC/m 2 • d, Ning et aL, 1985) and the formation of good aquaculture and
fishing grounds in the neritic area. But in its outer shelf area the presence of the
oligotrophic KWC decreases the primary productivity to 139 mgC/m 2 • d (Fei et ai,
1987; Guo, 1991). Many reports on the primary productivity in Taiwan's surrounding
sea regions (Hung, 1975; Hung et ai, 1979a, 1979b, 1982; Yang, 1988, etc.) indicate
a high average primary productivity (470-1110 mgC/m 2 ·d) due to upwellings and
human activities in discharging nitrogenous wastes espeCIally into the waters off
weatern and northern Taiwan (Fan, 1880; Hung et al., 1982). Investigations in the
SCS showed the primary productivity in the Xisha Islands in April (325 mgC/m 2 • d)
was higher than that in December (58 mgC/m 2 ·d), and was about 200 mgC/m 2 ·d in
July-September. In the Nansha Islands, the primary productivity was in the range of
300-500 mgC/m 2 • d from spring to summer (Huang, 1990). Investigatons in the Daya
Bay of the northern SCS showed that the average primary productivity ranged from
170 mgC/m 2 ·d to 525 mgC/m 2 ·d (Huang et al., 1989). Although relevant data is
scarce, the primary productivity in the nearshore area of the SCS may be high
because of the large runoff from the Zhujiang (Pearl) River and the many fertile
gulfs in the SCS (Fig. la).
B. Main Factors Affecting Primary Productivity in China Seas

1. Light
The amount of incident solar radiation reaching below the water surface to
supply energy for phytoplankton photosynthesis determines the euphotic zone depth,
and varies with latitude, season, degree of seawater turbidity, and cloudiness and
other weather conditions in situ. In the Jiaozhou Bay, the primary productivity
increases from April (daylight period of 13 hours) to the end of June (14.7 hours) to
October (11 hours), then decreases when the daylight period is below 10 hours in
winter (FIg. 2a). One exception is that when the da~light period is over 13 hours in
April-May the primary productivity is 200 mgC/m . d, whereas when the daylight
period decreases to about 11 hours in October, it is 730 mgC/m 2 ·d. This exception
can be accounted for by the delay of spring (it is colder in the Jiaozhou Bay than in
other nearby places on the same latItude) and the foggy weather in April-May.
Besides the length of the daylight period, the primary productivity in the Huanghe
estuary (Fig. 2b) is also affected by the transparency of the seawater, especially in the
summer to autumn flood season, when the transparency in the estuary is very low
(less than 0.5 m). CTD data on transparency showed positive correlations between
the primary productivity and the transparency as shown by the regression equations.
Y (in August)=3.181X + 12.688 (r=0.780, n=9, p<O.01)
Y (in November) = 1.83X +83.486 (r=0.675, n=9, p<O.01)
where Yis the primary productivity (mgC/m 2 • d); X the transparency of seawater (m).
Primary Productivity and Phytoplankton 229
40·
35
•
Sea•
o "" Zhongsha Is.

ii
-,o
. Chlorophyll- a
contents (mg. m
0<0.5 00.5-1. 0
01.0-1. 501.5-2.0
J
i$
0 20-0. 3.5 >3.5
-
i • Annual average
5 ..... ,p $ Spring CD Summer
• o Autumn e Winter
o
110 115
Fig. 1. Distributions of primary productivity and chlorophyll-a conten~in ~-;;waters~ia, primary productivity;
b, chlorophyll-a contents.
1200
Huanghe River Estuary
• July 26-29
1000
Jiaozhou Bay 1000
• June 2- 30 I
I
T'"0
r-,
:\ I
N"
I
E
800
/--
• Oct. 6-9 ....-~ July 18-19
I'·Aug.30-
.
T
'"0
j'
800
I
I
,,
U ( Sept. 3 E • June 21
OIl 600 uOIl 600 " -24
E
'-" E /
0
.:; '-"
Aug. 16-23·/
I 0
~ I .:; /
;:J 400 /
/ B 400
"8
So
/ ;:J
'"0 Sept. 19-23· /
April 28-May 3· 0
/
·May 30 So
~ /
>.
1
200 Nov. 8-11 -June 2 // .May 21-25
200
'2
Po.
Feb. 21~2
.' """-
·March 26-31 Nov. 21-Dec. 2
• __ ....... ~April 18-20
• Dec. 24-21 a. Oct. 21-24 b.
-':Jan.21-24
0 OL-~ __~~__~~~~__
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Daylight period (hr ) Daylight period (hr)
Fig. 2. Primary productivity-Daylight period CUIVe. a, the liaozhou Bay; b, the Huanghe River estury.
The carbon assimilation number of phytoplankton in the Huanghe estuary in

August is 4.45 mgC/mgChl-a' hr or about half that in the liaozhou Bay. The seawater
transparency is an important factor limiting the primary productivity of the Huanghe
estuary, at least during summer to autumn.
2. Temperature of Seawater
Stemann Nielsen (1975) and Werner (1977) maintained that temperature is not
an important factor affecting phytoplankton photosynthesis rate as they can adapt
quickly to variation of temperature. However, observations over the year showed
strong positive relationships between the seawater temperature and primary
productivity in the liaozhou Bay and in the Huanghe estuary.
In the liaozhou Bay: Y=26.76X-16.68 (r=0.87, n= 11, P<O.Ol)
In the Huanghe estuary: Y=35.64X-264.26 (r=0.73, n=8, P<O.Ol)
where Y is the temperature of the surface seawater eC); X the primary productivity
(mgC/m 2 • d).
But very high temperature may be harmful for phytoplankton growth (Guo,
1963). When surface temperature was over 27°C in August, the primary productivity
in liaozhou Bay and the Huanghe estuary decreased.
3. Nutrients in Seawater
In general, nutrient content in seawater is also a limiting factor for the primary
productivity. But in China seas, the broad neritic sea area with salinity <31.5 is rich
in rapidly replenished nutrients (P0 4-P=0.6 Ilmol/L, total innoq~anicN> to.2 Ilmol/L
including N0 3-N, N0 2-N and NH 4-N, and Si0 3-Si 10 Ilmol/L In the Jiaozhou Bay),
so nutrients content is not a limiting factor primary productivity (Chu, 1949). The
Primary productivity is low in the oligotrophic oceanic seawater of the ECS and SCS,
where the P0 4-P is below 0.3 Ilmol/L, even though the euphotic zone thereis deeper
than that in the neritic area.
III. PHYTOPLANKTON
Comprehensive oceanographic surveys of China seas since 1950 yielded

numerous data for taxonomic and ecologIcal studies on the phytoplankton which
showed their usefulness as indicators of currents, and close relations to the
hydrodynamics of the environment. The survey results contributed good ideas for
marine environment assessment, and exploitation and conservation of aquatic
resources of the China Seas, especially in the neritic areas and gulfs (Guo, 1980; Chu
and Kuo, 1959).
A. Characteristics of Dominant Species of Phytoplankton
Most of the 294 recorded phytoplankton species in these seas belong to Phyla
Bacillariophyta and Pyrrophyta. Only a few species of silicoflagellates and blue-green
algae occur there. Some planktonic green algae were found living in estuaries during
flood periods (Table 1). Taxonomic studies on these phytoplankton were conducted
in some detail (Chin, Chen and Huang, 1965; Guo, 1980).
Table 1. Number of Phytoplankton Species Recorded in the China Seas
Area ii iii iv v vi vii

Bohai Sea 137 28 1 2 148
Huanghai Sea 133 40 1 1 1 176
East China Sea 180 105 5 1 1 2 294
South China Sea 206 65 5 3 4 283
Note: ~ Bacil/ariopl,yta; ii, Pyrropl'yta; ii~ Cyanophyta; iv. Chrysophyta; v, Xanthophyta; v~ Chlorophyta; vi~ Total.
1, Phytoplankton Dominant Species and Their Seasonal Succession

In winter, the neritic regions of the BS and HS (especially of the Northern HS)
are rich in cold temperate species (such as Chaetoceros subsecundus, Ch. tortissimus,
Ch, afJinis var. willet, Thalassiosira nordenskioldii, Asterionella glacialis etc.)
characterized by adaptability to low temperature «5°C) and low salinity «31.5).
Some cosmopolitan species (such as Ch. compressus, Skeleton em a costatum) are
dominant there in early spring (February-March). During spring (April-May,
5-15°C), warm temperate species such as Ch. affinis, Ch. castracanei, Ch. eibenii,
Thalassiosira rotula, Rhizosolenia alata f. indica, Rh. stolterfothii etc., become luxuriant.
From the end of spring to summer (June-August, 18-26°C), tropical neritic species
such as Ch. distans, Ch.pseudocurvisetus, Ch. siamense, Ch.lorenzianus, Bacteriastrum
va rians , Ceratium tripos, C. macroceros, Peridinium depressus etc., appear instead of
the dominant species of early spring. Brackish and freshwater species (Ch. abnormis,
Ch. lorenzianus f. subsalinus, Pediastrum spp., Scenedesmus spp.) can also be found
in the estuaries. The red tides caused by Noctiluca scintillans and Prorocentrum
minimum are occasionally observed in estuaries of the Huanghe and Haihe rivers
that flow into the BS. From the end of summer to autumn (September-November,
1O-24°C), the number and cells of diatom species increase, and Coscinodiscus
asteromphalus, Cosc. jonisianus, Hemiaulus sinensis, Biddulphia sinensis, Eucampia
zoodiacus, Nitzschia pungens, Thalassionema nitzschioides, Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii
etc. are in full bloom. In winter (December-February, <5-10°C), cold temperate
species increase, and the phytoplankton species composition is somewhat similar to
that in early spring. The hydrodynamics in the middle area of the HS is more stable
than that in the neritic region, so the succession of species is not as obvious as that
in the neritic region. The phytoplankton population mainly consists of oceanic low
temperate and high salinity specIes, such as Rh. styliformis and Ch. convolutus during
winter to spring. In April, this population distributes from the middle of the HS
toward the middle of the BS. From September to November, its main members are
Hemiaulus membranacus and Climacodium biconcavum. Besides, Cosc. radiatus,
Thafassiosira excentrica, T. leptopus, Biddulphia sinensis, Bid. longicrusis etc. appear
there all the year. In spring and autumn, warm temperate niritic species spread into
the middle area of the HS. In summer, tropical niritic species such as Ch. diversus,
Ch. denticulatum, Guinardia flaccida, and tropical oceanic species such as Plank-
tonielfa sol, Ch. coarctatus, Ch. messanensis etc., appear in the eastern and
southeastern parts of the HS affected by the YSWC flowing northwards. In the ECS,
the hydrology is rather complicated, so the succession of phytoplankton species of
different ecological natures is obvious. The phytoplankton may be divided into three groups.
1) The group living west of 124°E, where the annual average temperature of the
upper layer is about 20°C, has the same composition and succession of species as that
in the neritic region of the HS. Skeletonema costalum often flourish in the Changjiang
River estuary. They cause red tide there during summer to autumn. The TWC that
flows northward along 123°E and almost reaches the Zhoushan Islands, carries many
tropical species such as Ch. diversus, Ch. messanensis, Ch. dislans, Ch. lorenzianus,
Streptotheca indica, Dactyliosolen mediterraneus, Planktoniella sol, Rh. calcar-avis etc.
2) The group east of 126°E, where the annual average temperature is about 24°C,
is influenced by the KWC. Some tropical oceanic species (especially the ceratia) may
be found. Their seasonal succession is not as obvious as that for the first group. The
occurrence of Cyanophyta species such as Trichodesmium theibautii, T. erythraeum, etc.
occasionally causes the red tide (Chen, 1982). The abundant temperate neritic
diatoms in the northeastern part (east of the Chejudao Island) were transported there
by a coastal current from the west coast of Korea and Goto Islands (Guo and Gu,
1991). The temperate phytoplankton and Melosira sulcata near the bottom are also
found southwest of the Chejudao Island (Quelpart Island), where the bottom water
of low temperature upwells.
3) The group in the region between the above two groups mainly consists of
temperate oceanic species such as Coscinodiscus radiatus, Thalassiosire excentrica, T.
leptopus, Biddulphia sinensis etc. As it is affected by the neighbouring neritic waters
in early spring, some temperate neritic species also appear. In summer and autumn,
many tropical neritic species disttribute in the KWC and TWC, but the species
number is less than that in the main axis of the KWC.
The SCS is affected by the Zhujiang River runoff, coastal upwellings, and the
SCSWC, so the species composition of phytoplankton is highly diverse. In the flood
season, brackish water species such as Skeleton em a costa tum and Chaetoceros
abnormis are abundant. Freshwater species such as Melosire granufata, Closterium spp.
and Echinospaerella spp. also appear in the Zhujiang River estuary, and are
transported westward by the Zhujiang River runoff. During the dry season, warm
temperate species such as Ch. ajfinis, cosmoplitan species, Thalassionema
nitzschioides, Ch. compressus, Nitzschia pungens etc., and tropIcal species, such as Ch.
lorenzianus, Ch. distans, Ch. pseudocurvisetus, Guinardia [laccida etc., which only
appear in summer in the BS and HS, are dominant in the neritic area of the SCS,
and some polystenohaline stenohyperthermic oceanic species such as Gosserliella
tropica, Ch. dadayi and Ch. teastichon etc. occur, which except for their occurrence
in the main axis of the KWC and the SCSWC, are very rare in the China Seas.
2. Species Abundance
Based on the formula used by Margalef (1957), the plankton species abundance
(a measure for species diversity of phytoplankton) is calculated (Table 2).
Tablc 2. Phytoplankton Species Abundance and Scasonal Content of Chlorophyll-a in Uppcr Layer Waters
of China Seas'
Chlorrophyll-a
Region Species abundance
in Spring"
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
BS Neritic 1.2 (2.8) 0.94-2.09 0.57-0.70 0.99-1.75 0.38--1.05

Middle 0.57 0.76 1.15 0.50
Neritic 1.2 (2.8) 0.95-2.39 0.63-0.88 0.97-1.27 0.49
HS Middle
North of 37°30'N 1.5 (3.4) 0.64 0.40 1.00 0.81
South of 37°30'N 1.6 (3.7) 0.69 0.43 0.79 0.67
Coastal area of China <1.7«4.0) 0.25-0.39 0.31-4.18

Taiwan Wanu Current 1.7 (4.0) 0.07-0.22 <0.50-1.00 >2.00-3.00
Middle 0.9-1.3 (2.0-3.0) 0.18-0.32 0.53 0.77
ECS
Kutoshi Warm Current 1.9 (4.5) 0.03-0.25 0.23-0.34 0.20-0.81
Upwelling area in southeastern <0.43 « 1.0) 0.35
part of Chejudao Is.
Neritic 10.3 (23.7)

East of Zhujiang R. estuary 10.3 (23.7)
West of Zhujiang R. estuary 12.4 (28.5)
SCS Daya Bay (ca. 22°40'N, 114°40'E) 3.2 (7.4) 0.8 1.2 1.5 1.5
Oceanic
Xisha Islands (16°N, 112°E) 52.3 (53.4)
Nansha Islands (8°N, 116°E) 6.4 (14.8) 0.04
a Based on the data of Guo el al., 1977, 1982, 1983, 1991; Huang, 1983, 1990; Ning el al., 1985; Huang el al., 1989. g Values in brackets
calculated from the formula d=(S-I)!IogN; Value with brackets from d=(S-I)!InN; d=diversity index, S=number of species, N=number
of cells.
The resulted species abundance correspond to the general ecological rhythm in

terms that the number of species is greater in tropical regions than in cold regions.
This shows a very close correlation between the phytoplankton species composition
and the distribution pattern of water bodies. The species abundance of phytoplankton
can serve as good biological indicator for water masses and currents.
B. Quantitative Studies on Phytoplankton
1. Phytoplankton Crop-Chlorophyll Contents

The chlorophyll content (usually denoted as chlorophyll-a) of phytoplankton is
recently used to express the standing crop. Although there is no definite transfor-
mation ratio for the change of chlorophyll to organic carbon, the technique for
determination of cell chlorephyll is relatively convenient since the living algae cells
consumed by marine herbivores can be distinguished from other inorganic materials
by this method (Raymont, 1980).
In China seas, chlorophyll-a varies from 0.01 mg/m 3 to 4.18 mg/m 3• Its
distribution pattern is somewhat similar to that of phytoplankton cell number, i.e.,
chlorophyll-a is higher in the inshore areas and gulfs than in offshore areas, and
higher in the ECS coastal area than in other China seas.
The peak of the phytoplankton chlorophyll-a occurs in the ECS coast in summer
while in the SCS, BS and HS in spring and autumn (Table 2, Fig. Ib).
2. Distribution of Cell Numbers of Phytoplankton
1) Spatial Distribution. In terms of average number of phytoplankton cells, the

ECS ranks the first, the SCS the second, then the Northern HS, BS and the Southern
HS (Table 3). The phytoplankton population is densest in the neritic region, gulfs,
and the front region of mixed water bodies (Fig. 3a).
Table 3. Annual Average Cell Numbers of Phytoplankton and Their Variation
Range in China Seas
Area Variation range ( X lO'/m3 )

East Olina Sea 1100 10 000
South Olina Sea 753 6248
North Huanghai Sea 250 l700
Bohai Sea 150 500
South Huallghai Sea 96 400
In the Northern HS, phytoplankton patches occur in the niritic area where the
salinity is <31.5. In spring, the patch in the southern coast of the BS distributes
eastwards and connects with that in the southern coast of the HS. The cell number
of the neritic region is about 50 times that of the middle region where the salinity is
greater than 31.5 because of the effect of the oceanic water. In the ECS, owing to the
complicated hydrodynamics of water bodies, the ehytoplankton distribution is not
uniform like that in the other Chian seas. In spring (March-April) the patches usually
appears in the neritic region. During the phytoplankton's flourishing period from
summer to autumn (June-November), the patches occur in: i) the areas affected by
the continental neritIc water diluted by Changjiang River freshwater, and the mouth
of Hangzhou Bay; ii) the region of mIXed neritic water and the TWC (near 123°E),
and iii) the upwelling areas of the continental slope and in the southwestern part of
the Chejudao Island, and eastern part of the Hangzhou Bay (about 300 30'N, 124°E).
In winter (December to Feburary of the next year), when the neritic water decreases
and the oceanic water with low nutrients and high salinity increases, the
phytoplankton patches disappear.
In the SCS, the distribution pattern of phytoplankton is mainly controlled by the
dynamics of the Zhujiang River runoff and the oceanic water (the SCSWC) with
salinity of over 34 throughout the year. The density center ofrhytoplankton always
appears at a tongue of brackish water with salinity 0 about 30. During
January-March, 1960, as a result of the northeast winds turning the runoff westward,
the phytoplankton individual number in the western Zhujiang River estuary was
PrimUl), Productivity and Phytoplankton 235
b. Phytoplankton
communities
jiCommunity
.' boundary 40'
Community N
number
Neritic GrotlP:
1,1 -1,1 -2
m-l,JII-2,
m-3, JII-4
Oceanic Group:
N,V,VI,VI,
VlII
35
.iJ.'
•• 30
'East China Sea
e
.If
5 j • o~ ." 25
c' ...
\ j
.I
/,
20
,.
= ,
20
15 r===============~.15
a. Phytoplankton
individuals
(celIs. m- 3 )
010'-10' 0 10'-10'
010'-10' 010'-10'
0 10'-
1010
0 >10 10
• Annual average
E9 Spring CD Summer
.
1';0": .$
!
® Autumn e Wmter
105 110 120'"10
Fig. 3. Distributions of phytoplankton individuals and communities.

greater than that in the east. In April to May, intruding oceanic water separated the
neritic zone phytoplankton patch into two parts. In June to July, when the runoff
flowed eastward again, a luxuriant phytoplankton patch appeared in the estuary's
eastern sea area, where the salinity decreased to 30. In August to September,
although the runoff decreased, the phytoplankton number increased slightly with the
increase of transparency near the estuary.
2) Seasonal Variation of Cell Numbers. The ECS, HS and BS have similar
seasonal phytoplankton population cycles coinciding with the general seasonal
variation In the temperate seas. There are two population peaks in a year, one in
early spring and the other in summer to autumn. In the SCS, phytoplankton flourish
in the Zhujiang River flood season (June). There is no obvious phytoplankton peak
in the oceanic area as it is affected by the oligotrophic seawater throughout the year.
In the BS and the northern HS, the peak in spring (February-April) is higher
than that in autumn (August-September), but vice versa in the southern HS and the
ECS. The greater seasonal variation occurs in the ECS (x 108 cells/m 3), followed by
the northern HS, BS and southern HS (x 106 cells/m 3 , Table 3, Fig. 4).
C. Delineation of Phytoplankton Communities
Based on the ~uantitative distribution of phytoplankton species of different

ecological nature, dIstribution of cell numbers, and cluster analysis with Preston's
Equation (Guo and Gu, 1991), the phytoplankton in China seas are divided into
neritic and oceanic groups and further subdivided into several communities as follows
(Fig.3b).
1. Neritic Group
The three communities along the Chinese coast are characterized by the high
adaptability to seawater of low salinity «31.5) and great fluctuation of temperature.
The composition of these communities vary depending on the influence of the
oceanic water.
Community I occupies the whole BS, the HS neritic region off the Liaoning,
Shandong and Jiangsu provinces. The coastal seawater in these sea areas is
characterized by a low salinity (27-31) and large temperature variation (>28°C). The
outer boundary of this region is limited by the 35 m isobath. This region has the
biotope of warm-temperate neritic species and cosmopolitan species throughout the
year. Some cold temperate neritic species (in winter) and a few tropical neritic
species (in summer) are mixed in this community. In the central BS, high salinity
species (such as Rhizosolenia styli/ormis) are carried there by oceanic HS water. Their
cell number is less than one tenth of the total cell numbers of the neritic region.
Community II occuppies the Changjiang River estuary and Zhejiang coast neritic
region. The outer boundary is approximately limited by the 60 m isobath. This
community's domination of warm-temperate and some tropical species indicates it is
mainly affected by coastal water from the HS, runoffs from the Changjian~ River,
and the TWC. This community may be subdivided into two subcommunitIes: one
occupies the Chan~iang River estuary; the other occupies the neritic region offcoast
the Zhejiang ProvInce to the middle part of the coast of the Fujian Province. The
salinity of the former subcommunity is much lower than that of the latter, especially
in the flood season, when red tide is often caused by Skeletonema costa tum which
tolerates the salinity below 8 (Chin and Chen, 1965).
100
Temperature 30
80 ...... ......... /
200 ". phytoplankton -- .' \ Zooplankton " ..... . 20
60
""
\
40
100 '~
.................. ----- ---.-..........,:.:::.
10
20
0 o~----~~~~~~====~--~~--~ O·C
100 300 Northern Huanghai Sea 30
.....
80 .
..... "
200 20
60 ..........
40
100 _--- 10
20
'"'
0 o~~===-~~--~~==~========~ 0
'I 100 300 Southern Huanghai Sea 30
S
80
:::=
til
200 "'.
0 C
8 60 0
<::, f-;
,....,
'-' 40 100 10
20
0 oL-~====~=- __________ ~~~ ____ ~=- __- lO·C
700 400 East China Sea
60G r-_
/
500 300 /
/ 30
/
400 /
//
',-----,>. . . . . . . ./~. . . .
200 , /
.. 20
300 "~
200
100 10
100 ",----~ -'
0 O·C
o 9 10 11 12 2 3 4 5 11 12
1958 1959
8 100
\ South China Sea 29
70 90 \
60 \ /\ 27 '"
'I 80 \ / 1/ A·. 3
~
$
50
40
70 \
\ /
/:\
: \ /
/ \
\ /'
25 ~S
0-
q; / \ I \./\ /'
v. . . , \ \\ /-,-:.~. ~-,:.::. . . . .'\\ /

<.l 60 \ / J v I " . 3
3 :I~~r 50 22 3 ~
t 4
I ........ V.
1
••
30~1~2~~=;~~~~~~~;;=1~1;1~2~1~2~~3~~4~5~~6~
1959 1960 month
Fig. 4. Seasonal variations of phytoplankton individuals (X UP cells/m3), biomass of zooplankton (mg/m 3)

and temperature (OC) of the upper layer of seawater.
Community III occupies the neritic region offthe coast of Fujian and Guangdong
provinces to Beibuwan Bay (Gulf of Tonking). Dominant species are freshwater and
brackish ones, and tropical neritic species are also aboundant. Some tropical oceanic
species often occur in the subcommunity east of the Zhujiang River estuary.
2. Oceanic Group
Community IV is bounded by the 60 m and 80 m isobaths along 123°E. This area

is affected by the high salinity (33-34) and high temperature TWC. Its main members
are tropical species, especially the tropical neritic species. In summer, this community
is merged with the Community III which is enlarged by the strong neritic water.
Many temperate and cosmopolitan species also mix.
Community V occupies the area between the 80 m and 150m isobaths and is
affected by the KWC. Its main members are tropical oceanic species, especially the
tropical species of Ceratium (Guo and Yang, 1983).
Community VI occupies the central HS. Besides the temperate oceanic species
as its main members, there are many temperate neritic species mixed from the
neighbouring communities. In spring and autumn, the species and cell numbers are
low, especially in the southern part of the central HS. In summer and winter, some
tropical species and eurythermlc halobic species are transported here by the upper
seawater of HSWC.
Community VII occupies the central ECS. Its northern part is affected by the
oceanic water mass from the middle of the HS. The main members are temperate
oceanic species. Mixed in this community are some temperate neritic species from
the Community II. In the northeastern part are found a few tropical species carried
there by the HSC. There are more tropical species in the southern part than in the
northern part. The enlargement of the TWC and the KWC towards the middle part
of the ECS makes this a virtually mixed community.
Community VIII occupies the central SCS bounded by the 75 m isobath and has
a salinity of over 34 throughout the year. Dominant species are tropical oceanic
species such as Chaetoceros messanensis, Ch. atlanticus var. Skeleton, Gossleriella
tropica, Dinophysis miles and Amphisolenia thrinax etc. During summer, when the
SCSWC intensifies, this community moves northward to the coastal area near 22°N
and overlaps the neritic community there.
D. Relationship Between Phytoplankton Population and Environment
The growth energy of phytoplankton is supplied by photosynthesis. Light,

temperature, salinity, water transparency and other hydrographic parameters are
physical factors affecting the photosynthesis of phytoplankton. The BS, HS and ECS
are in the northern temperate zone, where seawater transparency is about 3-5 m and
10-15 m in the neritic and oceanic regions except at the estuaries where it is less
than 1 m. The measured solar irradiance reaching the subsurface layer of these three
seas is more than the 60 W/m2 generally, so there is no limit for phytoplankton
photosynthesis. Diatoms flourish here dunng the cold seasons of spring, autumn and
winter. Many pyrrophytes flourish here in summer when solar ITradiance is high.
Patches of phytoplankton usually occur in the nutrient rich neritic region with low
salinity (15-31.5). Althouflh the nutrient contents are high(more than 40 mg/m 3 in
phosphate and 80 mg/m in nitrogen) in the Changjiang River estuary, the low
transparency « 1 m) of the seawater limits the distribution and photosynthesis of
phytoplankton. In the nutrient rich and highll transparent frontal areas of water
masses, phytoplankton density increases to 10 cells/m 3 • Diatoms (such as Melosira
sulcata) living near the sea bottom are carried into the planktonic population by
prevailing upwelling and vertical mixing of water in winter (Asao, 1975; Guo & Yang,
1983). Many temperate diatom species occurring in spring in the HS also appear near
the upwelling area off the Chejudao Island in the ECS, where they form a special
phytoplankton flora very different from that of the dominant warm water species
there, and are upwelled by lower layer cold water, so this temperate species
population can serve as a biological indicator of upwelling. Some specIes of
Pyrrophyta occurring in the KWC only are stenothermic and stenohaline, and are
good indicators of warm current (Fig. 5, Guo and Yang, 1983).
o Ceratium bigelowii
~ C. extensum
Ee C. symmetricum
() C. candelabrum
§ C. hexacanthum v. spirale
(j) Ornifhocercus magnificus
@ Oxytoxum scolopax
o Podolampas elegans
@ Triposolenia depres8a
• C. cephalotum
@ C. hexacanthum
© C. vultur v. sumatranum
~ C. deflexum
e C.lunula
~ Amphisolenia denticulata
all> O. splendidus
S Ceratocorys horrida
@ T. bicornis
Fig. 5. Distribution of phytoplankton indicator species of the KWC (May 29-July 3, 1978; after Guo and
Yang, 1983)
In the BS, ECS and HS, phosphorus content in seawater varies from 10 mg/m 3
to 30 mg/m 3 generally, and is high in winter and summer. In the BS and HS, there
is a close and stable relationship between the cell number of phytoplankton and the
variation in phosphorus content. In general, a month before the phytoplankton
maximum, the content of phosphorus is more than 20 mg/m 3, whereas during or just
after the month of maximum, It decreases to lower than 20 mg/m 3 • The phosphorus
in the ECS is more than that in the BS and HS, and is usually transported to It from
the continent by the Changjiang River. Phosphorus is consumed by phytoplankton,
but is not a limiting factor for their growth. Organic phosphates, particularly
glycerophosphates, can be used as sources of phosphorus by many species of
unicellular algae (Morris, 1980), and many phanktonic species can produce
phosphatases associated with the cell surface. These enzymes trigger the production
of a phosphorus associated ion which is assimilated, and of an organic fraction which
remains in the environment (Raymont, 1980). Nitrogen is another essential nutrient
for phytoplankton growth. In the BS (except in the phytoplankton bloom period) the
tendency of quantitative change of inorganic nitrogen is similar to that of
phytoplankton cells in general. The nitrogen content of 100 mg/m 3 favorates the
phytoplankton growth just before their bloom period (early spring), after which (end
of spring) the nitrogen content decreases to less than 45 mg/m 3 , near the lower limit
of the optimum value for phytoplankton existence. The HS coastal region is more
fertile for phytoplankton growth than offshore area. The Jiaozhou Bay in the HS west
coast is very rich in phosphorus and nitrogen which are fastly replenished by
phosphorus and nitrogen present in the sewage discharged into the bay, and the
fertilizer added for the cultivation Laminaria cultured there. The variations of
phytoplankton cell number and nutrient contents are. usually in positive correlation.
NH4 here comprising more than two thirds of the total inorganic nitrogen shows that
the NH4 was not converted sufficiently to N0 3 and was not in thermodynamic
equilibrium due to its direct uptake by phytoplankton. The division efficiency of
phytoplankton cells here exceeded that in the English Channel, where the NH4 is
converted sufficiently to N0 3 in winter, and where the phytoplankton division cycle
is longer than that in Jiaozhou Bay. The ECS coastal waters are highly fertile,
especially near the Changjiang River estuary which provides more than 500 mgfm3
nitrogen from its runoff during summer. The phytoplankton bloom is caused by the
nutrients in the external area of the estuary where the water transperancy is high.
The BS is rich in silicate (200-600 mg/m 3 in general) especially when the ice melts
in spring. River floods also bring large amounts of silicate (1000-3000 mg/m 3 ) to
estuaries in summer. When the phytoplankton are in full bloom, the dissofved
silicates in the area are consummed so that dense concentrations of phytoplankton
often occur in regions with low silicates. The silicate content is usually low in the
oceanic regions of these seas. Besides the physical and chemical factors mentioned
above, sinking and zooplankton grazing also play important roles in the decline of
phytoplankton. In the liaozhou Bay, for example, the increase of dissolved organic
carbon is caused mainly by the decomposition of phytoplankton. In the BS and HS,
the peak of zooplankton biomass (in June) usually appears during the minimum of
phytoplankton cell number (Fig. 4). The photosynthesis rate of phytoplankton then
IS very high but the number of celfs decreses to about 0.01 % of that in early spring
because of the zooplankton grazing. But in the ECS, the peak of phytoplankton and
zooplankton occurs in the same month (Fig. 4), and the grazing is apparently not a
limiting factor for the distribution of the phytoplankton population, because the
phytoplankton is more abundant here than in the BS and HS.
PriUlary Productivity and Phytoplankton 241
Ecological studies of the phytoplankton in the fishing grounds ofAcetes chinensis

in the Liaodung Bay in the BS show that Coscinodiscus asteromphalus and C.
jonesianus comprise the main food of the Acetes. The phytoplankton increases greatly
in number in June, but is heavily consumed by small shrimps, zooplankton and fish
fry in July, and thus decreases greatly by August. It is evident that the intensive
feeding by Acetes and other herbivores is one of the main causes for the decrease of
these Coscinodiscus. In the mackerel fishing ground of the southern Northern HS, the
distribution of Chaetoceros correlates with hydrographical conditions. The total
number of Chaetoceros cells in various parts of the fishing ground is correlated with
the distribution of inshore and offshore waters. The largest number of Chaetoceros
usually occurs near the shore. The Chaetoceros here consists mainly of species of the
two subgenera Monochromatophorus and Dichromatophorus and the following species
of the subgenera Polychromatophorus: Ch. lorenzianus, Ch. compressus, Ch.
castracanei, Ch. peruvianus and Ch. densus. Dense concentrations of these species
near the shore are sometimes greatly dispersed by the influx of offshore water
bringing Ch. convolutus into the fishing ground. Ch. convolutus may possibly be used
as an indicator of the saline offshore water, especially in the early part of the
mackerel fishing season. Ch. castracanei and Ch. densus occur abundantly almost all
over the fishing ground throughout the main period of the fishing season. Their
distribution correlates well with hydrographical conditions (Chu and Kuo, 1958).
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Sym., 9-14 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
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Mar. BioI. AI/Jlu. Rev. 29, 155-189.
Guo, Yu-jie and Gu, Xin-gen (1991) "Delineation of different phytoplankton communities in the mackerel
and caranogida fishing grounds in the East China Sea", Chin. 1. Oceallo/. Limno/. 9(1), 71-77.
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continental shelf of the East China Sea in summer of 1976", Studia Mar. Sinica 19, 11-32 (in
Guo, Yu-jie and Yang, Ze-yu (1983) "Ecological studies on the phytoplankton of the Kuroshio in the East
China Sea during summer of 1978", in C.K. Tseng (eds.) Proceed. Joint China-U.S. Phycol. Sym.,
275-290.
Huang, Liang-min (1990) "Distributional characteristics of photopigment and primary productivity in the
sea area of Nansha Islands", in Abstracts of the 2nd Symposium of the Comprehensive Scientific
Survey of Nansha Is. and Adjacent Sea Areas, pp. 14-5 (in Chinese).
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of primary productivity", in Gong-zhao Xu (eds.) Environments and Resources of Daya Bay, pp.
Hung, R. and Chiang, Y. M. (1974) "Phytoplankton along the southern coast of Taiwan", 1. Fish. Soc.
Taiwan 3(2), 29-33.
Hung, T. -CO (1975) "Primary productivity in the Kuroshio Current surrounding Taiwan", 1. Oceaflogr. Soc.
lpll. 31,255-258.
Hung, T. -c., Chou, P. Y., and Tsai, C. C. H. (1979a) "Chemical nutrients and primary productivity along
the eastern coast of Taiwan", Acta Oceaflogr. Taiwallica No.10, 81-94.
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southern coast of Taiwan", Acta Taiwallica No.9, 23-38.
Hung, T. -c., OlUang, A., 01OU, B. -R., and Cheng, T. -L. (1982) "Relationship among POC, ATP,
chlorophyll-a and primary productivity in the seawater along Taiwan western coast", Acta Oceallogr.
Taiwanica 13, 109-123.
Morris, 1. (Ed.) (1980) The Physiological Ecology of Phytoplankton, Blackwell Sci. Pub., p. 625.
Ning, Xiu-ren, Liu, Zi-ling, and Hu, Qin-xian (1985) "Distributive characteristics of chlorophyll-a and
primary productivity in the upwelling of the coast of Zhejiang Province", Act. Oceanol. Sinica 7(6),
Raymont, 1. E. G. (1980) Plankton and Productivity in the Oceans (2nd Ed.), Vol. 1. Phytoplankton, p. 488.
Stemann Nielsen, E. (1975) Marine Photosynthesis, Elsevier Sci. Pub. Co.
Werner, D. (1977) The Biology of Diatoms, Blackwell Scientific Pub., p. 498.
Yang, Yao, Zhang, Fan, and Wu, Li-jun et al. (1988) "Distribution of chlorophyll-a and estimation on
primary productivity", in Fujian Institute of Oceanology (ed.), A Comperhensive Oceanographic
Survey of the C-entral and Northern Part of the Taiwan Strait, pp. 244-258 (in Chinese).
ZOOPLANKTON IN ·CHINA SEAS
CHEN Qing-chao
South China Sea 11lStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
The China seas refer to the Bohai Sea, the Huanghai Sea, the East China Sea, and
the South China Sea. They are marginal seas of the West Pacific Ocean, trending
roughly NE-SW and crossing over 44°N in the temperate tropical zones. Their
physical environments vary significantly.
Various groups of marine zooplankton living in these seas are important
secondary products of the seas. Efforts have been made in China to scientifically
study these groups and to develop and exploit these natural resources.
I. DOMINANT SPECIES OF ZOOPLANKTON IN CHINA SEAS
A. Calanus sinicus Brodsky
This is a dominant species in the Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea neritic
waters. To the NE it is distributed off the east and west coasts of Honshu, Japan
around 40o N; to the south off the north coast of the South China. With the exception
of river mouth areas, it spreads all over China's neritic seas (Chen et al., 1982). It is
a planktonic copepod, large both in size and quantity, and widespreads in
distribution. It constitutes an important part of the total biomass of neritic
zooplankton. Its geographical distribution IS substantially affected by salinity. It
expands with the strengthening of high-salinity water and shrinks with the attenuation
of the water salinity. Its optimal temperature is 5-24°C, and that for its reproduction
is 1O-18°C. In maximal concentration zones, its density is > 1000 ind./m 3 in the Bohai
Sea (in June), 500 ind./m 3 in the North Huanghai Sea (in December), 500 ind./m 3 in
the South Huanghai Sea (in July), and >500 ind./m 3 in the East China Sea (in June).
In the northern seas of China, there are two quantity peaks each year, one in spring
and the other in autumn. In the seas south of the Fujian Province, only one quantity
peak occurs in spring (Chen, 1986, 1992).
B. Sagitta crassa Tokioka
It is a temperate species, mainly distributed in the sea areas with salinity less
than 32.0 along the coasts of the Bohai Sea, the Huanghai Sea, and the East China
Sea, with the quantity maxima occurring in the North Huanghai Sea and the Bohai
Sea. The occurrence of the population peak in the year varies with geographical
243
zones. In the Bohai Sea, the quantity peak of over 500 ind./m3 occurs in August-
September; in the North Huanghai Sea it is over 250 ind./m 3 in October-December.
In winter, it spreads along the littoral zone of the East China Sea and can be seen
occasionally in small quantity off the coast of the eastern Guangdong Province. This
species has obvious seasonal variation (Chen, 1992).
C. Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht
This is a eurythermal and low-haline species living in the area where salinity is
<30.0. It is mainly distributed in river mouths and littoral low-salinity waters in the
Bohai Sea, especIally its three large bays, the Huanghai Sea and its estuaries, the
East China Sea, the Changjiang River Mouth and the Hangzhou Bay, and the South
China Sea. In winter and spring it is low in quantity, but when the summer diluted
water empties into the sea, it expands in area and increases in number. In October,
a quantity peak of the year occurs with the maximum up to 500 ind./m 3. In the East
China Sea a sub-peak occurs in August. In the river mouth areas of the South China
Sea, its quantity is less than that in the Bohai Sea (Chen, 1992; Wong et aL, 1993).
D. Parathemisto gracilipes (Norman)
This is a temperate species, mainly distributed in the central Huanghai Sea
waters where salinity is relatively high (may exceeds 31.0). In winter and spring when
the South Huanghai Sea water expands southward, it disperses into the East China
Sea. This species increases gradually in number in spring, peaks in summer, and
becomes scarce in autumn and winter (Chen, 1992; Shih and Chen, 1993).
E. Euphausia pacifica Hansen
This is a North Pacific, temperate and high-salinity pelagic species mainly

distributed in the central Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea, especially in the
boundary zone between the two seas. In the North Huanghai Sea its number rises in
summer, peaks in August and has the second peak by December. In the South
Huanghai Sea, a small population peak occurs in April-June; the peak of the year
occurs in September. In the East China Sea, its number increases gradually since
September; the peak of a year occurs in December (Chen, 1992).
F. Pseudeuphausia sinica Wang et Chen
It is mainly distributed in a mixing zone of high and low-salinity waters on the

shallow bank off the northern Jiangsu Province, at the Changjiang River mouth, and
off the Zhejiang-Fujian provinces. In spring it begins to breed and increases in
number; in summer (July-August) reaches to a peak of more than 250 ind./m 3, then
decreases, and peaks again by October. In the East China Sea, water temperature
rises earlier, so the population peak occurs one month earlier than that in the South
Huanghai Sea. In the western Taiwan Strait, it breeds all the year round. Its prime
is in April-May and October-November. Two population peaks occur in February
and October. Longshore the northern South China Sea, it appears in winter and
spring in small quantity (Chen, 1992).
Zooplankton in China Seas 245
G. Pseudeuphausia lati/rons (G.O. Sars)
This is a tropical, thermophilic and halohilic species. In the East China Sea
during September-December, It distributes widely in the pelagic waters off Zhejiang
where a population peak appears in November. It is limited to 31°N in the north, and
extends to the Taiwan Strait in the south. In the South China Sea the population
peak occurs in October, when it spreads all over the northern, central, and southern
parts, mostly in summer and autumn. Aggregations are found (Chen, 1992).
H. Euchaeta concinna Dana
It is a tropical species, widely spreaded all over the East China Sea, the Taiwan
Strait, and the northern and southern parts of the South China Sea. Its concentration
zone appears in the frontal area of the East China Sea pelagic water or that of the
South China Sea pelagic water. The lower limit of its temperature tolerance is
18-23°C, and of salinity 33.0-34.0. The first population peak occurs in January-
March. In November it increases again.
Ecologically similar to this species is Euchaeta plana Mori (Chen, 1992).
I. Undinula vulgaris (Dana)
The concentration zone of this species is in the conjoining area of the East China
Sea pelagic water and coastal water or that of the Huanghai Sea water and East
China Sea water, and in the mixing areas of the two water masses in the Taiwan
Strait and the southern and northern South China Sea. It is a tropical species
adaptable to temperature of 21.7-28.7°C and salinity of 33.0-34.0. In the South China
Sea starting from March, it increases gradually in number. By May it spreads all over
the mixing area of Guangdong neritic water and pelagic water. The concentration is
generally about 10 ind./m 3 and maximum of >70 ind./m 3. The second breeding peak
occurs from October through November. This species is widely distributed all over
the East China Sea (including the Taiwan Strait) and the South China Sea in a large
number in summer and autumn, but in small number in spring and winter. Similar
to this species is Undinufa darwinii (Lubbock) (Chen, 1992).
J. Eucalanus subcrassus Giesbrecht
In the East China Sea and South China Sea, Eucalanus subcrassus Giesbrecht is
concentrated in the mixing zone of pelagic and neritic waters. From winter to
summer it is scarce. The population number increases from August to a peak in
October (50 ind./m3). It is a widely spreading neritic species in the East China Sea
and the northern and southern South China Sea. In the northern part of the
Beibuwan Gulf during October, its density may reach 26 ind./m 3. It accounts for 39%
of the copepod total and is also a dominant species in the Thailand Gulf (Chen,
1992; Wong et af., 1993).
K. Canthocalanus pauper (Giesbrecht)
It is a small tropical copepod appearing usually in small number in areas where

the salinity is about 31.0-33.0. In the East China Sea and the South China Sea, it
usually concentrates in small number in the joint area of pelagic water and neritic
water during winter and spring, but in a large number during summer and autumn.
In the northern South China Sea, a concentration zone with 50 ind./m 3 usually occurs
in the area 30-50 n mile off the coast. It is also abundant in the southern South
China Sea (Chen, 1992).
L. Temora turbinata (Dana)
It is concentrated in a large number in joint areas of different water masses,
where temperature is higher than 20°C, and salinity is 31.0-33.0. It is found
throughout the year in the South China Sea. In May it starts increasing; in July a
population peak occurs (30 ind./m 3), and in August-September the number decreases.
In the Beibuwan Gulf, the peak occurs in winter (up to 250 ind./m3). For different
geographical zones the quantity peak occurs in different seasons (Chen, 1992; Wong
et at., 1993).
M. Lucifer intermedius Hansen
This species spreads all over the East China Sea and is limited to about 33°N in
the north. When winter comes, it retreats to the area south of 31°N. The population
peak occurs in August-September. In the Taiwan Strait, population peak occurs in
spring and autumn. In the northern South China Sea, its number increases during
April-June. It is abundant in the shallow water harbors and bays along the coasts,
usually concentrated in the joint zone of coastal and pelagic waters. A concentration
belt roughly parallel to the shoreline occurs off Guangdong coast (Chen, 1992).
N. Sagitta enflata Grassi
This species adapts to salinity of 30.0-34.5 and temperature of 21-29SC and
widely spreads in the boundary zone between the Huanghai Sea and the East China
Sea. it is abundant in summer and autumn but scarce in late autumn and winter. In
the Taiwan Strait, the population peak (> 100 ind./m3) occurs in spring-summer, then
decreases gradually. In the South China Sea, it appears in the pelagic and littoral
high-salinity areas; its quantity reaches the peak of the year in autumn (Chen, 1992).
O. Sagitta pacifica Tokioka
This is a thermophilic and halophilic species distributed in the East China Sea
pelagic waters where the Kuroshio current passes. In the Taiwan Strait it appears
only in the central and southern high-salinity areas. It is widely distributed in South
China Sea pelagic waters. The popUlation peaks in February, then decreases in
spring, but increases again in summer and autumn (Chen, 1992).
II. ZOOPLANKTON BIOMASS OF CHINA SEAS
A. The Bohai Sea
In spring (April-May) when water temperature of the Bohai Sea rises gradually,
phytoplankton and zooplankton increase prominently. In most parts of the sea the
density of zooplankton exceeds 100-250 mg/m 3, particularly in the Laizhou Bay
(>250-500 mg/m 3). Zooplankton biomass peaks in early summer. Some patchy
aggregations have a biomass of over 500-1000 mg/m 3. The major species that result
in the high biomass are Calanus sinicus Brodsky and Sagitta crassa Tokioka. The
zooplankton biomass decreases in summer (July-September) through out the Bohai

Sea, especially in the central area, where it IS < 100 mg/m 3• But in a few areas in the
Liaodong, Bohai and Laizhou bays, the biomass is < 100-250 mg/m 3 • In autumn
(October-November), the zooplankton biomass increases again to > 100-250 mg/m 3
in some high biomass zones. In the above-mentioned three bays, the biomass is over
250-500 mg/m 3 in some areas, where dominant species contributing to the high
biomass are Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht and Sagitta crassa Tokioka. In winter
(December-March) in the entire area the zooplankton biomass decreases, but in a
few areas population consisting of Calanus sinicus Brodsky and Labidocera euchaeta
Giesbrecht remains unchanged. In the Bohai Sea, two peaks of zooplankton biomass
occur annually, the first in spring and the second smaller one in autumn. The
seasonal variation of zooplankton biomass is consistent with that in temperate seas
(Chen, 1992).
B. The Huanghai Sea

In early summer (May-June), the zooplankton biomass increases over the North
Huanghai Sea as a result of the rapid development of Calanus sinicus Brodsky and
Parathemisto graci/ipes (Norman). In July-September, the zooplankton biomass
decreases, almost throughout this sea, and is high only locally. In October, the
biomass increases again with major species being Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Sagitta
crassa Tokioka, and Parathemisto graci/pes (Norman). In late autumn to early winter
(November-December), the zooplankton biomass increases to over 100-250 mg/m 3
as a result of the increase of Euphausia pacifica Hansen, Calanus sinicus Brodsky,
and Sagitta crassa Tokioka. In winter (January-February), zooplankton biomass
decreases everywhere in the Sea.
In the North Huanghai Sea, zooplankton biomass is rather stable and does not
vary much seasonally. In spring (April), zooplankton biomass prominently increases
(keeping at 100-250 mg/m 3) in the South Huanghai Sea. In May, areas with high
zooplankton biomass further expand; the biomass is over 100-250 mg/m 3 as a result
of the rapid development of Parathemisto graci/ipes (Norman), Calanus sinicus
Brodsky, and Sagitta crassa Tokioka. In the northern Jiangsu offshore waters, there
is a high concentration of Gsatrosaccus kojimaensis Nakazawa. In summer (June), a
zooplankton biomass peak of the year occurs. In August-September, the high
biomass appears in the joint zone of the Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea,
resulting mainly from the increase in South Huanghai Sea dominant species. From
late autumn to winter (October-February), in the whole sea area the zooplankton
biomass decreases rapidly.
C. The East China Sea
In spring (April-May) in the East China Sea, the massive breeding of Calanus
sinic,'us Brodsky greatly increases the zooplankton biomass. Besides the coastal and
river mouths, areas with high biomass of over 100-500 mg/m 3 are distributed
everywhere in the sea. In summer (June-August), biomass peak occur all over the
sea, with major species being Calanus sinicus Brodsky, pseudeuphausia sinica Wang
et Chen, Sagitta crassa Tokioka, and Euchaeta concinna Dana. From late summer to
winter (September-March), the biomass decreases in the entire sea. Only in
November, aggregations of Euphausia pacifica Hansen occur locally. The occurrence
of high zooplankton biomass in the East China Sea is closely related to the
quantitative variation of major species. For example, the summer peak is caused by
Calanus sinh,'us Brodsky, Sagitta nagae alvarino and Pseudeuphausia sinica Wang et
Chen, and the late autumn peak mainly by Euphausia pacifica Hansen. The
alternation of zooplankton dominant species maintains the hi~h biomass in the sea
and hence the continuity of biomass peaks. In the western TaIwan Strait, a peak of
the zooplankton biomass occurs in summer (June), and in October another peak
appears, both are caused mainly by multiple species, i.e., Undinula vulgaris (Dana),
Eucalanus subtenuis Giesbrecht, Sagitta enflata Grassi, Temora turbinata (Dana),
Eucalanus subcrassus Giesbrecht and Lucifer intermedius Hansen. In the Taiwan
Strait, the seasonal variation of the zooplankton biomass is characterized by two peak
periods.
D. The South China Sea
The zooplankton biomass of the South China Sea is much lower than that of the
northern seas of China. This is consistent with the general low of tropical
zooplankton biomass. Distribution of the high biomass is generally limited to the
nearshore waters. The biomass is usually higher in the waters off eastern Guangdong
than that off western Guangdong and off the southern Hainan Island. Areas with
high biomass generally occur in the joint zones of coastal water and pelagic water in
the northern part of the South China Sea. Here, Higher biomass is caused by the
dominant species Temora turbinata (Dana), Undinula vulgaris (Dana), Eucalanus
subcrassus Giesbrecht, Canthocalanus pauper (Giesbrecht), Eucalanus subtenuis
(Giesbrecht), Euchaeta concinna Dana, and Sagitta enflata Grassi. In spring in the
coastal waters off eastern Guangdong, it is Calanus sinicus Brodsky that plays an
important role.
In the northern part of the Beibuwan Gulf, the peak of the zooplankton biomass
(about 400 mglm 3 ) occurs in March; in one or two areas it may be up to 600 mglm 3 •
Calanus sinicus Brodsky is the main contributor. Then the biomass decreases, keeping
at about 100 mglm 3, and increases again in early autumn. In the central part of the
South China Sea, a zooplankton biomass peak of the year occurs in summer (July),
averaging 34 mglm 3 , caused mainly by Undinula vulgaris (Dana), Scolecithrix danae
Lubbock, Eucalanus subtenuis Giesbrecht, Pleuromamma gracilis (Claus), Haloptilus
longicomis (Claus), and Sagitta enflata Grassi. In autumn (November) and winter
(February), the averages of the zooplankton biomass are 31 mglm 3 and 27 mglm 3,
respectively. It is slightly lower in sprin~, about 25 mglm 3 • The low and stable
zooplankton biomass in the central basm of the South China Sea reflects the
ecological characteristics of the zooplankton living in the tropical pelagic upper layer.
In the southern part of the South China Sea there is a broad continental shelf
shallow water area. Data of biomass obtained in spring of different years were found
to be similar and close to that found in other parts of the South China Sea. The
zooplankton is a very important biotic resource for the southern South china Sea.
III. THREE-DIMENSIONAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF ZOOPLANKTON

IN THE CHINA SEAS
A. The Bohai Sea
Since the Bohai Sea is a shallow semi-closed sea, the vertical structure of
zooplankton is simple. It may be roughly divided into three layers, the upper layer
Zooplankton ill Cbina Seas 249
(0-5 m), the middle layer (5-10 m), and the lower layer (10-20 m). Important groups
in the upper layer are Ceratium, Nocti/uca, Tintinnopsis, Medusa, Cladocera, and
copepoda and a great number of their larvae; in the middle layer Cladocera, Sagitta
and copepoda; and in the lower layer copepoda, Hyperiidea, Euphausia and Acetes.
The horizontal distribution of zooplankton may be divided into two geographical
zones. One is the low-salinity zone distributed along the coasts of Liaodong, Bohai
and Laizhou bays with representative species of Noctiluca scientillans (Macartney),
Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht, Tortanus spinicaudatus Shen et Bai, Acartia pacifica
Steuer, Sagitta crassa Tokioka, Acetes chinensis Hansen and Acanthomysis longirostris
Li. The other is the high-salinity zone in the central part of the sea with
representative species of Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Parathemisto gracilipes (Norman)
and Euphausia pacifica Hansen. Typical species of either zone are obviously
concentrated. With the migration and mixing of water masses, the horizontal
distributions of typical species in the two zones are overlapped.
The seasonal variation of zooplankton is rather apparent and may be divided into
three geographical zones. Along the littoral zone of the northern Bohai Sea,
Labidocera ellchaeta Giesbrecht, Acetes chinensis Hansen and Paracalanus crassirostris
Dahl appear in spring; many species of Medusa Tortanus spinicaudatus Shen et Bai
and Paracalanus crassirostris Dahl appear in summer; in autumn they are Rhopilema
esculentum Kishinouye,Acetes chinensis Hansen, Calanopia thompsoni Scott, Tortanus
spinicaudatus Shen et Bai and Acartia pacifica Steuer; in winter, species number and
quantity decrease obviously with Pseudodiaptomus poplesia (Shen) etc. being
predominant. Along the littoral zone of the southern Bohai Sea, III spring there are
Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht, Noctiluca scientillans (Macartney), Acanthomysis
longirostris Li; in summer IllTritopsis nutricula McCrady, Phialucium carolinae
(Mayer), Tortanus spinicaudatus Shen et Bai, and Centropages tenuiremis Thompson
et Scott; in autumn Calanopia thompsoni Scott, Pseudodiaptomus marinus Sato, Acetes
chinensis Hansen and Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht; in winter Paracalanus
crassirostris Dahl, Tortanus spinicaudatus Shen et Bai and Labidocera euchaeta
Giesbrecht are predominant.
In the central part of the Sea, in spring dominant species are Paracalanus
crassirostris Dahl, Corycaeys affinis Mcmurrichi and Acartia clausi Giesbrecht; in
summer Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Paracalanus parvus (Claus), Parathemisto graci/ipes
(Norman); in autumn Calanopia thompsoni Scott, Euphausia pacifica Hansen and
Calanus sinicus Brodsky, and in winter Paracalanus parvus (Claus) and Paracalanus
crassirostris Dahl.
B. The Huanghai Sea
The Huanghai Sea is a semi-closed shallow sea, whose vertical structure of

zooplankton may be roughly divided into three layers, i.e., 0-10 m, 10-30 m, and
30-50 m. In the upper layer there are mainly Medusa, cladocera, Noctuluca, small
copepoda, and a great number of there larvae; in the middle layer Hyperiidea,
Cladocera, Sagitta, Euphausia and Copepoda; in the lower layer Copepoda,
Euphausia, Acetes, etc. In horizontal distribution, the zooplankton may be divided
into two zones: a low salinity coastal zone with representative species of Noctiluca
scientillans (Macartney), Turritopsis nutricula McCardy, Ectopleura dumortier (van
Beneden), Acetes chinensis Hansen, Penilia avirostris Dana, Acartia clausi Giesbrecht,
Sagitta crassa Tokioka, Acanthomysis longirostris Li, Centropages dorsispinatus
Thompson et Scott, etc.; and a central Huanghai Sea high-salinity zone with
representative species of Euphysa auratus Forbes, Parathemisto gracilipes (Norman),

Euphausia pacifica Hansen, Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Cyclosalpa bakeri Ritter, etc.
The zooplankton species in the Huanghai Sea in spring are Centropages murrichi
WilIey, Calanus sinicus Brodsky,Acanthomysis longirostris Li, Paracalanus crassirostris
Dahl, etc.; in summer Parathemisto gracilipes (Norman), Calanus sinicus Brodsky,
Acetes chinensis Hansen, Centropages dorsispinatus Thompson et Scott, Penilia
avirostris Dana etc.; in autumn Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht, Calanus sinicus
Brodsky, Pseudodiaptomus marinus Sato, Cyclosalpa bakeri Ritter, Euphausia pacifica
Hansen, Sagitta crassa Tokioka, Centropages dorsispinatus Thompson et Scott,
Noctiluca scientillans (Macartney), etc.; and in winter Sagitta crassa Tokioka, Muggiaea
atlantica Cunningham, Noctiluca scientillans (Macartney).
The mean water depth of the East China Sea is 370 m, and the continental shelf
«200 m) covers most area of the sea. The zooplanktonic vertical distribution is in
three layers. The upper layer (the upper 100 m water) contains copepoda,
Chaetognatha, Decapoda, Amphipoda, Medusa, Mydidacea, Mollusca, Euphausiacean
Polychaeta, Ostracoda, Cladocera, Tunicata, and other species; the middle layer
(100-200 m) harbors copepoda, Ostracoda, Tunicata, and Medusa etc.; the lower
layer (>200 m) copepoda, Chaetognatha, Euphausiacea, Medusa, and Mollusca, etc.
The horizontal distribution of zooplankton in the East China Sea may by divided
into three areas. The coastal low-salinity area contain Labidocera euchaeta
Giesbrecht, Pseudodiaptomus poplesia (Shen), Tortanus vermiculus Shen, Centropages
dorsispinatlls Thompson et Scott, Centropages sinensis Chen et Zhang, and
Pseudeuphausia sinica Wang et Chen, etc. In the high-low salinity mixing area there
are Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Sagitta bedoti Beraneck, Sagitta nagae Alvarino,
Euphausia pacifica Hansen, Parathemisto gracilipes (Norman), Undinula vulgaris
(Dana), and Sagitta enflata Grassi. In the Kuroshio highly saline area there are
Stylocheiron carinatum G.O. Sars, Euphausia diomedeae Ortmann, Thysanopoda
tricuspidatus Milne-Edwards, Pleuromamma gracilis (Claus), Eucalanus e/ongatus
(Dana), Candacia aethiopica (Dana), Pareuchaeta russelli (Farran), Scolecithrix danae
Lubbock, and Haloptilus longicomis (Claus).
In the East China Sea, spring is the breeding season for Calanus sinicus Brodsky
and Temora turbinata (Dana), so they are predominant in quantity. Other
zooplankton species are Hyperioides sibaginis (Stebbing), Pseudeuphausia sinica Wang
et Chen, Pseudeuphausia latifrons (G.O. Sars), Euphausia nana Brinton, Lucifer
intermedius Hansen, Sagitta bedoti Beraneck, Sagitta enflata Grassi, and Thalia
democratica (Forskal) etc. In summer there are Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Euchaeta
concinna Dana, Undinula vulgaris (Dana), Pseudeuphausia sinica Wang et Chen,
Penila avirostris Dana, Muggiaea atlantica Cunningham, Diphyes chamissonis Huxley,
Pleurobrachia globosa Moser, Thalia democratica (Forskal), Eucalanus subcrassus
Giesbrecht, and Sagitta enflata Grassi, etc. In autumn there are Undinula vulgaris
(Dana), Euchaeta concinna Dana, Eucalanus crassus Giesbrecht, Calanus sinicus
Brodsky, Temora turbinata (Dana), Pseudeuphausia latifrons (G.O. Sars), Penilia
avirostris Dana, and Sagitta enflata Grassi, etc. In winter there are Sagitta bedoti
Beraneck, Calanus sinicus Brodky, Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht, Euphausia nana
Brinton, Pseudeuphausia sinica Wang et Chen, Sagitta enflata Grassi, Sagitta crassa
Tokioka, etc. (Chen et al., 1982).
D. The South China Sea
In the South China Sea, horizontal distribution of zooplankton shows two species
types: coastal and offshore. There are coastal species adaptable to low salinity, such
as N octiluca scientillans (Macartney), Lucifer hanseni Nobili, Pseudodiaptomus poplesia
(Shen), Acartia erythraeus Giesbrecht, Calanopia thompsoni A. Scott, Tortanus
dextrilobatus Chen et Zhang, Labiadocera euchaeta Giesbrecht, Amphinema dinema
(Peron et lesueuer), Diphyes chamissonis Huxley. Those adaptable to the highly saline
offshore areas are Lucifer typus M. Edwards, Candacia bipinnata Giesbrecht,
Eucalanus elongatus (Dana), Thysanopoda aequalis Hansen, Sagitta hexaptera
d'Orbigny, Pterotrachea coronata Forskal, Ihlea punctata (Forskal), etc. Zooplankters
differ from one another not only in tolerance to temperature and salinity, but also
in the range of vertical distribution. For example, the eurythermal and euryhaline
species or the eurythermal and halophilic species can adapt to and live in several
water masses; their vertical distribution is large. Zooplanktonic vertical distribution
shows that most species usually live in the surface layer, such as Pontella fera Dana,
Calocalanus pavo (Dana), Stylocheiron carinatum Sars, Macrura larva and Brachyura
larva. There are a number of species such as Eucalanus subtenuis Giesbrecht,
Pyrosoma sp., Neocalanus tenuicornis (Dana), Sagitta lyra Krohn, Sagitta ferox
Tokioka, Salpa fusiformis Cuvier, Euchaeta concinna Dana, Eucalanus elongatus
(Dana), Lucicutia ovalis Wolfenden, Pontellina plumata (Dana), Sagitta robusta
Doncaster and Euchirella venusta Giesbrecht, living in the subsurface water.
Those living in the middle layer are Candacia catula (Giesbrecht), Sagitta
decipiens Fowler, Sagitta planctonis Steinnhaus, Euchirella amoena GIesbrecht,
Pareuchaeta russelli (Farran), Desmopteres papilio Chun, Undeuchaeta plumosa Sars.
Those living in the deep layer are Euaugaptilus spp., Eukronitta spp., Lucicutia spp.,
etc. There are very few species living in the sea basin water. Their popUlation number
is very small too.
The South China Sea is located in the tropical zone, where zooplankton species
have no obvious alternation and peak breeding period. In spring in coastal or
offshore areas, there is a great number of Brachyura larvae and Macrura larvae, and
there are species such as Acartia pacifica Steuer, Lucifer intermedius Hansen, Rathkea
octopunctata (M. Sars), Undinula vulgaris (Dana), Temora turbinata (Dana) In
summer there are Bougainvellia ramosa (van Beneden), Liriope tetraphylla (Chamisso
et Eysenhardt), Eirene menoni Kramp, Pleurobrachia gfobosa Moser, Euchaeta marina
(Prestandrea), Euchaeta wolfendeni A. Scott, Eucalanus subtenuis Giesbrecht, etc. In
autumn there are Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht; Pseudeuphausia latifrons G.O. Sars,
Euchaeta longicornis Giesbrecht, Haloptilus longicornis (Claus), Lucifer intermedius
(Hansen), etc. In winter there are Undinula vulgaris (Dana) Eucalanus crassus
Giesbrecht, Euchaeta plana Mori, Canthocalanus pauper (Giesbrecht) and
Proboscidactyla flavicirrata Brandt, etc.
In the Beibuwan Gulf, the shore species are Noctiluca scientillans (Macartney)
Pleurobrachia globbosa Moser, Muggiaea atlantica Cunningham, Penilia avirostris
Dana, Temora turbinata (Dana), Euconchoecia aculeata (Scott), etc. The offshore
thermophilic species which enter the gulf from the south through the gulf mouth are
Euchaeta concinna Dana, Eucalanus subtenuis Giesbrecht, Centropages furcatus
(Dana). Sagitta delicata Tokioka, etc. Alternation of some zooplanktonic dominant
species is not velY obvious; in spring there are Diphyes chamissonis Huxley, Lensia
subtiloides (Lens et Riemsdijk), Muggiaea atlantica Cunnigham, Chelophyes
appendiculata (Eschscholtz), Penilia avirostris Dana, Calanus sinicus Bordsky, etc. In
summer there are Bougainvillia niobe Mayer, Evadne tergestina Claus, Temora
turbinata (Dana), Undinula vulgaris (Dana), Labidocera acuta (Dana), Lucifer faxoni
Borrad, Sagitta delicata Tokioka, etc. In autumn there are Diphyes bojani
(Eschscholtz), Penilia avirostris Dana, Evadne tergestina Claus, Acartia spinicauda
Giesbrecht, Eucalanus subcrassus Giesbrecht, Canthocalanus pauper Giesbrecht,
Vilibia pyripes Bovallius, Oikopleura intermedius Lohmann, etc. In winter there are
Calanus sinicus Brodsky, Temora turbinata (Dana), Centropages tenuiremis Thompson
et Scott, Fritillaria formica Fol, and Oikopleura refencens Fol, etc.
In the Thailand Gulf, major zooplanktonic species are Canthocalanus pauper
(Giesbrecht), Nannocalanus minor (Claus), Undinula vulgaris (Dana), Eucalanus
subcrassus Giesbrecht, Acartia erythraea Giesbrecht, Centropages furcatus (Dana),
Acrocalanus spp., Liriope tetraphylla (Chamisso et Eysenhardt), Diphyes dispar
Chamisso et Eysenhardt, Chelophyes appendiculata (Eschscholtz), Sagitta enJlata
Grassi, etc. (Chen, 1982; Chen and Zhang, 1986; Huang and Chen, 1989; Wong et al.,
1990, 1993).
IV.ZOOGEOGRAPHICALFEATURESOFZOOPLANKTONINTHECHINASEAS
For the Bohai Sea, a geographical analysis of zooplankton indicates that some
species such as Euphausia pacifica Hansen, Calanus sinicua Brodsky and Parathemisto
graci/ipes (Norman) are warm temperate thermophilic species, carried into the Bohai
Sea by the residual flow of the Huanghai Sea Warm Current. They are normally
distributed and breed in the central high-salinity zone. Other species, such as
Pseudodiaptomus poplesia (Shen) and Labidocera euchaeta Giesbrecht are eurythermal
low-saline species, normally distributed and breeding in coastal low-salinity waters.
View as a whole, the Huanghai Sea waters mostly are mildly influenced by warm
currents. In summer, the temperature of the surface layer rises, but the middle and
lower layers are still in a low-temperature, high-salinity state, so a strong thermocline
forms to relatively stabilize the environment in the area. Therefore, zooplankton
living in this sea, either offshore or near-shore, are characteristically warm-temperate
zone species. In the annual increase-decrease cycle of their population, two peaks
occur m spring and autumn. Although one or two cold water species occurs m the
Huanghai Sea, or a few warm water species get in seasonally, zoogeographically, the
zooplankton here are North Pacific warm temperate zone types.
In summer and autumn, some tropical species disperse into the southeastern part
of the Huanghai Sea, where two different water masses join and mix. So zooplankton
here are either North Pacific warm-temperate zone types or Indo-West Pacific
tropical zone types. The tropical species are exotic and occur in certain seasons only.
So, basically zooplankton here belong to the warm-temperate zone in nature, and the
waters belong to the North Pacific temperate zone.
The zoogeographical analysis indicates that zooplanktonic species and distribution
in the East China Sea are seriously influenced by various currents and water masses,
which makes the zoogeography in this region rather complicated (Fig. 1a). In the
East China Sea, the Kuroshio stem and its branch, the Taiwan Warm Current flow
through the eastern part of the sea, which is characterized by tropical zooplanktonic
geography. The northern part of the sea is influenced seasonally by the south-flowing
Huanghai Sea Cold Water and is characterized by warm-temperate zooplanktonic
geography. The broad continental shelf is a joint zone for warm- temperate and
tropical zooplankton, so it has the characteristics of a double-nature zoogeographic
distributional zone. The low-salinity waters along the Jiangsu-Zhejiang coasts
Zooplankton ill China Seas 253
116' 124' 128' 132'
/-==-=1 2
03
3B'
/:t+ijtil 4
34'
30'
. :f?
. . ·0
,26'
lIB' 120'
2 "
. . .:c£?-~:~::--.
20'
.., Is. ,, .
'.. . . .'
. . 18
SOUTH. CHINA : SEA
. , .
".~~~ /.-::"\" .'
.:~, ~ .t. /' 'C
L-~______~~__~__~____~____
~~_'~-~~~~__~~~__~~__,____~-L____~______________~16°
106' lOB' llO' ll2' 114' 116' 118' 110' 120'
Fig. 1. Zoogeographical features of zooplankton in the northem seas of China (a) and in the South China
Sea (b). 1, Wanll!-temperate thermophilic species; 2, Eurythermallow-saline species; 3, Thermophilic and
halophilic tropical specles;-4, Transitional zoogeographical zone of zooplankton,
constitute a warm-temperate zooplanktonic geographical distributional zone. In

winter and spring, warm-temperate zooplankton are dominant in the western part of
the Taiwan Strait, while tropical zooplankton are dominant in the eastern part. In
summer and autumn it is characterized by the tropical zooplanktonic geographical
distribu tion.
The South China Sea is a broad and deep sea with some shallow areas, e.g., the
numerous river mouth areas, the broad southern continental shelf, the Beibuwan Gulf
and the Thailand Gulf. Species of zooplankton living in this low-latitude tropical sea
area are controlled by the West PacIfic tropic water mass and belong to tropical
zoogeographical groups, which may be classifIed into the coastal-estuarine group and
the oceanic group (Fig. Ib). The coastal-estuarine group includes species that adapt
to the coastal and estuarine waters, though some can also be fully developed in the
joint areas where diluted water mixes with open-sea water. Species of the oceanic
group live in the deep sea surface and subsurface layers and are characterized by the
obvious tropical zoogeography.
The northern Beibuwan Gulf is influenced by cold air in winter. Those living
along the northern coast of the gulf are all low-saline and eurythermal species. In the
deeper water in winter and spring, some warm-temperate species occur due to the
longshore current flowing into the gulf from the east through the Qiongzhou Strait.
In the western part of the gulf along the coast they are mainly eurythermal and low-
saline groups. There are offshore thermophilic and halophilic tropical groups also.
The Thailand Gulf differs from the Beibuwan Gulf in geographical environment.
The low-saline groups living in the NE of the gulf can adapt well to high-temperature
conditions. Zooplankton is abundant inside the gulf and shows typical tropical bay
zooplanktonic geographic characteristics.
It is notable that in winter, when the Zhejiang-Fujian longshore current intrudes
into the water along the Guangdong coast and the northern part of the Beibuwan
Gulf, some warm-temperate species also enter these coastal waters, but their
distribution changes seasonally with the alternation of monsoons. This indicates that
the water along the northern coast of the Beibuwan Gulf has some characteristics of
the warm-temperate zone.
REFERENCES
Chen, Qing-chao (1982) "The marine zooplankton of Hong Kong", in The Marine Flora and Fauna of
Hong Kong and Southern China, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, pp. 189-800.
Chen, Qing-chao, Chen, Ya-qu, and Hu, Ya-zhu (1982) "A study on the plankton communities in the South
Yellow Sea and the East China Sea", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 1(2), 259-266.
Chen, Qing-chao and Zhang, Shu-zhen (1986) "An ecological study of the planktonic copepoda of the
South China Sea", in Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Copepoda, pp. 267-275.
Chen, Qing-chao (1986) "Studies on marine copepods by Chinese scientists during the last 35 years", in
Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Copepoda, pp. 524-533.
Chen, Qing-chao (1992) Zooplankton of the China Seas, Science Press, Beijing.
Huang, Liang-min and Chen, Qing-chao (1989) "Distribution of chlorophyll-a and estimation of primary
productivity in the eastern waters of Balingtang Channel in summer", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 8(4),
605.
Shih, Chang-tai and Chen, Qing-chao (1993) Zooplankton of the China Seas 2, Olina Ocean Press, Beijing.
Wong, Chong Kim, Chen, Qing-chao, and Huang, Liang-min (1990) "Fluorescence analysis of the gut
contents of Calanoid cope pods in the Zhujiang River estuary", Marine Sciences Sinica 2(4),291-298.
Wong, Chong Kim, Chan, A.L.C., and Chen, Qing-chao (1983) "Planktonic copepods of Tolo Harbor Hong
Kong", emstaceana 64( 1), 76-84.
FORAMINIFERAL FAUNAL TRENDS IN CHINA SEAS
ZHENG Shou-yi and FU Zhao-xian

IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
Qingdao 266071, Chilla
I. INTRODUCTION
The foraminifera, because of their small size, great abundance and diversity of
species, ubiquitous distribution of their preservable tests in the water column and in
recent and fossil sediments, their usefulness as present and paleo-environmental
indicators, are the most extensively studied group of marine protozoa. Their
sensitivity to environmental changes is reflected in various specific and non-specific
faunal distributional trends. The cumulative occurrence of their tests on the sea floor
mirrors not only small scale temporal and spatial features, but also long-term average
environmental and taphonomic processes.
Faunal analysis of some 1700 samples were from study areas (40 44'-4°21'N,
0
104°13'-129°00'E), including the Bohai Sea (BS), the Huanghai Sea (HS, Yellow
Sea), the East China Sea (ECS), the northern part of the South China Sea (SCS), as
welf as the Xisha, Zhongsha, and Nansha islands in the central and southern SCS
(Fig. 1A). About 800 were surface sediment samples and 1000 plankton samples.
Samples from a continuous day-night 24 hour plankton tow at depths of 0-10, 10-20,
20-35, 35-50, 50-75, and 75-90 m were used to study every 2 hour interval diurnal
vertical distribution of living planktonic foraminifera. A rating was given to a species
to determine its dominance ranking (Zheng and Fu, 1988, 1990).
II. BENTHONIC FORAMINIFERA

A. Taxonomic Composition
The BS, HS, ECS, and SCS have dominant species in common, but each has
its own characteristic species composition (Table 1). Species composition changes
with increasing span of latitude (Table 2) and across physical environmental gradients
ina given area. Fig. 2 shows the most marked change is in bathyal depths where the
5 most dominant species differ entirely from those of the preceding stations.
B. Dominant and Indicator Species
Dominant foraminiferal species, generally recognized by their numerical
abundance, are usually found in a wide range of environmental conditions. Generally,
255
tv
VI
128 0 120 0 124 0 12S 0 E 0'>
116 0 124 0
108 0 '12 0
FIGURE 1
A-Sample and transect locations,
and bathymetry based on stationl
depths of study area (erratic 38°
Ja 0 4 Xisha, Zhongsha, and Nansha
island sample collections in
the South China Sea not in"elu-
ded) . I Shan dong
B-Generalized distribution of
current and water mass systems J4°
J40, of study area. (Winter) o
(based on ECNGC, 1979)
C-Horizontal distribution of re-
lative abundance (no. of tests
/total benthonic foramini fera
x 100) of dominant species JOo
Jo04 Rotalidium annectens (Parker
and Jones) typical of inner
shelf. ,< i' •4
J>
<~
<to I'
26°
26°
<\
od
22°
22°
1ao
~
112" 1160 1200

•
124 0
~
12ao
!;l
S
112° 1160 1080 112° '160
Fig. 1B. 1--Kuroshio Warm Current, 2--Tsushitne Current, :S--Huanghai Sea Warm Current, 4--cyclonic eddy, 5--T8i"'an Warm Current, 6--South China Sea Warm Current, 7 __ Kuroshio
~~
offshoot, B--Huanghai Sea Coastal Current, 9--liaodong Coastal Current, 10--West Korea Coastal Current, 11-[ast China Sea Coastal Current, 12--Guangdong Coastal Current,
13--Huanghei Sea Cold Weter Mass, 14--Changjiang Diluted Water, 15--Winter Bur face water temperature, 16--Mean annu81 Burface water telllPerature.
...n
i'=-
[Il
!;l
'"
Foraminiferal Faunal Trends 257
Table 1. China Seas Benthonic Foraminiferal Faunal 'frends
HS NHS SHS ECS SCS

No. of stations 78 58 81 215 148
Ave. depth of stations 20m 41 m 45 m 165 m 87 m
Max. depth of stations 56 m 70m 90 m 2050 m 1010 m
Ave. no. of species 1219 2134 1746 5131 5910
Max. no. of species 30106 38960 20488 47808 65135
Ave. no. of tests/50 g sed. 21 14 21 51 67
Max. no. of tests/50 g sed. 40 31 47 109 187
Ave. faunal variability 12 7 10 31 33
Max. faunal variability 21 13 23 84 120
Ave. Shannon-Wiener index 2.15 1.65 1.80 2.62 2.87
Max. Shannon-Wiener index 2.78 2.34 2.70 4.11 4.49
Ave. faunal dominance 75% 86% 84% 64% 57%
Max. faunal dominance 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Ave. equitability index 0.47 0.31 0.36 0.40 0.40
Max. equitability index 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.63
Dominance species composition" 1-2-3-4-5 3-6-5-4-7 6-8-5-2-4 8-9-5-10-11 9-8-10-5-4
BS, Bohai Sea; NHS. Northern Huanghai Sea; SHS, South Huallghai Sea; ECS, East China Sea; SCS, Northern South China Sea. Z Code
number of first five most dominantspecies. 1. Polskiammina asiatica; 2. Rolalidium anneclens; 3, Cribrononion incer/um; 4. Elphidium advenum;
5, Textularia JoUacea; 6, Ammonia ketienziensis angulo/a; 7, La~lJammina diJJ7ugifonnis; 8, Rolalilloides gaimardii; 9, He/era/epa praecillcta; 10,
Bigenerina nodosaria; L1, Quinqueloculina wlgeriallo.
where their absolute abundance is high, their tests make up a significant percentage
of the total test number. The distribution pattern of relative abundance of benthonic
foraminifera is controlled by, or correlated positively with, the different marine
environmental conditions, so they are useful as environmental indicators. The
distributional trends of dominant species characteristic of different marine
environments are shown in Fig. lC, Figs. 3A-C, Fig. 4A. A few species although not
abundant but occurring only within a particular environment such as brackish waters
or bathyal zones are useful indicators. Species rare in occurrence may also
numerically dominate the faunas or assemblages in which they occur.
c. Species Diversity
A rough estimation based on reports by various authors (Polski, 1959; Waller,

1960; Cheng and Zheng, 1978; Huang, 1971, 1983; Zheng, 1979, 1980, 1988; Zheng
and Fu, 1988, 1990, 1992; Tu and Zheng, 1991, etc.) gives around 2000 benthonic
species for the China seas. The SCS has roughly 82%, ECS, 41 %, HS, 17%, and BS,
8% of these species.
Fig. 2 shows that the S, V, H(S), and E values increase with distance from
shore until the shelf edge, beyond Whldl S and V rapidly decrease while H(S) and E
steadily increase to a maximum at bathyal depths. Abnormally high H(S) and E
values at Station E189 is due to the influence of the western front of the Taiwan
Warm Current (Weng and Wang, 1984). Horizontal distribution of diversity values
even more clearly shows this abnormally low diversity values in offshore waters. Fig.
4B, C, and Fig. 5A show that west of the Chejudo Island, at about 33°-34°N and
124°E, a narrow band of high species diversity (S>30, V>40, H(S»2) divides a low
species diversity (S < 20-30, V<5-1O, H(S)<1-1.5) large patch into northern and
southern portions. The northern portion is located 10 the main area of the Huanghai
Sea Cold Water Mass (HSCWM), and the southern portion in the area near the
southern boundary of the HSCWM. It is noteworthy that the location of the high
tv
Ul
00
Table 2, Latitudinal Changes in Foraminiferal Faunal Trends Along Transect 1 at Longitude 123OJO'E Covering 39OZ3'-26OJO'N from the Northern
Huanghai Sea to the East China Sea, and Along Transect 4 at longitude 113OJO'E Covering 2ZO-19°N in the Northern South China Sea
Code of Dominant species ll No./50 g sed. S Test type

Station Depth Lat. PIB
V Dm, H(SJ E
No. (m) N ratio
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th B P B P Agg. Por. Hya.
NH-2 31 39'23' 1 1 0 1 0 1 100 100

NH-3 46 39'"09' 2 1 0 1 0 1 100 0 100
NH-19 62 38"30' 3" 4 5 6 7 13 0 8 0 7 77 2.0 0.88 54 0 46
NH-39 68 38000' 8 :3 9 10 II 215 0 17 0 8 90 1.7 0.32 18 1 81
NH-58 70 37"30' 8 7 10 "9 3" 416 0 11 0 6 91 1.5 0.41 6 0 94
SH-9 68 37000' 12 13 8 14 15 928 0 18 0 10 73 2.0 0.42 4 0 96
SH-18 76 36"23' "7 "8 10 "6 16 446 0 18 0 7 9! 1.5 0.26 1 1 98
SH-45 75 35000' 8 7 9 17 18 364 0 8 0 2 99 0.9 0.29 1 1 98
SH-63 59 34000' 8 7 5 19 2ii 386 0 20 0 5 94 1.3 0.18 3 3 94
SH-74 39 33000' 5 17 8 14 TI 1 210 0 17 0 5 96 0.8 0.13 1 9 90
SH-80 40 32"30' 5 17 21 13 14 2988 0 14 0 5 98 1.5 0.23 1 21 78
E-12 41 32000' 17 13 "5 22 14 454 1 31 1 15 72 2.4 0.37 3 24 73 0.01
E-28 36 31 "25' 14 23 24 TI 5 17 1 9 1 9 77 1.9 0.73 6 12 82 0_06
E-46 54 31000' 5 "7 TI 26 14 1002 88 30 6 16 65 2.3 0.45 13 18 69 0.09
E-65 55 30"30' 25 7 "5 2'i 13 8680 160 47 8 22 78 2.4 0.23 31 6 63 0.02
E-78 63 30000' 5 27 28 29 25 3560 201 53 7 20 77 1.3 0.32 24 6 70 0.06
E-91 66 29"30' 5 27 30 TI 31 10 503 3285 52 12 23 66 2.6 0.25 14 3 83 0.31
E-109 74 29000' 5 27 28 13 30 17808 9230 46 11 20 79 2.2 0_20 16 4 80 0.19
E-131 79 28"30' 5 32 17 19 33 5664 7600 56 9 34 54 2.9 0.32 10 16 74 1.34
E-159 97 28000' 5 28 27 34 19 19040 16301 63 12 38 65 2_8 0.25 21 7 72 0.86
E-174 103 27"30' 5 35 36 37 38 2053 4108 65 14 39 69 2.2 0.14 15 7 78 2.04
E-182 112 27°15' 5 2'i "7 28 36 8546 34379 59 12 34 56 3.0 0.34 23 9 68 4.02
E-207 150 26"30' 19 34 5 39 40 2737 30862 7! 15 53 40 3.6 0.51 8 10 62 11.28
S-67 7 22000' 41 42 43 TI TI 24 2 5 2 4 100 0_8 0.44 84 8 8 0.08
S-68 32 21°45' 28 "5 TI 21 13 1700 13 50 5 24 66 2.6 0.26 40 12 48 0.01
S-69 42 21"30' 27 25 13 5 28 622 159 65 11 40 40 3.4 0.45 22 26 52 0.26
S-70 58 21 °15' 31 27 7 25 28 9088 679 62 7 26 66 2.7 0.23 43 13 44 0.07
S-7l 74 21000' 31 27 5 38 25 17829 4781 79 12 30 67 2.7 0.18 39 11 50 0.27
S-72 88 20"30' 44 27 5 31 45 7510 19230 113 13 47 45 3.5 0.28 22 28 50 2.56
S-73 200 20000' 2'i 46 47 44 Ts 13 118 81000 169 15 80 34 3.9 0.28 19 19 62 6.17
5-74 1010 19000' ~ ~ TI g ~ 507 104 780 97 16 72 31 3.6 0.36 25 5 70 20_67
......0
Note: NH, the Northern Huanghai Sea; SH, the Southern Huanghai Sea; E, the East China Sea; S, the South China Sea. B, benthic foraminifera; P, planktonic foraminifera; S, species number; V, faunal 10
variability; Dm5, faunal dominance of the 5 most dominant species (%); H(S), Shannon-Wiener diversity index; E, Buzas-Gibson equitability index. • Code number of dominant species: I, Reophax Q
=
bilocuJaTis; 2, MiliolineUa cireuiaTis; 3, Lagenammina difflugiformis; 4, Trochammina boltovsko).;; 5, Rotalinoides gaimardii; 6, Protelphidium granosum; 7, Hanzawai nipponiea; 8, Ammonia ketienziensis 0'
~
an!?-'lata; 9, A. tahlnabensis; 10, Buceella frigida; 11, B. tenemma; 12, Elphidium magellanieum; 13, E. advenum; 14, Ammonia tepida; 15, A. parkinsoniana; 16, Cribrononion ineertum; 17, Quinqueloculina ~
ungeriana; 18, Fissurina marginata; 19, Heterolepa cushmani; 20, Pseudaclavulina gracilis; 21, Rotalidium anneetens; 22, Sil'f1loiwpsis asperula; 23, Ammonia multieella; 24, Massilina laevigata; 25, Textularia Q
foliaeea; 26, Cancris oblongus; 27, Heterolepa subpraecineta; 28, Bigenerina nodosaria; 29, Pseudorotalia indapaeifiea; 30, Nonion japonieum; 31, Cribrobigenerina robustiformis; 32, Bolivina robusta; 33, ...I":l
Spirowculina stablilis; 34, Diseorbinella berlheloti; 35, Spirowculina communis; 36, Heterolepa margaritifera; 37, Reophax depressus; 38, Textularia porrecta; 39, Gave/inopsis praegerl; 40, Anomalina glabrata;
41, Polskiammina asiatica; 42, Triloculina trigonula; 43, Ammosealaria pseudaspiralis; 44, Quinqueloculina akneriana; 45, Sphaeroidina buUoides; 46, Spirorutilis pseudaearinata; 47, S. wrightii; 48, Triloculina =-
triearinata; 49, Uvigerina hispida; 50, Melonis umbilieatulis; 51, Bulimina inflata; 52, U"igerina dirupta; 53, Globocassidulina subglobosa. Underscored code numberr denotes dominant species different
S'
10
from those of preceding station. til
to
10
'"
Foraminiferal Faunal Trends 259
H(S) E
4 1.0
0.8
0.6
n.4
0.2
'" ' .. '. 'N.

." •. N
a c
Porcel~
Hyaline
==-------- -~ Agglutinated
I
100
Benthonic
Planktonic
I
so
60
40
20
24
23
o!
I
50 5U
M
IOU 100
, ro
150 ..., ISU
200 ::'-:-. 200

medium sand fine sand
250
, '. 250
<S'.Jj; ....
1000r
1100 I HJO
1200 l;WO
13mJ l.\OU
Long. 121i'l ,i60 1i7 D E
FIg. 2 Variiltion in foramInIferal faunal trends along Transect 3 at latitutde 27 o N, longitude 121°_127°(, East China Sen.
S--nlJllIber of specIes, V--faunal variability, Dms--faunal dominance of the five most abundant species. H(S)--Sh:mnon-Wierler
diversity index, E--Buzas-Gibson equitability indeX, N--number of tests per 50 9 dried sediment sample. l--Rotalinoides
gaimardii, 2--Elphidium advenum, Jh~ compress., 4--Polskiammina aSiatica, 5--~~. 6--Bigenerina
~. 7--Heterolepa praecincta, 8--~ nipponica, 9--Siphonaperta prominentis, 10--Heterolepa cushmani. l1--Qis-
~ bertheloti, 12--Spiroloculina cOlMlunis, 1J--~ foliacea, 14 QuingueloC'ulina ungeriana. lS--Spirorutilis
h
flztulosa. 16--Quingueloculina akneriana. 17-- Textular ia pseudogramen. 18--Caribeanella sp., 19 Planorbulinella larvata.
20 Cribrobigenerina textularioidea. 21--lenticulina c~lcar, 22--FontboUa wue~lerstorfi. 23--Cribrostomoldes crassimargo,
n
24--Cyclammina pusilla, 25- Arrmoglobigedna globigerinlformls, 26--Cribrostomoldes subglobosa, 27- Globocassidulina subglobosa.
N
0\
o
124 0 124 0 128 0 E
108 0 112 0 116 0 120 0 124 0
H~bel
FIGURE 3
380 J Horizontaldi str ibution a f rela- J8°
tive abundance (no. of tests/to-
tal benthonic foraminifera x 100)
a f dominant species.
A- Textularia foliacea Heron-Allen
and [arland typical of inner
to middle shelf. 34 0
··
340~B - R0 t a1Inoldes .
galmardll.. (d'D r-
o
bigny) typical of middle to
outer shelf.
C-Bigenerina nodosaria d'Drbigny
a
typical of middle to outer
shelf. 300
300
,,.,,,.,
fd
~ :~"~
' >
-d
0)/' p
? p f {f
260
26 0
~
"d
:\J' 22 0
'V.;~,
';:;; ...
,.
" , ,
4
t'
",," 18 0 ~
to
~
\ ", =
=>
112 0 116 0 108 0 112 0 116 0 108 0 112 0 116 0 124 0 128 0 i
'-"l
sa.
("'l
e:
5
'J)
to
~
'"
~
~
108° 112 0 116 0 120 0 124°
E.::
:::;
F !GURE 4 <>
A-Horizontal distribution of re-

!
~
lative abundance (no. of tests =0
38° lAO
/total benthonic foramini fera ::
x 100) of dominant species ;
Heterolepa praecincta (Karrer)
---- Winter bottom East China i
Sea offshore waters (ECNCC, 5.
1979) rio
34° B-Horizontal distribution of spe-

cies number 5 of benthonic fo-
raminifera of the China Seas.
e-Horizontal distribution of fau-
nal variability (V, Walton,
1964) of benthonic foraminifera
30° of the China Seas.
"'" 26°
26°
. tr.¢i~· ;;..... . . . .
.~ ~
\:j~t)/c .~. '" '~'!iI'~~~ ~
. '.:
izo 11°
18 0 t. . \':·. \ 18°
\ ....\.
\ ."'-....,; '"\,.
108° 112° 116 0 lOBO 112° 116 0 1IJ8° l1Z 0 116° 120° 124° 128 0
tv
0\
t-J
0'\
t-J
108 0 112° 116 0 124 0 128 0
FIGURE
A-Horizontal distribution of
Shannon-Wiener diversity in-
J601 dex H(S) of benthonic foramini- J8°
fera of the China Seas.
B-Horizontal distribution of fau-
nal dominance (Oms) of bentho-
nic foraminifera of the China
Seas.
J40~C-Horizontal distribution of ab- J4°
solute abundance (no. of tests
/50 9 sediment) of benthonic
foraminifera of the China Seas.
JOO JOO
26° 26°
"d
..
22°
.
<?
o
16° 1S0
"~
;
0-
10a o 112 0 1160 1120 1160 112 0 1160 124 0 12ao ~
S.
I"l
e:
;
[I:l
..
.,10
Foraminifcral Faunal Trcnds 263
diversity band correlates positively with the pattern of distribution of ECS offshore
waters (Fig. 4A) penetrating into the south HS from west of Chejudo Island and
mixing with the Huanghai Warm Current, and that the southern front of cold
Huanghai Sea waters at 300 N (ECNGG, 1979) correlates with the southern boundary
of the low species diversity patch.
D. Faunal Dominance
Faunal dominance decreases from high to low latitudes (Tables 1 and 2). It
is high to maximal in marginal-marine and other high stress areas and decreases
offshore to a minimum off the edge of the continental shelf to bathyal depths (Fig.
SB, Table 1). Deviations from this generalized trend has environmental implications.
Fig. SB shows that both in the SHS and in the northern ECS there is a large patch
bounded by the Dm 5 >9S% isopleth. The SHS patch marks the location of the
HSCWM, and the ECS patch, the scope of influence of the HSCWM (Fig. IB). In
the western coast of the northern SCS, the Dm5 60% isopleth stretches far offshore
to depths of about 70-80 m, but in its eastern coast, at about l1s030'-118°00'E,
22°-24°N, the Dms 60% isopleth markedly retracts shoreward to depth about 30 m.
This trend which is indicative of intrusion of offshore open ocean waters corresponds
well to reports of the presence of a northeastward flowing subsurface warm current
at about 19°-22°N which is strongest east of 116°E and south of 23°30'N (ECNGG,
1979). In the Hainan sea area, it can be seen that low Dm5 values of <60% (min.
38%) are distributed close to its southeastern coast which is characterized by much
narrowed shelf and rapidly deepening bottom where open ocean waters as well as
bottom upwelling waters exert their influence.
E. Absolute Abundance
Fig. SC shows that generally, absolute abundance increases with increased
distance from shore. Low densities of < 10 tests/SO g sediment in the Changjiang
River mouth related to hyposaline conditions and dilution by rapid sedimentation.
Seaward, density values increase rapidly to a maximum in the shelf regions and then
decrease at bathyal depths.
F. Proportion of Test '!Ypes
The agglutinated, porcelaneous, and hyaline foraminifera are known to have

characteristic patterns of distribution in response to different environmental
conditions, hence, their relative proportion has been used to interpret water depth,
water temperature and salinity, etc. The agglutinated foraminifera are tolerant of
environmental extremes and so are geographically the most widespread and abundant
benthonic foraminiferal group. Depth zonation boundaries at 40, 90, 120, ISO, 200,
400, 7S0, 1100 and 2000 m delineated on the basis of depth distributional trends of
ECS agglutinated foraminifera are more or less similar to those of other authors
based on the whole group of benthonic foraminifera (Zheng and Fu, 1988). Fig. 6A
shows that the NHS and BS have larger areas with >SO% agglutinated tests than the
ECS and northern SCS. The porcelaneous foraminifera are usually most abundant
and diverse in continental shelf or shallow waters of low and middle latitudes and
rare to absent in lower bathyal and abyssal depths. Fig. 6A shows that areas with
>SO% porcelaneous tests are mainly distributed offthe Hangzhou Bay. In the study
N
0-
.j;.
108 0
FIGURE 6
A-Horizontal distribution of re-
lative abundance (~O) of agglu-
tinated, porcelaneous, and hy-
aline tests of benthonic fo-
raminifera of the China Seas.
S-Horizontal distribution of ben-
thonic foramini feral assem-
blages of the China Seas
(equi valent dominant species
and faunal characteristics
summarized in Table 5).
C-Horizontal distribution of ab-
solute abundance (no. of tests
/50 g sediment) of planktonic
foraminifera of the China Seas.
-I>
0'
'0" ~
_ _ Winter surface East China ~
Sea offshore waters (ECNGC, 1979) =
o
11Z0 116° 116° 1200 124 0 1Z8° g
i12° 1160
...o
~
e:
;
rn
..
DO
fI>
Foraminifc"al Faunal Trcnds 265
area about 80% of the total number of stations have >50% hyaline tests. Areas with
>80% are mainly located in the central part of the HS, in the northern part of the
ECS, and in the waters beyond the slope of the ECS and SCS (Fig. 6A).
G. Benthonic Foraminiferal Assemblages

Marked change in composition and ranking of the five most dominant species
constitutes the main basis for delineating environmentally related assemblages (Fig.
6B). Table 3 shows that accompanying changes in other non-specific faunal trends are
also supportive of their delineation. Six BS assemblages have 15 dominant species.
The Liaodong, Bohai, and Laizhou bays appear distinct from one another by having
11 dominant species among them. Three NHS assemblages have 12 dominant species.
Assemblage NH-2 located in the hyposaline areas of the northern end is
characterized by having 3 agglutinated species: Lagenammina difflugiformis (Brady),
Reophax bi/oeu/ads Flint, and R. seorpiurus Montfort making up 73% of the total
benthonic foraminifera. Five SHS assemblages have 17 dominant species. SH-4 is very
distinct in that its 5 dominant species are entirely different from those of SH-l to
SH-3. Nine ECS assemblages and 4 sub assemblages have 31 dominant species.
Assemblage E-l is distinguished by having mainly brackish water foraminifera as its
first four dominant species. Assemblage E-4 differs from all the other assemblages
in having as dominant species Gyroidinoides nipponicus (Ishizaki) and Bolivina robusta
Brady. Five northern SCS assemblages and 15 subassemblages have 31 dominant
species. It is noteworthy that Subassemblage 2f located in the Yinggehai Basin off the
southern Hainan coast where average depth is 96 m, aside from having typical middle
shelf species, also has a well-known shallow-water species Ammonia tepida
(Cushman) as its 5th rank species. Other minor species include Rotalidillm anneetens
(Parker et Jones), Ammonia multicella Zheng, Massilina penglaiensis (Jacot),
Protelphidillm glabrum (He, Hu, et Wang), Polskiammina asiatica (Polski),
Ammobaculites formosensis Nakamura, Poroeponides latera/is (Terquem), E.
magellanicum Heron-Allen et Earland, E. hispidulum Cushman, Pseudoeponides
anderseni Warren, etc., which are dominant species in shallow and/or hyposaline
waters of higher latitudes (Table 2). Their presence in this subassemblage correlates
with reports of reworked Paleogene sediments indicative of shallow-water nearshore
environments for this area (Wang, Xia, and Cheng, 1985).
III. PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA

Distribution patterns of living planktonic foraminifera which are more or less
similar to those of their sedimental tests, show that most species are very sensitive
to temperature and salinity. Over a period of time, the distributional patterns of their
accumulated tests on the sea floor reflect combined ecological factors influencing
them while the distribution of their living counterparts in the water column at a
particular place and time reflects present hydrologic conditions, hence their
usefulness as biological indicators.
A. Taxonomic Composition
The 5 most abundant planktonic foraminifera found in sediments of the northern
SCS, ECS and SHS are almost the same, but there is difference in their dominance
ranking as follows:
N
0-
0-
Table 3. Faunal Characteristics and Trends of Benthonic Foraminiferal Assemblages of the Bohai Sea, Huanghai Sea, East China Sea and northern
South China Sea
Dominant ~ecies Depth

Assemblage No./50 g A P H
(m) S V Dms H(S) E P/B
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th sed. (%) (%) (%)
B-1 (5)" 1 2 3 4 5 10 328b 19 11 76 2.0 0.49 8 21 71 0

B-2 ~11) 4 6 7 8 2 10 3972 16 9 81 2.0 0.50 10 21 69 0
B-3 10) 9 :5 2 10 11 16 1 718 21 12 75 2.0 0.45 18 23 59 0
B-4 ~12) 11 2 12 "9 13 19 754 18 10 77 2.1 0.48 25 27 48 0
B-5 26) 12 14 2 15 5 24 431 24 13 73 2.3 0.46 38 8 54 0
B-6 (9) 10 II 6 "9 12 26 749 19 10 75 2.2 0.48 43 13 44 0
NH-l (25) 10 5 9 2 16 25 2231 20 10 79 2.1 0.41 40 8 52 0
NH-2 ~1O~ 15 17 18 19 20 49 368 8 5 81 1.2 0.55 73 1 26 0
NH-3 30 18 5 21 13 "9 49 2310 14 8 89 1.7 0.47 9 1 90 0
SH-l (9~ 3 10 16 9 8 20 1851 22 11 79 2.1 0.41 28 10 62 0
SH-2 (9 22 2 12 4 8 25 356 12 8 88 1.6 0.57 11 31 58 0
SH-3 ?7~ 10 16 9 2 5 34 2674 24 12 80 2.1 0.34 45 4 51 +
SH-4 23 18 23 24 6 13 69 817 18 8 88 1.6 0.30 13 2 85 +
SH-5 (7) 18 16 25 23 26 66 1660 31 14 82 2.0 0.28 6 5 89 0
E-l (7) 27 28 29 30 "9 11 3 3 3 100 0.8 1.00 0 12 88 0.34
E-2 (33) II 2 12 14 16 28 261 15 10 82 1.8 0.52 22 26 52 0.07
E-3a (16) 16 10 11 18 12 52 3975 21 7 92 1.3 0.27 10 9 81 0.01
E-3b (29) 16 10 9 23 11 56 4761 33 16 75 2.2 0.33 19 15 66 0.10
E-4 (10) 16 31 32 18 33 93 12494 51 25 63 2.7 0.33 8 6 86 0.52
E-5a ~29~ 16 34 32 10 35 84 10422 53 27 70 2.5 0.25 23 8 69 0.55
E-5b 34 16 34 32 25 36 107 5242 68 43 55 3.1 0.35 20 12 68 7.76 0
25 32 7 9 37 141 4435 76 52 37 3.6 0.48 15 20 65 ~
E-6 ~8) 7.15 "
10
E-7 35) 21 38 16 23 '7 145 5833 80 47 47 3.4 0.39 26 13 61 8.05 =
39 40 25 41 42 549 5693 75 51 45 3.4 0.41 8 2-
E-8 ~8) 4 88 22.60 0
E-9 13) 43 44 41 45 39 1 108 1035 67 52 36 3.6 0.56 27 2 71 125.56 ~
e
...
("':)
=-
;.
10
rn
~
.,10
~
i!
a
Table 3. Continued :i'
;;
.,
Dominant species Depth No. /50 g A P H '"
Assemblage S V Dms H(S) E PlB ""l
-
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th (m) sed. (%) (%) (%) '"
=
S-l (22) 16 2 46 10 34 24 2028 36 20 65 2.5 0.41 26 16 58 0.Q2 -.='".,
S-la (6) 2 16 10 47 11 26 902 41 25 59 2.7 0.46 21 21 58 om ri
S-lb (5) 2 9 12 16 10 26 1 195 27 15 73 2.4 0.41 40 12 48 0.03 Co
=
S-lc (11) 16 46 34 10 47 11 3022 37 19 65 2.5 0.38 23 14 63 0.17 '"
S-2 (74) 16 32 34 10 9 57 4395 60 27 61 2.8 0.31 27 19 54 0.71
S-2a (6) 47 32 48 23 9 30 1087 49 28 62 2.8 0.39 28 18 54 0.02
S-2b ( ) 49 10 50 16 51 41 1451 50 27 51 2.9 0.39 27 35 38 0.14
S-2c (22) 16 32 34 52 10 50 2951 50 22 65 2.6 0.31 25 15 60 0.67
S-2d (22) 34 32 16 10 53 70 7853 74 32 63 2.8 0.24 33 16 51 0.09
S-2e (9) 10 16 32 52 "2 46 3626 64 29 46 3.0 0.35 23 23 54 0.91
S-2f (7) 32 34 16 35 14 96 5253 61 30 70 2.5 0.31 0 20 60 0.92
S-3 (42) 32 16 34 53 54 126 9828 93 46 50 3.3 0.32 17 17 66 3.72
S-3a (13) 32 16 54 36 55 125 4169 67 33 54 3.1 0.36 15 15 70 4.7
S-3b (11) 32 16 52 34 53 94 5656 98 52 51 3.3 0.33 23 16 61 3.18
S-3c (10) 32 56 53 16 34 172 25240 120 58 44 3.3 0.27 23 21 66 3.67
S-3d (8) 32 16 34 35 53 115 5493 96 46 52 3.3 0.31 16 10 64 2.88
S-4 (9) 56 32 57 31 54 207 10 174 822 45 48 3.3 0.38 8 11 91 5.47
S-4a (5~ 56 32 16 35 54 181 17758 90 40 57 3.0 0.26 10 9 81 5.35
S-4b (4 57 31 32 54 58 247 695 72 50 37 3.6 0.52 5 14 81 5.78
S-5 (1) 59 60 61 43 62 1010 507 97 72 32 3.6 0.36 25 5 70 20.67
.,
Note: a Number of stations included; b Figures are averages. Underscored dominant species eorle number denotes dominant species different from those of proceeding station; S, Species number;
V. Faunal variability; Dm. Faunal dominanoo of the five most dominant species; H(S). Shannon·Wiener diversity index; E. Buzas·Gibson equitability index;A. Agglutinated tests; p. Poroolaneous tests;
H. Hyaline tests (benthonic foraminifera); PIB. Ratio of planktonic to benthonicforaminiferal tests; B. the Bohai Sea; NH. the Northern Huanghai Sea; SH, the Southern Huanghai Sea; Eo the East
China Sea; S. the South China Sea. 1. Ammonia porkinsoniana; 2. Rotalidium annectens; 3. Elphidium magellanicwn; 4. Ammonia confer/itesta; 5. Cribrononion incertum; 6. Protelphidiwn granosum; 7.
Quinqueloculina akneriana; 8. Ammonia multicelk>; 9. Elphidium advenum; 10. Textularia foliacea; n. Quinqueloculina ungeriana; 12, Polskiammina asiatica; 13. Buccella frigida; 14. Ammonia tepida;
15. Lagenammina difflugiformis; 16. Rotalinoides;gaimardii; 17. Reophax bi/ocularis; 18.Ammonia ketienziensis anguk>ta; 19. Reophas scorpiurus; 20. Nonionella pu/Cktlla; 21. Bucctlla tenenima; 22, Massilina
laevigata; 23. Hanzawaia nipponica; 24. Ammonia ta""nabensis; 25. Heterolepa cushmani; 26. Astrononion novozealandicum; 27. Pseudaeponides anderseni; 28. Miliolinel1a oblonga; 29. Poroeponides lateralis;
30. Massilina pratti; 31. Bolivina robust.; 32, Heterolep. prateinct.; 33. G}~oiddinoides nipponicus; 34. Bigenerina nodasaria; 35. Pseudarotali. indapacifica; 36. Heterokpa margaritifera; 37. Textulari.
magallanica; 38. Spirorutilis {lSIulosa; 39. Bulimin. aculeata; 40. Hy.linea balithic.; 41. U"igerina asperula; 42, Cassidulina neocarinata; 43. Uvigerina dimpt.; 44. Fontbotia wuellmtorfi; 45. Ammogiobigtrina
globigeriniformis; 46. Hanzzawaia compress.; 47. Pararotali. audawni; 48. Textul.ri. c.ntkiana; 49. Textularia pseudagramen; 50. Siphonapert. sp.; 51. Quinqueloculina pseudareticulata; 52, Cribrobigenerina
robustiformis; 53. Quinqueloculina akneriana var.; 54. Robulus c.lcar; 55. Cribicides subhaidingeri; 56. U"igerin. schwageri; 57. Hoeglundina e1egans; 58. Bolivina spissa; 59. Uvigerina hispida; 60. Melonis
wnbilicatulus; 61. Bulimina inflata; 62, Globocassidulina subglobosa.
tv
0'1
-....J
Species SCS ECS SHS

Globigerinoides ruber (d'Orbigny) 1st 3rd 2nd
Neogloboquadrina eggeri (Rhumbler) 2nd 1st 3rd
Globigerinoides sacculiJer (Brady) 3rd 4th 4th
Pulleniatina obliquiloculata Parker et Jones 4th 2nd
Globigerina bulloides d'Orbigny 5th 5th 1st
Globorotalia inflata (d'Orbigny) 5th
Truly boreal left-coiling Neogloboquadrina pachyderma was not found in the study
area, but there are reports of the occurrence of its right-coiling warm counterpart by
other authors.
B. Species Diversity
Disregarding taxonomic discrepancies and/or finer taxonomic resolutions
(including species from the >63 micra sediment fraction), the planktonic foraminifera
reported by various authors (Cheng and Cheng, 1960, 1963, 1964; Wang, Zhang, and
Min, 1985; Tu and Zheng, 1991, etc.) add up to about 40 species for the China Seas.
Species number decreases from a maximum of about 34 species in the SCS, 30 in the
ECS, to 5 or 6 in the SHS. The decrease positively correlates with increase oflatitude,
shallower water depth and decrease of surface temperature and salinity (Fig. 7B).
They are not found in the NHS and BS (Fig. 7 A-C).
C. Absolute Abundance
The absolute abundance of planktonic foraminifera is positively related to the

distribution of temperature and salinity and current systems. Fig. 6C shows their
greatest abundance occurs on the continental slope where most of the stations have
>50 000-100 000 tests/50 g sediment. The 34 isohaline defines their main area of
distribution, and the 33 isohaline defines the limit of their shoreward distribution.
The northward limit of planktonic foraminiferal distribution at about 35°N
corresponds roughly to the southern boundary of the main body of the HSCWM.
Fairly dense concentrations of planktonic foraminifera off the Zhejiang coast between
122°-124°E with a 5000 isopleth protruding northward is in the area under the
influence of the Taiwan Warm Current. The flow direction and extent of influence
of the HS waters are indicated by two distinct bulges of the 5000 density isopleth
(Fig. 6C). One extends southeastward to the vicinity of 127°30' and 30 N, marking
0
the eastern front of the southeast extension of the HSCWM. The other bulge extends
southwest to the vicinity of 124°-125°E and 28°N marking the southern extent of
influence of the HS Mixed Water in summer (Mao, Ren, and Sun, 1965).
D. Seasonal Distribution
In the northern SCS in winter, (Fig. 8A) dense distribution areas of living
planktonic foraminifera with as much as 60-70 specimens/m 3 sea water are located
close to the Zhujiang River where surface sea water temperature is 20-23°C, and
salinity is 34.5. This distributional trend is related to very low Zhujiang River runoff
and to the influence of the southwest flowing high salinity and high temperature
Kuroshio Current offshoot entering through the Bashi Channel at about 22°N during
"l
o
loaD 112 0 1 HiD 128 0 [ OJ
FIGURE 7 5
A-Horizontal distribution of 5'
planktonic/benthonic foramini- ~
feral ratios of the China Seas. [
3aO~ B-HorizontaI distribution of spe-
cies number of planktonic fora- ~
C
minifera of the China Seas.
C-Planktonic foramini feral assem- ..,~
blages dominant species compo-
sition. ri
East China Sea South China Sea
=
~
34°1 )4° '"
E-1 BRSED S-l RSBESi
£-2 RBESD 18 rbsesi
2a reosb 1b rsbeo
2b rebso 1c rsbesi
2c rsebo
2d rbeso S-2 RSEOB
2e rbseo 28 rsebsi
30°4 2b rseob 30°
2f beros
2c rseom
2g breso
E-3 EORSB 5-3 ERSOI
3a eosrc
3b eorsi
3c erosb
26 0 j 3d erbso 26°
3e ebros
3f beros ...
39 berso b d
E-4 OESRA
22o~
~ Ou".,' 22°
~ ,
... ..... b - Globigerina bulloides
,~~' i - Globorotalia innate
~~. m - Globorotalia menardii
s~ =~d~~~~o~I1:~!
a - TinophodeUa ambitacrena
lao (((( 100-'"( ( , - G10bl,,gerinoi,des ',Ube, , ~1ao
s - Glob!gennoldes sacculI fer
c - Globlgerinoldes conglobalus
15 0 - Pulleniatina obhgulloculala
10a o 112 0 116 0 112 0 116 0 112° 116 0 120 0 124 0 128 0
tv
Q\
\0
the northeast monsoon. In the western Guangdong coastal areas, where there is
greater development and southwest seaward expansion of coastal currents and salinity
is <34, livin? planktonic foraminifera are absent. Dense concentrations of > 10
specimens/m occur much farther offshore. In spring (Fig. 8B), when there is a
gradual rise in temperature (>21°C) and salinity (34-34.5), the distribution areas of
living planktonic foraminifera are more extensive than in winter, but there is overall
decrease in total abundance. In the areas southeast off the Zhujiang River under the
influence of the Kuroshio offshoot, they are still distributed close to the coast (where
salinity is 34.5) at a density of > 10 specimens/m 3 (max. >50 specimens/m3). In
summer (Fig. 8C), during the SW monsoon when Zhujiang River runoff is hi~h, living
planktonIc foraminifera are absent in the Guangdongcoastal areas. The 34 lsohaline
retreats much farther seaward to depth about 80 m. The Zhujiang River runoff,
under the influence of northward flowing monsoonal currents, flows eastward to the
vicinity of 117°E and cuts across a shoreward intrusion of high density tongue (> 10
specimens/m 3 ) located in the offshore waters southeast of the Zhujiang River mouth
dividing it into northern and southern portions. In autumn (Fig. 8D) dense areas of
10-20 specimens/m 3 (max. 50 specimens/m 3 ) are located in water depths of >80 m
with salinity of 34.2 and temperature of 26°C. The 1 specimen/m 3 isopleth more or
less corresponds to the 50 m isobath and the <34 isohaline. In waters <50 m with
salinity of <34, planktonic foraminifera are almost absent in the Guangdong coastal
regions. In the waters southeast of Hainan Province under the influence of warm
currents, there is an extensive distribution area with > 10 specimens/m 3.
110° 114 0 11B o 1'2:2° 122 0 122°

34° J40 N
A C D
Jlangsll
East
China Sea
c""
30°
/
CIHNA
M
" 0
~e '" 0 30°
Zhejiang (3 "
S\~'O
10
R~
November, 1959
26° 26°
,,0
(/)
.....~...,
.'
22°
"
0
'"
18°
April, 1960 §'10 June, 1960 October, 19S9
1100 114 0 1100 114° 11(}o 114° 110° 114 0 l1S 0
Fig. 8. Seasonal distribution of living foraminifera (no. of specimen/m3 sea water) in the East China Sea
and northen South China Sea.
ECS living planktonic foraminiferal samples were collected in an area west of

124°E, covering 28°-33°N, which is mainly under the influence of Kuroshio Current
offshoots, the Taiwan Warm Current and the low salinity Zhejiang coastal current.
FOrlllllinifcral Fa unal Trcnds 271
Fig. SB-C show in spring and summer living planktonic foraminifera occur in less
abundance (max. > 10 specimens/m 3) than in winter and autumn, but are distributed
more extensively. In spring, when Changjiang River runoff is low and the coastal
current flows southwestward, north of 300 N low abundance areas (> 1 specimen/m 3)
are located near the Changjiang River mouth (Fig. 8B). Areas with> 5 specimens/m 3
are mainly restricted to south of 29°30'N. In summer north of 30o N, northward
flowing coastal currents and high runoffs from the Changjiang River, which form a
diluted water tongue flowing northeast toward the Chejudo Island, restricts the
shoreward distribution of planktonic foraminifera (Fig. 8C). Offshore areas with >5
and 10 specimens/m 3 occur as far north as 32°39'N. This trend correlates well with
the northward distributional trend of the Taiwan Warm Current which is strongest
in summer and can reach 31°N (Weng and Wang 1984). South of 30 o N, living
planktonic foraminifera are located near the Hangzhou Bay mouth where there is
coastal upwelling. It is noteworthy that the most dominant species in this area is
Globigerina bulloides, a well known indicator of upwelling. In autumn and winter,
living planktonic foraminifera occur in higher densities (max. >50 specimens/m 3) but
the scope of distribution is limited. In autumn (Fig. 8D), their distribution is
restricted to south of latitude 29°N in the southeastern corner of the studied area.
This trend correlates with the distributional trend of the Taiwan Warm Current Deep
Water which is weak during this season and even disappears north of 28°N in
October (Weng and Wang, 1985). In winter (Fig. 8A) a few stations north of latitude
30 N have >5 specimens/m 3 • The above trends show that the distributional patterns
0
of living planktonic foraminifera are defined by the seasonal fronts of coastal waters
and open ocean waters.
E. Diurnal Vertical Migration
Table 4 shows that SCS planktonic foraminifera have both rIsmg and sinking
migrations in the daytime and in the ni~httime which are different from reported
trends (Cheng and Cheng, 1964). We are mclined to believe that this complex rhythm
may be due to the combined effects of the interaction of intrinsic and extrinsic
factors. However, as the observed trend is based on data from a single station, it is
far from conclusive.
Tablc 4. Diul'\wl VCI·tical Migl'3tion of Planktonic FOI'alllinifcl'a at 18°00'N, 108°00'E of thc South China
Sca on NOVClllhcl' 10-11, 1960
Depth 20:00 22:00 24:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
(m)
0-10 31.1' 25.6 14.3 13.3 20.0 8.3 16.4 26.5 21.8 21.5 5.9 4.2 37.5
10-20 20.8 10.3 22.9 26.5 15.2 12.5 10.5 5.9 21.8 7.6 5.9 19.4 18.8
20-35 6.5 34.6 34.3 14.1 20.7 25.0 22.4 14.7 19.2 24.1 25.0 40.3 31.3
35-50 27.3 10.3 15.7 12.5 15.2 35.4 10.4 17.6 12.8 12.7 20.6 13.9 6.2
50-75 13.0 6.4 7.1 22.7 21.3 12.5 34.4 20.6 23.1 27.8 32.3 18.0 6.2
75-90 1.3 12.8 5.7 10.9 7.6 6.3 6.0 14.7 1.3 6.3 10.3 4.2 0
3 .
Numerical <lbundaIH."'e e>..vressed as per,,-'Cntage. (Based 011 Cheng and Cheng. 1964).
F. Planktonic/Benthonic Foraminiferal Ratio
The source area of planktonic foraminifera is the open ocean where they are
found from the surface to bathyal depths. Their number decreases shoreward, a trend
inverse to that of the benthonic foraminifera. Thus, the planktoniclbenthonic

foraminiferal ratio in a sample is a useful measure of distance from shore. Fig. 7A
shows the distribution of PIB ratio isopleths corresponds roughly to the bathymetric
contours of the study area (Fig. lA). Low PIB ratios at depths below the lysocline is
indicative of differential dissolution of calcareous tests.
G. Planktonic Foraminiferal Assemblages
The northern SCS delineated into four assemblages and 8 sub assemblages has
Globigerinoides sacculifera, G. ruber, Neogloboquadrina eggeri, Pu lien ia tina
obliquiloculata, Globigerina bulloides, Globorotalia menardii, G. inJlata and Hastigerina
siphonifera as dominant species. Assemblages S-1 and S-2 which invariably have G.
ruber as the first rank species, are under the influence of the Guangdong Coastal
Current and northern continental coastal waters entering through the Taiwan Strait
during the northeast monsoon. Assemblage S-3 differs from all the other assemblages
in having N. eggeri as the first rank species and G. infiata as the 5th rank species. The
ECS delineated into 4 assemblages and 14 subassemblages has Globigerinoides ruber,
Neogloboquadrina eggeri, Globigerinoides conglobatus, Globigerina bulloides,
Pulleniatina obliquiloculata, Tinophodella ambitacrena and Globorotalia infiata as
dominant species. Assemblages E-l and E-2 on the shallower and mixed water
regions have either Globigerinoides ruber or Globigerina bulloides as the first rank
species. This trend clearly shows the eurytopic cold-tolerant nature of these 2 species.
It is noteworthy that both Subassemblage E-3b and Assemblage S-3 off the eastern
Guangdong coast, under the influence of Kuroshio Current offshoots have similar
species composition, especially with regard to having as the 5th rank species G.
inflata which does not occur elsewhere as dominant species. This suggests their
having a common current source.
IV. ZOOGEOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS
Planktonic and benthonic foraminifera have been used separately as basis for
delineating world biogeographic regions (Boltovskoy and Wright, 1976; Be, 1977).
Our studies show that the SHS is the northernmost distribution area of Ee'S
relatively cold-tolerant planktonic foraminifera in view of their scarcity and scattered
distribution there. The ECS planktonic foraminifera as a whole corresponds to the
warm-water central faunal delineated by Bradshaw (1959). The fauna's warm water
nature is best brought out by Assemblage E-4 which has maximum species diversity
and total abundance. The shoreward boundary of this assemblage is defined by the
23°C annual average surface isotherm and the 34 isohaline (Cheng and Cheng, 1963).
Although this assemblage shows a much stronger tropical character than do the other
three assemblages, strictly Indo-Pacific tropical species such as Globoquadrina
conglomerata (Schwager) and Globorotalia hexagona (Natland) reported from the
Nansha Islands, SCS ,Tu and Zheng, 1991), have not been found to occur here. The
Taiwan Strait connecting the ECS and the SCS has in its northern half the
cold-tolerant species Globigerina bulloides (Huang, 1971, 1983; FlO, 1988) as its most
dominant species. Huang (1971, 1983) noted its greater abundance in the northern
half than in the southern half of the strait and ascribed a northern continental coastal
water origin to it, while FlO (1988) reports its transport by currents from a low
latitude source area. From the fact that G. bulloides is more abundant in the Taiwan
Strait than in the ECS and SCS and that it is of larger average test size (0.45 mm)
Foraminifcral Faunal Trcnds 273
in the Taiwan Strait (FlO, 1988) than in the SCS and ECS (0.33 mm, Cheng and
Cheng, 1964), it is inferred here that G. bulloides thrives best in the Taiwan Strait
waters and is transported by currents either northward or southward depending on
monsoonal regimes.
A synthesis of planktonic and benthonic foraminiferal distributional trends shows
that at approximately 30o N, ECS, marked foraminiferal faunal changes take place.
Fig. 7C shows that north of 30o N, cold-tolerant planktonic foraminifera G. bulloides
and G. ruber rank either the 1st or the 2nd, and south of it, N. eggeri ranks the 1st,
especially in the areas under the influence of the Kuroshio Current. Benthonic
foraminifera also show marked change in dominant species composition north and
south of 30 N (Fig. 6B, Table 2). As to the southern ECS south of 30o N, exclusively
0
tropical genera such as Heterostegina, Baculogypsinoides, Amphistegina, Calcarina,

Cycloclypeus, Dendritina, Amphisorus, Nevillina, Articulina, etc. and their species do
not occur. Thus it is reasonable to consider that the investigated area of the ECS
south of 30 N down to the northern Taiwan Strait west of the Ryukyu Islands belongs
0
to the northern subtropical biogeographic region, that the northern ECS north of
30 o N, the HS, and the BS, belong to the northern temperate biogeographic region,
and that the SCS up to the southern half of Taiwan Strait belongs to the tropical
biogeographic region. The farther south, the stronger is the tropical nature of the
fauna.
REFERENCES
Be, A. W H. (1977) "An ecological, zoogeographic and taxonomic review of Recent planktonic
foraminifera" in A.T.S. Ramsay (ed.), Oceanic Micropaleontology, vol. I, Academic Press Inc.
(London) Ltd., pp. 1-88.
Boltovskoy, E. and R. Wright (1976) Recent Foraminifera. W lunk b.v. Publishers, The Hague, pp.
1-515.
Bradshaw, 1.S. (1959) "Ecology ofliving planktonic foraminifera in the north and equatorial Pacific Occan",
Contr. Cushmall Found. Foranl. Res. 10(196), 25-64, pis. 6-8, figs. 1-43.
Cheng, Tsi-chung and Cheng, Shou-yi (Zheng, Shou-yi) (1960) "The planktonic foraminifera of the Yellow
Sca and thc East China Sea", Oceallologia et LiJllllologia Sillica 3, 125-156, pis. 111 (in Chinese).
Cheng, Tsi-chung and Cheng, Shou-yi (1963) "An attempt at a preliminary delineation of the geographic
rcgions of planktonic foraminifera of the Yellow Sea and East China Sea," Oceanologica et
Linmologica Sillica 4(1-2), 60-85, pI. 1 (in Chinese).
Cheng, Tsi-chung and Cheng, Shou-yi (1964) "The planktonic foraminifera of the northern South China
Sea", Oceallologica et Lilllllologica Sillica 6( 1) ,38-79, pis. 1-4 (in Chinese).
Cheng, Tsi-chung and Zheng, Shou-yi (1978) "The recent foraminifera of the Xisha Islands, Guangdong
Province, China, I" Studia Marilla Sinica 12, 149-266, pis. 1-33 (in Chinese, with English summary).
Editorial Committee of "Natural Geography of China" (ECNGC) of Academia Sinica (1979) Marine
Geography, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 1-224 (in Chinese).
Fujian Institute of Oceanology (FlO) (1988) A C-Omprehensive Oceanographic Survey of the Central and
Northern Part of the Taiwan Strait, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 1-423, pis. 1-18 (in Chinese, with
English su mma ry).
Huang, Tunyow (1971) "Foraminiferal trends in the surface sediments of Taiwan Strait", United Nations
ECAFE, CCOP Tech. Bull. 4,23-61.
Huang, Tunyow (1983) "Foraminiferal biofacies of the Taiwan Strait", ROC. Boll. Soc. Pal. Italiana
22(1-2),151-177, text-figs. 1-18, 1 tab.
Mao, Han-Ii, Ren, Yun-wu, and Sun, Guo-dong (1965) "Preliminary analysis of summer hydrological
characteristics of the southern Huanghai Sea and northern East China Sea (28°-37°N) and sea water
type (water systems)", Studia Marilla Sillica 1,27-77 (in Chinese).
Polski, W (1959) "Foraminiferal biofacies off the North Asiatic coast", Jour. Pal. 33(4),569-587, 1 pI.
Tu, Xia and Zheng, Fan (1991) "Foraminifera in surface sediments of the Nansha Sea Area" in
Multidisciplinary Oceanographic Expedition Team of Academia Sinica to the Nansha Islands (ed.),
Quaternary Biological Group of the Nansha Islands and the Neighbouring Waters, Zhongshan Univ.
Publishing House, Guangzhou, pp. 129-198.
Waller, H.O. (1964) "Foraminiferal biofacies off the South China coast", Jour. Pal. 34(6), 1164--1182, 15
text-figs.
Wang, Pin-xian, Zhang, Ji-jun, and Min, Qiu-bao (1985) "Distribution of foraminifera in surface sediments
of the East Olina Sea", in Pin-xian Wang et al. (eds.), Marine Micropaleontology of China, China
Ocean Press, Beijing, Springer-Verlag, pp. 34--69.
Wang, Pin-xian, Xia, Lu-yun, and Cheng, Xm-rong (1985) "Neogene biostratigraphy in the northem shelf
of the South China Sea", in Pin-xian Wang et al. (eds.), Marine Micropaleontology of China, Olina
Ocean Press, Beijing, Springer-Verlag, pp. 291-303.
Weng, Xue-chuan and Wang, Cong-min (1984) "A preliminary study on the T-S characteristics and the
origin of the Taiwan Warm Current water in summer", Studia Marina Sinica 21, 113-133 (in Chinese,
Weng, Xue-chuan and Wang, Cong-min (1985) "An analysis of characteristics of variation of the Taiwan
Warm Current Deep Water", China 1. Oceano/. Limnol. 3(1), 96-108 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zheng, Shou-yi (1979) "The recent foraminifera of the Xisha Islands, Guangdong Province, China, II",
Studw Marina Sinica 15, 101-232, pIs. 1-27 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zheng, Shou-yi (1980) "The recent foraminifera of the Zhongsha Islands, Guangdong Province, China, I",
Studia Marrina Sillica 16, 143-182, pIs. 1-8 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zheng, Shou-yi (1988) The Agglutinated and Porcelaneous Foraminifera of the East China Sea, Science
Press, Beijing, PI'. 1---425, pIs. 1-87, text-figs. 1-125 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zheng, Shou-yi (1990) "Foraminiferal faunal trends and assemblages of the Bohai Sea, Huanghai Sea, and
East China Sea", Bull. Mar. Sci. 47(1), 192-212.
Zheng, Shou-yi and Fu, Zhao-xian (1990) "Faunal trends and assemblages of the northern South China
Sea agglutinated foraminifera", in C. Hemleben et al. (eds.), Paleoecology, Biostratigraphy,
Paleooceanography, and Taxonomy of Agglutinated Foraminifera, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, Netherlands, PI'. 541-563.
Zheng, Shou-yi and Fu, Zhao-xian (1992) "The agglutinated foraminifera of the Bohai Sea and Huanghai
Sea", in Y. Takayanagi and T. Saito (eds.), Studies in Benthic Foraminifera, Tokai University Press,
Tokyo, PI'. 183-197.
Zheng, Shou-yi, Cheng, Tsi-chung, Wang, Xi-tang, and Fu, Zhao-xian (1978) "The Quatemary foraminifera
of the Dayuzhang Irrigation Area, Shandong Province, and a preliminary attempt at an interpretation
of its depositional environment", Studia Marina Sinica 13, 16-78, pis. 1-10 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
RADIOLARIA IN EAST CHINA SEA
TAN Zhi-yuan
I. INTRODUCTION
Radiolaria are very rare in the Bohai Sea and the Huanghai Sea and occur mostly
in the estern part of the East China Sea. Polycystine is the most abundant, and
phaeodaria is rare. Acantharia and Sticholonchea, recently considered as two
independent classes, are also abundant. Previous works dealing with the seasonal
abundance and geographical distribution of Radiolaria in the East China Sea
included those of Tchang and Tan (1964a, b), Tan et aL (1978), Tan and Tchang
(1976) and Tan and Su (1982). Based on preVIous works plus some additional data,
this paper attempts to provide a comprehensive ecological information of Radiolaria
in the East China Sea. Samples were collected form 1958-1961, covering 121°30'-
127°E, 26°15'-32°15'N. This was the first study of this nature in the area.
II. POLYCYSTINE
This group is divided into two orders, Spumellaria and Nassellaria. They are
found in the East China Sea and comprise 197 species belonging to 135 genera and
49 families. The majority of species which belongs to pylonidae is found in surface
sediments of the East China Sea continental shelf. Predominant species of this family
are Tetrapyle quadriloba (Fig. 1-1) and Octopyle octospinosa (Fig. 1-2). They make up
44.8% of the total population. Next in abundance is Spongodiscidae, consisting
predominantly of Dictyocoryne trimaculatum, Dictyocoryne profunda, Spongaster tetras
and Spongodiscus biconcavus, making up 17.49%. Porodiscidae (including Euchitonia
elegance, Stylodictya multispina, Stylochlamysium aequale, eyclastrum trifastigiatum and
Stylodictya dujardinii) is represented by lesser species, making up 11.2%. Panartidae
represented by Panartus tetrathalamum comprises 5.16%. Phorticium pylonium
(phorticidae), Acrosphaera spinosa (collosphaeridae) and Spirema haliomma
(Lithelieae) are often found in sediment but only in small quantities. Other species
are very rare in this region.
III. DISTRIBUTION OF POLYCYSTINE IN SEDIMENTS
A quantitative analysis shows that Polycystine in sediments is concentrated in a
small area (28°-28°40'N, 126°-127°E). The highest density is 50000 indo per 50 g
275
Zhou Di et al, (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume I, 275-280.
Fig. 1. The species of radiolaria. 1, Tetrapyle qlladriloba; 2, Octopyle octospillosa; 3, Rhizoplectas trithyris;
4, Spollgosp/wera streptacalltlw; 5, Phyl/ostallms cllspidatlls; 6,Amphistallms tetraptems; 7, DiplocOlIllS fasces ;
8, Dorataspis loricata; 9, Amphilollche elollgata; 10, Phractopelta cmciata; 11, Sticholollche zalle/ea.
Radiolaria in East China Sea 277
sediments, but the density gradually decreases outward to a minimum of 5000 indo
per 50 g. North and northwest of the central region, there is a larger area with a
density of 1000-5000 indo per 50 g sediments. Farther off towards the west and
northwest the abundance progressively decreases to a density of 1-500 indo per 50 g.
From the mouth of the Changjiang River to the offshore waters of the Hangzhou
Bay, this group is entirely absent. On a larger scope, the region with a large number
of individuals also has a great number of species (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Distribution of number and

species of PoIYl-),stine in sediments
of the East China Sea.
IV. DISTRIBUTION OF RADIOLARIA FOUND IN PLANKTON
In the East China Sea, more than half of the polycystine found in plankton are
also found in sediments, but some species of the families Collozoidae, Sphaerozoidae,
Larnacidae, Coronidae, and phormocytidae have not been found in sediments yet.
The dominant species found in the plankton are not the same as those found in
sediments. Based on samples collected from Oct. 1958 to Dec. 1959, Rhizoplecta
trithyris (Fig. 1-3) and Spongosphaera streptacantha (Fig. 1-4) were the dominant
species, Rhizoplecta trithyris was rare, and Spongosphaera streptacantha entirely absent.
Because of the limitation of the area investigated, the phaeodaria found in plankton
were represented by only a few taxa included in 5 families, 6 genera and 6 species.
They were Astracantha paradoxa (Astracanthidae), Sagoscena sp. (Sagosphaeridae),
Castanidium sp. (Castanellidae), Protocystis xiphodon (Challengeridae) Medusetta
inflata, and Gazelletta hexanema (Medusttidae). Gazel/etta hexanema predominated
in number, occurred from January to July, with a density reaching 1500 indo per m3
of water. It was not found in the samples collected from July to December.
Variations of the number of indivIduals and the number of species of radiolaria
in plankton in various seasons were significant. The increase in the number of
individuals began in April (1071 indo per m 3 of water) and reached its maximum in
October (34 466 indo per m 3 of water). The number of species is the highest in
October (48 species) (Fig. 3).
50
,1\
r-' \
I
"
\ i' ' ,,
\
.
10000 40
I \ I
I \
...... "1 I V
\
\ ,'\ I
I , \ I
\
I 'oJ
1000 I 30
I
I ,
, I
,,,
I I
\
t
\ 20
100 I
\
\
I I
I I
II
~ 10
10
Fig. 3. Monthly variation of

individual number and species
number of Polycystine in the
9 10 11 12: 1 6789101112 plankton of the westem part of
1958 : 1959 the East China Sea.
V. ACANTHARIA
This group comprises 11 families, 20 genera and 30 species. They are abundant
in summer but rare in winter. They are relatively concentrated in the southeastern
part of the investigation area and gradually decrease in abundance or even become
absent towards the northwest. Phyllostaunls cuspidatus, Amphistaurus tetraptems,
Radiolaria in East China Sea 279
Dipfoconus fasces, Dorataspis foricata, Amphifonche efongata and Phractopefta cruciata

(Fig. 1-5 to 1-10) are more abundant (>5000 indo per m 3 of water); Acanthometra
pel/ucida, Dipfoconus nitidus, Lychnaspis giftshi, Lychnaspis giltshi, Lychnaspis serrata,
Amphibelone anomala and Lonchostaurus rhombicus are rarer «500 indo per m 3 of
water). Species other than these are negligible in number. A maximum number of 20
species is found in the southeastern part of the study area. To the northwest, they
decrease in number to one or zero. No specimens are found in the mouth of the
Changjiang River and the Hangzhou Bay (Fig. 4).
33
/
I
I
I
I
\
~--
"
32
31
,,
, 15
_20 30
10
29
~~_~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _---j28
___ Poly<.:ystine
Fig. 4. Distribution of the species - - - - Acantharia
numbers of Acantharia and
Polycystine in the East China Sea. 120 121 122 123 124
VI. STICHOLONCHEA
The taxonomic position of this group is uncertain. Cachon and Cachon (1978)
classified it as belongin~ to the Toxopodia of Heliozoa. Sticholonche zanclea (Fig. I-
11) has long been consIdered the only representative of this group.
In the East China Sea, Sticholonche zanclea occurs in considerable abundance

throughout the year in plankton samples. In winter (January to March) it is low in
abundance and restricted to a small region offshore the Zhejiang Province. In spring
(April to June), it increases in number to 1000 indo per cubic meter of water, and the
distribution range reaches to the mouth of the Changjiang River. In summer (July
to September) the distribution area is expanded to as far north as 28°-30o N,
122°-123°E. North of the Changjiang River Mouth there is a high density region
(about 100 000 indo per m3 of water). In the adjacent waters, the density is generally
above 3000 indo per m 3 of water. In autumn (October to December) its abundance
decreases to a density of <500 indo per m 3 of water. In summer, the most abundant
species occur in nearshore waters where the temperature and salinity are lower
(annual mean temperature 16-18°C, salinity 28-31) than that in the open sea where
Kuroshio passes by (annual mean temperature 21°C, salinity 34). Cachon and Cachon
(1978) reported that Sticholonche zanclea found at the 300 m water depth was most
abundant in winter in the Mediterranean Sea, where the temperature was the same
as the summer temperature of nearshore waters of the East China Sea. The mean
temperature of the Mediterranean Sea surface water in summer is 25-27°C, which
is too high for these species.
The species of Polycystine, Phaeodaria, Acantharia and Sticholonchea are warm-
water types. Their seasonal variations are similar, abundant in summer and rare in
winter. Their distribution area is expanded in warm seasons and reduced in cold
seasons. All these groups are oceanic and are carried by Kuroshio to the East China
Sea. They are influenced by the Huanghai Sea Cold Water Mass and environmental
factors such as temperature, salinity, water depth, and runoff. Thus the distribution
of these species are limited to the northwestern part of the investigated region.
REFERENCES
Cachon, J. and Cachon, M. (1978) "Sticlwlollche zallclea Hertwig: a reinterpretation of its phylogenetic
position based upon new obselVations on its ultrastructure", Archiv fiir protistellkullde 120, 148--168.
Tan, Zhi-yuan and Tchang, Tsorun (1976) "Studies on the radiolaria of the East China Sea. II. Spumellaria,
Nassellaria, Phaeodaria, Sticholonchea", Studia Marina Sinica 217-313, pIs. I-III (in Olinese, with
English abstract).
Tan, Zhi-yuan, Gao, Hong-xu, and Su, Xing-hui (1978) "The quantitative distribution of Sticholonche
zallclea in the westeru part of the East China Sea", Oceallologia et Limnologia Sinica 59-66 (in
Tan, Zhi-yuan and Su, Xing-hui (1982) "Studies on the radiolaria in sediments of the East China Sea
(continental shelf)", Studw Marilla Sinica 129-216, pIs. I-XX (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Tchang, Tsorun and Tan, Zhi-yuan (1964a) "Studies on the radiolaria of the East China Sea I. Acantha ria",
Studio Marilla Sinica 33-78 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Tchang, Tsorun and Tan, Zhi-yuan (1964b) "Sur la nouvelle preuve pour certificier Rhizoplecta trithyris
Frenguelli qui est surement une espece de radiolaria", Studia Marilla Sillica 79-81 (in Olinese, with
English abstract).
NEKTONS OF CHINA SEAS
XU Gong-zhao and ZHENG Wen-lian

South China Sea IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
I. INTRODUCTION
Nektons refer to the aquatic organisms that have fully developed mobile organs and
a strong ability to swim. They can overcome water current resistance and migrate a
long distance and are virtuaIIy not affected by water current movement. They are
gregarious and constitute an ecological group. Marine nektons include most species
of marine fishes (Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, etc.) and of marine mammals,
some species of Cephalopoda and Crustacea, and a few species of Reptilia and Aves.
Besides developed motion and balance organs, muscle and neural systems, visual
sense and various morphological structures for adapting to various habitats, many
nektons have also evolved with certain specific adaptive functions and behaviors. For
example, most pelagic species (e.g. mackerel, dolphin, etc.) have typically streamlined
bodies for reducing the current resistance in rapid swimming. Flying fishes have
extremely developed pectoral fins and can jerk into the air from the water and glide
a distance of about 50 m in less than 2 seconds. Sometimes their gliding may reach
a distance over 400 m in 15 seconds. Species of Delphinidae have relatively thick and
springy epiderm. In the derma there are many crests, the interspace among which is
full of liquid for reducing the current turbulence. On encountering enemies, the
cephalopoda jet out ink to blacken the surrounding seawater and facilitate its escape.
Species of Baleenoptera have a row of screen-like baleen on either side of the upper
jaw to filter a great amount of food from the seawater they swallow in. Cetacea have
a very good signal receiver-organ and an extremely sensitive detecting system (sonar)
for echo-positioning and navigation.
II. THE LIVING ENVIRONMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SPECIES
The China seas (the Bohai, Huanghai, East China and South China seas) are
semi-closed marginal seas that span the frigid, temperate and tropical zones. Onfy the
South China Sea has a central basin of over 4000 m deep. In these seas there are at
least 6536 islands having an area over 500 m 2 and numerous isles, shoals and reefs.
Large rivers entering the China seas include (from the north to the south) the
Yalujiang, Liaohe, Huanghe, Haihe, Changjiang, Minjiang, and Zhujiang rivers. Their
runoff is over 1.5 trillion m 3 annually, bring abundant nutrients to bays and river
mouths, making them ideal places for the growth and development of nektons.
281
Temperature varies greatly in the seas. The average surface water temperature
in winter (February) may reach 28°C in the southern South China Sea, while around
O°C in the northern Bohai Sea, where freezing may occur in coastal waters.
The four seas have their own circulation systems, and no oceanic cold currents.
The overwhelming majority of nektons in China seas (Zhang et aL,1955;
IZIOSCF, 1962; Zhu et aL, 1963; 10, 1964; Chen and Zheng, 1987; Editorial Group
of MFRC, 1990; Deng et aL, 1991) are shallow water species, mainly benthonekton.
Cosmopolitan species are rare; species of high biomass are very rare. The low
average fish output of 3.02 t/km 2 apgroximates that of the northeastern coastal waters
in North America, and is 3.84 t/km for the Bohai Sea, 2.25 t/km 2 for the Huanghai
Sea, 3.92 t/km2 for the East China Sea, and 2.40 t/km 2 for the South China Sea.
Nektons in the Bohai and Huanghai seas are mainly warm-temperate species, while
cold-temperate ones, such as cold Gaddus macrocephalus, Pacific herring Clupea
pallasi, only account for a small proportion and mainly distributed in the Huanghai
Sea. Due to the influence of the Kuroshio Warm Current in the East China Sea,
warm-water species dominate, and a few cold-temperate species can be found in its
southern part. Nektons in the South China Sea are warm-temperate ones, one of
which is the pelagic species Thunnidae.
Nektons in China seas include 1026 species on the continental shelf of the South
China Sea, 527 species in the waters of isles in the South China Sea, 716 species on
the shelf of the East China Sea, 288 species in the waters of the Bohai and Huanghai
seas. There are 24 species of Cetacea, 179 species of cartilaginous fishes, 1528 species
of bony fishes, 300 species of large shrimps and lobsters, and 91 species of
cephalopoda.
III. DOMINANT NEKTONS IN CHINA SEAS
A. Cetacea, Pinnipedia and Sirenia

Cetacea, a major member of the nektons, are in general very large (> 1 to 30 m
long), extremely strong, and can swim very fast, the slow ones at 2-4 n miles/h, fast
ones (e.g. Balaenopteral borealis) at an instantaneous speed of 30 n miles/h, Orcin us
orca at 30 n miles/h, and Delphinus delphis at 20 n miles/h over a long distance.
There are about 30 species of Cetacea, Pinnipedia and Sirenia in the China seas
(Wang, 1979; Chen, 1978).
Mystacoceti
Balaenidae
Eubalaena glacialis (Borowski)
Eschrich tiidae
Eschrichtius gibbosus (Erxleben)
Balaenopteridae
Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus)
B. borealis Lesson.
B. edeni Anderson.
B. acutorostata Lacepede.
Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski)
Odontoceti
Phuseteridae
Physeter catodon Linnaeus.
Nektons of China Seas 283
Kogia breviceps (de BIainville)

Kogia simus Owen.
Ziphiidae
Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki and Kamiya.
M. densirostris (de BIainville)
Delphinidae
Delphinus delphis Linnaeus.
Stenella attenuata (Gray)
Lagenorhynchus ob/iquldens Gill.
Steno bredanensis (Lesson)
Tursiops truncatus (Montagu)
Sousa chinensis (Osbeck)
Phocoenidae
Phocoena phocoena (Linnaeus)
Neophocaena phocaenoides (G. Cuvier)
Globicephalidae
Globicephala scammoni (Cope)
G. macrorhynchus Gray.
Orcin us orca (Linnaeus)
Pseudorca crassidens (Owen)
Grampidae
Grampus griseus (G. Cuvier)
Pinnipedia
Otariidae
Eumetopias jubata (Schreber)
Callorhinus ursinus (Linnaeus)
Phocidae
Phoca vitulina Linnaeus.
Erignalhus barbatus (Erxleben)
Sirenia
Dugongidae
Dugong dugon Muller
Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758) is a cosmopalitan species. The East China
Sea and the Huanghai Sea are reproduction and feeding grounds for this species. It
appears in the northern part of the Huanghai Sea from December to next April, and
then migrates southward to the waters off the Changjiang River mouth in the East
China Sea. This species tends to move in a group of 10-20 (even nearly 100) capitals.
In 1964 the Chinese whaling ship Yuanglong began her production with an annual
catch fluctuating between 1 and 10 (generally 5 and 7) capitals.
Balaenoptera acutorostata (Lacepede, 1804) is widely distributed in the seas
between polar zones and subtropics, mostly in nearshore and inner sea waters. It
appears from May to December along the Bohai and Huanghai coasts. The
individuals mostly swim alone, or in twos or threes, never in large schools. The
swimming speed is generalJy 5-6 n mile/h. September and October are the peak time
for mating. The pregnancy takes 10-11 months. In the northern Huanghai Sea, June
and July are the birth period. In the Huanghai Sea, the annual catch is generally
50-100 capitals, but in 1976 it was as high as 189 capitals.
Delphinus de/phis (Linnaeus, 1758) is widely distributed in temperate and tropical
seas all over the world. In the Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea, it appears in
May-November, especially May-August, in schools of several tens or even several
hundreds. Spring and summer are the peak months for mating. It swims very fast; the
instantaneous speed may reach 30 n mile/h. Using light seining, Chinese fishermen
have several times caught over a hundred (maximum of more than 300) capitals.
Neophocaena phocaenoides (G. Cuvier, 1829) is a cosmopolitan species commonly
seen in Chinese coastal waters. It usually lives in areas where salt water mixes with
fresh water, in the middle and lower reaches of rivers, and sometimes even in large
lakes, e.g., the Dongting Lake by the Changjiang River. These animals swim mostly
alone or in twos or threes, in general not in large schools. However, during the repro-
duction period in spring, they may appear in large schools of several tens of capitals.
Phoca vitulina (Linnaeus, 1758) is mainly distributed in high latitude waters of the
Northern hemisphere, and appears mainly in the Bohai Sea and the Huanghai Sea,
occasionally in the East China Sea. Every year it enters the Bohai Sea around
November. By early February of the next year, it gives birth to the young on the ice
floe in the northern Bohai Sea. In March they are blown south on the floe by the
northerlies. Now they can reproduce normally under favorable rearing conditions.
B. Pisces
Pisces is a fundamental and major member of nektons. The pisces distributed in

the Bohai Sea and the North Huanghai Sea is mostly neritic species. Most of them
migrate to the inshore shallow water to spawn in sparing and summer, and move
back to deeper waters to overwinter. Some such fishes are croakers (Sciaenidae),
flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes), rays (Rajiformes), the tetrodontiformes and cottOld
fishes (Cottoidei). There are many oceanic species in the East China Sea and South
China Sea, such as mackerels (Scombridae), carangid fishes (Carangidae), herrings
(Clupeidae) and sharks (Selachomorpha). In China seas there are also bottom fishes
such as Pacific cods and hairtails (TrichIUridae), which migrate over long distances.
1. Sharks, Selachomorpha
Of about 97 species of sharks in China seas, about 75 species are distributed in

the South China Sea where Stegostoma fasciatum and Carcharhinus menisorrah are
commonly seen; about 68 species in the East China Sea where Carcharias owstoni,
Mustelus manazo and Carcharinus latistomus are commonly seen; and 21 species in
the Huanghai Sea where species such as Notorynchus platycephalus, Sphyma zygaena
and Squalus acanthius are easily found.
Sharks tend to live in small groups according to their size. Adults often group by
sex. With the exception of a few {>elagic species, most sharks live in shallow waters
and do not make long distance mIgrations. In spring they migrate from the south to
the north, or from open sea to longshore. And by October-November, with the
falling of water temperature, they swim southward or seaward. Most sharks are
ferocious predators, but the largest-sized Cetorhinus maxim us feeds on plankton.
Sharks have very poor tactile sense, but their sense of smell is so strong that they can
sense a matter at a concentration of only one ppb. The annual yield of sharks in the
world is about 400 000 t; that in China about 7000 t.
2. Rays, Batomorpha
There are about 60 species of rays in China seas, mainly belonging to Rajidae
(8 species), Desyatidae (14 species) and Myliobatidae (5 species). Rays are not good
swimmers. To move in the water they flap their bird-wings like pectoral fins up and
down and fotward and backward. They are typical benthic swimming species of fishes.
Rays that live in these waters do not in general swim far away but only make
small seasonal migrations within shallow or deep waters. They usually live in shallow
waters with sand, gravel or mud bottom. Many species have organs that can generate
an electrical charge of usually 75-80 V and maXImum of 200 V, with a strong charge
for defence and predation or a weak charge as an undetwater sonar for positioning.
Annual yield of rays along the coasts of China is about 10 000 t.
3. Herrings, Ciupeidae
Herrings are marine pelagic fishes. They are mostly small but abundant, and tend
to swarm in large schools, and constitute a major target for commercial fishing in the
world. There are 41 species found in the China seas.
Pacific herring, Clupea pallasi is a cold-temperate species distributed in the North
Pacific. The southern limit of its distribution region may be the Huanghai Sea.
Spawning is mainly carried in waters around reefs and in algal aggregates along coast.
The reproduction period is in March-April, when water temperature is 0°_6°C. Eggs
are of sinking and sticky nature, attaching in masses to algae, rocks, or other objects.
The fish feeds chiefly on zooplankton. Sex maturity begins at the age of two. It has
a lifetime of about 7-8 years.
In the Huanghai Sea, the annual yield fluctuates considerably from several
hundreds to a thousand tons, but reached as high as 180 000 t in 1972.
Chinses herring, Ilisha e/ongata is an offshore pelagic warm-water species. As a
good swimmer, the fish inhabits generally in the shallow water of 60 m. Spawning
period is in March-April. They are euryphagous carnivores. Annual yield in northern
China seas can reach 34 000 t sometimes.
Hilsa herring, Macrura reevesii is distributed in the East and South China seas.
This is a marine species that usually begins to migrate upstream in March and spawn
in May-June. In September it begins to migrate downstream into the sea for
wintering. The weight of the largest individual may reach 7 kg. It feeds on plankton
and is commercially valuable. The yield is not very high, only about dozens of tons
per year in the East China Sea.
4. Flying fishes, Exocoetidae
There are 28 species of these swimming animals. Their body is like a spindle with
a pair of well developed pectoral fins that like bird wings, stretch backward to the
tail. When darting fotward in the water, the tail splashes hard, then the body jerks
out of the water and glides over the water surface. The pectoral fins react to the air
current, so the gliding may last more than 10 s and cover a distance of over 100 m
at a speed of 40 km/h. The annual yield is about several hundred tons.
5. Mullets, Mugilidae
Mullets are known in the world for their widespread distribution and euryhalinity.
Quite a few species can live in freshwater, brackish water and seawater even with
salinity of up to 4. They especially like to inhabit in the area of fresh and salt water
mixing. They have spindle-like bodies and are good swimmers. There are 12 species
in China seas, mainly, Gray Mullet (MugU cephalus), Liza carinatus and Mullet (Liza
soiuy). Gray mullet is distributed south; Mullet north. They like to eat bottom mud
and putrid detritus scratched out from the seabed. Usually, they live in the sea, but
tend to crowd up in large stocks to spawn in bays or at river mouths during reproduc-
tion seasons. They overwinter in deeper waters. They have been cultured for over 100
years in China. Mullets reared in brackish and fresh water can now be made to
reproduce, and artificial fry breeding to produce larvae in commercial quantity is now
also possible.
6. Jacks, Carangid fishes, Carangidae
There are about 64 species of Carangid fishes in China's coastal waters: 64
species in the South China Sea, 22 species in the East China Sea, and 14 species in
the Huanghai Sea. The distribution of warm-temperate species such as the Horse
mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) and Seriola aureovittata, is limited to the northern
seas adjacent to China and up to Japan. Other species, such as Caranx (Citula)
malabaricus, Caranx (Caranx) sexfasciatus and Caranx (Atule) djeddaba, are mainly
distributed in the South China Sea and the tropical waters to the south, but can reach
the East China Sea and the Huanghai Sea in summer and autumn when warm
currents prevail.
Carangidae body shapes are mainly quasi-streamline, ellipse, oval and sub-round.
The quasi-streamlined Decapterus, Seriola and the Trachurus japonicus are good
swimmers, extremely active, gregarious and migratory pelagic fishes. Those with
elliptical, oval, or subround bodies (such as Caranx, Trachinotus) are not good
swimmers, and mostly live in nearshore waters and near islands (Zhen, 1984).
Carangidae fishes are of significance in the world marine fisheries with annual
yield up to 3 800 000 t. Of these, horse macherel and round scad (Decapterus)
account for the majority. Japanese horse macherel (Thachurus japonicus) and Round
scad (Decapterus maruadsi Temminck et Schlegel) are also important in the marine
fishenes in China. The annual yield in northern South China Sea was 200 000 t in
1977.
7. Croakers, Sciaenidae
Croakers are neritic warm-temperate bottom fishes, usually have well-developed
bladders and a very good ability at making noise, and so are called "drum fish". There
are 37 species in China seas. Most of them are major objects for fishing in the
Chinese offshore areas. They are gregarious.
Large Huanghai Croakers (Pseudosciaena croaca Richardson) are local species
distributed in offshore waters along the China continent, from the central part of the
Huanghai Sea off the southern Shandong Peninsula in the north to the eastern
Qongzhou Strait of the South China Sea in the south. They are good swimmers in
the middle and lower layers. They may be classified into the following geographical
populations (races): i) the Daiqu race, characterized by slow growth, long lifetime
(19-30 years), later sex maturity, spawning mainly in spring, habitat in the northern
part of the populations' distribution area. ii) Min-Yuedong race, characteriszed by
rapid growth, long lifetime (9-17 years), later sex maturity, spawning mainly in spring,
habitat in the central part of the populations' distribution area. iii) Naozhou race,
characterized by slow growth, short lifetime (8-91ear), early sex maturity, spawning
mainly in autumn, habitat in the southern part 0 the populations' distributIon area
(Xu, 1984). For every geographical race, the large yellow croakers inhabit mostly in
the middle and lower layers of the coastal neritic waters shallower than 60 m. They
are carnivores and have been objects for fishing in Chinese offshore areas. The
highest annual yield reaches to 180 000 t.
Small Yellow Croakers (Pseudo-sciaena po/yactis) are distribute in the Bohai,
Huanghai and East China seas only. It likes to inhabit in the sea shallower than 100
m and with an ooze or mud-sandy seabed. Spawnin~ grounds are river mouths. They
are carnivores and have been objects for fishing III Chinese offshore waters. The
highest annual yield in the China seas reached 270 000 t.
8. Porgies, Spaddae
There are 10 species of Porgies in the China seas. Porgies are warm-temperate
neritic bottom fishes that like to live in waters with mud-sandy seabed and many
reefs, and usually do not migrate far. Their price is very high though the annual yield
is not. Culture, fry breeding and release experiments have been carried out with
several species.
Snapper sea bream, Pagrosomus major is widely distributed in the coastal waters
of China, Japan, Korea and Southeast Asian. Spawning period is in May-June in the
north and in November to next January in the south. The spawning grounds are
distributed all over the coastal bays. The fish has a very broad food range of mainly
small-sized bottom cephalopods and crustaceans. The highest annual yield has been
only 5000 t since the 1950s because of the overfishing over the years. Culture and fry
breeding and release experiments have been carried out with this species.
Distributed in these waters are other six species of Porgies, Taius tumifrons,
Paragyrops edita, Argyrops bleekeri, Rhabdosargus sarba, Sparus macrocephalus and
Sparus latus.
9. Hairtails, Trichiuridae
Species of hairtails have a band-like elongated and flattened body, and a tail
tapering towards the end like a whip. Distributed in China seas are four species
belonging to four genera. They are: Hairtail Trichiurus haumela, Eupleurogrammus
muticllS, Tentoriceps cristatus and Leptllracanthlls savala.
Hairtail, Trichiurus haumela is distributed widely in warm waters of the Atlantic,
Indian, and Pacific oceans, and in China seas where the number in the East China
Sea is larger than that in any other sea in the world. This is a warm water bottom
fish. There are several local populations offshore China. They tend to live in groups
on the deeper muddy seabed. The spawning ground extends over a large area, where
spawning of the subpopulations occurs all the year round, but mostly in April-June
and September-november. The annual yield of hairtail in the world is about 600
000-900000 t; that in the East China Sea may reach more than 500 000 t.
10. Mackerels, Scombridae
Only two species of Mackerels are distributed in China seas, the common
Japanese mackerel (Pnellmatophorus japonicus Houttuyn) and P. tapeinocephalus.
Mackerels have a spindle-like body with a pointed head and eyes with fat membranes.
The tails are very strong, and the first dorsal fin buries in the dorsal slot. So the fish
can swim very well and tend to migrate far away to the open sea. The Chinese annual
catch in the Huanghai and East China seas has been as high as about 100 000 t.
11. Flatfishes, Pleuronectiformes

Flatfishes are marine benthic swimming animals, inhabiting mostly neritic waters.
They are not good swimmers, and generally migrate only in short distance between
deep and shallow waters during the reproduction season and wintering period. There
are about 116 species of flatfishes in China.
1) Left-eyed flounders, Bothidae. They are widely distributed, have high
commercial value, and inhabit mainly neritic waters with mud-sandy substrate. About
48 species are found in these waters. Of these, Paralichthys and Pseudorhombus are
important to fishing.
2) Right-eyed flounders, Pleuronectridae. Of about 25 species in China seas, the
commonly seen species are Cleisthenes herzensteini, Kareius bicoloratus,
Pseudopleuronectes vokohamae, Verasper variegatus and Pleuronichthys cornutus. The
yield of these species is relatively high. Their behavior is basically similar to that of
the left-eyed flounders.
3) Tonguefishes, Cynoglossidae. There are 28 species in China seas. Cynoglossus
being commercially valuable. With tongue-like and flatten bodies, they are not good
swimmers.
12. TetraodontiJorm Fishes

These fishes are week swimmers whose geographical distribution is closely
related to current directions and basically coincides with the areal range of warm
currents. Of the 103 species in China seas, 88 are found in the South China Sea.
There are 16 species of Oriental puffer, Fugu spp. in China seas. The species
commonly seen are Fugu vermicularis, F. pseudommus, F. xanthopterus, F. oblongus
and F. obscurus. They are neritic bottom carnivores, living in offshore areas, brackish
waters, and occasional rivers. During encounters with enemies, their bladder can draw
in water or air, inflate the balloon-like belly to make it float at the water surface. In
spring, most species swim from the open sea to the coast, and spawn among small
gravels in the intertidal zone. Their meat is delicious, and their internal organs
contain a lethal venom (Tetrodontoxin) which may be used as medicine to stop
bleeding, reduce pain, and calm down convulsion, etc. The Chinese people have many
traditional folk methods to prepare the Fugu spp. as delicious food. It is very deadly
to eat it in raw; inadequate processing or the slightest negligence may bring about
death. The annual yield in the Huanghai Sea and the East China Sea is about
3000-10 000 t.
File fish Navodon septentrionalis has also been one of the major objects for fishing
in these waters since the 1970s. The yield in China reached as high as 643 000 tin
1986. This species, a warm-temperate bottom fish, is not a good swimmer.
IV. SWIMMING CEPHALOPODS
Cephalopods are animals that have a special mobility. The so called "funnel"
organ attaches to the belly surface and connects to the outer sheath cave. When
seawater from the outer sheath cave passes through the funnel and rapidly jets out,
the reaction produced by the jet current causes the animal draw rapidly backward.
If the funnel mouth bends backward, the animal jerks forward. In some species, the
peripheral meat fins at the trunk are supplementary organs for action, but mainly for
balance, vertical motion, and turning. Of cephalopods, the species belonging to
Ommastrephidae, Loliginidae and Sepiidae are prominently swimming animals.

Loliginidae have a nearly streamline body and a pair of well devel0p'ed fins at the
trunk, so they can swim faster than the species of the other two famIlies.
In the China seas there about 28 specIes belonging to these three families (Dong,
1978), the main species are as follows:
Ommastrephidae
Todaroodes pacificus Steenstrup
Loliginidae
Lo/igo beka Sasaki L. bleekeri Keferstein
L. chinesis Gray L. edulis Hoyle
L. gotoi Sasaki L. japonica Steenstrup
L. kobiensis Hoyle L. tagoi Sasaki
Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Ferussac)
Sepiidae
S. andreana Steenstru p S. esculenta Hoyle
S. robsoni Sasaki S. tigris Sasaki
S. toros Ortmann S. maindroni de Rochbrune
The important species for fishing are O. sloani pacificus, L. japonica, S. esculenta
and S. andreana.
V. SWIMMING CRUSTACEA
Of the crustacea in the China seas, some ten species are the major species of
swimming animals. They are penaeoid shrimps including Penaeus chinensis (Osbeck),
Trachypenaeus curvirostris and Acetes chinensis, brown shrimp (Crangon affinis), etc.
Chinese penaeoid shrimp has obvious seasonal migration behavior and is mainly
distributed in the Bohai and Huanghai seas. It makes a more than 1000 km two-way
migration in its one-year life cycle. Thus it is considered as a typical swimming
animal, the best swimmer among the swimming crustacea. The annual catch fluctua-
tes between several thousand to 30 000 t. In the past ten years, ranching experiments
have been widely undertaken in the China seas, particularly in the Bohai, Huanghai,
and East China seas.
Shrimp is widely distributed in the seas along the coasts of East and South Asia,
Africa, and Australia. The Bohai and Huanghai seas are its important distribution
regions. It has obvious seasonal migration behavior in the Bohai and Huanghai seas.
The annual yield fluctuates between several thousand to 20 000 t.
Corangon afJinis and brown shrimps are neritic species growing in temperate and
cold waters. They are benthic nektons with a not very strong swimming ability. In
Chinese waters the annual yield is about several hundred tons.
Acetes chinensis is distributed in the seas of China, Korea and Japan. They are
typical planktonic-nektons with week swimming ability and migrate seasonally
between shallow and deep waters. The annual catch reaches as high as 196 000 tin
the China seas.
REFERENCES
Cheng, Qing-tai and Zheng, Bao-shan (1987) Systematic Synopsis of Chinese Fishes, Science Press, Beijing,
pp. 1-538 (in Chinese).
Chen, Wang-qing (ed.) (1978) Index Handbook for Marine Mammalia, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 4-176
(in Chinese).
Deng, Jing-yao, Zhao, CllUan-yin, and Tang, Qi-shen (1991) Marine Fishery Biology, Agriculture Press,
Beijing, 686p. (in Cllinese).
Dong, Zheng-zhi (1978) "On the Geographical Distribution of the Cephalopods in Chinese Water",
Oceallologia et Limnologia Sinica 9(1), 1O~116. (in Chinese, with English abstract)
Editorial Group of MFRC (1990) Marine Fishery Resources of China, Sci. and Tech. Press of Zhejiang
Province, Hangzhou, pp. 4-22 (in Chinese).
10 (Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica (ed.) (1964) Economic Animals of China-Marine Fishes,
Sciences Press, Beijing, 152p. (in Chinese).
IZIOSCF (Institute of Zoology, Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica and Shanghai College of
Fisheries) (eds.) (1962) Fish of the South China Sea, Science Press, Beijing, 1128p,. (in Chinese).
Wang, Pei-lie (1979) "Marine Mammalia in China and Utilization of Their Resources', Marille Fisheries
1979(1), 10-12(9) (in Chinese).
Xu, Gong-zhao (1984) "The Variation in Growth Rate of the Large Huanghai Croaker, Pseudosciaena
crocea (Richardson)", Studia Marilla Sillica 22, 9-27 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhang, Chun-lin, Cheng, Qing-tai, and Zheng, Bao-shan (1955) An Investigation Report on the Fishes of
the Huanghai and Bohai Seas, Science press, Beijing, pp. 1-332 (in Chinese).
Zheng, Wen-lian (1984) "On the Geographical Distribution of the Carangid Fishes of China", Studia
Marilla Sillica 22, 61-78 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhu, Yuan-ding, Zhang, Chun-lin, and Cheng, Qing-tai (1963) Fish of the East China Sea, Science Press,
Beijing, pp. 1-597 (in Chinese).
BIOFOULING AND FOULING ORGANISMS OF CHINA SEAS
HUANG Zong-guo and YAN Song-kai

Third IllStitute of Oceallology, State Oceanic Administration
Xiamell 361005, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Seas along more than 18000 Ian continental coast of China are, from north to south,
the Bohai Sea, the Huanghai Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea. They
extend over 38 latitudes of temperate, subtropical and tropical zones, and have 5000
islands. Geological environments and hydrological conditions in harbors and bays
along the coast vary greatly, especially in water temperature, salinity and width of
harbors and bays. Consequently, fouling organisms in China are very complicated.
Studies on fouling organisms and anti-fouling techniques have been successfully
conducted in China. Anti-fouling paints based on Cu 20 and organotin (R3SnX) have
been developed and anti-fouling system of electrolyzed seawater has been successfully
applied in seawater piping system of ships, tidal power stations and power stations.
Studies on fouling organisms has been carried out from various aspects. Institutions
engaged in the study of fouling organisms in China are the Third Institute of
Oceanology of the State Oceanic Administration, the Institute of Oceanology and the
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the
Xiamen University, and the Qingdao Ocean University.
II. BRIEF HISTORY

Zheng et al. (1953) studied the ecology of fauling organisms and published a
paper in this field for the first time in China. Since 1959, panel experiments and
biofauling studies were carried out in harbors and on ships (Huang et al., 1979; Dong
and Yan, 1982). A biofouling research group led by the first author has, since 1960,
conducted systematic panel experiments in major harbors and bays along the China
coast and carried out many surveys on ships, buoys, piers, seabottom cables, seawater
piping systems, rafts, mariculture nets and cages, artificial fish-reefs, nuclear power
stations and petroleum platforms. Annual panel experiments have been completed
in 8 years at 29 bays (36 stations, see Fig. 1, areas indicated by black dots), and 3700
panels have been recovered and analyzed. Results of biofouling studies on 100 ships,
120 buoys and rafts, 33 piers and underwater constructions have been published
(Huang and Cai, 1961, 1962; Huang et aL, 1980a, 1980b, 1981a, 1981b, 1982a, 1982b,
i982c, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1989; Li et aL, 1982a, 1982b, 1991; Lin et al., 1983a; Zhang,
1981, 1982, 1984; Zheng et al., 1989; Zheng and Huang, 1990; Huang and Li, 1984).
291
Fig. 1. Panel areas of fouling

organism along the China coast. 1,
Dandong; 2, Dalian; 3, Lushun; 4,
Qinghuangdao; 5, Tianjin; 6, Yantai;
7, Qingdao; 8, LiallYUIl Harbor; 9,
Lusiyallg; 10, Challgjiallg River
Estuary; 11, Nillgbo; 12, Zhoushall
waters; 13, Shipu; 14, Wenzhou; 15,
Dongtou; 16, Nanji; 17, Shanduao;
18, Pingtan; 19, Minj iallg; 20,
Quanzhou; 21, Xiamen; 22,
Dongshall; 23, Shalltou; 24, Daya
Bay; 25, HOllgkollg; 26, Zhujiallg;
27, Qillglall; 28, Lallgya Bay; 29,
Yulill; 30, Yallgpu; 31, Beihai; 32,
Weizhou; 33, Xisha.
Since the 1970's, the University of Hongkong and Hongkong Chinese University
have also been conducting studies in this field and later jointed by the first author
(Huang and Mak, 1982; Tseng and Yuen, 1978; Rseng and Huang, 1987).
In the field of micro-fouling organisms, Wang et al. (1981) studied primary
microbial films on the surface of anti-fouling paint and on nontoxic surfaces. Lin et
al. (1981, 1983) studied species, quantitative variations and development and
succession of communities of micro-fouling organisms in Xiamen Harbor, and
reported 60 species of fouling diatoms, and some bacteria, fungi and yeasts.
In the field of individual biology, the life cycle, growth an development, and
larval culture of major fouling organisms have been studied (Cai and Huang, 1964).
The effects of salinity and the relationship between macro-fouling organisms and
corrosion have been studied.
The monograph "Marine Biofouling and Its Prevention" was completed based on
the above-mentined and related studies. Its first volume (Huang and Cai, 1984)
includes the natural ecology of fouling organisms, and a comprehensive summary of
the species, quantity and attaching seasons of fouling organisms in China and other
parts of the world. The coming second volume will emphasize individual biology,
experimental ecology and anti-fouling.
Biofouling and Fouling Organisms 293
III. SPECIES OF FOULING ORGANISMS
Up to the present, 1097 species of fouling organisms (Table 1) and their

distribution (Table 2, Plate 1) have been recorded from the Chinese coast. According
to temperature, many of them are eurytropic species and widely distributed, such as
Balance amphitrite amphitrite, Bugula nentina, Hydroides elegans. Some temperate
species are limited to the coast of northern China, such as Styela clava, Balance
improvisus, Mytilus edulis. Some tropical or subtrropical species are limited to the
coast of southern China, such as Balanus recticulatus, Styela plicata, Megabalanus t.
tintinnabulum, Perna viridis. Still some species are limited to the offshore waters south
of the Hainan Island, such as Megabalanus zebra and Hydroides longispinosa.
According to salinity, there are hypersaline or sub-hypersaline species such as Mycale
adhaerens, Balanus trigonlls, Scrllpollaria spatlilatoidea and Ascidia sydneiensis,
hyposaline species such as Balance uliginosus, Carbasea carbasea, Membranipora
lingdingensis and Ostrea rivlliaris, and fresh-water species such as Cordylophora
lacllstris and Limnoperna /ortllnei. The majority of fouling organisms like to live in
free-flowing waters; some of them, such as M. t. tintinnablllllrn, are limited to offshore
waters with strong tides and currents.
The great abundance of eurythermal and eurysaline species of fouling organisms
in China seas is duo to their carriage and distribution by vessels (Huang et al., 1984).
The abundant ascidian Molguia manhattensis (23 400 ind./m 2 on the June panel
in Tanggu New Harbor) and barnacle B. improvislls (7325 ind./m2 on the same panel)
found in the northern China coast are both non-native species originally found in
America. These two species h,we become the major biofoulers in Europe and
America due to their carriage by vessels. The exclusively tropical barnacle, Tetraclita
coerulescens, was surprisingly found on a fishing vessel in Yangtai Harbor which was
just back from the southern waters of Japan.
Morton (1987) reported that the number of ocean-going vessels and Chinese
merchant ships entering Hongkong have increased sharply since the 1970's, and after
1970, six non-native species entered Hongkong for the first time. They are 3 mollusks,
Crepidu/a onyx, Mytilopsis sallei and Mytilus ga lloprovincia lis, 1 bryozoan, Bugula
cali/ornica, 1 crustacean, Sphaeroma walkerei, and 1 ascidian, Ciona intestinalis. He
believed that these species were carried by vessels from Japan, Taiwan and other
parts of China.
Table 1 Number of Species of Fouling Organisms in Bach Groups Reported in Coastal Waters of China
Group Number Group Number Group Number

Bacteria 7 Botoprocta 57 Tanaidacea 1
Fungi 7 Platyhelminthes 2 Isopoda 12
Yeasts 3 Nemertea 2 Amphipoda 19
Actinomyces 1 Nematheminthes 1 Stomatopoda 1
Bacillariophyta 119 Polychaeta errantia 64 Decapoda 32
Chlorphyta 31 Polychaeta sedentaria 43 Pycnogonida 1
Phaeophyta 12 Sipunculida 2 Insecta 2
Rhodophyta 16 Amphineura 2 Echinodermata 12
Cyanophyta 6 Gastropoda 44 Tunicata 20
Protozoa 4 Bivalvia 71 Pisces 9
Porifera 28 Cirripedia 33
Hydrozoa 34 CAlpepoda 1
Anthozoa 14 Ostracoda 1 Total 654
Table 2. Major Species of Macro-fouling Organisms and Its Distribntion Along the Coast of China
Species Bohai Sea Huanghai Sea East China Sea South China Sea
Enleromorpha c1a/hrola + + ++
E. compress + + +
E. inles/inalis ++ +++ +++ +
E.lubulosa + + ++
E. prolilera + + + +
Viva lactuca ++ +
MOlls/roma n;/idum + +++
Porofera
Mycale adhaerens +++
Lissowu/ro)'< isodictyalis + ++
Halichondris panicea + + + +
Tetklnia ignis ++
Coelenterata
Tuhularia mesembryanthemwr +++ +++ +
Obelia genicu/ala + + ++
0. gracilis + ++ +
Anthopleura pacifica ++ +++ +
Elltoprocta
Acanthodesia grolludicel + + + +
Bugula lIeri/ina + ++ + +++
B. califomica + + + +
CelleporinQ cos/azil + +++ +
Cryplosu/a paUasionQ + + +
Dakaria subolloidae + + ++ ++
Electra anomal + + +
Membranipora savar/;; + + ++ +
Schizoporella wJicomis + + + +++
Scropocellaria spalulalaidea ++
Pelraliella wnbonala +++
Polychaeta
Hydroides elegans + + + +++
H. ezoettsis + +++ +
H. dirampha + ++
H. IOllgispinosa +++
Serpula vennicu/aris + + + ++
Pomaloleios kraussii ++ +++
Mollusca
Crepidula on)lt ++
Barba/ia virescens + + ++ +++
Myti/opsis salld ++
Myl ilus edit/is + +++
Perna viridis + +++
/sognomoll ephippiwlJ +++
Dendoslrea plicala + ++ +++ +
Alectryollella crenulifera +++
A. redix ++
Cirripedia
Lepas alJseri/era + + +++
Balanus intprovis14s ++ +
B. amphitrite amphitrite + +++ + +++
B. reticula/us +++ +++
B. uliginosus + + +++ +
B. trigonus ++ +++
Megabalanus rosa +++ +
M. t. tintinnabu/w1t + +++
Chirono amaryllis + + + +
Amphipoda
Coroplriwn acherusicwn + ++ +
Ericthonius pllgllQX + ++
Tunicata
Ciono inlestinalis + +++ + +
Styela clava ++ +++
S. plicola + +++
S. canop"s + + +++
Molgulo manhallensis +++ +
Ascidio sydJleiensis ++
Symplegmo schlosserri + + +
Pisces
Prionobutis koilomatodon ++ +
Salaria dusswnieri ++ ++
Biofouliug and Fouling Organisms 295
Plate 1. Biofouling and fouling organisms of the China seas

1. The bottom of the liner "Gulanyu", which sailed between Xiamen and Hongkong, was nearly 100%
covered by HydroUles elegaflS !Sedentaria, Po¥chaeta) one year after its launch. The wet weight, density
and thickness were 20.9 kg/m , 40 000 ind./m and 160 mm, respectively. 29 species were recorded.
2. The water line and flank of a buoy in the Deep Bay were 100% covered by Balanus reticulatus and
B. uligilloslls (barnacle) one year after launch. The wet weight and thickness were 13.1 kg/m2 and 39.3 mm,
respectively, with 50 species recorded. Meantime, its bottom was nearly 100% covered by Membranipora
amoyeJlsis (Bryozoa), the wet weight, thickness and species number being 13.7 kg/m 2, 50.7 mm and 57,
respectively.
3. The biofouling on a pier piling in Mirs Bay was of distinct zonation among the upper, middle and
lower tidal zones. The thickness in the middle zone was the largest, with Saccostrea cucullata (oyster)
dominant.
4. The case-style cultivation farm at Lamma Island, Hongkong. The nets exposed in the sea for 3
months of spring were nearly 100% clogged by HydroUles elegaflS. For removing the foulers easily, the net
cases were lifted out of water and laid on the rafts to be exposed to the sun.
5. Megabalallus tintillllabulum tiJltillnabulum (barnacle) is the largest barnacle in the China seas. It
is widely distributed on buoys and other underwater constructions in the oceanic high-salinity waters of the
South China Sea. It is a typically tropical species and the major dominant of the buoy fouling communities
in the open sea.
6. Bugula lIeritilla (Bryozoa) attached on a seasonal (March-May) panel in Lushun Harbor. It occurs
in coastal high-salinity harbors in China. It attaches in spring and grows rapidly, being one of the major
fouling organisms of net cases.
7. Mytilopsis sallei (Bivalvia, Mollusca) on a raft at the west part of Bachimen, Dongshan, Fujian,
100% covering the surface of the raft, the density being 59 000 ind./m 2• It is a non-native species for
mainland China found in 1991 for the first time.
8. The ventral view of the shells of CrepUlula onyx (Gastropoda, Mollusca). It is a non-native species
for Hongkong first found in 1982 in the Victoria Harbor, attaching to the shells of Perna virUlis on pier
pilings, with the largest density 944 ind./m 2•
Among the six species, Mytilus edulis (i.e., M. gallaprovincia/is) and B. califarnica
are the major fouling organisms in the northern coast of China. The former is also
a major species in cultivation and fishing and is being introduced into the
southwestern coast of China. In 1991, the authors found this species in the mouth of
the Dongshan Bay of Fujian Province. Also in 1991, extremely numerous M. sallei (59
130 ind./m2) were found attaching to the sea bottom and nets and rafts for cage-style
cultivation in the west part of Bachimen, Dongshan, Fujian. Though bivalve research
in China have been carried out continually since the 1930s, this species had never
been recorded. Probably, it is a non-native species settled in Dongshan in recent
years. There were some precedent cases that vessels carried in non-native fouling
organisms and changed the local community structure. Much attention has been paid
to such phenomena. The marine flora and fauna in China are also influenced not
only by vessel-carried fouling organisms but also by artificial transplantation of shell-
fish and algae.
IV. ATTACHING SEASON
Temperatures in China waters differ greatly as they extend over many latitudes,
so the attaching periods of fouling organisms in various waters also vary greatly.
Generally, attaching seasons are longer southward. For example, the bloom period
of fouling organisms in the Bohai Sea is June-September (monthly mean tempera-
ture 20-26°C), and there is no attachment during December-January. In the southern
Huanghai (Yellow) Sea and the East China Sea, attaching macro-fouling organisms
can be found in May-October (1.5-28.4°C), and few or none in December-February.
In the waters south of Hainan Island and around the Xisha Islands, attachment
occurs all the year round (20°C). The attaching period of the same species differs in
different harbors and bays, an is longer southward (Fig. 2).
Station Station
17 18
- ___•••"_21 21
______. . . . . . . . . . . .___ 23 . . . . . .~_____________.... 23
--
, ,
_ _ _ _ _. . . .
I , , , I
. . . . 25
~
Month ! , , , ,
27
&Io.nus mticullJtus Bugula neritina
-
__ 9
- .. 17
20
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 19
23
,
JFMAM
, I
! I
J
, ,
J,AIS O
I
N
,
D
, , Month JFMAMJJASOND
, , I 1 , ! ! I ! ! , , I
Balanus uliginosus Tubularia mesembryonthemum
Fig. 2. The attaching periods of 4 fouling organisms in different harbors along the China coast (station
locations are shown in Fig. 1).
Based on attaching periods, fouling organisms along the China coast can be
classified as
1) Those with only one attaching period annually limited only to the warmer
months, occurring mainly in harbors and bays with great differences of temperature,
such as those in the Bohai Sea, Huanghai Sea and northern East China Sea.
2) Those with 2 separate attaching periods, especially Tubularia mesembryan-
themum, Obelia geniculata and algae such as Enteromorpha spp. in some harbors in
the East China Sea. The attachment of the species peaks in spring, stops or decreases
in summer, then peaks slightly in autumn.
3) Those that attach for the whole year round, but with distinct seasonal
variations. This category is the most common in harbors in the South China Sea,
especially those in the areas south of the Hainan Island.
Fig. 2 shows the attaching period of the same species is different in different
harbors and that of different species in the same harbor may also be different.
V. BIOFOULING AND ANTI-FOULING
Fouling organisms were quantified with dry or wet weight, coverage area,
individual number and thickness. Panel data from 37 areas showed that the wet
weight of fouling organisms varied greatly in different harbors or at different sites in
a harbor. The differences may be explained as follows: i) In open and unimpeded
waters, there are greater varieties of organisms, quicker growth, thus larger wet
weight; ii) In coastal waters, the farther from the coast, the larger the wet weight; iii)
In estuarine waters with low salinity, the number and wet weight of organisms are
less (Table 3).
Table 3. A Comparison of Wet Weight of Fouling Organisms
from 37 Areas Along the China Coast (June-August)
Order Wet Weight {kg/m2} Number of stations

1 19 4
2 10-8 6
3 7-3 13
4 2-1 4
5 0.6 10
Generally speaking, the number of species and quantity of fouling organisms on

ship-bottoms and other underwater constructions are greater than that on panels. For
example, many large barnacles (59.6 kglm 2 wet weight) were found on buoys in the
rapid flow area at the center of the Qiongzhou Strait (Table 4).
Table 4. The Maximum Wet Weight of Fouling Organisms Along the China Coast
Sea Objects Wet wt. {kg/m2) Dominants
Bohai Sea Lock gate of dock 25.1 Ostrea rivularis, Balallus

uliginosus
Ship's bottom 28.1 Hydroides ezoensis, Styela
Huanghai Sea clava, Ostrea plicata
Platform's pile 34.4 O. rivularis, B. uliginosus
East China Sea Floating pier 27.9 O. rivularis, Perna viridis
Fixed pier of Hongkong 51.0 /sogllomoll ephippulm
South China Sea
Buoy 59.6 Megabalallus t. tintillllabulum
A. Ships
The biofouling of ships vary greatly with different repair time, navigation
conditions and types of anti-fouling paints. In general, bio-fouling of ships is less
severe than that of piers or buoys in the same area. The biofouling of shIps in the
northern China seas is of distinct seasonality and large quantity. The main dominants
are the temperate species such as the mussel Mytilus edulis, the tubiculous polychaete
Hydroides ezoensis, the ascidian Styela clava, and the Chinese coast's eurytropic
species such as the barnacle Balance a. amphitrite and the bryozoan Bugula neritina.
In the southern Chinese seas, ships are subject to biofouling throughout the year. The
species of fouling organisms are more numerous but the wet weight is lighter than
that in the north. In addition to the 2 eurytropic species mentioned above, there are
other barnacles such as B. reticulatus and tubiculous polychaete such as Hydroides
elegans, etc. The barnacle Balance uliginosus, the hydrOlds T. mesembryanthemum and
Bougainvillia sp., and the oyster Ostrea spp. are the major fouling organisms in the
coastal estuarine and littoral low-salinity waters 0 China. They often occur in large
numbers (Table 5).
Table 5. Biofouling of Ships in China Seas
Species Coverage Wet wt.

Area number area (%) Dominant
(kg/m2)
Xisha Islands- 4 100 5.7 Balaflus amphiJriJe amphiJriJe
Haillan Island (the 9 40 2.1 B. a. amphiJriJe, Eflteromorpha spp.
South China Sea) 13 100 4.9 Hydroides elegaflS, B. a. amphiJriJe
Daya Bay (the South 47 90 11.0 B. recticulatus, Styela plicata, H. elegaflS

China Sea)
30 100 11.4 B. recticulatus, S. plicata, B. fleritina
35 100 9.4 B. recticulatus, Saccostrea spp.
Fujian (the East 3 25 0.7 Ihbularia mesembryaflthemum

China Sea)
4 100 1.8 Bugula fleritina
12 73 1.3 B. uliginosus, Bougaiflvillia sp.
18 92 5.1 B. retillculatus, Schizoporella ullicomis
17 90 36.6 Mytilus edulis, H. ezoeflsis, Styela clava
Yantai (the Huanghai 22 100 13.0 H. ezoellsis, B. a. amphitriJe, S. clava
and Bohai seas) 12 85 1.7 B. a. amphitrite, B. improvisus
27 100 8.0 S. clava, M. edulis, H. ezoeflsis
Ordinarily, the length of time for dock repair of ships along the coast of China
is 9 months to one and a half year. During the repair period, ships are given 2 to 3
coats of asphalt-Cu 20 anti-fouling paint. Anti-fouling paint containing organic tin
(R3SnX) was tried on a few ships.
B. Seawater Piping Systems
In the coast of China, the inner surface of many seawater piping systems in
nuclear and thermal power station and soda factories, which use a great deal of
seawater, are severely biofouled. The main foulers are the mussel M. edulis in the
north, and barnacles, oysters, bryozoans and hydroids in the south. The inner surfaces
of cooling system of the Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station are anti-fouled with
electrolyzed seawater. Electrolyzed seawater is also used in anti-fouling of some
ships' seawater piping systems and tidal power stations. The seawater piping systems
of soda factories in the northern coast are anti-fouled with chlorine injection.
C. Piers
The early biofouling on the bottoms of floating jetties is similar to that on ship
bottoms. One or two years later, however, big-sized add long-life-spanned species,
such as oysters and mussels, become dominant and numerous. For example, the wet
weight of biofouling reached 14 tons, and the species number was over 100 on the
Xiamen Heping Jetty after 6 year's service.
The fouling organisms in the intertidal area of fixed pier pilings vary with tidal
zones and generally can be divided into upper, middle and lower bio-zones. The
middle one has the largest quantity. Fig. 3 shows the vertical distributions of the
major biofoulers on two piers in the inner and outer Beihai Harbor. Generally, piers
are not anti-fouled.
II
Fig. 3. Vertical distribution of

the major foulers on wharfs in
- MSL the Beihai Harbor. 1, Gelidium
divaricatum; 2, Pomatoleios
kraussii; 3,Littoraria articulata; 4,
Ostrea crenulifera; 5, O. cucul-
lata; 6, O. echinata; 7, Braclli-
dOlltes variabilis; 8, Xellostrolms
atrata; 9, Barbatia virescells; to,
/sognomofl acutirostris; 11, Eura-
phia wither.si; 12, Balanus amphi-
trite amphitrite; 13, B. recti-
CD ~--------------~----~--~--~--------~~
Dijiao wharf Deep-water wharf culatus.
D. Buoys
In the buoy system, bio-fouling varies with different positions: floating drum,
anchor chain and anchoring block (Fig. 4). The fouling on the anchoring block
Fig. 4. Thickness, wet weight and

Bryozoa arnacle composition offouling organisms
[-=-::-}:·:·:·::.1 at different positions on buoys in
(10 mm) Algae Oyster Other the Shenzhen Bay.
indicates the fouling community on the hard surface of the sea bottom. For the
floating drum, the fouling communities at the water line, flank, bottom and end-pipe
inside and outside also have differences. Buoy fouling community exactly reflects the
composition of the fouling community at the buoy's site. Besides the eurytropic
species of barnacle, bryozoan and oyster, Mytilus edulis and Styela clava are the
indicating species in the north, while the indicators in the south is Megabalanus t.
tintinnabulum. Balance uliginosus and Ostrea rivularis are indicators of estuarine,
coastal and low-salinity waters; and Lepas spp. of open sea. Most of the buoys are not
anti-fouled.
VI. CULTIVATION CAGES AND OTHER AQUACULTURE FACILITIES
The net cages, cases and nets for the cultivation of fish and shellfish, such as
grouper and pearl, are all subject to severe biofouling. Hydroides elegans and Bugula
neritina, the major biofoulers of net cages, grow rapidly and clog the net holes with
1-3 months. On the net cages and cases exposed in the sea for a long period, there
are also long-life-spanned, big-sized species such as the ascidians (Styela plicata, S.
canopus, Po/yclinum constellatum and Symplegma oceania), oysters (Ostrea radix, O.
crenulifera, etc.), barnacles and sponges (Mycale adhaerens and Suberites camosa). Set
nets are fouled by extremely large masses of attaching hydroids (Tubularia
mesemb,yanthemum) within a short period.
Some net anti-fouling paints were trial-produced, but have not been applied
widely. Presently, the most common way of removing fouling organisms from the nets
is high-pressure water washing. Severely fouled nets are exposed to the sun first.
REFERENCES
Cai, Ru-xing and Huang, Zong-guo (1964) "Studics on thc attachmcnt and rcproduction of Ttllmlaria
meseml"yallthelllum in Xiamcn arbor", Acta Scielltiacum Naturalium, Ulliversitatis Amoiellsis 11(3),
110-119 (in Chincse with Russian abstract).
Dong, Yu and Yan, Wcn-xia (1982) "Fouling organisms in Yangpu arbor, South China Sca", Nan/wi Studia
Sillica 3, 129-139 (in Chincse with English abstract).
Huang, Xiu-ming et al. (1979) "A study on thc interrelation bctwcen selVicc condition of ships and fouling
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AQUACULTURE OF MARINE ALGAE IN CHINA
ZENG Cheng-kui (c. K. Tseng)

Institute of Oceallology, Academia Sillica
Qingdao 26607/, China
INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture of marine algae in China started with the cultivation of the glueweed or
Chicai ("red vegetable") Gloiopeltis furcata in Jinmen (Quimoy) County near the city
of Xiamen (Amoy) in southern Fujian Province by the rock-cleaning method since
the Sung Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) i(Tseng, 1933, 1990). Cultivation of the purple
laver or zicai ("purple vegetable"), Porphyra haitanensis, was initiated in Pingtan
County (Haitan Island), in Fujian Province more than two hundred years ago, also
by the rock-cleaning method (Tseng and Chang, 1956). It was presumed that seaweed
farmers of Pingtan learned the technique from those of Jinmen who had preceded
the former by several hundred years. Seaweed farmers knew nothing about the life
histories of these seaweeds and just knew by experience that during a certain time
of the year, their "seeds" would abound in water at the particular region concerned
and just before this, they should clean the rocks, which used to have good growth of
the desired seaweeds every year, by scraping off the barnacles and other sessile
growth, including other wild undesirable seaweeds, and final1y by liming the scraped
rocks during low tide. The cleaned rocks would thus provide favorable substrates for
seaweed "seeds" to settle and develop (Tseng, 1981, 1990).
The Japanese kelp Laminaria japonica has been a welcome dish on Chinese
tables under the name haidai ("sea ribbon") since about one thousand years ago; it
is, however, not a Chinese plant but native to the cold temperate coastal regions
along northern Japan, and found also along northeastern Korea and Siberia of
northeastern Asia at 400N or higher. Although the oceanographic conditions along
the northern coast of the Huanghai (Yel1ow) Sea adjacent to China are in some
respects similar to those of its "home" in Japan, this kelp known in China as haidai
did not spread to the China coast itself because of the wIde warm-water region lying
between these two regions, thus preventing its southward extension. In 1927, however,
it was accidental1y introduced by ships from northern Japan to Dalian on the
northern Huanghai Sea coast and settled in the vicinity of the harbor. The presence
of the kelp aroused the interest of the Japanese then occupying Dalian, and after a
few more trials in transplanting this kelp from Japan, it final1y became established as
a permanent member of the Chinese marine flora. In the thirties, the writer actual1y
col1ected a few thal1i of the haidai while col1ecting in Yantai on the southern coast
of the north Huanghai Sea (Tseng and Tang, 1935), presumably drifting southward
303
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology oj China Seas. Volume 1,303-320.
from Dalian due north. In the forties, the kelp was formally transplanted to Yantai,
then also occu pied by the Japanese. The haidal was cultivated by traditional Japanese
methods by depositing stones on the sea bottom and blasting rocky reefs in the
subtidal regions.
Undaria pinnatifida is a native Chinese food plant in Zhoushan Islands, Zhejiang
Province on the East China Sea coast and known locally as qundaicai ("apron ribbon
vegetable") but its cultivation in old China, Qingdao started after it was transplanted
by a Korean by the name of Wen Dejin. According to Wen's diary, the first batch of
Undaria was transplanted from Chejudo in southeastern Korea to Qingdao as early
as 1935 and 31 transplantations were effected for the ten years between 1935 and
1944. Transplantation was apparently successful and Undaria was quite abundant
locally in 1948 when the writer first visited the transplantation spot. The method for
cultivation was also by depositing stones and blasting reefs in the subtidal region.
Since the establishment of the Chinese People's Republic in October 1949, there
has been great progress in the seaweed cultivatIon industry and many problems have
been raised and solved.
I. PROBLEMS IN MARINE ALGAL CULTIVATION AND THEIR SOLUTION
Commercial cultivation of marine algae in the old days was helpful in promoting
production. Annual production of the glueweed by the simple rock cleaning method
in Jinmen was about 200 t which represented about half of the total production in
China (Tseng, 1933). However, many problems remained unsolved. The seaweed
farmers just knew by experience when the "seeds" would abound in water, but they
had never seen the "seeds". Experience led them to success but expansion of the
industry was very slow. In the cultivation of the Japanese kelp, a more recent
industry, people already had good knowledge of its life history but they depended on
its growth on rocky substrate and were unable to manipulate kelp production by
employing scientific knowledge already available. Thus, algal cultivation as an
industry remained in its primitive form for several hundred years.
A. The "Seeds" Problem
The algae are a group of spore-bearing aquatic plants generally growing naturally
on stones, rocks, etc. Unlike the land crops reproducing by multicellular seeds which
can be dried and become viable when planted on soil, the algae reproduce by
unicellular microscopic spores which will die upon drying and cannot be handled like
the seeds. Upon liberation from the plants, their spores must reach some solid media,
settle and germinate. Ways and means must, therefore, be used to let the liberated
spores come close enough to the substrate provided for them. Solution of the "seeds"
problem is thus crucial in algal cultivation or phycoculture. In the case of kelp
cultivation in China the first successful harvest of the kelp by the floating raft method
was in 1952. The essence of the method was to put fertile fronds in seawater in a
tank with a floating raft made of hemp or palm fibers. The liberated spores from the
fertile kelp quickly adhered to the raft, which could be taken out after a few hours
and placed in the sea.
For the macroalgae there is another kind of "seeds". Parts of the plants are
employed, just like cuttings of the seed-plants. They are tied to some solid media
such as coral chips in the case of Eucheuma geiatinae cultivation, and thrown to the
sea bottom. They grow readily. The cuttings apparently grow better than the spores
Aquaculture of Marine Algae 305
sometimes as much as 10% per day, for instance, species of Gracilaria.

There are also microalgae which grow floating In water. They do not need solid
media but are even more delicate and difficult to handle than the attached algae.
They reproduce by spores and fragmentation of their thalli and must be grown in
ponds.
B. The Substrate Problem
For the attached algae there is the problem of substrate. Generally, the
substrates on which the algae grow are stones, rocks and reefs which are able to
withstand the ceaseless water motion and remain stable enough to ensure their
remaining in a definite level to receive adequate light for photosynthesis. Such
substrates were formerly regarded as excellent for commercial cultivation. Therefore
in the old days attempts had been made to dynamite rocks, to scrape rock surfaces
and to throw stones to the subtidal regions to supply more surface for the growth of
the desirable seaweeds. Natural rocks and reefs have, however, many defects. In the
first place the growth surface is limited. Secondly, one has to bring the algae close
enough to the massive substrate. Thirdly for subtidal forms, one has to employ divers
for harvesting the seaweeds. For instance in the case of the purple laver industry,
Japan and China started the cultivation a few hundred years ago, the former by the
hibi-collectors made of bamboo whereas the latter by the rock-cleaning method,
employing natural massive rocks. As a result, the Japanese hibi method enjoyed
popularization whereas the Chinese method was limited to very few places and
produced only a small fragment of the Japanese nori production.
For many years, cultivation of the Japanese kelp was done in both Japan and
China on rocks and reefs in its natural habitat by depositin~ stones at the desired
depths and at a certain time of the year, for the purpose of Increasing surface area
for the attachment of the kelp spores. Later, mature kelp plants were tied to subtidal
substrate by divers to provide more spores for those natural substrates. Increase of
natural rocks and reefs surfaces were also effected by blasting subtidal reefs to
provide more surfaces for the kelp spores. All these were very hard jobs for the kelp
farmers. They did get more surfaces for new kelp plants to grow but they were very
limited. They did use rafts made of ropes and bamboos for preserving the young
plants of the species but never thought of employing them in cultivation. In
1951-1952, some young Chinese mariculturists employed similar rafts made of palm
ropes in cultivating the kelps. In early summer in 1952, they reached maturity and a
good harvest was obtained.
There was, however, no comparison between the two methods, the one employing
subtidal natural habitat, the rocks, and the other using floating rafts made of ropes.
There were then two principal mariculture stations in China, the Luda Mariculture
Station in Dalian at 400N and the Shandong Mariculture Station in Qingdao at 36°N.
Dalian in the north is undoubtedly a better place for growing the cold temperate
plant, Laminaria japonica. Up to 1955, production on subtidal rocks at the Luda
Mariculture Station was still leading, producing 1441 t of wet kelp whereas the
Shandong Mariculture Station employing the new method of raft cultivation produced
only 1089 1. But the Qingdao Station in spite of lower production, kept on using the
floating rafts method and in 1956 produced 2107 t whereas the Dalian Station
produced only 701 1. In 1957 the Dalian Station experimented on the new floating
raft method and obtained good results. The raft production in both Qingdao where
the method originated and Dalian totaled 8636 t whereas the rock production method
yielded only 3485 t. In 1958, the fonner method produced 31 604 t and the latter only
5917 t. This very definitely showed the superiority of the raft production and the
Luda Mariculture Station finally gave up natural subtidal rock production, which was
the only method of production since 1927 and took up the floating raft cultivation
method as their principal mariculture method (Tseng, 1981a, 1981b, 1990; Zeng,
1984).
c. The Light Problem
As in the case of seed plants on land, light is a basic environmental problem in
the normal cultivation of the algae. Light passes through and is partially absorbed by
the water medium. Light affects the growth and development of the algae through
its intensity and period. Light quality is also important, but in the past years, very
little research has been done in this respect. The two seaweeds, the purple laver
Porphyra yezoensis and the Japanese kelp Laminaria japonica have been subjected to
more studies, and will be briefly summarized.
(1) The life history of Laminaria japonica is composed of two phases, the
gametophyte and the sporophyte phase. The kelp itself belongs to the sporophyte
phase which grows in Dalian to 8 meters in a year. The gametophyte is, however,
microscopic and composed of a few cells. According to the present method, the
gametophyte is cultivated in large glasshouses and its cultivation in shallow tanks
started in late June to early July in Shandong Province. The gametophyte, the
summer phase of the kelp, grows best at 60-80 JLE/m 2·s, and cannot carry out sexual
reproduction under 24 hours of continuous illumination. A certain dark period is
prerequisite for the discharge of eggs and spennatozoid. The periods of darkness
required depends upon previous light treatment. For instance, when the culture is
exposed to 24 hour continuous illumination, only 20 minutes are necessary for
initiating the discharge of eggs and spennatozoid, but if previous illumination lasted
for only 1 hour per day, then 3 hours of darkness will be required for effecting sexual
reproduction (Tseng, Ren, and Wu, 1959). The number of days needed for the
gametophytes to effect sexual reproduction and develop sporophyte is found to be
inversely proportional to the number of hours of illumination per day. For example,
under 2 hours of illumination per day, it will take 44 days for the sporophyte to
appear and 59 days for the sporophyte to reach 50% of the gametophytes whereas
8 days will be sufficient to develop sporophyte and 11 days for the sporophyte under
19 hours of illumination per day to reach 50% of the gametophytes (Ren, 1962).
The Laminaria sporophyte acts differently. It is a subtidal plant and in Japan it
grows very well at a depth of 10 m. While the sporophyte are still very young, the
young sporelings smaller than 800 JLm high grow well under 60 and 80 JLE/m 2·s
illumination, but soon afterwards they became unhealthy and subsequently died; at
40 JLE/m2. s illumination, however, they grew well. Therefore in the glasshouse
cultivation of the summer sporelings light intensity has to be carefully controlled at
about 40 JLE/m2. s. The Qingdao seawater is comparatively more turbid than that in
Japan, and therefore when the young sporophyte of a few cm high are taken out to
the sea, they can be placed on rafts about 20 cm below the water surface. With the
further growth of the sporophyte, the depth for best growth must be successively
lowered and after two and three months, best growth would occur at about 3 m
below sea surface where the best light intensity can be found. One good thing about
the floating rafts is the relative easiness in changing its growth levels.
(2) Porphyra yezoensis also has two very different phases in its life history, but the
macroscopic stage is the gametophyte phase and the microscopic stage the sporophyte
phase. As in the case of Laminaria gametophyte, the Porphyra sporophyte is the
filamentous Conchocelis phase, cultivated in tanks and the best light intensity occurs
at only about 60 J-LE/mz. s. This is also the summer phase of the purple laver and
unlike the intertidal leafy Porphyra, it grows in nature in the sublittoral regions.
Under cultivation three stages of the growth and development of the Conchocelis may
be differentiated. The first stage starts from germination of the carpospores to
Conchocelis, sometimes in April to early May in Qingdao. During this stage, light
intensity should be controlled at about 60 J-LE/mz. s in the middle of the day. This is
the period of vigorous vegetative growth and lasts until early July, during which the
water temperature gradually rises to 22-23°e. The second stage is from early July to
late August or early September in which the water temperature rises from 22-23°C
to 27-28°C sometimes in mid-August, and then gradually declines. This is the critical
period for conchosporangial production, and the success or failure to obtain a good
crop of conchospores depends on the correct handling of the light factor. The
principle is to enhance the accumulation of the necessary reserves for sporangial
formation but to delay the actual formation of the sporangia before the peak of the
high temperature. Therefore, beginning with early July or slightly afterwards, the max.
light intensity is further reduced to 15 J-LE/mz. s. The third and last stage is from late
August or early September to late September when the water temperature gradually
drops to about 23°e. This is the period of sporangia formation. To encourage the
formation of conchospores, the light intensity is held at 15 J-LE/mz. s and the light
period reduced to 8-10 hours per day by artificially darkening the culture rooms.
Under such conditions conchospores appear in late September and mass discharge
of these spores will be effected in early and middle October (IOEP, 1976; IOESp,
1978; Tseng, 1990).
The leafy thallus of Porphyra yezoensis is the gametophyte phase and an intertidal
plant, very well adapted to high light intensity. Therefore in the floating net raft
cultivation method, it is necessary to keep the raft as close to the water surface as
possible.
D. The Temperature Problem
Temperature is one of the most important factors controlling the activities of the
algae. Each species has its maximal, optimal and minimal temperature for growth and
development which may differ in the same species for the different phases in its life
history and on the stage of growth in the same phase. Differences in the various
phases are particularly conspicuous; in some cases the sporophyte phase has a higher
and the gametophyte phase a lower optimal growth temperature, while in other cases
the reverse situation is true. These are of utmost importance in algal cultivation.
For instance, in the case of Laminaria japonica cultivation, it was found that the
optimal temperature of the sporophyte growth in length is 5-lOo C, minimal
temperature 1°C and maximal 13-15°C; growth in length practically stops at 15°e.
However, its growth in thickness still keeps on until 20°e. It was also shown that the
kelp when cultivated at a temperature of 10°C and above can develop normally; this
becomes the theoretical basis for transplantation of the Laminaria to south of the
Changjiang (Yangtze) River (Tseng, Wu, and Sun, 1957). On the influence of
temperature on the growth and development of the kelp gametophytes, the zoospore
is most active at 1O-15°C at which temperature range its embryospores complete their
germination to gametophytes in 3 days. Development of the gametophytes is optimal
at 10°C, and above 18°C development stops. The gametophytes, however, are able to
grow normally at 20°C, but unable to develop into sporophyte (Tseng, Wu, and Ren,
1962).
In Porphyra, the range of temperatures in which the conchospores are formed as
well as the favorable and optimal temperatures for their formation are unique to
each species and different with different species. After formation of the sporangial
branch let, the conchocelis stage must be subjected to a definite temperature for a
certain number of days before discharge of conchospores can be effected. This occurs
within a certain range of temperature which vanes with different species and is
related to that of conchospore formation but somewhat wider in range than the
latter. For instance, in Porphyra tenera, favorable temperature for conchospore
formation is IS-20°C, the optimal probably 17-18°C for 14-19 days and the
conchospore liberation temperature is broader, especially the upper limit ofthe range
(Tseng, Chang, and Zhao, 1963).
E. The Fertilizer Problem
The role of inorganic nutrients in the biology of the algae in laboratory scale has
been well known for years, but their application as fertilizers in then outdoor
commercial scale is relatively new. So far it has been employed only in the cultivation
of Laminaria japonica and to a lesser extent in that of Porphyra yezoensis in North
China.
In commercial algal fertilization, at least two questions should be asked: what
fertilizer to be employed? How to apply it? These two problems have been
successfully solved in China.
Fertilization in commercial plant cultivation has been a common practice in
agriculture for thousands of years. But in algal cultivation this is a new problem,
especially cultivation in seawater, which is by itself a diluted culture solution. With
land plants, N, P, K are the three general fertilizers employed, but in the sea K is
very plentiful but Nand P. or one of them are generally insufficient. For instance
phosphorus is insufficient in British coastal waters and should be employed there. In
the coastal Huanghai Sea, however, nitrogen appears to be deficient. Generally N is
present in seawater at less than 5 mg nitrate nitrogen or 50 mg total inorganic
nitrogenous nutrients per m 3, which is insufficient for Laminaria japonica for normal
growth and even inadequate for Porphyra yezoensis to grow sufficiently fast. It is,
therefore, recommended that for growing Lam ina ria and Porphyra in the coastal
Huanghai Sea nitrogenous fertilizer be added.
The second problem is how to apply fertilizer in the open sea which is in
constant motion because of wave and tIde. In the early years of kelp cultivation the
area involved was still very small, only fraction of a hectare to a few hectares per
farm, and the kelp grew in one or two meters below sea surface. Therefore, to be
practical, the application of a fertilizer must be limited to selected spots to minimize
Its loss. The clay bottle method for fertilizer application was devised to take
advantage of the porous nature of earthenware. The clay bottles containing solutions
of the desired nitrogenous fertilizer were hung at certain intervals on the raft. The
porosity of the clay bottles effectively controlled the diffusion of the fertilizer which
became available to the kelp in the immediate vicinity and its loss into the open sea
was thus minimized. The clay bottle method was responsible for popularization of
kelp culture in the coastal Huanghai Sea in the late fifties (Tseng, Sun, and Wu,
1955b; Tseng, 1981a, 1981b, 1990). Substitutes, such as plastIc bags punched with
some very minute pores, were used to replace the clay bottles which were quite
expensive and inconvenient.
Since the 1960's the kelp industry in China has greatly expanded and kelp farms
extended to several hectares, even tens of hectares in area. To replace the laborious
clay bottle or bags involved, simpler, cheaper and more efficient methods should be
devised. Experiments with nitrogen-starved kelp showed that it was able to absorb
quickly large quantities of the nitrogenous fertilIzer to provide for its needs for some
time (Wu et aL, 1959). For example, nitrogen-starved kelp when soaked in 100 ppm
nitrogenous fertilizer for 0.5-1.0 h, absorbed sufficient nutrients to meet its needs for
6-10 days (Tseng and Wu, 1966). A soaking method was, therefore, devised which
was, however, also too laborious for large kelps. Finally a spraying method was
devised in which periodic sprinkling of fertilizer solution, generally 5%-10%
ammonium nitrate, from fertilizing boats was effected. The spraying rotated among
different rafts of a farm and occurred once in a few days. Kelp farms at present are
owned collectively and of huge sizes of several tens of hectares and the sprayed
fertilizer solution remains within the area of cultivation for quite some time despite
the tidal movement, loss of fertilizer being not serious. Generally speaking, about 2
t of fertilizer is applied to every hectare of growth for the entire cultivation season
of about seven months. Current kelp cultivation in Shandong Province yields 15-20
t of dried kelp per hectare and comparatively cost of the fertilizer is negligible.
F. The Weed Problem
Just as in agriculture, aquaculture has also its weed problem. This was a very
serious problem in kelp cultivation during the early fifties when the autumn
sporelings were employed and transplantation of young sporelings was delayed for
almost two months. With the adaptation of the summer sporelings method, however,
the weed problem does not exist any more in kelp industry. Growth of Laminaria
japonica reaches 4 cm per day and no weed can compete with it.
In Porphyra cultivation, however, the weed problem is still serious. In general,
there are two groups of weed algae, the green algae and the diatoms. Attachment of
these weeds can be prevented by dense seeding of the conchospores in the seeding
process, by careful protection of the germlings during the manipulation of the
cultivation nets and by careful protection of the young thalli during harvest of the
mature thalli. When there are already some quantities of weed algae on the
cultivation nets, the method of control is to expose the nets to the sun for a definite
number of hours. The weed algae are more susceptible to desiccation than the purple
laver. With the correct exposure to the sun, the weed algae can be killed and the
Porphyra left intact.
G. The Disease Problem
Just as in the case of land plants in agriculture, the Laminaria kelp under
cultivation has also many kinds of diseases, both physiological and pathogenic.
There are two common kinds of physiological diseases, the green rot and the
white rot. In the green rot disease, the marginal portions of the diseased fronds turn
greenish, become soft, decay and disintegrate. Afterwards, the apical parts are
involved, and finally the entire fronds succumb. This is a common disease in
over-crowded fronds and the phenomenon is due to lack of available light to the
fronds in the lower parts of the cultivation rope and evidently over-shaded by those
above them. Control of such a disease can be effected by inverting the cultivation
rope so that the lower over-shaded fronds can receive more light. To be effective,
apical parts of the diseased fronds must be cut off to reduce the over-crowded
condition and permit light penetration, enhancing the health of the fronds. In the
white rot disease, the course of development is similar to that of the green rot
disease but the color of the diseased part is white and probably due to a combination
of three factors: strong light, high water temperature and low nutrient contents. It is,
therefore, recommended that the kelp ropes be lowered and more fertilizer applied.
There are several kinds of pathogenic diseases, but relatively few cases have been
well documented. The first case is the malformation disease of Laminaria kelp
sporelings. There are many farms growing sporelings for more than 20 000 hectares
of kelp farms. This disease is characterized by plasmolyzed oogonial and abnormal,
malformed sporelings which subsequently die and drop off the cultivation ropes. This
is due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide which in concentration of about 0.50 ml/l
cause the shrinkage of the eggs and the half toxic dose for the oogonium was about
0.018 mIll. The organisms involved were the sulfate-reducing bacteria and hydrogen
sulfite producing saprophytic bacteria such as Micrococcus. Preventive measures have
been taken by separating the sporeling cultivation system from the mature sporophyte
cultivation system, and by sterilizing the water system with bleaching powder before
the seeding process (Wu et aL, 1979).
The second case is the destructive falling-off disease caused by alginic acid
decomposing bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas. This is quite common in summer
sporelings and characterized by the sporelings falling off the seeding ropes when
taken out to the sea. These bacteria grow well at IS-25°C but their growth is
retarded at 4°C. The disease can be prevented by adding erythromycin at 5.0 J.Lglml
(Chen et al., 1979, 1983).
The third case is the frond-twist disease in which the cultivated Laminaria has
abnorma]]y twisted fronds with greatly swollen stipes and very shortened rhizoidal
hold fasts. The disease is biologic and contagious and has a rather long latent period
of 60-70 days. It is due to infection of a polymorphic mycoplasma-like organism,
mostly coccoid and some ovoid dumb-bell and amoeboid in shape. Control can be
achieved by the antibiotic tetracycline (Li et al., 1980; Wang et al., 1980). Unlike most
diseases, this one occurs in the coldest part of the year and is most severe in the
northernmost Dalian region in the North Huanghai Sea.
H. The Breeding Problem
Just as in agriculture, in aquaculture, genetical study on seaweeds for the

breeding of new and better strains has been an important problem since its start by
the late Professor Fang in the late fifties. Most of the work was on the Japanese kelp,
Laminaria japonica.
Natural populations of the Laminaria kelp under cultivation are genetically mixed
and considered to possess a high level of hybridity. They are, therefore, good original
material for selection and breeding work. Harmful effect of continual inbreeding is
conditional; in some inbred lines there are harmful effects while in others no harmful
effects are observed, and these eventually form new strains with certain good
characteristics (Fang et aL, 1962). Such morphological characteristics as frond length,
frond width, frond thickness and stipe length are all quantitative inheritable traits, the
development of which is controlled by polygene as well as environmental factors
(Fang et al., 1965).
Methods of continual inbreeding and selection were employed, and single frond
was used to collect the spores instead of using several fronds in large scale
production of sporelings in industry. Mature kelp fronds were selected for certain
desirable characteristics. After four years of intensive inbreeding and selection, a
new strain of kelp, namely, Haiqing No.1 of Laminaria japonica, was obtained in
1962. The new strain differed in several characteristics from the control. It grew
faster and matured later, and being more adaptable to higher temperature, had a
longer period of growth. It had a longer and broader blade with a longer stipe and
was heavier in weight than the control (Fang et aI., 1962a, 1962b). Later two more
strains were bred: Haiqing No.2 with longer but narrower frond and shorter stipes,
maturing earlier than Haiqing No.1, and Haiqing No.3, similar to No.1 in having
long stipe and maturing later but distinct from the latter by its shorter but thicker
frond (Fang et al., 1965, 1966).
China had a what we might call iodine crisis in 1969 and people were asked to
look for a reliable source for iodine. In 1970 Chinese phycologists conducted research
in the nine cultivation regions of five coastal provinces. Employing the half-frond
method, they selected 19 plants with high productivity and high iodine content.
Selective breeding was effected by repeated inbreeding, and the offspring of one
frond treated with X-ray. After a few years of cultivation and examination of the
genetic characteristics, two strains, Nos. 860 and 1170, with high productivity and high
iodine content were bred. Iodine content was shown to be a characteristic showing
a quantitative inheritance similar to frond length, breadth and thickness (lOG and
QMF, 1976).
In July 1977, a male gametophyte from the variety 860 and a female gametophyte
from the variety 1170 were crossed and the resulted hybrid, Haiza No.1 that was
produced had better yield than both the variety 860 and the variety 1170 (Jiang et aI.,
1983). A comparison of the two new varieties show that Danhai No.1 is evidently
more productive than Haiza No.1, 4479 catties per mu or 33.59 t per hectare for
Danhai No.1 against 3060 catties per mu or 22.95 t per hectare for Haiza No. 1. It
should be noted, however, that Fang et al. (1983) employed about 12.5 mu or only
0.8 hectare while in Jiang's experiment, 12060 mu or 804 hectares of Laminaria were
employed in Changdao County in 1981.
In the 1980's, hybridization between different strains of Laminaria japonica was
effected and at least two new strains were obtained, the Danhai No.1 by Fang et al.
(1983) and Haiza No.1 by Jiang (1983). The female sporophyte of a female pure
line, i.e., the female monoclone "Dan No.1" was observed to possess several
desirable characteristics: rather large and long frond with very wide central position
along the whole length of the frond, greater tolerance to higher temperature and
timely maturation in June for mass collection of zoospore for mass cultivation. It has
a main defect in its comparatively thinner frond. Therefore in the summer of 1978,
it was crossed with a male gametophyte from a thick frond sporophyte. Since then,
by intensive inbreeding and defimte selection consecutively for five years, a new
variety, the Danhai No.1 was produced which had thicker fronds, higher yield and
better quality than the best varieties currently cultivated (Fang et al., 1983).
II. CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES
The success of the large scale cultivation of commercial algae depends upon good
culturing techniques that may differ to some extent from country to country and from
region to region. Scientific bases for successful algal cultivation should be universal,
but the technique employed should be adapted to the specific conditions. A certain
technique may be successful in one place but a total failure in another. If the
technique now employed in the cultivation of the Laminaria kelp in China is
transplanted to the United States, I believe it will result in failure, simply because
kelp cultivation in China is very labor-intensive and not suitable in the U.S. because
of the high labor cost there. When we started to cultivate the Porphyra laver in China
in the late 1950's, we actually adopted the entire Ja{'anese method. Gradually we
encountered some difficulties because of the much hIgher tidal differences and the
turbidity of the seawater. We finally devised a semifloating method for the laver
cultivation which gave much better result. We have still many problems in our
present method of cultivation but we are trying to solve them one by one.
There are three general types of cultivation, the glasshouse method, the pond
method and the open sea method of cultivation.
A. The Glasshouse Method of Cultivation
This type of cultivation is characterized by enclosure of the cultivated algae

within a glasshouse which allows the entrance of light but prevents great temperature
fluctuation. The glasshouse may be temperature controlled or not. The former is
typical of Laminaria sporeling cultivation and the latter of Porphyra conchocelis
cultivation.
1. For Porphyra Conchocelis Cultivation

Cultivation of the filamentous conchocelis, the sporophyte generation of
Porphyra, is effected on molluscan shells. Carpospores of Porphyra are seeded in early
May at a density of about 200-300/cm2. Cultivation takes place in large elongated
shallow concrete tanks containing enriched seawater 20-30 cm in depth, and several
tanks are enclosed in a glasshouse. Water temperature is not controlled and allowed
to fluctuate with air temperature. Growth is best, however, at 20-25°C which is its
optimal temperature. Light intensity is controlled by a series of screens. Plane type
culture is generally adopted. The molluscan shells are orderly arranged and cleaned
with soft brushes once every two or three weeks. When the pH of the seawater rises
to 8.5, the water is discarded and new water added. The water should be gently
stirred a few times daily. Maximal numbers of conchospores per unit area can be
obtained by taking measures to control the light-intensity and lIght-period according
to the particular stage of growth (IOESP, 1978).
When the number of conchospores reaches 50 000 per shell, preparations are
made for seeding process. Since the adherence and germination of the conchospores
require strong light, the light intensity on the surface of the tank is regulated to about
30-60 J.LE/m2. s or more. The cultivation nets are made generally of synthetic fibers.
These nets are placed in the tanks containing the shells with conchocelis. Since the
conchospores are non-motile the water has to be agitated by means of a pump. The
seeding process is done in early morning, usually before 10 a.m. Formal seeding can
be started when spore discharge reaches 100 000 conchospores per shell per day.
When spore discharge reaches one million per shell seeding process can be greatly
shortened and a few minutes are sufficient. A density of 3-5 conchospores/m 2 will
satisfy the requirements of the seeding process.
Aquaculture or Marine Algae 313
2. For Kelp Sporeling Cultivation

Cultivation of the kelp sporelings is now effected by the summer sporeling
method instead of the traditional autumn sporeling method. According to the
traditional methods, kelp spores were collected III October with seawater temperature
down to about 20°e. Spores of several kinds of weed algae such as Ectocarpus and
Licmorphora would quickly attach to the seeded ropes placed in seawater. The spores
of kelp would undergo a series of changes from spores to gametophytes and then to
sporophyte, and the entire process would take about 20 days or more but in these
days the unwanted weeds would grow to mature size and cover the seeded ropes, thus
preventing the ungerminated spores and gametophytes from receiving sufficIent light
for their normal development. It took generally about two months when the weeds
shed away and light became once more available for development of the
gametophytes and juvenile sporophyte. The kelp summer sporelings cultivation
method devised in principle in 1955, consisted of two parts. First, the spores were
collected in early summer, sometimes in late May to early June. Secondly, as the
Huanghai Sea temperature reached over 25°C to as much as 27-2SoC in summer and
the sporelings could not over-summer under such conditions, they must be cultivated
in artificially cooled seawater much lower than 20°C, preferably about lO°e. Thus
treated, the summer sporelings would easily pass through the hot summer. In
Qingdao in middle October when seawater temperature falls down to 20°C or lower,
the seeded ropes with one to a few cm high sporelings would be taken out to sea for
the sporeling to grow in natural seawater. They would grow very fast, much faster
than the unwanted weeds attached to the seeded ropes. In this way the sporelings
would gain about two months' valuable time, increasing production to 30%-50% or
more. The method now popularly employed is therefore summer sporelings cultivated
in cooled enriched seawater (Tseng, Sun, and Wu, 1955a).
Originally lamps were used as the source of light in the laboratory and in the first
Kelp Summer Sporelings House for commercial cultivation by the Shandong
Mariculture Station (now, the Shandong Mariculture Research Institute). Later, a
glasshouse with cultivation tanks at different levels was devised and built and day
light was employed, thus simplifying construction of a hugh refrigerator and lamps.
Success against the weeds, thus gaining two months precious growing time is not
the sole benefit of the summer sporelings method. The juvenile sporelings would
grow to 10-15 cm high sporophyte in seawater in about two months, and be ready for
the subsequent segregation process in December when seawater temperature is about
10°C, much warmer than January and February's freezing water temperature. The
segregation workers feel much more comfortable segregating the Laminaria fronds
in December. The summer sporeling method also eliminate the necessity of building
a hugh refrigerator and construction of a glasshouse is much simpler. The water-
cooling system is principally the same in both cases. Thus, cost of production is also
cheaper.
In the summer sporeling cultivation method, the seeding process generally begins
in June and takes place in elongated shallow tanks (with 10-15 cm deep filtered
seawater, enriched with nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers) in a specially built
glasshouse. Prior to the seeding process, the parent fronds with abundant sporangial
sori are cleaned and hung in the air for a few hours. When such fronds are placed
in seawater, the pressure resulting from the quick absorption of water breaks the
sporangial wall and liberates large masses of zoospore. When about 20-30 zoospore
can be seen under 100x magnification microscopes, sufficient zoospore density is
reached and the parent fronds are removed. New seawater is added so that there are
about 10 zoospore under the same microscope field. Then, spore collectors in the
form of frames with seeding cords are placed in the spore water. The actively
swimming zoospore soon adhere to the collectors, thus completing the seeding
process.
The seeded frames are arranged in shallow tanks containing enriched seawater
cooled to 8-1O°C. The cooled seawater keeps on flowing from the upper tanks to the
lower tanks by gravitation and every day about one fifth is discarded. The remaining
seawater goes to the refrigerating unit and one fifth enriched seawater is added. The
seeded frame with the sporelings remain in the cool glass house until mid-October
when natural seawater temperature drops to about 20°C, favorable for natural growth
of the kelp juvenile sporophyte in the fIeld. The sporelings are intentionally allowed
to grow to about 1-2cm high and sold to the kelp farmers.
Production of sporelings of the qundaicai or wakame, Undaria pinnati[zda, is
essentially similar to that of the Laminaria, but much simpler, since the Undaria is
a warm temperate species, able to tolerate higher temperature and therefore, cooling
devices are not needed.
B. The Pond Method of Cultivation
Pond cultivation is employed for growing microalgae and such macroalgae as

Graci/aria.
Microalgae have been cultivated for animal feed in wet form since the 1950's
Generally speaking, at least three factors must be considered.
The first factor is the location. Proximity to seawater should be the first
consideration. Next to seawater is undoubtedly temperature; it would be impossible
to grow a tropical plant in cold temperate waters. Consideration must also be given
to light because all plants have their optimal light requirement. Rainfall should also
be considered since it affects light conditions of the region. The second factor is the
construction of the culture ponds which may be made of plastic or cement, or even
dug up earthen ditches lined with plastic membrane. The ponds are generally 25-30
cm high. The third factor is the culture medium, which may range from Zarrouk's
culture media to manure, depending upon the use of the product. Recently, two
microalgae, namely, Dunaliella and Spirulina have gained much attention.
The Dunaliella farm for extracting l3-carotene in Tianjin has a total growing area
of 10 800 square meters. There are 8 rectangular ponds wIth 2 m wide paths between
neighboring ponds. All are connected to a common over-flow ditch. The ponds are
13.5 xO.5 m in size, with a production capacity of 100 kg l3-carotene per year. They
are generally lined to prevent leakage, lining materials including cement, polyethylene
sheeting and a few other materials. Water level is kept between 10-20 cm. Bittern
brine is used as the basic medium and nitrogen, phosphorus and inorganic carbon are
added to promote growth. Mixing of the .media is provided by a slowly rotating
paddle wheel. The most important predators of the Dunaliella are Artemia and
Paramecium. These may be prevented by maintaining clean, axenic stock cultures, by
sterilization of culture medium prior to >lOculc:Jion and by increasing salinity as
needed during the culturing process. Pro.tuctiOl· (,f l3-carotene reached 6% dry wt.
which is several thousand times higher thar. tHat fOuJid in carrot cells. The l3-carotene
produced in Tianjin is now successfully used as a natural coloring matter in "Lilichen"
orange juice, margarine, ice-cream etc. (Guo, 1991).
A special strain of Spirulina platensis Isolated from the original species from Chad
Lake adapted easily to grow in seawater supplemented with commercial compound
fertilizer containing nitrogenous and phosphorus elements, and NaHC0 3 and FeS04
in Huilai county, Guangdong. Carbonate and phosphate precipitation in the medium

was greatly reduced by maintaining a low concentration of NaHC0 3 and phosphate
which was supplied by diffusion throu¥h a tubular dialyzer membrane. The culture
took place in a total surface of 3000 m , composed of 4 ponds of 500 m 2 and a larger
pond of 1000 m 2 • In each pond a wall was erected partially along the longitudinal axis
and a group of influx boards were built at the corner of both ends to keep constant
the speed and direction of flow. Seawater was pumped from the nearby seashore and
filtered through sand in a filter pond, then piped into the culture ponds. The culture
depth was maintained at 8-12 cm by replacing daily the seawater lost by evaporation
which was about 1.0-1.5 cm per day in summer with fresh seawater. The culture was
circulated at a speed of approximately 40 cm/s with paddle wheels. The areal
population density varied from 60 to 90 glm 2, depending on the dilution rate and the
areal yield of biomass. Algae slurry harvested by inclined screens containing 5%-8%
dry product, was further concentrated by filtration through 180-250 mesh nylon cloth
filter bags washed with dilute HCl first, then with fresh water, squeezed and at last
dried under sunlight or electric lamp (Wu, Tseng, and Xiang, 1992).
The macroalgae, Gracilaria tenuistipitata vaT. lilli, unlike most seaweeds are
adapted to living in calm places and wave action is not needed for their active
growth. Graci/aria is grown in Taiwan and Hainan, and does not need much
attention. It is only necessary to throw some Gracilaria into the pond which varies
greatly in size from a few hundred square meters to a few hectares in area.
Intercropping with fish or shrimps has been effected and found to give good results
for both. A few thousand t of Graci/aria have been produced annually.
C. The Open Sea Method of Cultivation
Unlike the glasshouse method and the pond method of cultivation, which take
place on land this is the actual cultivation of seaweeds in open sea and is
undoubtedly the most important part of the cultivation technique. There are two
general methods, the bottom substrate method and the floating raft method.
1. The Bottom Substrate Method

Cultivation takes place on rocks, stones, coral chips and other hard substrate on
the sea bottom.
Traditionally the glueweed, Gloiopeltis furcata has been cultivated by the rock-
cleaning method in Jinmen (Quimoy) County near the Xiamen City (Arnoy) in
southern Fujian Province since the Sung Dynasty (920-1279 A.D.) (Tseng, 1933).
Rocks with abundant growth of the glueweed in spnng were chosen and sometimes
(in autumn) barnacles and unwanted weeds were scraped with iron tools from the
rocks to give space for the glueweed spores. Similar treatment of rocks was effected
in Pingtan County of Haitan Island in Central Fujian for cultivation of the purple
laver (Porphyra spp.) about two hundred years ago. Although rather primitive the
method helped Jinmen to produce annually about 200 t of the glueweed and Pintan
even more purple laver. At present the rock-cleaning method is partially retained for
growth of purple laver and spore water poured over the cleaned rocks.
When the Japanese kelp Laminaria japonica was accidentally introduced from
Japan to Dalian in 1927 and the Wakame Undaria pinnatifida intentionally introduced
from South Korea to Qingdao in 1935, the traditional Japanese method of cultivation
was adopted. They were either placed near rocks during their sporulation or led to
grow on stones thrown in the subtidal zone during the sporulation period. At present
the rock and stone cultivation method has been discarded and the single line floating
raft method is popularly adopted.
For the cultivation of Eucheuma gelatinae in Hainan, coral chips are selected as
the growth substrate. The method was devised in the early seventies. Seed thalli
selected are those which are thick, sturdy, and without epiphytes. Each kilogram of
the seaweed is split into 80-100 cuttings weighing 10-12.5 g each. The cuttings are
fastened to coral chips with rubber rings and thrown to the subtidal regions at
random; then, divers are sent down to arrange them in order so that there are about
ten cuttings per 1 m 2• Generally, about 750 kg of the fresh cuttings are needed per
hectare. Holdfasts will develop in about a week and attach firmly to the coral branch
(Tseng, 1981a, 1981b, 1990). By this method, Hainan is able to produce about 300
t of the Eucheuma annually.
2. The Floating Raft Method
The floating raft method differs from the bottom substrate one in 2 respects.
First, raft floats on the water and secondly, it is made up of artificial substrates.
There are 2 general types of the method, the long line rafts and the net rafts.
(1) The l.ong.-line raf! metho~. This is now th.e most popul~rly used method in
seaweed cultIvatIon and IS extensIVely employed III the cultIvatIon of the Japanese
kelp. In the Huanghai Sea, when seawater temperature comes down to about 20°C
in middle October, the glasshouse sporelings 1-2 cm high growing on kelp cords are
taken out to grow in the sea. By late November to early December, the crowded
juvenile sporelings grow to young sporophyte 10-15 cm high. They must be
transplanted to larger kelp ropes, otherwIse the crowded condition will not be
favorable to growth. Around a 1-1.5 m long 8 mm diameter kelp rope are twisted at
regular intervals a total of about 30 plants, one or two plants per spot. In a few days
the rhizoid of the kelp grow firmly on the rope. Transplantation of young sporophyte
is tedious manual labor; formerly, for the autumn sporelings, transplantation took
place during the coldest part of the year and working in ice-cold water was really a
very hard job, but now, with an advantage of about two months, the work is carned
out in seawater over 10°C and is therefore a comparatively pleasant one. This indeed
greatly improves the working condition of the transplantation workers.
Transplantation of the young sporophyte is a process unique to the Chinese
industry. It helps to make the Chinese kelp raising industry produce more and better
kelp and is partially instrumental to the success of the industry. The kelp ropes are
attached perpendicularly to a much larger floating rope by smaller attaching ropes
the length of which varies from place to place depending upon the clearness of the
seawater. To the lower end of the kelp ropes are attached small stones or other
weights to keep the kelp plants from floating on the water. The floating ropes are 30
or 60 m long and kept afloat with glass floats 15-20 cm in diameter, 20-24 to each
raft. Each floating raft is attached at both ends to two anchor cables the (length of
which should be twice the depth of the sea) attached to the sea bottom by wooden
stakes or anchors. The distance between two kelp ropes is 10-140 cm and that
between two rafts about 6-7 m. The total number of kelp plants in one hectare
differs from place to place, averaging at 150 000-300 000 plants per hectare.
In the course of cultivation for a few months, there is generally quite a difference
of growth between the upper and lower plants on the same kelp rope. To equalize
the growth a method has been devised in which the kelp ropes are inverted so that
the lowest plant becomes the highest in practice. Over the entire growing season, two
inversions are generally required. Another method to equalize kelp growth is to level
cultivation ropes by tying together the two adjacent kelp ropes after a few months'
growth, so that the kelp ropes become horizontally disposed. By these methods, the
production and quality of the products are ensured.
/
/
Fig. 1. Sketch of a Laminarw cultivation raft; each cultivation rope is 30 m or 60 m long, and the
cultivation rope with the kelps is 1-1.5 m long, its upper end tied to a hanging rope attached to the floating
rope and its lower end tied to a weight.
The long-line floating raft method is now popularly employed in the cultivation
of the wakame Undaria pinnatifida, and quick growing rhodophytes such as
Kappaphycus avarezii, introduced from the Philippines and even Graci/aria.
2) The net raft method. This is popularly employed in the cultivation of purple
laver in Japan, Korea and China. There are three fundamental types of the method,
the pillar method, the semifloating method and the floating method. This type of
aquaculture is characterized by a series of floating nets on which are attached the
seaweeds. The individual net may be squarish or rectangular in shape, and in most
cases it is rectangular in shape, generally about 1.2-1.5 m broad and 10-12 m long.
The meshes also vary a great deal, and are generally 18-27 cm. Formerly the smaller
meshes were preferred because more conchospores might attach to them, resulting
in better production. Later in actual production it was found that with the too
crowded condition of growth, lower growth rate resulted and the lavers would be
more readily attacked by diseases. It was suggested that 30 cm meshes would be more
a ppropria teo
In the pillar method poles or pillars are driven into the ground to serve as
supports for the cultivation nets. The nets are either fastened tightly to the pillar in
the fixed type, or furnished on its upper surface at certain levels with tenterhooks like
cylindrical floats made of bamboo poles or synthetic resin pipes in the lift type. In the
latter case it is fastened to the pillars at a definite level within the tidal range by
binding cords of a certain length so that the net can go up and down with the tide.
The fixed type can be used in places with small tidal range of 1-2 m, and the lift type
for places with greater tidal range of 3-6 m or more. This is a popular Japanese
method and employed in China in the early period of cultivation.
The semifloating method of cultivation is an intertidal cultivation devised in
China to take the place of the Japanese pillar method for intertidal cultivation. The
method combines the strong points of the pillar and floating methods. At high tide
r----
V--
--- ------
Fig. 2. Sketches showing the three methods of Porphyra cultivation. a, fixed type of the pillar method; b,
semi-floating method with the short legs; c, floating method.
- --=-------=--=-=-
--~
---
Fig. 3. Diagranmlatic sections of the three methods of Porphyra cultivation. a, lift type of the pillar method
of Porphyra cultivation; b, semi-floating method; c, floating method. The diagram on the left shows the
position of the net during high tide and that on the right shows the position of the net during low tide.
rafts float on the water to receive sufficient light for pho.tosynthesis. At low tide the
raft rests on the ground on short legs.
The floating raft method is adapted to laver production in deep water. The raft
is 60 m long and 180 em broad and has an 18.25 m long anchor rope. Germination
of the conchospores and growth of the sporelings in this method ~enerally takes place
in the intertidal region. It takes about 30-40 days for the sporelmgs to reach 1-3 em
in length. They are then cultivated by the floating method. It is, however, a very
difficult job to move the large nets with conchospores to the intertidal region. Ways
and means must be sought to sun-dry the nets right on the sea. Prof. X. G. Fei and
his colleagues at the Experimental Marine Biology Laboratory of the Institute of
Oceanology devised in June 1990 such a method involving a triangular device for the
drying up process, which takes only 6-10 min to put up the nets and 5 min to
readjust them to their original position. This can be repeated once in three days, and
only 15-18 days are needed for the sporelings to reach cultivation stage (Prof. X. G.
Fei, personal communication).
For the last twenty or so years, purple laver cultivation has extended greatly in
the East China Sea and practically all laver farmers employ the semi-floating nets for
Porphyra production in the intertidal region. The intertidal region in any place is
more or less limited and so Porphyra nets are all crowded in the limited intertidal
region, resulting in diseases and low quality products. We must utilize the very broad
deeper water regions and the floating raft method and special sunning device on the
sea must be employed. Imported nets with such devices from Japan costs four times
more than these with local devices. Experiments show that laver nets with our local
devices compare favorably with the imported Japanese nets.
REFERENCES
Chen, Dou, Lin, Guang-heng, and Shen, Shi-ze (1979) "Studies on alginica acid decomposition bacteria,
I. Action of alginic acid decomposing bactena and alginase on Laminaria japonica", Oceano!. Limno!.
Sinica 10(4),329-333.
Chen, Dou, Yu, Yi-de, and Yang, Zhao-hui (1983) "Studies on the etiology of green rot disease of
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SCALLOP MARICULTURE IN CHINA
ZHANG Fu-sui
Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
I. INTRODUCTION
Scallops are fan-shaped marine bivalves with high-protein tasty meat. There are about
4000 species distributed from polar to tropical regions, from intertidal zone to sea
bottom over 3000 m deep, but main economic species occur in shallow seas of the
continental shelf (Brand, 1991). Chlamys Jarreri (Jones and Preston), Chlamys nobilis
(Reeve), Amussium japonica (Gmelin), Patinopecten yessoensis (J apy), and Argopecten
irradians Lamarck are important cultured species in China. Chlamys Jarreri which lives
mainly in subtidal zone to depths of 70 m, and in sandy silt bottom with shell debris
(Wang, 1983), is found only in the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea and the Bohai Sea, being
very abundant in the coastal regions of Shan dong and Liaoning provinces. Chlamys
nobilis is found in coastal re~ions of Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces in
the South China Sea. It habItats from the subtidal zone to 110 m (Wang, 1983). In
recent years, it has been transplanted to coastal regions in southern Fujian Province.
Amussium japonicum lives on sandy bottom at 5-10 m depths and is a trial culture
species in South China Sea coasts. Artificial culture of Argopecten irradians has
developed into a flourishing industry in the coastal regions of Shandong, Liaoning,
and Hebei provinces. Trial cultivation is underway in Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong
and Hainan provinces. An annual landing of 120 000-130 000 tons was reported in
1992. Patino-pecten yessoensis is now cultured in Shandong and Liaoning provinces.
II. ARTIFICIAL SPAT-REARING
The economic value of scallops dictated the need for their large-scale culture.
Artificial culture feasibility studies started in 1956 (Tchang-Si et al.). The first batch
of Chlamys Jarreri was successfully reared in 1974 (Wang, 1981), after which studies
were made on its commercial-scale rearing in the coastal regions of Shandong and
Liaoning. In 1976 and 1978, Guangdong and Fujian initiated studies on the artificial
spat-rearing of Chlamys nobilis. In 1981, the first batch of Patinopecten yessoensis
introduced from Japan was successfully reared (Wang and Liu, 1982; Zhang et al.,
1984). In 1983, the rearing of the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians introduced from
the US was met with success (Zhang et al., 1986), which paved the way to its
subsequent rapid development into a culture industry. Artificial culture technology
was developed. Biological as well as ecological characteristics of scallops were taken
321
into consideration to achieve low-cost high production.

A. Induced Maturation of Parent Scallop
1. Large, Gravid Parent Scallops oj the Same Age Group Were Used
Selection indices are shown in Table 1. The shelJ surface should be free of any
fouling organisms such as oysters, calcareous worms, tunicates. With proper aeration,
feeding and water change, at a stocking density of 150 parent bay scalJops/m3 water,
the development of gonads and spawning are normal. A stocking density range of
80-100 parent scallops/m3 is suitable and can produce an adequate supply of fertilized
eggs. For dioecious scallops, females and males (about 1 % would suffice) should be
separated just before egg colJection. In the coastal regions of Qingdao, Chlamys
Jarreri are sexualJy differentiated by February to March.
Table 1. Selection Indices for Different Species of Parent Scallops
Shell Stocking Gonads No. of eggs

Species Age height density per release
(cm) (ind./m3) Male Female (million)
Argopectell >5.5 70-80 0 Milky white Pink 0.5
ilTadians
Chlarnys falTeri ;:: 1 >7 30-40 <;' Milky white Red 1-1.2
Chlamys !lobi/is 1-2 >7 20-30 <;' Milky white Light yellow 1-3
Patinopectell ;::3 >10 10-20 <;' Milky white Red
yessoensis
Table 2. Interrelationship Between the Time ofColleetion of Bay Scallop, Temperature of Rearing Medium
and Time Required Before Release of Gonadal Products
Time of rearing parent scallop Temperature of rearing Time required before release
medium ("C) of gonadal products (d)
December 14.0-16.0 39
March 21.5-23.0 18-19
Mid-April 21.0-23.0 16
2. Water Temperature
In the coastal regions of Qingdao, when the water temperature in March is from
4-5°C, raft-cultured Chlamys Jarred begins to show rapid gonadal development by
mid-May; the bottom individuals are sexualJy ripe by the end of May and spawning
lasts until June. From July to Aug. reproduction ceases. Spawning starts again from
Sept. to Oct. (Liao et aL, 1983). Argopecten irradians shows stimulated gonadal
development at mid-April when water temperature ranges in 8-9°C. Spawning lasts
from mid-May to mid-July, the peak period being in the early half of June. The
autumn spawning period begins in September (Zhanget al., 1991a). To make possible
the rearing of bay scallops to adult stage in the same year when their spats are
colJected under normal temperature, or to make it possible to get larger seeds of
Chlamys Jarreri and other scallop species, parent scanops are usually colJected in
Scallop Mariculture in China 323
March and reared in tanks under controlled temperature to bring about induced
maturation of gonads. Table 2 shows that i) fed at a temperature range of 15-30°C,
the higher the water temperature, the shorter is the time for gonad maturation; ii)
the closer the gonads are to the reproductive stage at the initial rearing, the shorter
is the time for their induced maturation.
After placing in the rearing tank, parent scallops should first be reared under
normal seawater temperature for 2-3 days before subjecting them to rearing under
controlled temperature with a daily increase of 1-2°e until attaining the determined
temperature (usually 22-23°e for bay scallop, 18°e for Chlamys farreri).
3. Feed Supply
Sexual maturity and the amount and quality of gonadal products depend on
adequacy of feed supply. For the feeding efficiency and the ease of water quality
control, it is best to feed unicellular algae such as Phaeodactylum tricornutum,
Isochlysis galbana, Platymonas subcordiJormis, Pyramimonas, Chlorella. In early spring
it is best to culture cold-tolerant brown algae. A dosage of 60-80 liters algal feed
supply/m3 given 6-10 times a day is suitable so that no "pseudofaecal pellets"
(indication of overfeeding) are formed. A parent scallop feeds on 20-70 billion algal
cells. The use of Sargassum hunbergi and Ulva pertusus extracts as feed also gave good
egg collection (Miao et al., 1989).
4. Aeration
When oxygen content is <3.5 ppm, the valves of parent scallops are gaped. At
an oxygen content >4 ppm, stocking density for parent scallops of 100 ind./m 3. and
the aeration of water at regular interval, scallops grow normally. As a rule, aeration
should be increased during the later phase rearing.
5. Water Quality Control
The decomposition of faecal pellets of parent scallops, food debris and dead
scallops by ex-culture bacteria as well as metabolic wastes may produce toxic
ammonia. When waste materials are sedimented and oxygen in the tank is exhausted,
toxic hydrogyen sulfide is produced. Aeration serves to replenish oxygen in the water
resulting in converting hydrogen sulfide into hydrosuphate and at the same time
restricts the growth of anaerobic bacteria, thereby reducing the production of toxic
ammonia. Lowering the pH of the water can have a diluting effect on toxic ammonia.
A more thorough cleaning would be changing water and cleaning the tank.
B. Egg Collection, Fertilization and Hatching
1) Inspection of gonads. In a hermaphroditic bay scallop, the gonad is covered

by a black membrane which becomes lighter in colour with gonad development and
finally disappears. When ready to spawn, gonads appear gravid; the ovary dark pink;
and the testis milky white.
2) Egg collection. The parent scallop rearing tank should be absolutely cleaned
of biofoulers and disinfected in preparation for egg collection. To have fully matured
eggs, just wait for their natural release. Artificial stimulation of gonadal release is not
necessary. Gonadal product release lasts about two hours. For the bay scallop, when
a density of about 30-40 eggs/ml water is reached, the parent scallop should be
transferred to another tank to avoid excessive amount of sperms which may adversely
affect the hatching rate of eggs. For hermaphroditic scallops, the proportion of male
to female parents should be 1:20 to avoid excessive sperms and at the same time
maintain an adequate supply of eggs. When the fertilized eggs have sedimented, the
upper layer of water where sperms are concentrated should be skimmed off.
Favorable hatching conditions should be maintained by diluting the egg-containing
water to <50 eggs/ml with fresh sea water.
3) Inspection of egg release. When parent scallops are approaching maturation,
the tank bottom should be sampled to determine whether eggs are released prior to
each change of water. It is advisable not to change a large amount of water prior to
egg collection and as much as possible to avoid large temperature variation of tank
water. Appearance of excessive bubbles on the surface water during aeration and the
presence of granular suspensions in the vicinity of parent scallops indicat gonadal
product release.
4) Amount of egg production. For Chlamys nobilis, a parent with shell hei~ht of
6-7 cm produces 1-1.5 million eggs; of 8-9 cm, 1.5-3.0 milliom; of 10 cm, 8 mIllion.
During the rearing of fully matured bay scallops, the closer they are to the
reproductive period after fattening, the greater is the amount of eggs produced. For
Chlamys farreri reared under the controlled indoor temperature, the amount of eggs
produced is usually 1-1.2 million (2-year-old scallops). The amount of egg collection
varies with season. No eggs are collected from Nov. to April of the next year. From
mid-May to the first half of Oct., egg collection is intermittent; from the later half of
May to the first half of July, collection amount is considerable. If parent scallops
taken from the sea are temporarily reared for some time, egg collection is distinctly
increased.
5) Fertilization and hatching of eggs. For hermaphroditic scallops, as egg
collection is simultaneous with gonadal product release, and fertilization takes place
at the same time, the excess of sperm in water will cause greater viscosity of the
rearing medium, hampers the settling of fertilized eggs and may result in multi-
fertilization conducive to producing embryonic freaks. To solve this problem, there
is no other way but to control the amount of gonadal release. Practical experience
shows that a controlled amount of fertilized eggs not greater than 30-50 eggs/ml is
suitable during the hatching process, and slight stirring and aeration can bring about
normal development of eggs into healthy and robust D larvae. For dioecious scallops,
the sexes are separated just before gonadal release, then a small amount of sperm
fluid (0.1 %-1 %) is mixed into the egg fluid for fertilization. Fertilized eggs after
settling are rinsed clean for hatching.
6) Effect of temperature and salinity on development of zygotes. For hatching,
the suitable salinity range is 23-35 (optimal, 25-27) (He and Zhang, 1990); suitable
temperature range 13-15°C (optimal, 19-22°C) (Tettlebach and Rhodes, 1981). A
temperature range of 16-22°C and salinity range of 7.5-32. 5%0 are suitable for
hatching Chlamys farreri eggs.
7) Selection of larvae. The fertilized egg of the bay scallop usually hatches into
D larva with shell length of ca. 90 f.Lm in about a day under controlled temperature
conditions (at 23°C, about 22 hours). It is necessary to strain off larvae through a
netcage before transferring them to another tank. For dioecious scallops, sexes are
separated during the spawning process. An appropriate amount of sperm fluid is put
into the egg tank for fertilization. After the fertilized eggs hatch into D larvae in
about 5-7 days, they are ready to be picked out for further rearing.
c. Rearing of Larvae
It is of great importance that rearing conditions meet the requirements of larvae
of different sizes. Tests show that the maximum growth of bay scallop larvae is at a
T-S range of 25°C-30%0 (Tettlebach and Rhodes, 1981). Eyespots develop on the
12th or 13th day after fertilization at 18-21°C; on the lOt6 day at 22-23°C; on the 7th
day at 28°C. In order to shorten the rearing cycle, we usually control the temperature
to about 23°C. Results of experiments show that the bay scallop grows at a suitable
salinity range of 23-33%0 (He and Zhang, 1990).
Illumination is controlled at lower than 500 luxes, at most not > 1000 luxes.
Aeration should be controlled to prevent too turbulent movement of the water which
may to certain extent disturb the feeding of larvae. Aeration through a tube inserted
into finely porous stones placed on the tank bottom can prevent strong disturbance
of water during aeration.
There is inevitable production of NH4-NH3 during larval rearing. Results of
experiments using Chlamys farreri show that when it reaches a concentration of 500
ppb, the growth and survival of larvae are adversely affected. A safe concentration
is 200 ppb (Chang et ai., 1982), but for bay scallop, 100 ppb (Luan and Lan, 1990)
or 150 ppb (Lin Guo-ming, in press). Water should be changed 2 or 3 times daily.
For every change, 1/2 or 1/3 should be fresh seawater.
Tank cleaning is to remove from the tank bottom the larval carcasses, feces,
remains of food and other stinky material to prevent water quality deterioration.
Usually, 2-3 times of tank cleaning during the rearing process can maintain normal
growth and development of scallop larvae.
The density of larval rearing depends on technique, management, size of rearing
tank, developmental stages of larvae, etc. An initial stocking density of larvae is
usually 8-15 individuals. When eyespots appear, about 5-10 individual/ml is ideal.
Food organisms usually used are Isochrysis galbana 3011, Dicrateria zhanjiangensis,
Pavlova viridis, Pyramimonas sp., Platymonas sp., Chlorella sp., and Phaeodactylum
tricornutum. They are best used in combination with other feed. The amount of algal
feed depends on the size of the algae, larval density, amount of water changed, health
and vigor of larva, etc. For early stage larvae 20 000-30 000 Isochrysis cells/ml can be
given; for8ost larvae 40 000-50 000 cells/ml; for settled and metamorphosed stages
50 000-10 000 cells/m!. The feeding is best at more intervals, say, 4-8 times a day.
After every change of water, food should be replenished.
Daily sampling of rearing water should be made to determine larval abundance
and growth rate which are reflective of rearing conditions. Amount of feed needed
can also be judged from the fullness of gut contents and color of viscera.
D. Spat Collection
Bay scallop larvae reared under 22-23°C begin to develop eyespots 10-11 days
after fertilization and have shell length of 150-220 /Lm. The average shell length of
scallop larvae when eyespots first appear is 170-190/Lm. When eyed larvae first
appear, tbe rearing tank should be cleaned and collectors put in. Measures should
be taken to prevent escape, dry exposure and overcrowding of larvae. Palm rope
mattings made of palm fibers (Zhang et aI, 1984) and nets made of polyvinyl ropes
are effective collectors. After collectors are put in, the amount of water changed
should be greater and aeration should be prolon~ed. After the majority of larvae had
settled and metamorphosed, the amount of illumInation should be suitably intensified
in order to strengthen the adaptation of spats to illumination. When the spats are to
be taken out of the tank for intermediate rearing in the sea, the water temperature
in the tank should be gradually lowered to approach sea water temperature.
E. Intermediate Culture of Spats

When the average shell height of the scallop spats in the rearing tank reaches
350-700 /Lm, they are ready to be transferred to the sea or to shrimp ponds for
growing out to commercial-sized spats (average shell height 5 mm). This lasts 20-30
days from egg collection to the time when spats are taken out for rearing in shrimp
pond or in the sea; and about 1.5-2 months until they grow to commercial size. The
intermediate culture of spats requires conditions that can ~uarantee their normal
growth, minimize damage and increase retaining rate. To attam these ends, collectors
with spats are placed in net bags to prevent their escape. When spats in the big nets
grow to an average shell height of 2-3 mm, they begin to detach from the collectors.
The spats in collectors as well as those on big nets are scraped and washed down,
cleaned of predators and again are parceled out and placed in spats bags, after which
they are hung in string and suspended on culture rafts until they grow to marketable
size. Usually, retaining rate of spats reaching marketable size is 10%-20% and higher
in quiet waters. Retaining rate of spats in shrimp ponds can be raised to 20%-30%,
or even to 40%. For young spats transferred from large net bags to spat bags, the
retaining rate is usually 60%-90%.
III. NATURAL SPAT COLLECTION
Artificial spat collectors are placed in the seed ground to allow naturally
produced larvae to settle on them. The escape of spats was reduced by putting spat
collectors inside a spat collection onion-skin bag (Ito et al., 1976). Since 1980, the
method has become popular in China (Wang et aL, 1987). From 1980-1985, Chlamys
Jarred natural spat collection at the Changdao County amounted to 4 billion spats.
In 1984, 290 000 spat-collecting bags were placed in the sea, a total amount of 2.5
billion spats was attained. Knowledge of the spawning period is of utmost importance
for natural spat collection. Chlamys Jarreri breeds in spring beginning from late May
or even earlier and lasts until July, and in autumn beginning from late Sept. or Oct.
(for Qingdao coastal regions). Egg production is higher in spring than in autumn. The
best depth for spat collection differs with the sea area. In the Toji Island, it is at 2-8
m; in the northern coastal areas of Changdao >5 m; in Sanggou Bay at 2-4 m. There
are many kinds of spat collectors such as scallop shells, palm fiber ropes. In recent
years, polyvinyl fish net pieces (mesh size 1.5 cm) and polyvinyl screens, from which
pieces (30x40 cm) are cut out and placed in collection bags, are becoming popular.
Today, thousands even tens of thousands of spats are collected using this method.
IV. GROWING OUT
The growout phase of scallop culture involves the purchase of commercial spats
and growing them to commercial size. For the bay scallop, this phase needs 6-7
months; for Chlamys Jarred and Chlamys nobilis, 12-15 months; for Patinopecten
yessoensis, 3 years. The selection of growout site is of utmost importance. Free
circulation of water (current speed 0.25-0.5 m/s), abundance offood organisms, high
transparency of water, stable salinity conditions, absence of pollutants, etc. are
criteria for ideal culture site. Scallop seeds of about 5 mm in shell height are
transferred to growout sea areas, and hung to rafts for temporary rearing of 2-3 days
after which they are thinned out to 2-3 bags. If it is an initial dispersal, they are
separated in seed bags or cages with mesh size of 1.5 mm or 3 mm. Bay scallop,
which grows especially fast, should be passed over a screen for rationing out every
7-10 days and finally separated into multi-layered seed cages (mesh size 1.0-1.2 cm)
at a density of 250-500 seeds (for Chlamys farreri, 250-300) per layer to grown tiil
ready for rationing out to growout cages.
A. Culture Method
1) Raft culture method. This method has the advantages of avoidance of benthic
predators, tri-dimensional use of the water column, and healthier conditions for
growth. In China, single rope rafts are used, which are simple and ease of operation,
and can be submerged even in severe winter or stormy season. The main receptacle
used are net cages of polyvinyl net pieces sewn together into lantern nets (diameter
30 cm) with plastic perforated bottoms, divided into 10 layers (or less when used in
shallow waters with 12-15 cm interspaces). Strings used in weaving the net are of
3x3, 4x3, or 5x3 ply. The net cage has mesh of 20-25 mm. At one side of the net
cage where net pieces are attached, a horizontal slit is left for handling scallops. The
ammlllt of scallops per layer depends on the season, feed supply, etc. Usually 25-35
seeds per layer is appropriate, allowing an average growout space not less than 300
cm 3 for each scallop. Biofoulers on net cages (and on scallop shell surface) should
be removed promptly by scraping them down. Clogged nets could be replaced with
clean nets. The "sheathed net" method is an improvement over the ordinary net cage.
This method involves placing a growout net cage (mesh size 23-25 mm) inside a
larger polyvinyl net (mesh size 10-13 mm) such that the entire cage is a double-
walled sheathed cage. Results of culture experiments in the Zhiwu Bay, Shandong
showed that scallops reared in sheathed cages increased in shell height by 17% and
total production increased by 35% (Zhao et aL, 1990).
2) Sown ground culture. In order to cut back cost, ground sown culture (directly
sowing seeds on culture gound) is feasible. Production from these extensive
operations results in recruitment of natural scallop resources and yield "capturing
back" harvest of some scallops which had grown to marketable size. Dunng the
capturing back process, considerable amount of scallops left in the sea can reproduce
naturally and thus enhance the production. The culture ground can be in areas where
current speed is in the range of 0.3-0.5 mis, preferrably in rocky reef or muddy gravel
hard bottom (mud content about 30%) (Chen, 1982). This range of current speed is
appropriate as it can bring about, carrymg food in and carrying waste away. In the
Sanggou Bay sown culture grounds, Chlamys farreri seeds with shell height of 2.3-2.6
cm grow to commercial size (shell height 6.6-6.8 cm) after 17 months. Capture rate
was 30%-50%, and production per mu was over 300 kg.
B. Seed Rationing
Seed rationing involves picking out seeds of specified size and transferrring them
to cages. Usually seeds with shell height of 2-2.5 cm are selected. It is best to start
this process when water temperature is suitable for scallop growth. The earlier seeds
are rationed out, the larger they can grow. If seed rationing is not started until June,
they can not grow to commercial size in the same year. During the intermediate
culture phase, if management is reinforced, seeds are promptly thinned out, and
rearing receptables are clean, seeds can be rationed out to growout cages in late
autumn of the same year. The number of seeds rationed out to growout cages
depends on the practical experience of the farmer. There is still no standardization
on the density of rationed out seed per layer of net but physical and biotic factors
such as the standing crop of food organisms, current speed, water depth, amount of
arable sea area, arrangement and set up of culture facilities, should be taken into
consideration. Results of experiments show that an appropriate density of 35-40
Chlamys farred seeds per layer of growout cage results in high sUlVival rate and
larger-sized individuals and ultimately higher production (Song, 1988).
C. Distributional Set-Up and Management of Culture Facilities at Sea

In small-scale raft culture practice, the spacing interval of culture rafts and the
navigational lanes between culture blocks are usually narrow. With expansion of
culture areas, lack of adequate food supply reflected in a steady lowering of growth
and fatness indices of scallops should be remedied by increasing the spacing distance
between rafts and decreasing the density of rationed out seeds in the growout cages.
In 1992, Laizhou City introduced standardization of culture facilities and
management. In Jincheng Town, the bay scallop culture site is located 1500 m
offshore at depth of 9.5-12 m. The unit culture area is 1 km 2 (= 100 ha or 1500 mu).
The spacing interval between unit culture areas is 200 m (horizontal and longitudinal
navigational sublanes). Nine unit cultural areas constitute one big cultural block with
1000 m spacing interval (main horizontal and longitudinal navigational lanes).Each
unit culture area consists of 10 rows of long line rafts with 50 m intelVal. Every row
of raft consists of 100 long line raft with 10m interval. There are 10 layers of culture
net cages, each layer with a density of 35-40 seeds. From each row of raft are
suspended 56 net cages. Based on such a setup, for each unit culture area, there are
1000 rafts, 56 000 net cages and for each big culture block, 9000 rafts and 504 000
net cages. Based on amount of production, production value and culture space used,
at an optimal density of 382 seeds/net cage scallop adductor muscles are larger and
adductor muscle production is high. A density of 440 seeds/net cage would result in
lower values. Based on the above inferrence,a suitable density for rationed out seeds
for this sea area would be 350-400 seeds/net cage (10 layers of net cages). Thus,it is
evident that with standardization of set up and management of culture facilities in
Jincheng Town, as long as culture density is appropriate, best economic results can
be attained.
V. HARVEST
From the many years of culture practice, it is known that the majority of bay
scallops reared under controlled temperature conditions can grow to commercial size
in the same year when they were first reared and so are best halVested at the year's
end. For Chlamys farred, seeds reared under controlled temperature conditions can
attain an average height of 3.4 cm (2.1-4.2 cm). Chlamys nobilis eggs collected in the
later half of May and reared up to December 19 of the same year attained a shell
height of only 3.4 cm (Wang et aL, 1984). These two scallop species grow slower than
the bay scallop, so it is not until the end of the second year before they can be
harvested. Patinopecten yessoensis reared in net cages are harvested in the third year
when they are 11-13 cm in shell height.
Scallop MaricuIture in China 329
The season of harvest depends on when the adductor muscle is at its maximum
fatness which is usually expressed as an index: (dried weight X 100)/shell weight. The
gain rate and quality of adductor muscle meat are directly proportional to the dried
muscle meat index. Inferred from the dried muscle meat index, the harvest season
for the Huanghai Sea bay scallop would be November to December, but if it is
necessary to prolong the harvest season, it should be "in January to February of the
following year. The best harvest season for Chlamys Jarreri in the Qingdao region
would be in the later half of January to the first half of April.
A. Estimation of Production
In practice, the area occupied by 4 rows of rafts is considered 1 mu. The length
of rafts used and the distance between rafts differ among farmers. The use of mu as
a denominator in expressing production per unit culture area is hardly accurate and
thus production values are not comparable. The majority of the scallop culture
people for convenience take 100 000 seeds as one mu to express unit measure of
production. Under ordinary conditions, bay scallops developed from eggs collected
in April, transferred to the sea for intermediate culture in May, rationed out to
growout cages in July to August, are harvested by the end of the year when average
shell heizht is over 5 cm, average body weight is 25-40 g, production per "mu" is
usually 3000 kg (2500-4000 kg). For Chlamys Jarred, seeds cultured under ordinary
temperature or collected from nature, thinned out in autumn and rationed out for
growing in April to May of the following year, they can be harvested in November
to December or in spring of the following year with a production per "mu" of
3000-4000 kg. Seeds reared under controlled temperature can increase total
production by 35%-85%.
In China, scallop processing involves the processing of the adductor muscle,
which is the main end product, and the soft parts which include the visceral mass, the
foot, the gills and the mantle membrane which are by-products. The cooked and
dried adductor muscle meat is called "ganbei" (literally "dried scallop"). The gain
rates of adductor muscle meat, "ganbei" and viscera which are used as parameters for
processed products differ with the season and year (Zhang et aL, 1991b). The gain
rate of bay scallop adductor muscle is high from October to April of the following
year, usually as high as over 10%. For one-year-old scallop in November, it is 13%
(highest), from May to September, especially from June to August, <7%, lowest, not
exceeding 6%. The gain rate for 2-year-old scallops is lower than that of 1-year-old
scallops, 8.1 % was recorded in the latter half of October. The "ganbei" gain rate for
1-year-old scallop is usually 2% (max. 2.5%) in November to March of the next year.
In June to August, it is usually < 1 % and even as low as 0.7%. Gain rate for Z-year-
old scaJlops is lower than that of 1-year-old scallops. Dried muscle meat here refers
to thoroughly oven-dessicated meat. The dryness of commercially available "ganbei"
is but 85% that the dryness of oven-dessicated "ganbei". For the Qingdao area, the
gain rate of Chlamys Jarred "ganbei" is usually 1.8%-Z.9% (Z-3-year-old scallops).
Gain rate of bay scallop viscera is usually >ZO%, maximum 30%. Just before
spawning, gain rate values are usually more than twice as high as that of adductor
muscle meat, max. >4 times in June.
REFERENCES
Brand, A.R. (1991) "Scallop ecology: Distribution and behaviour", in S.E. Shumw.tY (ed.), Scallop: Biology,
Ecology and Aquaculture, Elsevier, pp. 517-584.
Chang, Zhn-chuan, Wang, Yuan-long, Xu, Ying-fu, and Ou, Guang-fu (1982) "Experiment of nitrogen-
ammonia toxicity on the la/Vae of bay scallop", Haishui Yallgzhi (2),39-43 (in Chinese).
Chen, Si-heng (1982) "Advances in techniques of mariculture and enhancement of the Japanese scallop",
Marine Fisheries (2), 140-144 (in Chinese).
He, Yi-chao and Zhang, Fu-sui (1990) "The influence of environmental salinity on various development
stages of the bay scallop Argopecten irradians Lamarck", Oceanol. Limnol. Sinica 21(3), 197-204 (in
Ito, S., Nishikawa, S., Yamamoto, G., and Mori, K. (1976) "The technique of Japanese scallop culture", in
T. Imai (ed.) Mariculture in Shallow Sea, pp. 211-276 (in Japanese).
Liao, Cheng-yi, Xu, Ying-fu, and Wang, Yuan-long (1983) "The reproductive cycle of Chlamys farren", J.
Fish. China 7(1), 1-13 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Luan, Hong-bing and Lan, Xi-lu (1990) "The experiment of nitrogen-ammonia on the bay scallop la/Vae",
Marine Science (1),64-65 (in Chinese).
Miao, Guo-rong, Wang, Ru-cai, Zhang, Jian-zhong, and Yu, Hai-rui (1989) "A study on using marine algae
extract juice to feed parent scallop", Shandong Fisheries 19(1), 1-2 (in Olinese).
Song, Zong-xian (1988) "A study on factors influencing growth of Chlamys farren", Shandong Fisheries
16(2),16-18 (in Chinese).
Tchang-Si, Tsi Chung-Yen, and Li, Jie·min (1956) "Recherches sur la reproduction et la croissance d'un
petoncle comestible Chlamys farreri (Jones and Preston)", Acta Zoologia Sinica 8(2), 235-253 (in
Chinese, with French abstract).
Tettlebach, S. T. and Rhodes, E. W. (1981) "Combined effects of temperature and salinity on embryos and
la/Vae of the northcrn bay scallop Argopeclell in-adialls", Mar. Bio!. 63, 249-256.
Wang, Qing-cheng and Liu, Yong=feng (1982) "Experiment on artificial spat-rearing of Patillopectell
yessoellSis", Fisheries Sciellce 2, 1-7 (in Chinese).
Wang, Ru-cai, Gao, Jie, Zhang, Lian-qing, and Wu, Yuan-qi (1987) "A study on the technique of seed-
collection of Ch/mnys farreri in the sea", 1. of S/wndollg Fisheries College 17(3),93-100 (in Chinese).
Wang, Yu, Chen, Sheng-chao, Zhang, Wen-xin, and Huang, Jiong (1987) "Experimental artificial spat-
rearing and growing of bay scallop in the South China Sea", Scientific alld Technological Infonnatioll
ill Fisheries (4), 1-6 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wang, Zi-chen (1981) "Studies on artificial spat-rearing and experimental culture of Chlamys farred',]. of
Daliall Fisheries College (1), 1-12 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wang, Zheng-rui (1983) "Studies on Chinese species of the Family Pectimdae. Chlamydinae (1 Chlamys)",
Trails. Chillese Soc. Malac. 1,47-54 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhang, Fu-sui, He, Yi-chao, Ma, Jiang-llU, Liu, Xiang-sheng, Li, Shu-ying, Oi, Ling-xin, Yu, Shuo-en, and
Yuan, Sui-sheng (1984) "Introduction, spat-rearing and experimental culture of Patinopectell
yessoellSis", Marille Science (5), 38-45 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhang, Fu-sui, He, Yi-chao, Liu, Xiang-sheng, Ma, Jiang-hu, Li, Shu-ying, and Oi, Ling-xin (1986)
"Introduction, spat-rearing and experimental culture of bay scallop, Argopeclell irradiafls Lamarck",
Oceano/. Limllo/. Sinica 17(5), 367-374 (in Chinese).
Zhang, Fu-sui, Ma, Jiang-llU, He, Yi-chao, Liu, Xiang-sheng, Li, Shu-ying, and Qi, Ling-xin (1991a) "A
study on the meat condition of the bay scallop in Jiaozhou Bay", Oceallo/. Limno/. Sinica 22(2), 97-103
(in Chinese).
Zhang, Fu-sui, Ma, Jiang·hu, He, Yi-chao, Liu, Xiang-sheng, Li, Shu-ying, and Oi, Ling-xin (1991b)
"Comparison of the bay scallop cultured in different containers and different density in Jiaozhou Bay",
Marine Science (2), 1-2 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhao, Yu-shan, Ding, Yu-zhen, and Song, Oing-le (1990) "The technique of culturing scallop with
sheathed-net-cages", Marille Sciellce (6), 62 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
MARICULTURE OF PENAEID SHRIMP IN CHINA
LIU Rui-yu (J. Y. LIU) and CAO Deng-gong

Shrimp mariculture has a long history of hundreds of years in China. Before the
1950's, shrimp farming in China was mainly by the traditional extensive mixed
polyculture of shrimps and fishes. The stocking of shrimp and fish fries was entirely
by natural process. The juvenile and young shrimps and fishes in the ponds feed and
grow up depending solely on the availability of natural food organisms. The yield of
shrimp farms then was very low and unstable, as predators were usually abundantly
found in the ponds. There was almost no mariculture research.
Studies focusing on the biology, life history and artificial breeding of the Chinese
shrimp under controlled conditions started in the early fifties in laboratories, and the
first artificially reared shrimp fry was produced in 1960 (Wu et aL, 1965; Liu, 1983).
Modern shrimp farming techniques and culture productIOn have been developed in
the last two decades since governmental regulations to support shrimp mariculture
production was adopted. Cooperative studies under a steering group of experts were
organized in the late 1970's. Experimental studies on mass production of shrimp fry
and growout techniques developed rapidly since 1978. Operation procedures for
shrimp fry mass production were established in the early 1980's in Qingdao, North
China. Some 10 million shrimp fry (mostly PL 5-7) were produced and 450 metric
tons cultivated shrimp harvested in 1978. Since then a great number of shrimp
hatcheries and extensive areas of shrimp ponds have been established in northern and
eastern China. Along the South China Sea coast, however, shrimp mariculture
developed more slowly until recent years.
Penacus chinensis (Osbeck), the most inmportant and predominant shrimp species
for mariculture makes up about 80% of the total yield of cultured shrimps in China.
Other less important species are Penaeus merguiensis De Man cultured mainly in the
provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi, P. penidllatus Alcock in Fujian and Guangdong and
P. monodon Fabricius in Hainan and Fujian. Besides these, Metapenaeus ensis (De Haan)
is also a good species for culture in brackish water areas and even in freshwater ponds in
southern and south eastern provinces. Penaeus japonicus Bate and P. semisu/catus De Haan
have also been cultured. A shrimp culture fad developed in the coastal provinces of China
from the north to the south because of high profitability.
Total production in 1982 was about 2 billion pieces of shrimp fry and 5500 t
cultivated shrimp.lncrease in annual prodiction of farmed shrimp doubled with each
year since 1983. China became the biggest shrimp culture prodiction country in 1986,
when a total of 83 000 t of cultured shrimps were produced. About 25-30 billions of
331
shrimp fry and 153 000 t of farmed shrimp were produced in 1987. The total
production further increased to 199 000 t in 1988, average yield 1230 kglha.
This chapter gives a short account of shrimp mariculture in China.
I. MATURATION AND LARVAL REARING
A. Brood Stock Culture

In the Bohai and Huanghai (Yellow) seas, young males of Penaeus chinensis
mature in late autumn and mate in early November when female gonads have not
yet developed. The spermatophores are carried by females in their thelycum (seminal
receptacle) for 5-6 months until spawning because of low ambient water temperature.
Female gonads develop mainly In March and begin to mature in April. Spawning
begins in late April or early May when water temperature rises to 13-15°C.
B. Overwintering of Broodstock
Broodstocks caught from fishing ground or harvested from shrimp farms are used
for spawning and fry rearing in hatcheries. The wild stocks of Penaeus chinensis are
obtained from the neighbouring fishing ground along the Huanghai Sea or Bohai
coasts during their overwintering or spawning migrations. Pond raised 13-16 mm long
shrimps are also used for culture to maturation and spawning after oversintering in
shrimp farms where wild stocks are not available or very few, and have been
propagated successfully for several generations in some areas. Full grown shrimps
caught during their overwintering migration, and those harvested from growout ponds
are stocked in indoor (or outdoor) tanks. Wild stocks caught during the spawning
migration are used in most shrimp farms in the northern part of the country.
Female shrimps are stocked for overwintering in indoor cement tanks (similar to
larval rearing tank) with heating facilities or outdoor earthen ponds covered with
plastic shelf. Maturation and speawning can be achieved by temperature control of
tank water and food manipulation (feeding high quality live or formulated feeds).
Experimental studies have shown that eyestalk ablation (generally adopted for
induced maturation of P. monodon, P. japonicus and other species), photoperiod
control or special feeds were generally not necessary for inducing maturation of P.
chinensis, except for special purposes. Liang et al. (1983) succeeded in inducing
maturation of P. chinensis by uni-lateral eyestalk ablation.
The stocking density of broodstocks is 10-20 ind./m 2•
The overwintering tanks water should be carefully maintained at a temperature
(9°C) similar to that in the overwintering ground in the southern Huanghai Sea.
Temperature higher than 12°C will possibly induce undesired ecdysis (molting) and
result in the loss of the spermatophore(Wang et aL, 1990). The female gonad does
not develop at 5-7°C, begins to develop and increase in size at 9-lI o C, matures at
13-14°C, and develops quickly under a higher temperature of 15-18°C. Thus the tank
water should be maintained at 11°C and be rised to 14°C before the expected
spawning. The broodstock with ripened ovary will spawn generally by late March or
early April in North China. In southern China, P. chinensis will mature and spawn
in late January or early Febrary under natural conditions.
Weak light is preferable for wintering shrimps. Light should be maintained at 200
lux in the room. Tank water should be partially changed everyday to maintain
appropriate water parameters: pH at 8.0-8.5, oxygen content at 4 mg!1, ammonium
Mariculture of Pellaeid Shrilllp 333
N <0.5 mg!I, and temperature variation at ± 1cC. High quality live feeds such as
nereid worms, razor clam, short necked clam or crab and squid meat, are fed at 5.8%
body weight of the brood stock per day (Liu, 1983).
One of the most favorable biological characteristics of P. chinensis is that the
cultured shrimp can mature in capitivity without eyestalk ablation or other special
operations. Eyestalk ablation is used only when spawning time must be manipulated.
Maturation of pond cultured female P. penicillatus is difficult in southern China, but
Hu (1990) succeeded in inducing maturation by using the eyestalk ablation method.
Mating rate among cultured shrimps in certain areas is usually quite low. To solve
the problem, artificial insemination technique (artificial transplantation of
spermatophores to seminal receptacle of females) has been adopted for fertilization
in pond cultured oveJWintering P. chinensis (Yang et aL, 1987). Large munbers of female
shrimps were artificially inseminated in some hatcheries along the Bohai Sea coast
C. Spawning and Hatching of Eggs
Broodstocks with ripened ovary are stocked into spawning tanks or directly into lalVal
rearing tanks where they can swim freely, and where better water quality can be maintained
for spawning. Optimum stocking density of brood stocks is about 10-15 ind./m 2• Spawning
tanks are aerated moderately. A portion of matured females will spawn in the first night
after stocking or in a few days later. Eggs are collected from the tank water and transferred
to rearing tanks in tlle following morning. IT the spawners are stocked directly into lalVal
rearing tanks, female that spawned (and those that did not after a reasonable time) should
be moved out at once after spawning. The wastes are drained away and the eggs washed
with clean seawater to keep their high quality. In some hatcheries ripened females are
stocked in (bolting silk) netting cages placed in cement tanks to avoid contamination of tank
water by faeces or surplus feeds. Overcrowding of eggs in the spawning tanks must be
avoided in order to insure high quality of spawned eggs. Optimum densities of stocked eggs
are 300 (){)()"-5000 OOO/m3. Nauplius lalVae will hatch 24-28 hours after fertilization under
18 C (Liu, 1983, 1990; Wu et aL, 1965).
D
Larval rearing tanks are filled completely with treated seawater when shrimp eggs
are transferred. Aeration rate is 1.2%-1.5% water volume per minute.
D. Larval Stages
At 18-20DC, eggs of Penaeus chinensis hatch in about 24 hours after fertilization.

The nauplius molts six times, and metamorphose into Zoe a 1 after 5-7 days. The
Zoe a larva molts 3 times into Mysis 1 within another 5-7 days. Under optimum
conditions, the three substages of Mysis larva (Mysis 1- Mysis 3) also take 5-7 days
for their development (Wu et at., 1965). About 3 weeks are needed for the larva to
metamorphose into first post valVa after hatching.
The nauplius larva does not feed but depends on its own yolk in the body for
development. From the Zoe a 1 stage the larva begins to feed on microalgae. When
the mysis larva becomes carnivorous, they should be fed with zooplankters such as
rotifers or Artemia nauplii.
E. Larval Rearing
Many experimental studies showed that water quality management and the
appropriate quality and quantity of feed supply are key factors for ensuring successful
larval rearing.
Hatched nauplii are collected and stocked into cement larval rearing tanks filled
with seawater after is treated by sedimentation and filtration (through 150-200 mesh
bolting silk). Sterilization (with 40-50 ppm calcium hypochlorite for several hours)
and then washing (with clean water) is necessary if the seawater is of poor quality.
Aeration is with compressed air through air stones and heating through the steam
piping system installed on the tank bottom.The tank water is maintained at 18-20°C,
then raised gradually to 20-23°C. EDTA-Na should be added and maintained at a
concentaration of 2-10 ppm if the measured concentration of harmful heavy metal
ions is high. A newly developed cheap chelating agent made up mainly of humic acid
is used now in many hatcheries in place of the more expensive EDTA.
Optimum levels of environmental facters for P. chinensis larval rearing should be
maintained.
• Water temperature: for spawning, 16-18°C; for hatching, 1S-20°C, for
larval rearing, 20-25°C, for post larvae, 25°C (kept at about 20°C before
stocking into outdoor pond);
• Salinity: 23-25 to 30-34 ppt;
• pH value: 7.8-8.6;
• Dissolved oxygen (DO): <4 mg!1;
• COD: 2 ml/l;
• NH4-N: 0.5 (0.6) mg!);
• Heavy metal ion: Zn2+, 30 JLg!1; Cu 2+, 4.2 JLgll.
Optimum stocking density for nauplius is 300 X 103-500 X 103 ind./m 3 • The depth
of tank water is maintained at about 1 m. Aeration and water quality management
are the most important measures for successful larval rearing. For zoea and mysis
stages quantity and quality of feeds are also critical. For the rearing of zoea and
mysis larvae of Penaeus chinensis in late spring in North China, Phaeodactylum
tricornutum and Nitzschia closterium have proved to be good feeds (Liu, 1983).
Chaetoceros muelleri and Isocrysis galbana are good for use in summer when water
temperature rise up to 25°C or higher (Liu, 1990; Wang 1990). In some hatcheries,
micro-algaeare cultured in separate algae tanks,but in most of them high density
micro-algae culture is inoculated into the larval tank with fertilized water during
Nauplius 4 or 5. For diatoms NaN03, K 2HP0 4 and KSi0 4 are generally used at a
ratio of 10:1:0.1. Results of experiments have shown that optimum density of
microalgae in tank water is > 100-150 X 103 cell/ml (Wu et aL, 1965; Liu, 1983). In
some hatcheries with separate algae culture tanks, microalgae culture is added
directly into the larval rearing tanks several times every day. Rotifer culture is added
to Zoea 2-3. When mysis larvae become carnivorous, newly hatched Artemia naup/ii
should be fed. For Mysis 1, 10-20 Artemia nauplii/ind. d is appropriate, for Mysis 2
or 3, 20-30 Artemia nauplii/ind. d (Wu et al., 1965). Egg yolk, soybean milk,
trochophore larvae of bivalve molluscs or formulated micro-particulated feeds are
used when live food is not enough or can not be supplied on time.
The number of shrimps larvae or that of microalgae feed should be counted
under the microscope, and the water quality be monitored every day.
Water exchange begins at the Zoe a 2 stage, usually twice a day, 30%-50%/day,
or more if necessary. During the postlarval stages, the water change rate should be
increased to 100% or more per day.
The average yield of reared shrimp fry is generally 100 000-2 000 000 ind./m3
tank water.
In North China, rearing of Penaeus chinensis larvae starts in April and 2 harvests
Mariculture of Pcnacid Shrimp 335
can be achieved. But in southern China, the rearing of P. chinensis larvae begins in
February and harvest is in March, to be followed by the rearing of larvae of P.
merguiensis, P. penicillatus or other penaeid species. Several batches of shrimp fry can
be harvested.
Larva rearing in China is in very large scale, with tens of billions of shrimp fry
produced and supplied to shrimp farms in vast areas, and is different from that in the
United States where the fry production is still in small scale. The methods and
facilities in China are similar in certain extent to those in Japan.
F. Facilities for Larval Rearing
1. Larval Rearing Tank
Facilities and techniques in China for rearing shrimp larva are mainly of the J,¥,anese
style. Indoor (rounded) rectanular cement tanks of different sizes (4-5x6--7 m area,
1.5-2.0 m deep) with heating and aeratioon systems are used in the country. Indoor
tanks are built in a greenhouse covered with a translucent fiberglass reinforced plastic
roof. Outdoor tanks are generally used in southern and southeastern China.
Heatin 9 system includes a boiler providing 300 000-600 000 kcal of heat per hour
for 1000 m- of tank water. Steam is supplied to the pipe systems installed on the
bottom of the tank. Different kinds of electric heaters are used in some small
hatcheries.
2. Water Supply System
The water supply system includes generally a settling tank for sedimentation, a
bolting silk filter or sand filter tank and water supply pipeline. Seawater is treated by
sedimentation and subsequent filtration before being supplied to the rearing tank.
Poor quality seawater should be treated by sedimentation twice in different settling
tanks for at least 24 hours and then filtered with bolting silk. High level tank and
sand filter beds are constructed in most hatcheries for water treatment.
Reselvoir--Sedimentation tank--High level tank--Sand filter-- Rearing tank.
3. Aeration System
For aeration in fry rearing operation, compressed air is supplied by a Root s

blower (air pressure of 0.35-0.5 par) supplying air at a rate of 1.2%-1.5% of volume
of culture water per minute. Airstones (80-200 pore) are scattered over the bottom
of the rearing tanks one piece per square meter. Compressed air is supplied through
PVC tubes and polyethylene branch houses conncted to airstones.
II. NURSERY CULTURE
Before the mid 1980's small size fry (7-10 mm long, mostly PL 5-7) are generally
stocked into shrimp pond for growout cultures. But in the recent several years,
shrimp farmer prefer to stock large size 20-30 mm body length fry harvested form
mursery culture in order to get more exactly estimated number of stocked fry, to
avoid over-feeding, and to decrease the production cost. Starting with larger fry also
shortens the utility period of the shrimp pond in order to have better water quality.
Both 7-10 mm fry and 20-30 mm fry are used for growout culture in different shrimp
farms. The optimum stocking density is 300 ind./m 2 •

In most shrimp farms, small size growout ponds are also usually used for nursery
culture operations.
Besides water temperature, salinity and pH, feed is another main factor
influencing the survival rate of fry in the early growout operation, when the water
temperature, salinity, pH and dissolved oxygen should be recorded daily. Water color,
transparency, illumination, NH3-N and P-content are determined at irregular
intervals. The shrimp fry are mainly fed on formulated feed, supplemented by small
portions of fresh or live food, frozen trash fish and small shrimp. Body length and
weight are measured every 5-10 days.
The survival rate of fry in mass production is generally around 50%. It should be
mentioned that high stocking density in the nursery ponds yields a lower growth rate
than that of fry (PL 5-7) stocked directly into growou t ponds (Cao and Jiang, 1990).
III. GROWOUT OF SHRIMP IN POND
In North China where commercial shrimp farming has been mainly developed,
the earthen ponds of most shrimp farms are typically about 1-10 ha (mostly 2-4 ha)
in size and 1.5-2.0 m in depth. In northern part of the Bohai and Huanghai seas most
of those constructed in the 1980's are smaller (2-3 ha), and equipped with pumping
systems for water exchange (Fig. 1). The growout ponds are bigger than those
commonly found in Southeast Asian countries and the operation is mainly semi-
Fig. 1. Schematic presentation of shrimp ponds constructed in intertidal zone in China. 1, Dike; 2, Sluice
gate-inflow; 3, Sluice-outflow; 4, Channel.
MaricuIture of Penaeid Shrimp 337
intensive. In the southern part of the Huanghai Sea coast larger size shrimp ponds
constructed in the 1970's are now modified to smaller size of 2-4 ha. Most of which
are equipped with pumping systems and very few with paddlewheelers. In some
growout ponds the water can flow into and drain out through the sluice gates only
during the spring tide. Food supply and pond water management are the most
important measures in maintaining healthy stock.
A. Tilling the Bottom Soil and Killing the Predators
The bottom soil of the growout pond should be tilled or digged, exposed and
dried under sunlight after the harvest of cultured shrimps to disperse the
concentration of hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) caused by excess feed residues and faeces
in the ground bottom.
Rottenone (2.5%, 2 glm J), tea seed cake (15 ppm), calcium hypochlorite (30 glm 3 ),
liquid ammonia (250 ppm), or lime (1 kg/m 3 ) are added to kill predators existing in
the pond. The commonly used materials are calcium hypochlorite and lime (CaO).
The pond bottom should be washed once or twice by pumping in and draining out
water through the sluice gate before use.
Before the stocking of shrimp fry, seawater is pumped into the growout pond
through a bolting silk (40-60 meshes) filter fixed on the sluice gate to prevent inflow
of eggs and larvae of predator fishes.
B. Fry Stocking
Generally speaking, the initial stocking density of shrimp fry in the growout pond
is 150 000-300 000 ind./ha for small fry (PL 5-7) and about 75 000-150 000 ind./ha
for nursery cultured fry (20-30mm). For the higher stocking density most farmers
prefer, the resulting yield is usually {ow and the harvested shrimp small. The quantity
and quality of shrimp harvested from ponds of the same size depends on the feed
supply and the pond management. Under the present conditions of China's shrimp
farming production (including the feed quality), a lower stocking density of
about 75 000-150 ~ob (small) fry/ha may be preferable.
C. Feeds
Live marine invertebrate animals such as thin shelled small bivalves Alloides laevis
(Corbula laevis), Musculus senhousei, Laternula navicula, small gastroped Urnbonium
spp., the clam Ruditapes philippinarum and R. variegata, and the razor clam
Sinonovacula constricta are abundantly distributed in shallow coastal water and/or
intertidal mud or sand flats. Crustaceans such as the tube dwelling amphipods.
Corophium spp., small decapods, mysid shrimps,brine shrimp, and trash fishes, as well
as cultured mussels, are good live food for shrimp culture. Abundant resources of
these species have been evaluated and assessed for the development of shrimp
farming and have been intensively exploited. Some species of small crustaceans,
bivalves and polychaete worms (Corophium spp. nereids, etc.) have been transplanted
into shrimp ponds as food for cultured shrimp, particularly for early stages of juvenile
and young shrimps. Conversion rates and feed coefficient were estimated for feeding
practice (Zhang et al., 1983).
The rapidly expanding shrimp farming industry needs large quantities of
formulated feeds for shrimp farms in different geographical areas. Studies on
comparative physiology have been conducted on the nutritional needs of shrimp

(mainly P. chinensis, P. penicillatus and P. merguiensis)at various developmental
stages. Requirements for amino acids, fatty acids,vitamins, trace metals and other
elements as well as digestive enzyme activity have been investigated (He, 1988; Liu
and Zhu, 1984; Li et al., 1987).
Based on the results obtained in various experiments,various kinds of formulated
shrimp feeds have been developed and manufactured in many factories round the
country (Liang et al., 1978; Lou, 1983; Xu, 1988; Xu et aL, 1988). But the food
conversion ratio of most feeds is still low (mostly 2.5-3.0; rarely 2.0), and the stability
is generally not high (2-3 h).
Results of experiments carried out in diferent areas have shown that optimal
environmental factors for growout of shrimp in earthen ponds should be maintained
as follows:
• Temperature: 18-30°C; abrupt change of temperature should ba avoided.
Excessively high temperature, particularly in August causing considerable
decrease of oxygen contant, will result in low shrimp survival rate. Aeration
and increasing the water exchange are necessrry measures;
• Salinity: 16-37 ppt. Shrimp fry should be acclimatized in low salinity water
when growout ponds are in brackish water area and the salinity is lower than
16 ppt. Abrupt change of salinity should also be avoided to lessen mortality
rate;
• Dissolved oxygen: >4 mg!1;
• pH value: 7.8-8.7;
• H 2S: <0.1 mg!1;
• Ammonium-N <0.6 mg!1;
• Transparency: 30-50 cm;
• Water colour: yellowish brown, yellowish green, brownish.
D. Factors Influencing the Growth of Shrimp
Water temperature, salinity, pH, dessolved oxygen and the quality and quantity
of diet are obviously the major environmental factors influencing the growth of
shrimp in pond.
Temperature. The population of Penaeus chinensis in the Bohai and Huanghai
seas can tolerate lower water temperature than any other shallow water penaeid
species. As an eurythermal species, P. chinensis grows well at water temperature
ranging from 18 to 33°C (optimum, 20-30°C), but cannot tolerate temperature above
39°e. The shrimp becomes sluggish at temperature below 13°e. When kept at low
temperature of 3°C or 4°C, the shrimp will lie down on the bottom and finally die
(Yang, 1990).
Excperiments showed that the growth rate of P. chinensis increases with increase
of temperature in the 20-30°C range (Yang, 1990). Tropical origin of P. chinensis is
indicated by its higher growth rate with higher temperature. Data from the
experiment carried out in Haiyang, Shandong (North China) showed that pond-
culture shrimps with typical growth rate have a body length of 117.9 mm at harvest
time. The average yield was 2302 kglha (Zhang, 1990). Another experiment showed
better results. The average body length and weight of harvested shrimps were 153.5 mm and
43.48 g (larger shrimp harvested) recently and the average YIeld was 1275 kglha.
Comparison of data on cultured shrimp with data on natural stock reveals that the
lower growth rate of shrimp in ponds from the last ten days of July through August
MaricuIture of Pcnaeid Shrimp 339
is caused by unfavorable conditions, because the water temperature in the natural sea
in the same period is approximately 25°C, which is favorable for shrimp growth.
When shrimps do not grow well in ponds, it is due to the higher temperature of
> 30°C. This indicates that improvement of pond conditions in this period is a critical
measure for increasing the growth rate of shrimp.
Table 1. Growgh of P. chinensis in a Growout Pond, Haiyang Shrimp Farm, Shandong, 1988
May June-July August September Oct

Date
14 24 4 14 24 3 13 23 2 12 22 2
Stockillg Harvest
8 43.5 57.6 68.8 76.3 81.9 87.3 97.3 100.1 107.4 114.0 117.9
II 0.9 1.41 1.10 0.77 0.56 0.54 1.00 0.28 0.73 0.66 0.39
III 06:00 22.2 23.4 23.4 25.0 26.8 23.1 23.0 21.0 19.5 16.5
14:00 27.2 32.0 31.4 31.2 31.0 29.5 29.8 27.3 23.8 22.5
Mean 25.0 26.2 28.0 27.7 28.3 26.8 27.0 23.9 23.9 19.3
Note: I. Average body length (mm); II. Average daily growth increment (null); III, Water temperature Cc).
Table 2. Growth of 1'. chinensis in a Growout Pond, Jimo SllI'imp Farm, Shandong, 1982
May June July August September

Date
19 17 27 7 17 27 7 17 27 7 17 27
Stocking Harvest
7 27 38 55 76 85 95 104 119.5 128.5 137.0 150.1
II 0.7 1.10 1.70 2.10 0.90 1.00 0.90 1.55 0.90 0.85 1.31
III 23.70 26.07 28.40 29.20 29.97 28.90 25.93 26.58 22.00 28.35
Note: I. Average body length (mm); 11. Average daily growth increment (mm); III. Average water temperature per 10 days ("C).
E. 1Wo Crop Culture
The growth period for cultured shrimp in most farms in China is short, about 4
months (only one crop per year). Experiments aimed at harvesting two crops a year
have been successfully performed in the late 1980's in provinces along the southern
China coasts. Good results have been achived by culturing P. chinensis and P.
penicillatlls (in Fujian) or P. merguiensis (in Guangdong) alternately in one year. Post
larvae of P. chinensis 15 mm in body length were stocked in growout pond on March
26 and harvested in August 17, the harvested shrimps averaged 110 mm in length.
After harvesting, nursery cultured juveniles (55 mm long in average) of P. penicillatus
were stocked on August 19 and harvested on November 20. A total of 2531 kg/ha
(1627 kWba for P. chinensis and 904 kg/ha for P. penicillatus) was harvested (Hu,
1990; LlU, 1990;).
The experiments and production practice have shown that 2-crop culture
increases production and income without additional rearing facilities, management
personnel or basic investiment, and is therefore feasible. At present, some shrimp
farms in southern China implemented 2-crop culture of Penaeus chinensis and P.
penicillatus or P. merguiensis to increase total yields.
E Pathology Studies and Disease Control

Little attention was paid to diseases of cutured shrimp before the 1990's because
the damage caused by prevalent diseases in shrimp farmmg production were limited
to certain area and was not quite serious. Attention has been paid to pathological
studies on bacterial, fungal and parasitic diseases bacause the losses have increased
drastically in recent years in many places, particularly in southern provinces.
Pathogen and pathological studies were carried out on various diseases affecting pond
cultured shrimps and methods for disease control have been developed(Meng and
Yu, 1980, 1982, 1983; Wu and Lu, 1992; Zhang and Pan, 1992; Chen et aL, 1992). But
according to Chen(1992), the best way is ecological control-keeping the tank water
clean, the larvae healthy and strong, and keeping appropriate microalgal population
in pond water to control the population explosion of pathogen tic orgariisms.
Immunological studies have also been conducted and immunological vaccine for
prevention of Vibrio desease has been produced.
Main diseases and their effective treatments were summarized recently by Chen
et al. (1992) as Table 3.
G. Management
1. Feeding
Experimental study on the relationship between daily food requirement and body
weight and body length of cultured P. chinensis has shown that the amount of daily
food taken increases with increasing body weight and length, but that the feeding rate
decreases with increasing body weight and length. The estimated amount of daily
feeding for different sized shrimps is showed as Table 4.
During the growout culture shrimps are fed generally four times a day (six times
in some farms). In the early phase of culture, the growth of shrimp fry relies in
certain extent on the availability of small invertebrates (meiobenthos and small
macrobenthos) propagated naturally or transplanted before the stocking of shrimp
fry. Feed rates are adjusted every ten days based on the measurement of shrimp body
length and weight, and estimated survival rates and at any time according to the
results of stomach examination.
2. Water Exchange
After stocking of shrimp fry into the growout pond, change of water is not
necessary. A small amount of seawater may be pumped into the pond gradually 3-4
weeks after the stocking. In the middle phase of sulture, 10% of pond water should
be exchanged per day. During high temperature periods, mainly in July-September,
the amount of water exchange should be increased to 30% or more per day, to
maintain high level of dissolved oxygen in pond water.
Paddlewheels are used in some shrimp farms to aerate and circulate pond waters.
The paddJewheels are generally operated at night, while O 2 is consumed by microalgae for
respiration, to maintain optimal dIssolved oxygen levels above 3-4 mgll. Four paddlewheels
(1 hp each), in general,are equipped for aeration in 1 hectare ponds.
Temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, transparency (Secchi depth) should be
measured and recorded twice a day, generally at 06:00-07:00 and 14:00-15:00. Algal
density and water color should also be monitored in order to maintain healthy diatom
a:
DO
::I.
Table 3. Main Diseases of Shrimp and the Effective Treatments Summarized by Chen et al. (1992) "
5.
Disease Pathogen Diagnosis and Mortality Treatment/prevention ri=-
~
Vibrio parahaemo(vticus, V. Shrimp appear turbid, exhibit educed Application of 1-1.5 ppm Chloramphenicol, 2-2 ppm
...
alginolyticus, Vibrio spp. motility, reduced phototaxis, empty guts, terramycin or 1 ppm furacin to tank water is ef- -=
and other bacteria increased surface fouling and a tendency fective as treatment. All animal feeds should be
"
DO
=
Septicemic "
to sink. 100% mortality within 1-2 days thoroughly sterilized before feeding. Application
vibriosis CIl
==
of selected microalgae to tank water can help
='
control Vibrio population and possibly prevent ::I.
Vibrio disease. Keep tank water clean. e
'C
V. parahaemo(vticus, V. algi- Hemocyte numbers may be drastically Application of 2% mashed garlic and 0.2% terra-
nolyticus, V. anguillanlm, reduced; hemolymph appear turbid and mycin (or 0.1 chloramphenicol) to the feed for
Red leg
disease
V. campellii, other Vibrio clots slowly or not at all. Gills become 7-14 days in conjunction with 1-2 ppm calcium
spp., Proteus vulgaris and yellow or pink, usually with empty and hypochlorite to pond water is effective.
related bacteria. reddish guts.
Vibrio chloerae (non 01), Shrimp floats motionless. Eyeballs swell, Addition of 0.2% terramycin or 0.1 % chloram-
Eyeball Fusarium spp. are cornea turns from black to brown, then phenicol to feeds and application of malachite
necrosis occasionally isolated festers and falls away, causing mortality green and formalin to pond water can prevent this
from eyeballs. with a few days. disease (Zheng, 1986).
Lagenidium sp. and Ubiquitous in larval rearing system. In Application of 10-40 8pb methylene blue, 2 ppm
Larval Sirolpidium sp. serious cases cumulative mortality reaches gallnut or 0.008-Q. 1 ppm malachite green are
mycosis 100% in 1-2 days if treatment is not on effective (Wu, et aI., 1988; Meng and Yu, 1982a;
time. Chen et al., 1992).
Zoothamnium epistylis, Cotton-like aggregation of epicommensals Exchange of greater amount of pond water. Treat
Vorticella, Rhabdostyla, covering body surface of shrimp can with teaseed cake (10 ppm), or potassium
Epicom-
Myschiston, Pseudocar- reduce motility and phototaxis, inhibit permanganate (5 ppm), or formalin (25 ppm), for
mensal
chesium, Intrastylum, respiration and growth. Mortality will be 24 hours.
Vaginicola and Cothumia. caused in certain cases.
May by caused by toxins or Necrosis of gill may be apparent. Always Soaking in 2-3 ppm furagolidone is effective for bac-
abiotic agents harmful to accompanied by infection of Vibrio spp., teria infected shrimp. Application 5-10 ppm potas-
Black gill shrimp gills. Fusarium sp., ZoothamnUlm spp., sium permanganate (K2MnP7) to tank water is
disease Lagenophrys spp. or HVP and eventually effective for fungus infested shrimp. Adding vita-
results in high mortality. min C to shrimp feed is effective for black gilled
shrimp caused by deficiency of vitamin C.
w
.,.
Table 4. The Estimated Amount of Daily Feeding for Different Sized Shrimps
Body length (mm) Body weight (g) Daily feeding (kg/104ind.)"

10 0.014 0.13
15 0.047 0.27
20 0.110 0.44
25 0.212 0.66
30 0.362 0.99
35 0.571 1.19
40 0.844 1.53
45 1.205 1.85
50 1.629 2.23
60 2.787 3.07
70 4.380 4.03
80 6.509 5.12
90 9.204 6.30
100 12.541 7.59
110 16.625 8.99
120 21.483 10.47
130 27.197 12.07
140 34.334 13.76
150 41.461 15.54
J For formulated feeds.
bloom to promote shrimp growth and survival by providing oxygen, shading the
bottom, and removing toxic ammonia. In general, yellowish brown, yellowish green
and brownish water colors indicate healthy diatom bloom; red, blue, green or milk
white colors indicate possible occuurence of red tides or pollution.
Healthiness of shrimp should be monitored and recoded also.
IV. HARVEST AND ECONOMICS
Cultured shrimps are generally harvested in early or middle October in northern
China, and November in southern China.
The total production and average yield per unit area of culture pond increased
steadily in recent years. The average yield per unit area was quite low before 1980's,
only 17.6 kg/ha (25.4 kg/mu, 1 ha= 15 mu) in 1979. It increased to 971 kg/ha in 1986,
and further to 1,167 kg/ha in 1987.The average yields differ markedly among the
various provinces. The highest is in northern China provinces, next is in eastern
China, then South China.
The yield,production cost and profit of Chinese shrimp farming production in
recent years are compared in the Table 5.
Table S. Cost alld Profit of Shrimp Culture Production of Wali Shrimp Farm, jimo,
Shandollgin 1986-1989
Year Production Value (Y) Production cost Profit (Y)

(kg) (Y)
1986 117720 1 931 719 850061 1081658
1987 134037 2396080 2141479 254601
1988 112916 2307590 1555409 752 181
Mariculture of Pen acid Shrimp 343
V. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Great success in shrimp mariculture study has been achieved by Chinese marine
biologists in the last two decades. To promote further advancement of China's marine
sciences, basic and practical research on shrimp biology, particularly studies on
shrimp nutritional physiology and hi~h quality feeds, pathology and disease control
and genetics and breeding of new vaneties, etc., as well as the application of high and
new technology in the various fields of studies and culture production, are
strengthened at present and will be well developed in the next decades. The
technique and production levels will certainly be further improved.
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Chen, Dou and Liu, Xiu-yun et al. (1991) "The vibrio disease of penaeid shrimp in the lalVal rearing
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Chen, J iao-fen (1991) "C'-Ommercial production of microalgae and rotifers in China", in The Workshop on
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He, Hai-qi (1988) "A study on the essential amino acids of the prawn Pellaeus orientalis", Oceanol. Limno/.
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Li, H. et al. (1987) "C'-Ontents of some inorganic elements in the body of Penaeusorientalis", Mar. Sci. (4),
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Liang, X., Zhang, N., and Lin, Ret al. (1978) "Preliminary studies on the formulated feeds for PenaellS
oriellta/is", Publ. Shandollg Fish. Soc. 2, 67-76.
Liang, X., Zhang, N, and Cao, D. (1983) "Studies on the induction of ovarian maturity and spawning of
Pellaeus orientalis by eyestalk ablation", Oceano/. Limno/. Sinica 14(2), 138--147.
Liu, Rui-yu (1983) "Shrimp mariculture studies in China", in Pro. 1st. Intnl. Conf. Warm Water Aquacul.
Crustacea, Hawaii, 1983, pp. 82-90.
Liu, Rui-yu (1990) "Present status and future prospects for shrimp mariculture in China", in The Culture
of Cold-Tolerant Shrimps: Pro. Asian-US Worksop on Shrimp Culture, Honolulu, HI., 1990, pp.
16--28.
Liu, J. Y., Wu, S, and Cai, N (1959) "Preliminary report on the life history of PenaellS orientalis", in
Abstracts, 1st Nat. Symp. Embryol., 1959, pp. 15-17.
Liu, Yu-mei and Zhu, Jing-zhao (1984) "Studies on digestive enzymes of prawn, Comparative studies on
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46--50.
Mai, Kang-sen, Li, Ai-jie, and Yin, Zuo-fen (1987) "Kinetics (mechanism) of I-leucine and I-tyrosine
transported by the isolated midgut of the prawn Penaeus orientalis", Oceano/. Limnol. Sinica 18(5),
426--431.
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Meng, Qing-xian and Yu, Kai-kang (1982) "On the black gill disease of PellaellS orientalis", 1. Shalldong
Coll.Oceanogr. 12(4),95-100.
Meng, Qing-xian and Yu, Kai-kang (1983) "Control and prevention of diseases of Penaeus orientalis in
grouwout period", Mar. Fish. 5(3), 111-116.
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raise the survival rate of the larvae of Penaeus orientalis", Mar. Sci., (1),22-24.
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Branch (1980) "Notes on factors effecting the successful artificial rearing of the Olinese prawn
Penaeus orielltalis from eggs to post larvae. 1. Selection and maintenance of spawners", Trans. Oceallol.
Limllo/. (1),39--45.
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Branch (1980) "Notes on factors effecting the successful artificial rearing of the Olinese prawn
Pellaeus orielltalis from eggs to post larvae. 2. The abiotic enviromental factors", Trans. Oceanol.
Linl1lol. (2),41--49.
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Branch (1981) "Notes on factors effecting the successful artificial rearing of the Chinese prawn
Pellaeus oriemalis from eggs to post larvae. 3. The biotic enviromental factors", TraIlS. Oceallol.
Limllo/. (1),49-57.
Shen, Xiao-min and Liu, Yang-fa (1991) "On the digestibility of protein, oil and starch in Pellaeus oritalis",
1. Fish. China 15(3), 236-240.
Wu, You-Iu et al. (1992) "Electron microscopic studies on Vibrio red leg disease of Penaeid shrimp", Trans.
Chinese Cmst. Soc. 3,
Wu, Shang-qin, Lou, Kang-hou et al. (1965) "Induced spawning and laboratory rearing of post-larvae of
Pellaeus orielltalis", Studin Marilla Sillica 1, 180-190.
Xu, Er-dong (1988) "A study on the size of granular feeds of prawn", Mar. Sci. (5), 40--42.
Xu, Jia-min, Li, Ai-jie et al. (1988) "The effects of promoter on the promoting growth of Pellaeus orielltalis",
Mar. Sci. (5),35-39.
Yang, Cong-hai (1990) "Effects of some environmemtal factors on the growth of the Olinese shrimp,
Pellaeus chille/lSis", in The Culture of Cold-Tolerant Shrimp: Proc. Asian-US Workshop on Shrimp
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Zhang, Nai-yu (1990) "On the growth of cultured Pellaeus citillensis", in The Culture of Cold-Tolerant
Shrimp: Proc. Asian-US Workshop on Shrimp Culture, Honolulu, HI., pp. 97-102.
Zhang, Nai-yu, Lin, Ru-jie et af. (1983) "Preliminary observation on relationship of body weight, length with
the daily food requirement of Chinese shrimp Penaeus orientalis", Oceano/. Limno/. Sinica 14(5),
482--487.
Zhang, Nai-yu and Gui-zhi (1984) "On the use of NaHC03 in buffering sea water in rearing the postlarvae
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Zheng, Guo-xing (1986) "Identification and pathogenicity of Vibrio cholerae (non 01) isolated from
diseased penaeid shrimp", J. Fish. China 10(2), 195-203.
PART IV
MARINE GEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The four seas of China, the Bohai Sea, the Huanghai Sea, the East
China Sea, and the South China Sea, occupy a total area of about 4.7
million km 2, half of the area of China mainland. These seas are located
in the southeastern margin of the Eurasian continent and subject to the
interactions between the Eurasian, Pacific, and Indian-Australian
plates. The seas have complicated geology and rich natural resources.
The study of marine geology in China seas started virtually in the
early 1960's but has been progressing very fast. Up to the present,
involved in marine geological study are over one thousand
professionals affiliated with the Academia Sinica, the Ministry of
Geology and Mineral Resources, the Ministry of Petroleum Industry,
the State Oceanic Administration, and many universities. Their
activities may be grouped into two inter-related categories, the
fundamental research and the resource exploration.
In the category of fundamental research, considerable efforts have
been devoted to the study of the geological structure, composition and
evolution of the lithosphere in the Chinese continental margin, the
origin and development of the Okinawa Trough, the history and cause
of the opening of the South China Sea, the model and control of
modern marine sedimentation, the paleoceanography and sea level
changes since Late Pleistocene, etc. Based on numerous data obtained
from scientific cruises and offshore exploration, geological and
geophysical maps have been compiled; monographs and papers
published. For example, "The Marine and Continental Tectonic Map
of China and Environs" (chief-compiler Zhang, Wen-you., Science
Press, 1983) and associated book (Zhang, 1986), and the "Map Series
of the Geofogy and Geophysics of China Seas and Adjacent Regions"
and associated book (chief-compiler Liu, Guang-ding, Geological
Publishing House, 1992) gave comprehensive summaries of previous
studies. Besides the study of China seas, several cruises have been
contributed to the study of West Pacific seafloor multi-metallic nodules
345
346
and the study of Antarctic geology.

Offshore petroleum exploration has been conducted actively by
Chinese and contrasted foreign companies in all the China seas. By the
end of 1992, about 600 000 Ian seismic lines and nearly 300 wells have
been completed. Dozens of oil-bearing basins and hundreds of
structures have been evaluated, resulted in the discovery of three large-
sized and over 20 medium- and small-sized oil/gas fields, among which
six have been put in production. These verified the good petroleum
prospect of the seas. Another important natural resource is littoral
placer. Along the Chinese coast, over 200 placer deposits (44 large, 50
medium, and 114 small ones) have been proven or exploited. Major
minerals include ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, rutile, monazite,
cassiterite, placer gold, and quartz sand.
The papers collected in this volume discussed respectively the
geology and petroleum resources of the northern China seas and the
South China Sea, their modern sedimentation, as well as the progress
of the paleoceanology in China. It is impossible to exhaust the major
achievements of marine geology in China in such a small volume. Our
objective is to present an updated view on some topics of general
interests based on the works by Chinese geologists and geophysicists,
especially more recent ones. Some data and interpretations in these
papers are published for the first time. It is our sincere hope to provide
readers an introduction to the fascinating and promising research filed
of marine geology in China.
ZHOU Di
South China Sea illStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
Guangzhou 510301, ChUIO
THE GEOLOGY AND PETROLEUM RESOURCES OF
NORTHERN CHINA SEAS
WANG Shan-shu
Chinese National Offshore Oil Corporation
Xincheng, Hebei 074010, China
The northern China seas refer to the Bohai, Huanghai (Yellow) and East China seas,
with a total area of 1 200 000 lan 2• The exploration in these seas since the 1960's has
resulted in the acquisition of about 500 000 Ian seismic data and 260 wells. A number
of oil and gas fields have been discovered, and the geology and petroleum potential
of the area have been recognized.
I. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES
The northern China seas cover portions of the North China Block (the Sino-
Korea Platform), the Yangtze Block (the Yangtze Para-platform), and the South
China Block (a Caledonian fold belt). To the east, the northern China seas are
bordered by the Japan Sea and the island arc of Japan, Ryukyu and Taiwan (Fig. 1).
These seas are underlain by transitional crust, whose thickness decreases from the
northwest to the southeast, 30-35 Ian for the Bohai and Huanghai seas, 25-32 Ian for
the East China Sea, and 15-25 Ian for the Okinawa Trough, respectively (Fig. 2)
(Wang, 1990).
The basement of the northern China seas is composed of pre-Cretaceous
metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks complicated with granitic and volcanic
rocks of various ages. The cover consists of sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous and
younger ages, mainly alluvial and lacustrine facies. Their thickness may be greater
than 10 km. Eight basins are seen, namely, the Bohai, North Huanghai, South
Huanghai, Subei-South Huanghai, East China Sea, Okinawa Trough, West Taiwan,
and East Taiwan basins. These basins experienced two stages of development (Fig.
3). From the Late Cretaceous to Oligocene there was the stage of continental rifting,
during which numerous half grabens were formed and filled with thick alluvial and
lacustrine sediments. Only in the southeast there were alternative continental and
marine sediments (Fig. 4). Since the Middle Oligocene the area entered the stage of
down-warping and accepted several thousand meters thick alluvial and lacustrine
sediments with nearly horizontal stratification. The sea water transgressed from the
southeast. In the Quaternary, the sea transgression was advanced far north and
formed the Huanghai and Bohai seas.
According to geophysical and drilling data, the geological structures for
individual seas are discussed briefly in the follows.
347
lOS' 116' 124' 132'
)- - -
.,J - - -- -
-
'":.... XIV-__
-
40'
0.. f2J /- - -(R)' -'
,,-----
1 7 - ~ '--(
.~/ '~=--=-=--7'
f±ffi
" ,
C2J
~3 lZl 9 -,=.--:]
'J=-'
~
-- W/IO
IVjl 5
0 11
~6
32'
./
/'
24' /
/
PhilippiruJ Sea
360 km
L.......~'-----JI
Fig, L Map of tectonic framework and basin types for the northem China seas and adjacent areas, Basin
code: I, Bohai; II, North Huanghai; III, South Huanghai; IV, Subei-South Huanghai; V, East China Sea;
VI, Okinawa Trough; VII, Taixi (West Taiwan); VIII, Taidong (East Taiwan); IX, Taixinan (Southwest
Taiwan); X, Zhujiangkou (Pearl River Mouth); XI, Beibuwan; XII, Qiongdongnan; XIII, Yinggehai; XlV,
Japan Sea, 1, Intra-craton rift basin; 2, Marginal rift basin; 3, Back-arc foreland basin; 4, Marginal sea
basin; 5, Mesozoic magmatic belt; 6, Geological time; 7, Block boundary; 8, Basin boundary; 9, Present
subduction zone; 10, Fault; 11, Shoreline,
A. The Bohai Sea
The basement of the Bohai Sea belongs to the North China Platform, It is
composed of Archean to Lower Proterozoic migmatites and granites, Upper
Proterozoic quartz sandstone and dolomitic limestone, Lower Paleozoic (Cambrian
and Ordovician) marine carbonates, Upper Paleozoic (Carboniferous and Permian)
alternative continental-marine or continental carbonates and coal bearing red beds
and volcanic sequences (Wang, 1990), These rocks have been encountered by drilling
at uplifted blocks,
Geology and Pelt'oleum Resourees 349
1l0" llS"
o
:.y.
o ,.)::.~: '\:
o
o
i.:
.,'
-',
::: ../
,t'
,',
.',=
2S"
Philippine Sea
20"
A 0
sec + ECSS + aT +Island arc-t--- Trench
==.=~=,,=_=~~------------__~____~______~~ A'
~__~+~__~.~=-_~===-_~:::~__-.~~~~.+=__
+ ++ / '~-_.7"+ + + + -,;..~..; .~. __---;-=-""/ '+~~--=-
+ + + +- :'Top of magnetic basement ........~;:--:::: F- ~ ~ .' --: -: -:-
+ + + + + + + + ~ .?r.. ." "-...[" , / . ' . ' . '
--------..... -±-+ ..i"--/V.· ...... ,_.' .. ' ... .
.<:20
0..
, r , r r
..••••
Conrad disconhnUlt}.. • '\
/" r r-r
,"/.
r
'."
....
..
. ..
.....
~ r rr ~ • • • • • ••• r r / . -••••• • M.?h~ ~isc.ontinUlty •
r ... --:-.... .' .. . . . . . . :. .... . .' . . . . . . . . . .
r: .• -:--.. . • • • . .... ..
... ..
40
. ..
Fig. 2. Isobath map of Moho discontinuity for the northern China seas and adjacent areas. SCC, South
China coast; EC'SS, East China Sea shelf; OT, Okinawa Trough.
Tectonic cycle Hercynian -Indosinian Yanshanian Himalayan
Rifting Subsidence
Stage
I-I 1-2 II -2
Age (Mal 280 225 192 135 65 54 42 38 32 23 11 5.0 1.8
Songliao
Bohai
South Huanghai
North ECS
Southwest EeS
Okinawa Trough
Central SCS
Zhujiangkou
Beibuwan
h:::::J
L:...-.J 1 rr=:J
u::::J 2 rLl
L.!::J 3 r--l
t::::::::j 4 p::;:j
~
5
- - d I:.::::;j
1::--- 6
.-. 7 r:7:'1
~
8 E3 9 rr=I 10
~·V •
I"·" 111
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram showing the tectonic evolution and sedimentary formations for the northern
China seas. EC-S, East China Sea; SCS, South China Sea; SFS, Sea floor spreading. 1, Folding; 2, Down-
faulting; 3, Fault depression; 4, Depression; 5, Marine carbonates; 6, Marine clastics; 7, Coastal-littoral
clastics; 8, C-Ontinental clastics; 9, Coal-bearing strata; 10, Mafic rocks; 11, Volcaniclastic rocks.
During the Mesozoic Era, NE-running rifts were fonned and filled with
1000-1500 m sediments. Drilling show that the Lower Jurassic consists of volcanic
and clastic sedimentary rocks; the Lower Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the south but
lacustrine sandstone and mudstone in the north.
In the Cenozoic Era, the Bohai Basin was formed and connected with the North
China Basin inland. The basin has an area of 55 500 km 2 and may be divided into 5
structural units (Fig. 6):
1) The Xialiaohe Depression in the north is composed of NE-running three half
grabens and two cuesta uplifts (Fig. 7).
2) The Huanghua Depression in the west is composed of three NEE sags.
C"l
Fig. 4. Simplified map of the "0-0
r.
Tertiary sedimentary facies '<
offshore Chinese continent. "5-
Legend: 1, Fault; 2, Pinch
-::
out; 3, Marine; 4, Littoral- "3
nerItic; 5, Abyssal; 6, ;:;
Lacustrine; 7, Alluvial; 8,
Deltaic; 9, Reef or shoal; e=
::c
10, Direction of transgres- .,"
0
sion; 11, Direction of
source.
til
.="
0 "
[2] I D 7
1.(A'"lz ~8
IT111I1J 3 ~ 9
~4010
t=-=-~ 5 G 11
0- -
Basin
Ul
'"
I\Vv"1 2
0
~4
~5
E!;2I 6
1@17
40 80km
? I I
Fig. 5. Pre-Tertiary distribution in the Bohai Sea. 1, Mesozoic; 2, Mesozoic> 1000 m; 3, Upper Paleozoic;
4, Lowcr Paleozoic; 5, Upper Prote1rozoic; 6, Archean-Lower Proterozoic; 7, Magmatic rocks.
3) The Chengning Massif in the southwest is composed of two NWW-running

uplifts and two sags.
4) The Jiyang Depression in the southeast consists of EW-running uplifts and
sags.
5) The Bozhong Depression in the center is the main body of the Bohai Basin,
where the Cenozoic sediments exceed 10 km in thickness.
Two sedimentary-structural layers are identified in the Bohai Basin. The lower
layer is the alluvial-lacustrine sedimentary sequence of Late Cretaceous to Oligocene
in age, restricted in fault depressions, and has a total thickness of 3000-7000 m. The
unconformably overlying upper layer consists of 1000-3000 m Late Oligocene to
Quaternary drape-type sediments, mainly alluvial to shallow lacustrine facies, and
with a total thickness of 1000-3000 m (Wang et at., 1992).
Two fault systems, striking NE-NEE and NW-NWW respectively, controlled the
distribution of uplifts and depressions in the basin. The giant NE-striking Tancheng-
Lujiang Fault extends along the east borders of the Bozhong and Xialiaohe
depressions and subdivides the Bohai Basin into two half. The geological structure
of the basin is very complicated due to the intensive faulting.
Geology alld Petroleum Resources 353
~l
1_/12
0 3
0 4
1---' 15
~6
[2]7
A
oI
20
!
40
I
60km
I
13B5-1 BZ2B -1-7 NZ5

N
A
0
dft¥¥l~ ~-+ ......
4
sec 3 km
4 8
12
5
o~
12km
NZ3 NZ2 NZ3
km
o'----'12km
Fig. 6. Structural division and cross sections of the Bohai Basin. Legend: 1, Basin boundary; 2, Secondary
boundary; 3, Uplift; 4, Sag; 5, Basement isobath (km); 6, Fault; 7, Well site. I, Xialiaohe Depression; II,
Huanghua Depression; III, Chengning Massif; IV; Jiyang Depression; V, Bozhong Depression.
B. The Huanghai Sea

The basement of the Huanghai Sea consists of two parts, the North China
Platform for the North Huanghai Sea, and the Yangtze Platform for the South
Huanghai Sea. The boundary between these two parts is located along the northern
edge of the South Huanghai Basin, i.e., the offshore extension of the Qianliyan Fault.
The Yangtze Platform basement is similar to that inland and composed of Sinian
System of clastic and carbonate rocks, Upper Paleozoic marine and alternative
marine-continental carbonate and clastic rocks, and Triassic marine carbonate rocks
(Wang, 1990).
The Huanghai Sea has seven basic structural units which strike NE-NEE and
connect with the units in the continent. These are, from the north to the south, the
Haiyangdao Massif, the North Huanghai Basin, the Liugongdao-Qianliyan Massif, the
South Huanghai basin, the Central Massif, the Subei-South Huanghai Basin, and the
Wunansha Massif.
The North Huanghai Basin (Figs. 1 and 7) is made up of three depression belts
(12 half-graben type depressions) and two uphft belts, all NEE-running, with a total
area of 15 000 km 2 • Sediments in the depressions are mainly Mesozoic (1-5 km in
thickness), then Paleogene (200-2000 m), and Neogene-Quaternary (200-1000 m).
Major faults are NEE-trending and control the distribution of Mesozoic and
Paleogene strata.
Fig. 7. Structural divisions of the North Huanghai Basin. 1, Basin boundary; 2, Uplift; 3, Sag; 4, Cenozoic
isopleth (Ill); 5, Fault.
The South Huanghai Basin (Figs. 1 and 8), with a total area of 18 400 km 2, has
NW- or NEE-running half-graben type depressions and uplifts. In depressions
deposited 2500-6000 m Paleogene allUVIal-lacustrine sandstones and mudstones. The
uplifts are cuestas or horsts covered by 1000-1500 m Neogene-Quaternary sediments.
Geology and Petroleum Resources 355
01 ~5
1/f1TlT I 2 I ~ I 6
k913 Ixl 7
1<D14 Iris
E
,oo:~..
~ 2000 gr'
E;" {
;;>".0;
- 3000 \
400(J
Fig. 8. Structural division and cross section of the South Huanghai Basin. I, Depression bOUltdary; 2, Uplift
boundary; 3, Tectonic boundary; 4, Major local structure; 5, Overlap line; 6, Hiatus line; 7, Normal fault;
8, Reversed fault.
The Subei-South Huanghai Basin (Figs. 1 and 9), with an area of 11 400 km 2 on
sea, is the seaward extension of the Subei Basin inland and consist of EW-running
depressions and uplifts. Geologically, it is similar to the South Huanghai Basin.
The east China Sea lies on the South China Block. Its basement geology is
complicated and composed of the following five NE-striking structural divisions (from
the west to the east) (Figs. 1, 10 and 11).
1) The Zhe-Min Massif, which is Mesozoic volcanic belt bounded to the west by
the Llshui-Haifeng Fault belt and to the east by a fault along the 40 m isobath, which
connects to the SW the Changle-Nan'ao Fault inland and extends to the NE through
the east side of the Cheju Island to the SE tip of the Korea Peninsula.
2) The East China Sea Basin and the Taixi Basin, which lie on a Caledonian
Fold Belt from the shelf of the East China Sea to the Taiwan Strait. The fold belt is
complicated by Yanshanian and Himalayan volcanic activities. The Lintfeng-1 and

Wengzhou 6-1-1 wells in the southwestern shelf encountered Proterozoic
metamorphic rocks. The Upper Paleozoic strata have been inferred to exist in the
northern shelf (Chen and Jing, 1992).
/L---~ Central Massif

V-A/4~...?
Q 15 30 km
I I !
NNW SSE
or---------~~---------------------------------------
6000
Fig. 9. Structural division and cross section of the Subei-South Huanghai Basin. 1, Basin boundary; 2,
Uplift; 3, Structure boundary; 4, T2 overlap; 5, Fault.
3) The East China Sea Outer Shelf Massif, which is a Indosinian-Yanshanian

upfold belt complicated by Himalayan volcanic activities.
4) The Okinawa Trough Basin, which is a rift system developed since the Middle
Miocene.
5) The Ryukyu Island-arc, which is the eastern border of the Eurasian Plate and
was separated from the East China Sea Outer Shelf Massif by the opening of the
Okinawa Trough. At the southern end of the island-arc lies the Taiwan Island, which
was formed by the obduction of the northern tip of the Philippine Island-arc onto the
South China continental block in Pliocene time.
Four sedimentary basins exist in the East China Sea, namely, the East China Sea
Basin, the Taixi (West Taiwan) Basin, the Okinawa Trough Basin, and the Taidong
(East Taiwan) Basin.
The East China Sea Basin occupies the main body of the shelf area with an area
of 250 000 km 2 • It consists of the western and the eastern portions. The western
portion is composed of, from the northeast to the southwest, the Hupijiao Massif, the
Zhoudong Depression, the Zhoudong Massif, the Wendong Depression, and the
Yushandong Low Massif (Fig. 10). In the missives about 1000 rn thick Neogene to
Geology and Petroleum Resources 357
120' 122' 124' - 126' 128'
r----,-,--------r-------~T_------~~--------~--------__,34·
32'
30'
/
/
28'
\)
26'
II'
IC .--" IBasin boundary Ic-= ..J

..
24'
Seconda ry
boundary I~ I Fault
11111111 Uplift Isobath
I IGas field
Fig. 10. Sketch map showing the tectonic units of the East China Sea area.
Quaternary sediments directly overlap the basement. The depressions are faulted
ones fiIled with 3000-7000 m Upper Cretaceous, Paleocene and Eocene sediments,
mainly littoral facies but alluvial and lacustrine facies in the north. Uplift and erosion
occurred in Late Eocene. Then the area is covered by about 1000 m Neogene to
Quaternary sediments. The eastern portion is a big Eocene-Miocene down-warp belt
composed of, from the northeast to the southwest, the Fujiang, Xihu, and Diaobei
depressions. Sediments in these depressions, with a total thickness of 5-13 km, are
mainly littoral and neritic facies, but coastal facies exist to the north. This depression
zone was the back-arc basin west of the East China Sea Outer Shelf Massif Belt from
Eocene to Miocene, then was compressed and folded in the Late Miocene and
became an foreland basin.
\>.l
VI
00
I WNW ESE I'

o . c., 0
4 4
km km
8 8
12 Zheminr-Zhoudong Massif-I-Xibu _lEast Chinal-Okinawa Trough-..j-- Ryukyu 12

Massif Depression Outer Shelf Island Arc
Massif
II WNW ESE TI'

o 0
~4 4~
8
12 -IWendong~Yushandong -I- Diaobei----j_Okinawa_I_. Ryukyu. _1-~12
t Depression Low-Uplift 'Depression Trough Island Arc ~
Zhemin Ryukyu
Massif' o,
40
,
80km
!
Trench
Fig. 11. Cross sections of back-arc basins of the East China Sea and adjacent areas. For location refer ~
to Fig. 10.
g
t
~
So.
Q
i'
[I}
g
'"
Geology and Petl"OleuUl Resourees 359
The Taixi Basin includes the western Taiwan island and the eastern Taiwan
Strait, with an area of 25 000 Ian 2• Its western portion is a Late Cretaceous to Eocene
fault depression with 3000-5000 m sediments. The eastern portion a Late Oligocene
to Pliocene down-warp with 1000-7000 m littoral and coastal sediments and was a
foreland basin associated with the Taiwan Island.
The Okinawa Trough Basin is a large, NNE-elongated back-arc basin. Its area
is 125 000 Ian and the sediments are 2000-5000 m in thickness, marine facies, and
Middle Miocene to Quaternary in age. Rifting is well developed and parallel to the
strike of the basin. A volcanic belt appears in the center. The basin was cut by NW
faults into three segments. The southern segment is the Okinawa Trough in a narrow
sense, with deeper water, thinner sediments, and higher heat flow. This is the major
segment of rifting, and oceanic crust began to appear as a narrow belt. The northern
segment has shallower water, thicker sediments, lower heat flow, and basically
continental crust. The central segment is transitional between the southern and the
northern ones.
The Taidong Basin is located along the Coastal Range in the eastern Taiwan and
the northwestern edge of the Philippine Sea, with an area of 5000 Ian 2. The Neogene
and Quaternary infill is composed of mainly volcanic and clastic rocks with thickness
up to 6000 m. This is a forearc basin formed in late Himalayan period.
II. PETROLEUM RESOURCES AND EXPLORATION

The northern China seas have good petroleum potential. Explorations by Chinese
and foreign companies have verified one oil and gas bearing area and two gas-bearing
areas, and predicted four potential oil and gas bearing areas. The total petroleum
endowment is assessed as 5x109-1Ox109 t of oil and 2x10 12_5x10 12 m 3 of gas,
respectively.
A. The Bohai Basin Is A Hydrocarbon-Rich Area
Conditions for the hydrocarbon accumulation in the Bohai Basin are similar to
those in the Shenli, Dagang and Liaohe oil-bearing areas. The source rocks are
Eocene-Oligocene Shahejie and Dongying formations in the Liaodongwan, Bozhong,
Huanghua and Jiyang depressions. Ten oil-gas fields and 33 oil and gas bearing
structures have been found. Reservoir types include buried hill, drape, anticline-
lithology in sag center, drag anticline and fault block ones (Wang et at., 1990). Six oil
fields and one gas field have been developed, which yielded 1 million tons of oil in
1992. The capacity of annual production of natural gas is 450 million m 3 • Three oil
fields are to be exploited soon. The expected annual production of crude oil is over
3 million tons.
B. The Eastern East China Sea Basin and the Taixi Basin Are 1\vo Gas-Rich Areas
In the eastern East China Sea Basin, the Xihu Depression contains> 10 Ian thick
Tertiary sediments. The Eocene formations of semi-enclosed lagoonal facies are
major source, and the Eocene and Oligocene contain major reservoirs. More than 40
structures have been found in the depression, among which drag anticline,
compressional anticline, fault anticline, and fault block are main types. These
structures occur in groups. So far, fifteen structures have been drilled, and the Pinghu
gas field and 9 hydrocarbon-bearing structures are found. Condensate is the major
composition.
In the Taixi Basin, eleven gas fields and 4 oil-gas fields have been found in the
Taiwan Island; one gas field and 5 gas-bearing structures in the Taiwan Strait.
Condensate is the major composition. The Changkang gas field (CBK) in the strait
has been put in production.
The Beidiao Depression, lying in between these two gas-rich areas and with an
area of 25 000 km 2, IS predicted to be another gas-rich region.
C. Four Potential Targets
1) The half grabens in the western East China Sea Basin and the western Taixi
Basin. Cretaceous to Eocene sediments in these areas are mainly of coastal plain,
littoral, and neritic facies and overlain by the Miocene through an regional
unconformity. Traps of fault block or fault nose types are well developed in half
grabens, and relatively large drape traps on buried hills are found in between or
along the edges of the half grabens. The areas are poorly explored; so far source
rocks and hydrocarbon shows have been found by drilling.
2) The South Huanghai Basin and the Subei-South Huanghai Basin. The offshore
area of these basins is nearly 30 000 km 2• Sediments are mainly Late Cretaceous to
Oligocene graben fillings of 2-6 km thick, overlain by 1-2 km Neogene to
Quaternary. Source rocks of lacustrine and swamp facies are seen in Late Cretaceous
and Paleocene strata, and oil flows have been encountered by drilling. These basins
have been intensely faulted.
3) The widely distributed Mesozoic sequences. In the Bohai and the North
Huanghai basins Mesozoic sediments are mainly continental. Favorite conditions for
hydrocarbon generation exist, and oil and gas shows have been found. No. 428 oil
field in Jurassic volcanic rocks has been put in production.
4) The Upper Paleozoic and Lower-Middle Triassic in the Wunansha Massif, the
South Huanghai Basin. The Wunansha Massif, with an area of 18 500 km 2, is the
offshore extension of the Yangtze Block. It has 4-6 km thick Upper Paleozoic and
Lower-Middle Triassic sequences, overlain directly by Neogene strata. Among these,
the Lower Permian Qixia limestone and the Upper Permian Longtan coal-bearing
strata are source rocks and form a favorite source-trap-cap combination together with
the Lower-Middle Triassic Qinglong Limestone (Tao, 1992).
REFERENCES
Chen, Huan-jiang, Jing, Xue-li, Zhang, Xi-nan, and Zhu, Ping (1992) "Tectonic subdivision of north part
of East China Sea and adjacent areas", Marille Geology & Quatemary Geology 12(2), 13-19 (in
Tao, Rei-min (1992) "The hydrocarbon potential of the Upper Paleozoic and Lower to Middle Triassic in
the Wunansha Massif, South Huanghai", Natural Gas Industry 12(2), (in Chinese).
Wang, Shan-shu (ed.) (1990) The Oil and Gas Bearing Districts in Chinese Continental Shelf and Adjacent
Sea Areas. I. The History of Chinese Petroleum Geology, Vol. 16, Petroleum Industry Publishing
House, Beijing.
Wang, Shan-shu, Yang, Zuo-bin, and Liu, Li-bin (1990) "Hydrocarbon accumulation on China's continental
shelr', China Earth Sciences 1(2), 93-109.
Wang, Shan-shu, Xie, T.'1i-jun, Wang, Shu-fen, and Liu, Li-bin (1992) "Geological characteristics and
petroleum potential of the China continental Shelr', in AAPG Memoir 53: Geology and Geophysics
of Continental Margins.
BASIN EVOLUTION AND HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF THE
NORTHERN SOUTH CHINA SEA
RU Ke
Nan/wi West Oil Cotp., China National Offshore Oil Cotp.
Zhalljiallg 524057, China
ZHOU Di and CHEN Han-zong

South China Sea IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
Guallgz/lOll 510301, China
I. INTRODUCTION
The South China Sea (SCS) has been in the geological spotlight for about two
decades. Considerable efforts have been devoted to understanding its tectonic
evolution and to incorporating the evolution into a global plate tectonic theme. Many
complexities are concerning the SCS, including the multiple orientation of structural
lineations, the irregular geometry of the oceanic crust, the broad and highly broken
transitional continental margin, and the conspicuous discrepancy between the east
and the west. These are difficult to be understood only based on the data from the
deep oceanic parts of the sea. Geological records from the continental margins,
especially from the sedimentary basins, may provide valuable insights.
This paper aims primarily at discussing the evolution of sedimentary basins and
its control on hydrocarbon distributions in northern SCS . On this basis, attention is
paid to placing some constrains on understanding the geological evolution and
dynamics of the SCS.
II. GENERAL GEOLOGY
The area in concern (Fig. 1) is confined to the northern continental margin of

the South China Sea, including almost the entire northern shelf, part of the slope and
a small portion of the deep-sea basin. In the area developed several large Cenozoic
sedimentalY basins, among which the Zhujiangkou (Pearl River Mouth) Basin
(PRMB), the Beibuwan Basin (BBWB), the Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB), and the
Yinggehai Basin (YGHB) are well known for recent offshore oil explorations.
Except for the southeastern corner, the basement of these basins is mainly old
continental crust that has been attenuated to various degree with the current
thickness from 25 to 35 km. In the southwest a fraction of the basement consists of
Proterozoic metamorphic rocks and may be of an Indochina-block provenance, while
the rest is a portion of the South China Block and consists of Paleozoic folded and
slightly metamorphosed sequences, complicated by Yanshanian (Jurassic to
Cretaceous) granitic intrusions and large-scaled NE faulting. These two blocks are
inferred to have merged since the Late Triassic by continental collision along the Red
River suture line, forming an integrate basement for the Cenozoic basins.
361
2hou Di et af. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 2, 361-372.
22
20'
18
16
Fig. I. Generalized map showing the geological features of the northem margin of the South China Sea.
YGHB, the Yinggehai Basin; BBWB, the Beibuwan Basin; QDNB, the Qiongdongnan Basin; PRMB, the
Zhujiangkou (Pearl River Mouth) Basin; SWTB, the Southwest Taiwan Basin.
All the Cenozoic basins in the study area are primarily extensional except YGHB
which is considered as associated with the wrench motion along the Red River fault
zone. Due to the insufficiency of available data on YGHB, this paper mainly
concerns those extensional basins.
The timing of the onset of basin development varies from place to place. The
oldest basin fill ever encountered by offshore drilling is a Late Cretaceous coarse-
grained, pyroclasts-bearing, red clastic sequence, with a thickness locally > 1000 m.
The conglomerate near the bottom of the Baodao 6-1-1 well in the western PRMB
was dated 87±4 Ma. The latest onset of basin development was in Eocene or even
in Oligocene time.
The Paleocene to Lower Eocene formation consists of variegated conglomerates,
sandstones, and claystones of predominately alluvial facies. It is sporadically
encountered in BBWB as well as in the northeastern and the western PRMB, less
than 900 m thick. The rocks are petrologically immature and contain a considerable
Basin Evolution and Hydrocarbon Potential 363
amount of igneous and metamorphic fragments. Above this unit is several hundred
to over one thousand meters of Middle Eocene lacustrine sequence, dominated by
dark shales with sandstone interbeds. Some shales are rich in organic matter, forming
the most important source rocks in northern SCS. This formation is overlain
unconformably by thick Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene sequence which comprises
mainly coarse-grained clasts. Its maximum thickness exceeds 2000 m. The related
facies range from alluvial, fluvial to marsh-bog and restricted lacustrine, but in the
southwest QDNB the earliest marine transgression occurred. The Late Oligocene
represents, in a regional sense, a transitional period from terrestrial to marine
sedimentation. Local sedimentary environments consisted of fluvial, deltaic, and
paralic ones. A major regional unconformity, which is considered to be the breakup
unconformity for extensional basins, has been identified within the unit, though its
specific position varies at different sections. A broad marine transgression occurred
in the Early Miocene. Large deltaic systems developed on the shelf where major
rivers existed. Carbonate buildup took place on previous uplifts. The Middle Miocene
to recent sequence is characterized by transgressive shallow marine clastic
sedimentation. Only in the south and in the southwest bathyal environment existed
during Middle Miocene time.
III. EVOLUTIONARY PHASES
Resembling other basins in Atlantic-type continental margins, the basins of the

northern South China Sea show a typical double-layer architecture. The lower sector
in general displays restricted rifts of various sizes and configurations, representing the
crustal stretching in the rifting phase. The upper sector exhibits broad subsidence
whose impact reached far beyond the early rifts. This represents the post-rifting phase
associated with regional thermal cooling. A marked breakup unconformity divided
the sequences of the two phases. Fig. 2 summarizes the evolutionary history of the
northern SCS based on seismic and drilling data obtained in the past decade.
A. The Rifting Phase
1. The Episodic Rifting
When exploring the origin of the SCS, Ru and Pigott (1986) pointed out the
episodic rifting as a striking feature distinguishing the northern margin of the SCS
from many other passive margins. The compilation of later offshore data has added
more evidence to this conclusion. Comprehensive studies so far have identified three
rifting episodes in the region with confidence. Correspondingly, three generations of
rifts have been recognized.
The first episode of rifting started in the Late Cretaceous and ended in the Early
Eocene (85?-50 Ma), forming small rifts filled with mainly continental red beds rich
in volcanic materials. The second rifting episode took place in the Middle to Late
Eocene (50-40 Ma), resulting in a new generation of rifts filled with mainly lacustrine
fine sediments. Intensive rifting renewed in the Late Eocene and lasted until early
Late Oligocene (40-32 Ma or 23 Ma). Pre-existing rifts were reactivated, and juvenile
rifts were created. This episode of rifting eventually led to the breakup of the
continental margin and the opening of the major portion of the SCS.
More interesting than the episodic rifting itself is the sequential clockwise
rotation of the rifts through time. Mapping and statistics have shown that the rifts of
the first episode are NNE-NE trending with azimuth of 30° to 45°, The rifts of the
second episode are NE-NEE trending with azimuth of 45° to 70°. While the rifts of
the third episode are nearly EW trending with azimuth of 80° to 90°. The change in
the orientation of rifting suggests that the stress field underwent a similar clockwise
rotation. The tensile stress, for instance, possibly changed its direction from about
305° in the Late Cretaceous to about 333° in the Eocene and again to about 355° in
the Oligocene. Each time there seemed to have a 25° increase in azimuth.
Age
Period (Ma) Basin Evolution Major events
u. _ Renew tensile faulting
Pliocene ~ in the east.
Extensive basaltic eruption.
L. ---- Slight compression
lO Post-rifting in the west.
~ f-
'"
u M. phase - Tensile faulting in
0
PRMB, more extensive
~ ~
eastward.
E. 20 ___ Rifting ended in the
'" L.
~ west, thermal subsidence
in the whole area.
.~
<5
~0 -
E.
30
~
3rd episode
_ End of rifting, start of
thermal subsidence and
transgression in the east.
L.
- 40 __ Begin of 3rd episode of
Rifting
rifting. E-W rifts formed.
'"u
:::
M. phase 2nd episode
Basic magmatism started.
'"
0
W
- _ Begin of 2nd episode of
50
rifting. NE-NEE rifts
E. formed.
'"
::: L.
'" -
u
0 60 1st episode
..!:! E.
<e
~
'";::I0
___ Begin of 1st episode of
.:s'"
u L.
rifting. NNE-NE rifts
U
...'" formed .
Fig.2. Summary of the evolutionary history of the northem South China Sea since the Late Cretaceous.
2. Half Graben Combination and Superposition

Basic elements of rifts in the northern SCS are half grabens. About 200 half
grabens have been identified with size varying from dozens to a couple of thousands
square kilometers (Fig. 3). The half grabens of the same episode may form synthetic
combinations in either series, para11el, or en echelon styles, or antithetic combinations
of either face-to-face, back-to-back, or S-shaped styles. The half ~rabens of different
ages may superimposed completely or partia11y in synthetic or antIthetic manner. The
variety of combinations and/or superpositions of half grabens resulted in a wealth of
rifts of complex shapes and different internal structures (Fig. 4). The analysis of half
graben combinations and superpositions becomes a useful tool for understanding
basin structures and thus provides important information for basin evaluation for
hydrocarbons.
ii3 115 ii6 117" ii8

i08 i09 iiO ill i12 ii'
Fig. 3. The areal distribution of the rift belts in the northern South China Sea.
Fig. 4. A simplified map of a large rift (the Wenchang Depression in the PRMB) showing how its complex
shape and internal structures are determined by combinations and superpositions of half grabens. a, The
present configuration of the rift; b, Half-graben analysis. Various styles of combinations and superpositions
may be seen.
3. Regional Distribution of Rifts

The broad area of approximately 400 km in width from the South China coast
to the upper continental slope of the SCS was involved in rifting. Discrete rifts were
filled with tilted continental clastic sediments up to 3.5 km in total thickness. Deeper
rifts concentrated along three generally NE-running belts (Fig. 3). The northern belt
extends from BBWB northeastward to the inland basins in Guangdong Province of
China. The central belt includes the Northern Depression of QDNB, and the Zhu-3
and Zhu-l depressions of PRMB. It is the major belt of rifting with deepest and most
densely distributed rifts. The southern belt lies from the Southern Depression of
QDNB to the Zhu-2 Depression of PRMB. In all these three belts, indIVidual rifts
are mainly NEE- or nearly EW-running, suggesting the dominance of the second and
third episodes of rifting.
B. The Post-rifting Phase
1. Diachronous Breakup Unconformity
Another striking feature of the basin evolution in the northern SCS is the
diachronicity of its breakup unconformity. This is shown in Fig. 2 by an inclined wavy
line that separates the rifting phase from the post-rifting phase. Recent
paleontological studies coupled with detailed seismic interpretation have clearly
shown that the cessation of rifting and the commencement of thermal subsidence did
not occur synchronous along the margin. Instead, the rifting ceased much earlier in
the east than that in the west, and the age of the breakup unconformity becomes
progressively younger toward the west (Fig. 5). Fossil records from the wells made
(Ma)
QDNB Zhu-3 Zhu-l
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
Q
Plioc.
L.
10
'"c
'"0
u M.
~
E. 20 ......... ..........
" "
.:-;-'.:-. :.::::::.
:-:-:-:-:.
..... ~ -:-: :-:::
.....
..........
....... .
g?
'"g
L.
---------- ~ ::~ ::
.!!D 30
(5 E.
Eoc.
40 W E 30 E Fig.5. The diachronous breakup unconformity as
indicated by the missing fossil zones in wells.
Localities of the wells are shown in Fig.1.
Basin Evolution and Hydrocarbon Potcntial 367
it possible to date the hiatus around the breakup unconformity. The results provide
an approximate time range for the breakup event as 32-33 Ma for the eastern
PRMB, 27-28 Ma for the western PRMB, and 22-23 Ma for QDNB. It is worthy of
note that in the southern SCS is also observed such a time-transgressive breakup
unconformity (Taylor and Hayes, 1980), which is dated the early Middle Oligocene
for the eastern margin (e.g., the Reed Bank) while the Early Miocene for the western
margin (e.g., East Natuna).
2. Sea-floor Spreading
Only the eastern half of the paleo-South China margin was involved in the
generation of oceanic crust and the spreading of sea-floor (Fig. 1). Based on
magnetic lineations, the spreading took place during Late Oligocene to early Mid
Miocene period (32-16 Ma) (Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Jin, 1989; Pan et al., 1990).
Meanwhile, a less profound crustal extension in the west portion of the continental
shelf was manifested by the continuation of rifting until the Early Miocene.
It is noticed that the maximum crustal thinning, as indicated by the opening of
the SCS Basin, occurred about 300 km south of the maximum rifting, which is located
along the central rift belt shown in Fig. 3. This asymmetry may be explained by
Wernicke's model of extensional tectonics (Wernicke and Burchfield, 1982), in which
the crustal extension is realized through groups of "domino-style" and/or listric
normal faults above a large, rooted, low-angle normal fault. The maximum crustal
thinning occurs close to the root of the basal fault and away from the zone of
extensive rifting. In our study area, the low-angle basal fault, however, has not been
found, possibly due to the lacking of deep seismic measurement.
3. Thermal Subsidence
In the post-rifting phase, discrete rifts were involved in a widespread thermal
subsidence, forming unified large depressions. Starting from the south and southeast,
the region submerged progressively and accepted neritic sedimentation. The total
amount of subsidence increased generally toward the south from 2 km to over 5 km,
and local variations resembled the mirror image of the Moho discontinuity. Three
deep subsidence belts have been identified with approximately an NEE-EW strike
(Fig. 6). The northern belt corresponds roughly to the Zhu-l and Zhu-3 depressions
in the northern PRMB; the middle belt to the eastern Zhu-2 depression of PRMB.
The southern belt is the largest and deepest one, extending from the Central
Depression of QDNB eastwards, through the North Xisha Trough, to the continental
slope north of the major portion of the SCS deep-sea basin. The distribution of these
three belts of thermal subsidence shows only minor inheritance of the three belts of
rifting. This again indicates the inconsistence of maximum rifting and maximum
crustal thinning, as the amplitude of thermal subsidence was mainly controlled by the
extend of crustal thinning.
4. Tectonic Activities
The post-rifting phase for the northern SCS was characterized by relatively strong
tectonic activities. In addition to the regional subsidence, two extensional events and
one compressional event have been recognized. The first extensional event occurred
in the Mid Miocene as indicated by a sudden increase in subsidence rate. The SEE
112
~" Subsidence !:lell
~ Deep-sea i'sasln
113 114 115 116 117 llB
Fig.6. The isobath of the breakup unconformity and the belts of thermal subsidence in the northem South
China Sea.
strike of the growth faults formed during this event may imply a continuation of the
clockwise rotation of the stress field after the cessation of rifting. The second
extensional event started in the Quaternary and is demonstrated by seafloor
escarpments and basaltic eruptions. Both events were stronger in the east than that
in the west. On the contrary, a compressional event probably in Late Miocene to
Early Pliocene time was observed in the western PRMB and in BBWB. Its timing
coincides with that of the transition of Red River Fault from sinistral motion to
dextral motion.
IV. MODELS AND DYNAMICS OF BASIN EVOLUTION

A. The "Scissors Model"
The basin development in the northern SCS varied in the direction not only in
timing, but also in intensity. The crustal stretching during the rifting phase, as
deduced from the crustal thickness below the breakup unconformity (i.e., the depth
difference between the fresent Moho discontinuity and the breakup unconformity),
shows a general trend 0 westward increase. For example, along the southern belt of
thermal subsidence, the pre-breakup crustal thickness varies from < 14 km south of
PRMB, to 16-18 km in southern QDNB, and then to 19-22 km in eastern YGHB.
If primary crustal thickness was 35 km, then the stretching factor would be > 2.5,
2.2-1.9, and 1.8-1.6, respectively. This suggests a westward decrease of tensile stress
during the rifting phase.

Taking into account the westward delay of the breakup unconformity, the rifting
of the northern SCS may be depicted as an easterly opening "scissors" (Fig. 7). The
eastern segment was subject to the largest tensile stress, which resulted in the early
opening of the SCS in Early Oligocene time. The less strong extension in the middle
segment associated with a later transition from rifting to thermal subsidence in the
Late Oligocene. This stretching was not large enough for opening a seafloor, but
instead intermontane basins were formed. The western segment experienced the least
stretching and resulted in the latest commencement of thermal subsidence, forming
only para-continental basins.
Zc< 14Jrm
P=>2.5
b Intermontane, Marginal basin

basin
Fig. 7. Schematic presentation of the "scissors"

model of the basin development in the northern
South China Sea.
B. Dynamics of Basin Evolution

The evolution and geodynamics of the SCS, including its sedimentary basins, is
not fully understood. Our objective in this section is to put forward several constrains
based on the study of the northern margin. A successful model of the basin develop-
ment in the northern SCS should be able to accommodate the following three striking
features: i) the episodic rifting; ii) the clockwise rotation of stress field; iii) the
scissors-like E-W variation of stretching in both timing and intensity.
The SCS lies at the junction of two most magnificent convergent belt in the
world, the Circum-Pacific and the Mediterranean-Himalaya belts. The interaction of
Eurasian, Indian Ocean, and Pacific plates along these belts is the principal
controlling factor for the evolution of SCS. This forms the basis of our discussion.
It is generally agreed that since the Mid Jurassic the Pacific plate subducted
beneath the Eurasian plate along the East Asia margin. We suggest that the Late
Cretaceous onset of rifting was mainly the result of the steepening or eastward
retreat of this subduction zone. Evidences supporting this argument include the
following aspects: i) This episode of rifting was not unique for the northern SCS, but
contemporaneous with that in Malay Basin to the southwest (Hutchison, 1989) and
in the East China Sea Basin to the northeast (Zhou et al., 1990). Such a great aerial
extent of rifting is compatible to that of the subduction zone. ii) The rifts of this
episode are distinguished from those later rifts by the coarse and immature infill that
is rich in volcanic rocks and pyroclasts, the straight and flat, rather than curved and
listric, boundary faults, and the NNE-NE orientation that is parallel to the strike of
subduction zone. Most boundary faults were developed along previous compressional
or transpressional faults. iii) Late Cretaceous steepening or retreat of subduction
zone is evidenced by the eastward shift of the magmatic front. In the northern margin
ofthe SCS, Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (190-120 Ma) magmatism is observed inland
in Guangdong Province, while Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene (99-51 Ma) diorites,
granites and rhyolites were encountered along the coast line and offshore in PRMB
(Ru, 1990). Similar shift is observed also in East China margin (Compilation Group
of the Geological Map of Asia, 1982). Late Cretaceous magmatism well developed
in the southwestern Japan and South Korea (Letouzey ei aL, 1988), as well as in
Malay Basin and Natuna (Hutchison, 1989). In the Late Miocene the northern
portion of the subduction zone steepened or retreated again and resulted in another
phase of backarc rifting in the Okinawa Trough, while the subduction in its southern
portion ceased due to the collision and obduction of the Luzon-Philippine Arc with
Taiwan and the SCS.
In the Mediterranean-Himalayan domain, the first contact of Indian Plate with
Eurasian continent took place in Late Cretaceous time, causing the closing of Tethys
in the eastern Tibet (Huang et at., 1984; Pan et aL, 1990; Zhu, 1990). Meanwhile, the
Burma Block collided with the Sinoburmalaya margin of Eurasia (Hutchison, 1989).
These collisions and subsequent strike-slip movement may also contribute to the
onset of NNE-NE rifting in the mechanism of the "extrusion tectonics" (Tapponnier
et at., 1986). However, collision alone seems difficult to explain the great aenal extent
and other features of this episode of rifting.
The next two episode of riftin~ in the northern SCS may be chiefly the
consequence of the extrusion tectOnICs. Several authors identified two important
Eocene collision events. The first event occurred in late Early Eocene (50-53 Ma),
causing the collision in Parmir (K1ootwijk, 1984; Shanna, 1984; Sinha, 1987). The
second one took place in Late Eocene (38-40 Ma) and resulted in a full suture of
the two continents (Valdiya, 1984; Shanna, 1984; Pan et at., 1990). The coincidence
of these two events with the onset of the second and third episodes of rifting suggests
their causal relations. The extrusion of the Indochina Block and associated large-
scaled sinistral movement along the Red River Fault produced the NNW-oriented
left-lateral stress in the northern SCS, while the clockwise rotation of the Indochina
Block superimposed a NS-oriented and eastward increasing tensile stress. These
resulted the NE-striking rifts of the second episode (Fig. 8a). The second pulse of
extrusion and rotation produced the third episode of rifts in the same manner but in
different orientation (Fig. 8b). It is worth notice that with the continued impinging
of India, the extrusion of South China Block exceeded that of the Indochina Block,
the shearing along the Red River Fault became right-lateral, and NW-oriented
transtensile type basins formed (Fig. 8c). This may be the mechanism for the
formation of the YGHB during the Mid Miocene, after the stopping of the opening
of SCS.
V. HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL
Active explorations in the northern SCS during the past decade has verified the
great hydrocarbon potential of the region. By the end of 1991, in eastern PRMB oil
flows were obtained in 23 wells out of 71 exploratory wells drilled, among which 9
commercial oil fields have been or will be put in production soon. A giant oil field,
Liuhua 11-1, was found with over 100 million tons of oil in place (Chen and Li,
1992). In the western PRMB, QDNB, and BBWB during the same period, over 160
oil/gas-bearing structures were identified, from which seven commercial oil fields and
two big gas fields were discovered, among which the Yacheng gas field is the largest
one in China to date (Zhang, 1992).
a b
••w.~".' ...__ J4'" ....... ,,', ••
.... - .....
0 • • # ... •
' "";
Fig. 8. Models for the development of rifting in the

northern South China Sea as a consequence of the
intrusion of the Indian Plate. a, Mid Eocene; b,
Late Eocene to Early Oligocene; c, Mid-Late
Miocene; SC, South China Sea Block; IC,
Indochina Block; LP., Indian Plate.
The study of basin evolution has provided important guide to basin evaluation
for hydrocarbons. The episodic rifting controlled the development of source rocks.
Late Cretaceous and Paleocene red beds in the rifts of the first episode were not
capable of hydrocarbon generation. The second episode of rifting resulted in Eocene
lacustrine sediments, some of which are rich in organic matter with dominate type
I and IIA kerogens. These are the best and most important source rocks in the
region. The Lower Oligocene alluvial or paralic sediments in the rifts of the third
episode contain type III kerogen and are the source mainly for gas. The rotation of
rifting in different episodes helps the identification of the three episodes of rifts.
Detailed analysis of the internal structure of rifts may guide the target shooting.
For example, large combinations of half grabens not only enlarged the volume of
source rocks but also increased the possibility of favorite source-reservoir-cap
formations. The junctions of half grabens are often relative highs in rifts and thus
good places for reservoirs. On the other hand, the analysis of half-graben
superposition provides the base for the analysis of organic maturity.
So far, the exploration has been confined to the strata below the breakup
unconformity. The formations of post-rifting phase, however, may as well contain
significant source and reservoir, especially for the thick depositions in the southern
belt of the thermal subsidence (Fig. 6). The favorite lithologic traps in the formations
above the breakup unconformity in eastern PRMB may be good reservoirs also, since
post-rifting extensional activities in that region generated conduits for hydrocarbon
to migrate upward through the breakup unconformity.
REFERENCES
Chen, Si-zhong and Li, Ze-song (1992) "Review and prospects for the oil and gas exploration and
development of Eastern Pearl River Mouth Basin", China Offshore Oil and Gas (Geol.) 6(2), 21-30
(in Clunese, with English abstract).
Compilation Group of the Geological Map of Asia (1982) The Geology of Asia, Geological Publishing
House, Beijing.
Holloway, N. H. (1982) "North Palawan Block, Philippines--Its relation to Asian mainland and role in
evolution of South China Sea", AAPG Bull. 66, 1335-1383.
Huang, Ji-qing, Chen, Guo-min, and Chen, Bin-wei (1984) "Preliminary analysis of the Tethys-Himalayan
tectonic domain", Acta Geologica Sinica 58, 1-17 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Hutchison, C. S. (1989) Geological Evolution of South-east Asia, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Klootwijk, c., Sharma, M. L., Gergan, J., Shah, S. K., and Tirkey, B. (1984) "The Indus-Tsangpo suture
zone in Ladkakh, Northwest Himalaya: further paleomagnetic data and implications", Tectonophysics
106(3-4), 215-238.
Letouzey, J., Sage, L., and Muller, C. (1989) Geological and Structural Map of Eastern Asia, Introductory
Notes, AAPG, Tulsa, 521'.
Pan, Gui-tang, Wang, Pei-sheng, Xu, Yao-rong, Jiao, Shu-pei, and Xiang, Tian-xiu (1990) Cenozoic
Tectonic Evolution of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 190p., (in
Ru, Ke and Pigott, J. D. (1986) "Episodic rifting and subsidence in the South China Sea", AAPG Bull. 70,
1136-1155.
Ru, Ke (1990) "Development of the basins on the continental margin of the northern part of South Olina
Sea and the evolution of their located plate tectonic settings", in Tectonic Committee of Geological
Society of China (ed.), Orogenic Belt-Basins-Tectonics in the Circum-Pacific, Geological Publishing
House, Beijing, pp. 49-56 (in Chinese).
Sharma, K. K. (1984) "Crustal growth and two-stage India-Eurasia collision in Ladakh", Tectonophysics
134(1-3),17-28.
Sinha-Roy, S. (1987) "Ignimbrite, ash-flow tuff and basic volcanics of the Daling Formation of Sikkim
Himalaya; geotectonic implications", 1. Geol. Soc. India 29(5),518-528.
Tapponnier, P., Peltzer, G., and Armijo, R. (1986) "On the mechanism of the collision between India and
Asia", in M. P. Coward and A. C. Ries (eds.), Collision Tectonics, Geological Society Special
Publication No. 19, pp. 115-157.
Taylor, B. and Hayes, D. E. (1983) "Origin and history of the South China Sea Basin", in D. E. Hayes
(ed.), The Tectonic and Geologic Evolution of Southeast Asian Seas and Islands, Part 2, Geophys.
Monogr. Ser. 27, Amer. Geophys. Union, Washington, D.C., pp. 23-56.
Valdiya (1984) "Terctonics of the folded fringe of the Indian platform", in Tectonics of Asia, Colloqium
5, 27th International Geology Congress Reports 5, 110--137.
Wernicke, B. and Burchfiel, B. C. (1982) "Models of extensional tectonics", 1. Stmctural Geology 4, 105-115.
Zhang, Qi-ming (1992) "A prospective area for exploration-the west part of north shelf of South China
Sea", China Offshore Oil and Gas (Geol.) 6(2), 21-30 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhou, Zhi-wu, Zhao, Jin-hai, and Ying, Pei-ling (1990) "Geological structure and petroleum potential of
the East China Sea Basin", in Xia Zhu and Wang Xu (eds.), Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins
in China, China Petroleum Industry Press, Beijing, 319p. (in Chinese).
Zhu, Xia (1990) "An outline of structural development of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary basins in
China", in Xia Zhu and Wang Xu (eds.), Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins in China, China
Petroleum Industry Press, Beijing, 319p. (in Chinese).
1
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GEOPHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF NANSHA BLOCK
IN SOUTHERN SOUTH CHINA SEA
XIA Kan-yuan and HUANG Ci-Iiu

South Chula Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
Guallgzhou 510301, Chula
The southern South China Sea refers to the area between 12°N and 2°N in the South
China Sea (SCS). This area is occupied mainly by the Nansha Block. The present
paper discusses the geological and geophysical characteristics of the Nansha Block
based on the primary analysis of geophysical data obtained by our institute in four
cruises since 1987 in cooperation with the geological and geophysical data available
from publications.
I. BOUNDARIES OF THE NANSHA BLOCK
The Nansha Block (Fi~. 1) includes the area of the Nansha Islands (i.e., the
underwater plateau includmg the Dangerous Grounds and the Liyue Bank) and
portions of Sarawak, NW Sabah, North Palawan, and the Calamian Island.
The northern and northwestern limit of the block is the boundary between the
Nansha underwater plateau and the deep-sea basin of the SCS. Along the northern
edge of the Liyue (Reed) Bank (the northern segment of Fig. 2), this boundary is a
faulted terrace, about 30 kIn wide, composed of several high-angle, north-dipping
normal faults with steep gravity gradient, and peaked magnetic and mercury (Hg
content in the air on the sea surface) anomalies. The downthrow along the normal
faults is about 1400 m.
The western boundary of the Nansha Block is the N-S-trending East Vietnam
Fault, which is indicated by gravity and magnetic gradient belts (Fig. 3). Our seismic
profile shows that east of the fault there is a block-faulted uplift with deformed
Paleogene and undeformed Neogene sequences, but west of the fault is seen only a
divergent sequence of Oligocene and Neogene strata overlying the Mesozoic
magmatic basement, with Lower Paleogene missing.
To the south and southeast, the Nansha Block extends southeastward beneath the
Sarawak, North Sabah, and South and Central Palawan (Hinz and SchlUter, 1985;
Hinz et al., 1989; also see Fig. 4). The southeastern border of the Nansha Block was
covered by the great Sabah-Palawan nappe.
The southwestern border of the Nansha Block may be the NW-running Lupar
Fault Zone. The eastern border may lie between the Calamian and Mindoro island,
along the southern extension of the Manila Trench convergent zone.
373
112' 122'
/ _ ( ../-W-...."..-J.- ....L-
7'
I
y'/ ---,.,-
/
/~~
lndo-Chin~ Pcn. /1/ L,
South China
/
o
=
Legend
Block Boundary
Suh-block Boundary
/ ' Basin Boundary
I1II111 Edge Effed Belt
.,cv
~~~----------~--~--------~----~~----~------------~------~
Fig.I. Generalized geological map of the Nansha I3lock. I, Southwest Subbasin; II, Nansha I3lock;
II ,-Northern Massif; II/-Island-rcef Sub-block; II/-Liyue Sub-block; II 2-Southern Subsidence Zone;
1I 2 '-Zengmu Basin; 1I 2--Nansha Trough Subsidcnce Belt; IIi, Rajang-Crocker Collision-Thrust Belt. <D
Northwest Marginal Fault; @ Ulugan Fault; CD Balabac Fault; 0) Tinjar-Beikang Fault; ® Lupar Fault; ®
Southwest Marginal Fault; C1J Beikang-Wan'an Faull.
II. STRATIGRAPHY
The crystalline basement of the Nansha Block is composed of pre-Carboniferous

metamorphic complexes (Zhou et al., 1991). These include the schists, phyllite, slate,
and quartzite cropping out in North Palawan and overlain by Permian limestone
(Tamesis et aI., 1973), as well as the amphibolite, gneiss, garnet-mica schist, and
quartz phyllite dredged northwest and south of the Liyue Bank (Kudrass et at., 1985).
The later rocks have monomineral K-Ar ages of 146 Ma and 122-104 Ma, which may
represent ages of the latest metamorphism.
Permian rocks were encountered in the northwestern Palawan and its offshore
area, consists of mainly silicious clastic rocks, feldspar sandstone, and limestone
(Tamesis et al., 1973; Fontaine et aI., 1983).
Geological Structure and Geophysical Characteristics 375
~~---
F AA
Fig. 2. The ~ profile across the Liyue Bank. Hg, mercury content in the air on sea surface; FAA, free-air
gravity anomaly; M, magnetic anomaly.
Fig. 3. The interpreted N14 geophysical profile across the western border of the Nansha Block.
so·
~
N'" ~~i!
C EC- - -.
:::-:=:::=....------
Fig. 4. The thrust structure seen in the Nansha Trough. The section is located in the segment c of the N9
profile in Fig. 1. The reflector above Tg is the top of the Miocene carbonate platfoml.
The Triassic silicious shale and radiolarite is seen in North Palawan (Hutchison,
1989). Similar rocks was dredged near the Meiji Reef southeast of the Liyue Bank
(Kudrass et aL, 1985).
The Jurassic has been observed in Mindoro, Calamian, North Palawan, and
offshore northwest Palawan (Fontaine et al., 1983). It consists of mainly clastic rocks
in Calamian, and mainly carbonates in North Palawan. Offshore Palawan the Jurassic
neritic rocks show a trend of southward deepening of seabed.
The Early Cretaceous was found consistmg of littoral clastic rocks with tuff and
coal beds in the Liyue Bank (Taylor and Hayes, 1980) but of abyssal black shale
nearshore NW Palawan (Fontaine et aL, 1983). The southward deepening Late
Mesozoic sea did not extend far to the south, since Early Cretaceous conglomerate
overlying ultramafic rocks was encountered at the Dumoran Island south of North
Palawan (Fontaine et aL, 1983).
A significant regional unconformity formed after Early Cretaceous. The late
Cretaceous is missing in many wells in the NW Palawan shelf and the Liyue Bank
(ASCOPE, 1980), but was reported in north and central Palawan, consisting of
turbidite sandstone and shale (Letouzey et al., 1989).
Cenozoic stratigraphy for the shelf areas of the southern SCS have been
extensively reported (e.g., ASCOPE, 1980; Hinz and Schliinter, 1985; Hutchison,
1989). In the following we introduce only the primary stratigraphic interpretation of
our multi-channel seismic profiles across the central and northern Nansha Block, that
is the area of Dangerous Grounds and Liyue Bank.
Fig. 5 gives an example of the stratigraphic sequences in the area. Two regional
unconformities, Ts and T g, divide the section into three megasequences. Tg is the
post-Early Cretaceous unconformity mentioned above. Below T the Lower
Megasequence has low-frequency layered reflections, indicating Early aetaceous and
older Mesozoic sedimentary strata. These strata extend widely, from the Liyue Bank
and the NW Palawan shelf westward over the southern Nansha underwater plateau
to the northern Sunda Shelf. But in the northern Nansha Block the reflectors below
Tg are often disordered or obscured, suggesting the existence of igneous and/or

metamorphic rocks.
The Middle Megasequence between Tg and Ts is composed of mainly neritic
clastic sediments with continuous, parallel, and intermediate-frequency reflectors.
These are interpreted as Paleocene to Eocene sediments. The Paleocene siltstone and
sandstone dredged on the west flank of the Meiji Reef (Kudrass et aL, 1985) may
represent its lower section, and the Eocene clastic rocks encountered by the TM-l
well off the western Sarawak (Soeparjadi et aL, 1986) may be from its upper section.
This megasequence is widely distributed in the southern and western portions, but
absent or very thin in the northern portion of the Nansha Block. The unconformity
Ts is dated as Late Eocene and may be correlated with the unconformity on top of
the Rajang-Crocker Group inland Kalimantan.
The Upper Megasequence consists of clastic and carbonate rocks with
continuous, high-frequency, and high-amplitude reflectors. An important unit in this
sequence is the reefal limestone, which extends all over the block, hundreds or even
over 1000 m thick. The limestone is older in the northeast, from Early Oligocene to
late Early Miocene (the Nedo Limestone, Saldivar-Sali et al., 1981). But in the
Zengmu Basin to the southwest, it is dated as late Early Miocene to middle Late
Miocene (ASCOPE, 1980). In the area of Nansha Islands, the Upper Megasequence
has significant facies changes, more carbonate in islands, reefs, and shoals, but more
clastic in between them.
Fig. 5. A seismic section showing the stratigraphic features of the Nansha Block. The section is located in
the middle portion of the L) line in Fig. 1.
III. STRUcrURES
In the Nansha Block mainly develop NE- and NW-running faults. These two sets
of faults are often deep and large, controlling the distribution of uplifts and
depressions. The NE faults divide the Nansha Block into three units, and the NW
faults, mainly strike-slip faults, often delimitate sedimentary basins. The structural
divisions of the Nansha Block are shown in the follows (Fig. 1).
A. Northern Massif
This division, including most parts of the Nansha underwater plateau, is
composed of NE-running belts of fault-uplifts and fault-depressions. The Zhenghe
Reefs, Yunqing Reefs, and Nanwei Bank form a fault-uplift belt in the northwest; the
Meiji Reef, Siling Reef, and Andu Bank form a fault-uplift belt in the southeast, and
in between them is a fault-depression belt. The Kangtai, Guangya, and Wan'an banks
also compose a fault-uplift belt in the northwestern margin of the Nansha Block.
Between the Liyue Bank and the Zhenghe Reefs there is a large NE-striking
normal fault the Xian'er Fault, with about 1000 m downthrow (Fig. 6). This fault
separates the massif into two units, the Liyue and the Island-reef sub-blocks.
SE
Fig. 6. Seismic section B showing the Xian'er Fault that separates the Liyue and the Island-reef sub-blocks.
The section is located at the intersection of Line NlO and the fault, see Fig. 1.
1. Liyue Sub-Block
Stratigraphically the Liyue Bank may be correlated with North Palawan and
Calamian. Structural features of the Liyue Sub-block may be represented by the L2
profile, which is the only transverse so far that crosses the Liyue Bank (Fig. 2). The
Liyue Bank is an uplifted platform that is separated from the deep-sea basin of the
SCS by north-dipping boundary faults. The platform has +80 mgal free-air gravity
anomalies, which is the highest so far found in the SCS. Inverse calculations give a
crustal thickness of 24 km. To the southeast, gravity anomaly decreases, but a peak
of magnetic anomaly appears above the Zong Bank, indicating a basaltic seamount.
Further south there is an uplift belt which separates the Liyue Sub-block from the
NW Palawan Basin. South of the belt the three megasequences are presented clearly
in seismic section; the total thickness of Tertiary strata exceeds 3 km (2.2 s TWT) in
Paleogene half grabens.
2. Island-Reef Sub-Block
This sub-block lies west of the Liyue Sub-block and includes the central and
western portions of the Nansha underwater plateau. Its structural features may be
represented by the NlO and N9 profiles.
The SE-running profile N to (Fig. 7) starts from offshore Vietnam, crosses the
Southwest Subbasin of the SCS and the northern Island-reef Sub-block, and ends in
the NW Palawan Basin, with a total length of 785 km. In the portion of the Island-
reef Sub-block, free-air gravity anomalies are closely correlated with the seafloor
topography, positive above islands or reefs, and lowly negative in between. In the NW
Palawan Basin free-air anomalies are lowly negative. Magnetic anomalies are negative
or near zero in the Island-reef Sub-block, but lowly positive in the NW Palawan
Basin. Inverse calculations show the upper surface of the magnetic basement domes
beneath the Island-reef Sub-block but lowers southeastward. The characteristics of
gravity and magnetic anomalies indicate the transitional nature of the crust in the
area.
The seismic profile shows that in the Island-reef Sub-block the Upper
Megasequence is a drape-like thin layer undulated accordant to the seafloor
topography. The Middle Megasequence is missing or very thin; even in small and
discrete half grabens it hardly exceeds 2.5 km in thickness. The Lower Megasequence
is composed of mainly Mesozoic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
The profile N9 (Fig. 8) lies south of and roughly parallel to N lO, with a total
length of 640 km. It starts from the southern tip of the Southwest Subbasin of the
SCS, crosses through the western and southern portion of the Island-reef Sub-block,
and ends in the Nansha Trough Basin. Along the profile, free-air gravity anomalies
are similar to those of N IO • Magnetic anomalies are positive in the area near the
Nanwei Bank but negative on both sides, indicating an uplift belt near the bank. The
seismic profile shows that northwest and southeast of the uplift belt there are two
sedimentary basins, the Nanwei Basin and the Andu Basin, in which the Middle
Megasequence is rather thick (generally over 2 s TWT) and asymmetrically folded
(Fig. 9). The depth of the magnetic basement is 4-5 km III the Nanwei Basin, 5-6 km
in the Andu Basin, and 3 km in the uplift. The lower surface of magnetic basement
is shallower for the basins (19 km) than for the uplift (23 km).
B. Southern Subsidence Zone
This zone extends in the south of the Northern Massif, including the Nansha
Trough Depression Belt in the east and the Zengmu Basin in the west.
1. Nansha Trough Subsidence Belt

This is a NE-running belt including the NW Palawan Basin and the Nansha
Trough Basin (Fig. 1). The subsidence of this belt is closely related to the crustal
downwarp under the load of the NW-verging nappe of the South-cen tral Palawan and
North Sabah (Hinz and Schliinter, 1985). The two basins, separated by the NW-
striking transcurrent Balabac Fault, have some different features.
The NW Palawan Basin (Figs. 2 and 7) has relatively shallower seafloor, thinner
Upper Megasequence, and low and gentle free-air gravity anomalies, indicating the
later phase of thrusting (Late Miocene to the present) has little effect in this region.
TIle crustal downwarp occurred only in a narrow band nearshore Palawan. In a large area
the Middle Megasequence is thick and strongly tilted by NW-dipping normal faults.
The Nansha Trough Basin, however, is significantly downwarped. The Oligocene
to Lower Miocene carbonate platform plunged beneath the North Sabah
autochthonous mass, the younger strata thickened obviously toward the thrust front,
and the Pliocene-Quaternary sediments in the Nansha Trough also were involved in
thrusting (Figs. 4 and 8). Geophysically, the basin shows highly negative free-air
gravity anomalies and moderate and gentle negative magnetic anomalies (the
southeastern segment of Fig. 8).
l;J
00
o
mg.1
,-- ;=<. ,~
-~-_... )("-,,- --\~( =. . .< -J.\~-I-:::'d~"i">'GA!! v- "~ -\,.fi.,.~~"-'
;IUC'r(HC: of ,he- In HMCnf

-.-.
-.
-I
- 10
~------------~I~~ bucm cnl

bo
Fig. 7. The NIO geophysical profile across the northern portion of the Nansha Block. ..~
10
=
o
g
...o
("l
=-~.
rn
~
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.
..
l'
;:.
.2
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,.,.:
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2. Zengmu Basin
This is a large sedimentary basin with a distinctive NW -trending structural fabric
and consists of alternative depressions and uplifts (Xi a et al., 1989). Fig. 10 is a NE-
running profile across the Northern Depression of the basin. The center of the
depression lies near the shelf break and has Cenozoic sediments exceeding 9 km in
thickness. A large normal fault cuts through the center, with a northward down throw
over 1000 m. Adjacent north of the fault the Upper Megasequence was undulated
significantly. In this segment, free-air gravity anomalies are positive and gently
decreasing northward, and a low and positive magnetic anomaly appears. Reverse
calculations indicate a rise of both magnetic basement and Moho discontinuity. These
features suggest that the basin was formed by the transtension associated with NW-
trending transform faults. The mirror image of depression with respect to the Moho
rise indicates a strong extension, and the undulation near the central fault may be
caused by local compression due to the change in the strike of the fault.
Fig. 9. The seismic section across the Nanwei Basin (the segment bin Fig.-8).
IV. STRUCTUR AL EVOLUTION
In Mesozoic to Cenozoic eras the Nansha Block experienced three major stages
of structural evolution: the South China margin stage from Late Triassic to Early
Cretaceous, the Paleo-South China Sea stage from Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene,
and the South China Sea stage fr9m Oligocene to the present.
The Indosinian Movement resulted in the suture, uplift, and erosion of the
Indosinian and the South China continents. From Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous,
the Nansha Block was a part of the continental margin of South China, east of the
giant Yanshanian Volcanic Belt. Its northwestern portion was in a littoral
environment, and the water deepened southeastward to the deep-sea nearshore of
the present NW Palawan.
In the Late Cretaceous time, a large-scaled rifting occurred along the South
China Margin, and the Paleo-South China Sea began to form south of the Nansha
Block. The northern Nansha Block was still inland South China with some
~
...
Q
f--central Uplift -I < North Depressipn ------------.~I...,....
. . Nanwei UPlift.."....1 5"
S r.
N ri'
mgal !.
FAA i{;
.,
..,c
;:
.,
...
;;
lOOnT Q.,
=
...~
Q
~
-lOOnT =-
'<
OIl
ri'
!.
(1
;;
.,=-
;;
.,...~
~
~.
2
Top of magnetic
Moho
kID o 80 km
I !
Fig. 10. The N2 seismic section across the Zengmu Basin.
w
oc
w
intermontane basins. The southern portion of the Nansha Block was the shelf area
subject to rifting and thermal subsidence and accepted thick sediments of mainly
neritic facies (the Middle Megasequence).
Due to the counter-clockwise rotation of the Kalimantan micro-continent
associated with the northward moving of the Ganwanaland, the Paleo-South China
Sea subducted toward Kalimantan. In Late Eocene the western portion of the Nansha
Block collided with the Kalimantan, resulted in the folding of the Middle
Megasequence and the unconformity above it.
The South China Sea started to open in the late Early Oligocene time, and then
the Nansha Block was separated from the South China continent. Meanwhile,
Kalimantan continued its counter-clockwise rotation, and its collision with the Nansha
Block extended eastward, resulted in the upraise of the Rajang-Crocker range. In
early Mid Miocene, the converge between Nansha and Kalimantan intensified, a
major decollement formed, and the Rajang-Crocker Group in North Sabah was thrust
northwestward onto the Nansha Block. This thrusting continued to the present,
forming the Nansha Trough foreland basin.
REFERENCES
ASCOPE (1981) Tertiary Sedimentary Basins of the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea: Stratigraphy,
Structure and Hydrocarbon Occurrences, ASEAN C'-Ouncil on Petroleum, 72p.
Fontaine, H., David, P., Pardede, R., Suwarna, N. (1983) "Marine Jurassic in Southeast Asia", CCOP
Technical Bull. 16, 3-30.
Hinz, K. and Schliiter, H. U. (1985) "Geology of the Dangerous Grounds, South China Sea, and the
continental margin off southwest Palawan: results of Sonne cruises SO-23 and SO-27", Energy 10 (3/4),
297-315.
Hinz, K. et at. (1989) "Thrust tectonics along the north-western continental margin of Sabah/Borneo",
Geologische RUlldschau 78(3),705-730.
Hutchison, C. S. (1989) Geological Evolution of Southeast Asia, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 355p.
Kudrass, H. R., Wiedicke, M., and Cepek, P. (1985) Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks dredged from the South
China Sea and their significance for plate-tectonic reconstructions", Marine and Petroleum Geology 3,
19-30.
Letouzey, J., Sage, L., and Muller, C. (1989) Geological and Structural Map of Eastern Asia, Introductory
Notes, AAPG, Tulsa, 52p.
Saldivar-Sali, A., Oesterle, H. G., and Brownlee, D. N. (1981) "Geology of offshore northwest Palawan,
Philippines", in Proc. 2nd ASCOPE C'-Onference and Exhibition, Manila.
Seoparjadi, R. A., Valachi, L. Z., and Sosromihardjo, S. (1986) "Oil and gas developments in Far East in
1985",AAPG Bull. 70(10),1479-1565.
Su, Da-quan and Huang Ci-liu (1987) "A study on the gravity field of Nansha Sea Area-Determination
on depths of sources of gravity anomalies by means of satellite gravity field", Tropic Oceanology 6(4),
Tamesis, E. V. et al. (1973) "Late Tertiary geologic history of the continental shelf off northwestern
Palawan, Philippines", Geol. Soc. Malaysw Bul!. 6, 165-176.
Taylor, B. and Hayes, D. E. (1980) "The tectonic evolution of the South China Sea", in D. E. Hayes (ed.)
The Tectonic and Geologic Evolution of Southeast Asian Seas and Islands. Geophys. Monogr. Ser. 23,
Amer. Geophys. Union, Washington, D.C., pp. 89-104.
Xia, Kan-yuan, Miao, Xiang-qing, Huang, Ci-liu, et al. (1989) "Geological and geophysical interpretation
and hydrocarbon potential of the Zengmu Basin", in Nansha Scientific Investigation Team (ed.),
Research Report of the C'-Omprehensive Scientific Investigations in Nansha Islands and Adjacent Sea
Areas, I, Science Press, 245-274 (in Chinese).
Zhou, Xiao-zhong, Wei, Chang-xing, and Xia, Kan-yuan (1991) "Stratigraphic division and correlation for
the Liyue Bank and adjacent sea areas", in Nansha Scientific Investigation Team (ed.) Researches of
geology, Geophysics, Island and Reefs in the Nansha Islands and Adjacent Sea Areas, Paper Collection
(I), China Ocean Press, 80-92 (in Chinese).
NEOGENE BIOSTRATIGRAPHY OF ZHUJIANGKOU BASIN,
SOUTH CHINA SEA: A QUANTITATIVE STUDY
ZHOU Di and WANG Ping

South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
Guallgzhou 510301, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Neogene is the period of thermal subsidence in the Zhujiangkou (Pearl River Mouth)
Basin, the northern South China Sea (Ru et aL, this volume). It consists of about 3
km thick marine sequences of several transgression-regression cycles. The sand bodies
formed at the beginning of transgressions and the ending of regressions, as well as
the reef buildups formed in shallow portions are good reservoirs for hydrocarbon; the
mudstone formed in trans~ressions are good caps; and the underlying Paleogene
lacustrine coal-bearing sedIments contains good sources. By the end of 1991, 21 oil
fields have been found, among which nine have been proved economical and two in
production (Chen and Li, 1992). The study of Neogene stratigraphy has both
theoretical and practical significance.
This paper presents a quantitative analysis of the Neogene biostratigraphy of the
Zhujiangkou Basin based on fossil records from wells. The area in concern includes
th::: ::entral and eastern portion of the basin, where major oil fields have been found
near the northwestern border of the Dongsha Massif (Fig. 1).
II. NEOGENE STRATIGRAPHY
The Neogene in the Zhujiangkou Basin is composed of the Zhujiang, Hanjiang,

Yuehai, and Wanshan formations, whose characteristics are summarized in Fig. 2.
Since the post-rifting phase in fact started in Late Oligocene, the Zhuhai Formation
is also included.
In a sharp contrast to the underlying continental Paleogene, the strata of Late
Oligocene to Neogene in the area consist of entirely marine sediments, mainly
mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone of coastal plain, deltaic, and neritic facies. Less
amount of reefal limestone formed in shallower parts. The lower section contains
mainly benthic foraminifera, suggesting a relatively shallow water. Since late Late
Miocene the area became an open sea, as indicated by abundant planktonic
foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils. There were three major sedimentary cycles,
with transgression climax occurrin8 in late Early Miocene, middle Late Miocene, and
Early Pliocene. Fossil records indIcate that the area was basically in the subtropical
zone with warm and humid climate, except in the period from Late Oligocene to
early Early Miocene when the area was relatively cool and dry (NHWOC, 1991).
385
Zhou Di et at. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 2,385-394.
113° 114° 115° 116° 117" 118°

2r r--------=-;-------i-----~r_-----__.---_::>=___r_____,2r
21°
20° 'v----------------j20°
Secondary
-x_x_ boundary
Fault Third-order
- ' - ' - boundary
Well ....... Line of
correlation
Fig. 1. Map of the central and eastem Zhujiangkou Basin, showing major structural elements and localities
of the wells used in this study. The dotted line connecting the wells for stratigraphic correlation as shown
in Fig. 4. PY-Panyu Low Uplift; EP-Enping Sag; XJ-Xijiang Sag; HZ-Huizhou Sag; HL-Huilu Low
Uplift; LF-Lufeng Sag; HF-Haifeng Uplift; lU-Hanjiang Sag.
III. QUANTITATIVE BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

In order to obtain an optimum biostratigraphic sequence and a better inter-well
correlation, the quantitative method of Ranking and Scaling (RASC) and Scaling and
Correlation (CASC) was used to analyze the Neogene fossil records from the wells
in the eastern portion of the Zhujiangkou Basin (Zhou et aL, 1990).
A. Method
A conceptual basis of the RASC/CASC method (Grad stein et aL, 1985;
Agterberg, 1990) is that the biostratigraphic sequence and zonation given by
statistical averagmg based on a large quantity of observations are usually more close
to reality than those synthesized by human's brain, because they are less subjectivity
and less subject to random error.
The RASC/CASC method uses observed sequences of biostratigraphic events,
e.g., the last appearance (LAD), the first appearance (FAD), the peak appearance
(ACME), etc.; also called as fossil events) of multiple wells as the basic data base.
Applying a permutation algorithm to the occurrence matrix of events, the optimum
Neogene Biostratigraphy of Zhujiangkou Basin 387
sequence (the expected sequence) is obtained which represents the most-likely order
of the fossil events in stratigraphic sections.
Stratigraphy Re- Biochronozones

Thickness Lith.
nee-
Series Formation (m) Column Lithological Description Foraminifera Calc. Nanno.
Quater-
:.:. :.: .;. tor
Grayish green and grey mud, light yellow sand
nary
55.8-444 _. N:u-Nu NNz1 -NN I9
.. --
-;- with gravel heds
"
.. .. TN
Pliocene ~ Wanshan
Lower
0-541 .. .. .. - Grey and greenish grey Oludstone with siltstone Nu-N 1• NN,.--NN"
~ .. .. =--: TJ
Grey to greyisb green mudstone, with sandstone
Upper Yuehai 55.~77.5 .. .. .. or sandstone-mudstone interbeds N 11-N 16 NN1,-NN 1O
..........::...:.:.. T2
. - ..... -
". - ....
306- - --
......... Mainly mudstone in the upper sector;
Middle Halljiang sandstone-mudstone interbeds with thin NJS-Ng NN.-NN,
1153.5 ... ,- limestone layers in the lower sector
-- -
'"
Miocene ........
..
~~ ..... "
T.
.. ..
~-.-.
.. Member 1 grayish green mudstone with
~ sandstone and siltstone. Melllber 2 grayish
.~ ..:.jt'- green mudstone with siltstone. Member 3
Lower Zhujiallg 270-1022 NN,-
sandstone aDd mudstone interbeds with thin N,-N,B
~ NN, (upper)
..... limestone. Member 4 grey sandstone with
....... mudstone. Members 3 and 4 change to reefal
.............. T' limestone in Dongsha Massif
.. .. .- b Member 1 yellowish grey mudstone and
Oligo- - ..
. sandstone-siltstone interbeds. Member 2 light NN,(Iower)-
cene
Upper Zhuhai 0-S75
.... -. grey sandstone with mudstone. Member 3 grey
N,A P"
NP"
'" .. --. thick sandstone with variegated mudstone
Fig. 2. Neogene stratigraphic column for the Zhujiangkou Basin (from NHWOC, 1991).
A high light of the method is the definition of the "inter-fossil distance" based on
the cross-over possibility of successive fossil events in the optimum sequence. Using
these distances to scale the optimum sequence will yield a dendrogram from which
the zonation of fossil events may be identified. Then using the known ages of index
fossils as nodal points, ages of all the events in the optimum sequence may be
interpolated by a spline program. According to these ages, a chronological correlation
between well sections is easily done, and a geological timetable for the region may
be compiled in conjunction with other geological information.
B. Optimal Sequence and Zonation of Neogene Biostratigraphic Events

Out of the 60 wells drilled in the area at the time, 34 wells with relatively
complete fossil records were selected for the analysis. Among 268 fossils events
recorded, a total of 112 events were retained as they occurred in at least 6 wells (55
calcareous nannofossil, 40 foraminifera, and 10 sporopollen events) or they were
important index events (called as "unique events"). Except for sporopollen, the events
are mainly last appearance (LAD). The optimum sequence and the zonation of these
events according to inter-fossil dIstances (the RASe zonation) are shown in Fig. 3.
Ten assemblage zones were identified with the inter-zonal distances greater than 0.26,
and 15 sub-zones were divided by distances greater than 0.2.
388 O~eanology of China Seas
Dendrogram lD Distance Fossil event

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
>..
.... ....0:>.. . I I I I I
--
0: R lO.2 225 0.142 Orbulina universa
:::
.... ....V
:::
194 0.197 Globorotalia humerosa
v RID 96 0.023 POlltospliaera japollica
0: 0:
Rl~l) 233 0.019 Splzaeroidillella dehiscens
a a
;:l ;:l
4 0.072 Pseudoemiliania lacwlOsa
TN - - --- 100 0.262 Calcidiscus macilltyrei
25 0.019 Discoaster brouweri
R.
~ 85
239
204
0.048
0.102
Helicosphaera selli
Pseudorotalia yabei
0.012 Globorotalia multicamerata
~
161 0.038 Globigerilloides oblU[/His
48 0.005 Discoaster pentaradiatus
231 0.042 Pul/enitulO primalis
157 0.377 GlobigerUlOides extremus
r-- 172 0.080 Globoquadrilla altispira
177 0.011 Globoquadrina globosa
a U 57
62
0.087
0.007
Discoaster surculus
Discoaster variabilis
v
:::
v
~
:::
0:
R,
J 106
198
0.010
0.046
SplzellolitllUs abies
Globorotalia limbata
u
.S
p:;
,..<::i
en
:::
0:
11 18
118
234
0.015
0.055
0.020
Discoaster asymmetricus
SphellolitllUs lleoabies
Splzaeroidillellopsis paelledehiscells
~ 101 0.004 Reticulofenestra pseudownbilica
266 0.009 Ceratolithus mgosus
It 235
224
0.020 Sphaeroidinellopsis semillulina
'-- 0.091 Orbulina suturalis
58 0.336 Discoaster tamalis
244 0.014 Tritaxia carillata
.I 199 0.037 Globorotalia margaritae
95 0.004 POlltosphaera discopora
97 0.002 Po/ltosplzaera multipora
R7 3 0.005 AmaurolitllUs tricomiculatus
209 0.044 Globorotalia plesiotumida
r~ 139 0.003 Globigerilla picassialla
103 0.131 Rizabdospizaera procera
T1 -- f- - r 243 0.236 Textularia kallSaiel/sis
21 0.159 Discoaster berggrellii
152 0.009 Globigerilloides bollii
~ 180
28
52
0.014
0.119
Globorotalia acostaeusis
Discoaster challellgeri
0.015 Discoaster quillqueral1l1ls
~
Ro.• 29 0.052 Discoaster decoms
v 2 0.020 Amallrolitlllls primus
:::
v 223 0.019 Orbulilla bilobata
u
0 £
.c;:
267
117
0.072
0.034
Amaurolitlllls delicalUs
SphellolitllUs moriformis
::§ R. 36 0.055 Discoaster il/tercalaris
v ~ 46 0.160 Discoaster pal/sus
...- 125
~
f
0: 0.034 Triquetrorhabdulus mgosus
.....:l ~•. 3 26 0.044 Discoaster calcaris
203
" 20
43
0.227
0.215
Globorotalia merotumida
Discoaster bellus
0.091 Discoaster neohamatus
~
[R., 44
184
0.035
0.110
Discoaster neorectus
• Globorotalia contilluosa
50 0.049 Discoaster prepentaradiatus
Fig. 3. The dendrogram of the scaled optimum sequence of biostratigraphic events for the central and
eastem Zhujiangkou Basin. *-unique event; LAD-last appearance; FAD-first appearance; DFCA-last
continuous appearance; ACME-peak appearance. Unspecified events are all LAD.
Dendrogram 1D Distance Fossil Event

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
, , , , , ,
Q)
;::;
Q) .: I Ir 23 0.034 Discoaster bolla
<.)
0
~ 16 0.180 Discoaster adamalltells
~
'ce 240 0.173 Rectobulivilla glypta
Calcidiscus miopelagicus
~ 5 0.024
-Q)
c<!
.....l
~ R •. ,
264
176
33
0.035
0.001
0.028
Catillaster coaiit/Ills
Globoquadrina dehiscens advefla
Discoaster hamatus
40 0.019 Discoaster miriabilis
T 2- - Ilr 263 0.361 Catillater calyculus
..... 69 O.oz5 Helicosphaera ellphratis
32 0.010 Discoaster exilis
~
216 0.006 Globorotalia siakellsis
R5 169 0.031 Globigerilloides sllbquadratus
38 0.063 Discoaster kugleri
250 0.169 Uvigerina gracilifonnis
30 0.031 Discoaster deflalldrei
~T3- -
rr 11
190
0.119
0.333
Cyclicargolit/llts floridallus
Globorotalia fohsi
Q)
;::; 116 0.188 Sphellolithus heteromorphus
Q)
<.) ~ 19
128
0.156
0.004
Discoaster aulakos
Cassigerillella chipolensis
0
~
0/)
;::; 10 0.034 Cyclicargolit/llts abisectus
~ .~ 181 0.060 Globorotalia arcllOeomellardii
"0 .~ R, 140 0.083 Globigerilla praebulloides
c<!
~
fr
207 0.051 Globorotalia peripherorollda
::r: 170 0.042 Globigerilloides trallsistoria
168 0.022 Globigerilloides sicallus
68 0.124 Helicosphaera califomialla
228
I---
II [ 215
0.001
0.319
Praeorlmlilla glomerosa
• Globorotalia semivera
67 0.008 Helicosphaera ampliaperta
143 0.029 Globigerillatella i1lSueta
R3-2 ~ 149 0.062 • GlobigeriJlita stail/forthi
I - - - ~T.- - R,- 73 0.187 Helicosphaera mediterrallae
R3-1 151 0.005 * Globigerilloides altiapertura
84 0.105 H elicosphaera scissura
~ 31
129
0.048
0.146
Discoaster dmggii
Catapsydrax dissimilis
Q)
T5(?)
r 76 0.372 • Helicosp/wera obliqlla
;::;
Q)
<.)
0
~
0/)
R 1_. G= 109
111
114
0.036
0.Q75
0.036
Sphellolitlms belelllllos
Sphellolit/lIIs cOl/icus
* Sphellolil/lIIS dissimilis
~ ;::;
c<! 174 0.262 * Globoqlladfil/a billaiellsis
,.Co
.....
:~
;:l
R 1., r 163 0.010 Globigerinoides primordius
c<! 256 0.251 Florschlletzia levipoli FAD
~ ~ R2 254 0.017 Dicolpopollis kockelii ACME
~
R 2• 2 255 0.080 Dicolpopollis kockelii DFCA
251 0.032 Aillipollenites vems DFCA
262 0.210 ZOllocostites ramol/ae FAD
T'
•
I R 2_1
r 257
252
0.026
0.497
Florsclllletzia semolobata FAD
Alnipollellites vems ACME
.::P ',..c::;ce •
260 0.169 Gothallipollis bassel/sis LAD
B
....j
;:lS
,..c::;~
N
Note: • unique event.
R,
II 110
259
258
0.148
0.132
• Sphellolit/lIIs ciproensis
Gothallipollis bassensis DFCA
Florschuetzia trilobata FAD
Fig. 3. (continued).
C. Regional Geological Timetable
According to the positions of index fossils, the RASe zones are correlated with
the global biochronozones zones of Martini (1971) and Haq et aL (1988), and with
lithological divisions and seismic reflectors of the region. A geologIcal timetable is
constructed for the Zhujiangkou Basin (Table 1). This table is based on the statistical
average of mUltiple wells and thus more reliable than that constructed based on
qualitative synthesis.
Fig. 3 and Table 1 show that boundaries between RASe zones correspond quite
well with cycles of sea-level changes and seismic reflectors. The most important
RASe boundary appears between RI and R2 with an inter-fossil distance of 0.48, the
highest one in the entire sequence. This corresponds to the PaleogenelNeogene
unconformity with a significant change from the continental facies to marine facies.
Other major boundaries include i) the RJR 3 boundary with a distance of 0.37 and
age of about 19 Ma, located on the top of the "Big Sandstone Member" in the
Zhujiang Formation, reflecting the end of a regression period; ii) the RsfR6 boundary
with a distance of 0.36, corresponding to the T2 reflector and the boundary between
the Hanjiang and Yuehai formations, and indicating the big regression at the end of
the Mid Miocene; and iii) the RJR 9 boundary in the upper part of the Pliocene
Wanshan Formation, corresponding to a large regression with some foraminifera
species of N21 zone missing.
The optimum sequence agrees well with global biochronozones, except the
position of Globorotalia limbata (event 198). According to Blow (1979), this species
belongs to the N21 zone, but in our study it appears in the Rs zone together with
calcareous nannofossils of NN I6 and NN I5 zones of middle Pliocene. The
chronological allocation of this fossil event in the Zhujiangkou Basin is questionable.
Another problem is the correlation of the fossil events in the N 15 zone. Blow
(1979) used the FAD of Globorotalia acostaensis to define the top of the NI5 zone
and correlated it with the NNs zone, dated as late Mid Miocene. But Haq et aL
(1988) correlated N I5 with NN9 of early Late Miocene. In the Zhujiangkou Basin,
LAD ofG. continuosa (event 184) and Globoroquadrina dehiscensadvena (event 176)
are usually used to replace the FAD of G. a costa ensis , as FAD is hardly to identify
in well sections. By Kennett and Srinivana (1983), all the three events belong to N 15.
In our study, the two LADs are associated with events of NNlO and NN9; G.
continuosa is located in between NNlO and NN9, closer to NNlO according to inter-
fossil distance. Thus we suggest that the LAD of G. contnuosa is an event within N 16'
and the N 15 zone should be correlated with the lower portion of NN9. This correlation
agrees with that of Haq et aL (1988).
D. Inter-Well Correlation
The eASe program gives an interpolated age-event curve, from which the age
for each event in the optimum sequence may be read out. This greatly facilitates the
inter-well correlation, especially for the wells with less or no index fossils. We
selected 17 wells for chronological correlation. Results (Fig. 4) show that the
isochrons of 5 Ma, 10 Ma, and 24 Ma respectively agree with lower boundaries of the
Wanshan, Yuehai, and Zhujiang formatIons, but the 16 Ma isochron is consistently
higher than the lithological lower boundary of the Hanjiang Formation. The
difference is 56-440 m, in average 215 m, smaller difference occurring only on uplifts.
Such a large difference is not possibly caused by random errors. It suggests that the
Table 1. Regional Geological Time Table for the Zhujiangkou Basin

RASe Zonation Foraminifera Nanna. zone Sea Level
Age FOfInatiol1 Reflec- zone (Haq e/ (Martini, (Qin,1988)
Time tor
(ma)
-
Zone Dis!. al., 1987) 1971) High - - - Low
NlJ NN 2 r
~ b '-NN
a RIO
R IO_,
0.19
Nn
20
_~l
NN,.
~~~
f - - - r-2- TN 0.26
R. N21 ~
~NN,;r
Q.)
Wanshan 0.38
ilu Fm. R, t-- NN, . _
.e -4- 0.33 t--NN 5.14-::
N,JN20 ---
~~\
A: R7 NN"
- TJ 0.24 =N,,- NN 12 _ - --
6- R._, N17
~
NNll
Ynehai i--- 0.22 ---
"u
c
::E 8-
Fm_
R. R._ 3
f - - - 0.22
;l
R._ 2 N,. NNIO
I---'-'-- 0.18
f---
'"
...l
10 Tz
R._,
0.36
t---N 15 -
N14
NN,
t--- NN. _
_\ ---
NN7 ---
N13 --'
R5
12-
""
u
c
Hanjiang
N12 NN.
::E T3 0.33 ~ --
""
::E 14
Fm.
f==N lO = --
R, ~ NN,
N,
t--- 16 0.32 -- -
R 3_2
NN,
T, f - - - 0.26 N7
R3
H8
N, NN3
Q.) 0.37 - - -
§
c
u Zhujiang R 2_, NN2
20
::E Fm.
I - - - 0.26 N,
-2 R2
'"
U-l
R 2_3
f---
I--- 0.25
I- R 2-2_ NN,
0.22
R 2_,
T' 0.48 --
• N,
.=:0
6
...j
Zhuhai
Fm.
R,
NP25 \
lower boundary of the Hanjiang Formation is not the bottom of Mid Miocene, but
a lithological boundary within Lower Miocene. Our quantitative analysis made the
long-time debate on this boundary come to a conclusIOn.
h
4 3
Xijiang,
. '
Huizhou Sags
5 8
;-t-
6
Dongslm Massif
7 11 12
+
9 13 14 15
.+
Huilu Low Uplift
16 17
Lufeng
H iii Sag-
U lift
a eng p
18 20 22 (km)
Wanshan
Fm.
5Ma
Yuehai
, , '" /
Fm.
lOMa
Hanjiang
Fm.
16Ma
-2
Zhujiang
Fill.
24 Ma 3
Zhuhai
Fm.
CASC Isochron - - - Fonnation Boundary
Fig. 4. Inter-well correlation for the central and eastem Zhujiangkou Basin. Numbers on the top are well
codes as shown in Fig. 1.
IV. ANALYSIS OF SUBSIDENCE HISTORY

Age-depth curves of well sections were derived from the age-event curve for the
region. These made possible a high resolution analysis of subsidence history, which
was made by using the BURSUB program of Starn et al. (1987). Results of the
analysis indicated that the region was in a status of gross subsidence during the
Neogene time, with a total subsidence of 1-2 Ian. The subsidence history is similar
for the wells within a depression or an uplift, but significant differentiated between
different depressions and uplifts. The amplitude of subsidence increased
southwestward in general.
Computed subsidence rates for representative wells are compared in Fig. 5. The
subsidence was fast in early Early Miocene and much slower after then. A sharp
decrease in subsidence rate occurred in 19-20 Ma, corresponding to the top of R2
zone. Rangin et al. (1990) suggested that the Philippine Plate obliquely collided with
the Euarasian Plate at about 20 Ma, and this caused the sudden change of the
spreading of the South China Sea from N-S to NNW-SSE.
(cnvka)
30
25
20
15
py
10
28
O~L-~LW-L~ ____L -_ _ _ _+-~~
15
\0 XI
I 4
O~~~L-Lt~----~=L-L~L-~
15
\0
DS
7
15
\0 lIZ
8
o~-LUL~~~~~~~
15
10 IlL
15
15
\0 LF
20
O~~~"O+-r~~~~~~-r~
Fig. 5. Rates of tectonic subsidence for selected 24 20 15 \0 5 0
wells from the Zhujiangkou Basin. Numbers on the
right side are well codes. Notations of structural
E. Moe. I M. Mioc. I L Mioc. IPlioc.l r
Q
divisions are the same as those ill Fig. 1.
Differential subsidence was strong also in other two times: One occurred at the
end of Mid Miocene (about 10 Ma, the top of R s), when the subsidence slowed down
significantly in the Dongsha Massif and the Huizhou Depression, causing the missing
of fossil zones (Zeng et al., 1989). This was the time of the first phase of the Dongsha
Movement. The other occurred in Pliocene, when the second phase of the Dongsha
Movements was shown most strongly by the upraising of the Panyu Low Uplift.
REFERENCES
Agterberg, F. P. (1990) Automated Stratigraphic Correlation, Elsevier, New York, 424p.
Chen, Si-zhong and Li, Ze-song (1992) "Review and prospects for the oil and gas exrloration and
development of Eastern Pearl River Mouth Basin", Chuw Offshore Oil and Gas (Geo.) 6(2),21-30
Gradstein, F. M., Agterberg, F. P., Brower, 1. c., and Schwazacher, W. S. (1985) Quantitative Stratigraphy,
UNESCO, Paris, 598p.
Haq, B. U., Hardenbol, 1., and Vail, P. R. (1988) "Mesozoic and C-enozoic chronostratigraphy and cycles
of sea-level change", in Wagoner, 1. C. (ed.), Sea-Level Change-An Integrated Approach, SEPM
Special Pub!.
Kennett, 1. P. and Srinivana, M. S. (1983) "Neogene Planktonic Foraminifera (A Phylogenetic Atlas),
Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company.
NHWOC (Nanhai West Oil Corp.) (1991) The Tertiary in the Petroliferous Continental Shelf of
Northern South China Sea, Unpublished reports.
Rangin, c., lolivet, L., Pubellier, M., and the Tethys Pacific Working Group (1990) "A simple model for
the tectonic evolution of southeast Asia and Indonesia region for the past 43 m. y.", Bull. Soc. Geo/.
Frallce No.6, 21-37.
Starn, B., Gradstein, F. M., Lioyd, P., and Gillis, D. (1987) "Algorithms for porosity and subsidence
history", Computers & Geosciellces 13,317-349.
Zeng, Lin, Huang, Lu-sheng, and Shu, Yu (1989) "Zonation of Oligocene-Pleistocene calcareous
nannofossils for the eastern Zhujiangkou Basin", in Nanhai East Oil Corp. (ed.) Research Reports in
Petroleum Geology, II, 145-181 (in Chinese).
SEDIMENTATION IN NORTHERN CHINA SEAS
QIN Yun-shan
/lIStitute of Oceall%[!J', Academia Sinica
I. INTRODUCTION
Studies on the sedimentation in the Bohai Sea, Huanghai (Yellow) Sea, and East
China Sea (Fig. 1) have been increasing since the 1960's. Based on a large quantity
of bottom sediment samples collected by the Institute of Oceanology, Academia
Sinica, this paper discusses the distribution, mineral and chemical compositions,
material source of sediments and models of sedimentation in these seas.
II. DISTRIBUTION OF SEDIMENTS
Classification of bottom sediments was based on their median grain size (Qin,
1963). Fig. 2 shows the distribution of sea bottom sediments.
A. Clayey Mud
Clayey mud in the Bohai Sea covers the modern Huanghe (Yellow) River delta
and its adjacent shallow sea to the northeast, the western central Bohai Sea, and the
central and southern Bohai Bay. The clayey mud is bright yellowish to brown in
color, semi-fluid, and rich in CaC03 • It basIcally keeps the properties of sediment
load discharged from the Huanghe (Yellow) River. With increasing distance away
from the river mouth, the sediment turns dark, and CaC0 3 content decreases mainly
because of the mixing of additional sediments from other sources.
In the Liaodong Bay, clayey mud is derived from the Liaohe River and less
affected by the load of the Huanghe River.
Clayey mud is also distributed in the western part of North Huanghai Sea and
its deeper part (>50 m in water depth). The sediment is brownish-grey or dark-grey
and with medium amount of CaC0 3 . This indicates the mixing of sediments from the
Huanghe river and other sources.
In the East China Sea, a clayey mud belt covers the area off the Changjiang
(Yangtze) River mouth and extends southwestward along the shore. Materials of this
belt are obviously discharged from the Changjiang River. This belt usually is limited
within 50-60 m isobath in the East China Sea, narrows near the Taiwan Strait, and
mixes with the fine-grained sediment of the South China Sea south of the Taiwan Strait
Regions of clayey mud are found in the southwest of the lizhou Island within
395
Fig. 1. General geographic map of the area

investigated. 1, Huanghe River; 2, Bohai Bay; 3,
40° Liaodong Bay; 4, Liaohe River; 5, Huanghai Sea; 6,
Bohai Sea; 7, East China Sea; 8, Changjiang River;
9, Luanhe River; 10, Yalujiang River; 11, Zhoushan
Islands; 12, Jizhou Island; 13, Okinawa Trough; 14,
38° Bohai Strait; 15, Liaodong Bank; 16, Haizhou Bay;
17, Ancient Huanghe River; 18, Qingdao; 19,
Laizhou Bay; 20, Chengshanjiao; 21, Shandong
36°
Peninsula; 22, North China Plain; 23, Lijin; 24,
Liaonan; 25, Jiangsu; 26, Haiyang.
28°
Fig. 2. Distribution of bottom sediments in the
Bohai, Huanghai and East China seas. 1, clayey
mud; 2, silt; 3, fine sand; 4, medium sand; 5, gravel.
118° 122° 124° 126° 128° 129°
30'
40°
50-100 m isobathes as well as in the

main part of the Okinawa Trough.
38°
B. Sand
Sand is distributed in the northern 3&°
Bohai Strait, the Liaodong Bank, a small

region in the Haizhou Bay, and the outer
shelf of the East China Sea. 34°
On the Liaodong Bank, sand grains
are well sorted. Two saltation
.1
populations are recognized. The sand has
a small amount of CaC03 but a high CHINA
content of heavy minerals as well as
broken and polluted foraminifera shells 30 ° t--------,
with brown spots. These are relict coastal
sediments, forming the strongly eroded
seafloor of the Liaodong Bank. Their ~-'-:-'-d 2
heavy mineral assemblages differ from 28° 1:·:::13

those of sediment supplied by the 1:-;,'::14
Huanghe River (Chen et ai., 1982).
Sandy sediments in Haizhou Bay are 118°
distributed mainly in the northern 30'
Sedimentation in Northern China Seas 397
part of the ancient Huanghe River delta. These sediments have 10%-30% of mud
and high content of CaC0 3 . Shells oflittoral or estuarine mollusca, such asArca and
Ostrea rivu/aria, were found in places. A hard clay sequence was encountered by
coring at about 30 m depth. Layers of calcium nodules in the sequence contain high
content of Si, AI, Ca, Mg, and Ti, indicating a continental origin.
Well sorted fine sand is predominant on the outer shelf of the East China Sea,
forming the largest sandy area in the northern China seas. The percentage of grains
with d<O.Ol mm decreases from the north to the south in the area. This is area of
relict sediment originally derived from the ancient Changjiang River during the low
sea stand of the Wiirm glacial epoch. Shells of littoral mollusca were found in these
sediments. Radiocarbon dating of the shells gives the ages between 10 000-20 000 a
B.P. (Table 1) (Oin, 1979).
Table 1. Radioca.·bon Dating of Some Mollusca Shells from the Outer Shelf of the East Chilla Sea
Shells Location Depth (m) Radiocarbon dating (a B.P.)

Ostrea gigas 29°30'N, 126°30'E 109 22.770±800
Pectell albicans 27°30'N, 12so30'E 13S 8.700±lS0
Pecten albicalls 29°00'N 127°00'E 174 lS.030±7S0
Paphia amabifis 26°28'N: 123°00'E 120 lS.740±7S0
Pectell spp. 29°30'N, 126°00'E lOS 1O.270±SOO
Pophio omobifis 29°30'N, 126°00'E lOS 8.880±SOO
c. Silt
Silt is present in the Huanghai Sea and the shallow «80 m) portion of the
Bohai Sea. It forms the transition zones between clayey mud and sand areas. In areas
east of the Laizhou Bay to the south of the Bohai Strait, well-sorted, brown and grey
silt grains compose 50%-70% of the sediment volume. The content of CaC03 is only
next to that of the sediment at the mouth of the Huanghe River, suggesting a
Huanghe River source. In the eastern and southeastern parts of the Huanghai Sea,
silt is dark and with low CaC0 3 content, indicating a subdued effect of the Huanghe
River.
In the East China Sea, the distribution of silt is limited to areas between sandy
and muddy areas, or to narrow belts between two muddy areas.
III. COMPOSITIONS OF SEDIMENTS
Sediments in the northern China seas consist of terrigenous and non-terrigenous

components. The terrigenous component is composed of rock fragments and detrital
minerals. The non-terrigenous component consists of organic matter and bio-detritus,
authigenic minerals and volcanic materials. The organic matter in sediments derived
from the soft part of organisms is the most abundant in clayey mud. Bio-detritus are
mainly made of tests and spicules and are enriched in the Okinawa Trough and on
the outer shelf of the East China Sea. The content of authigenic minerals is in
general very low. Volcanic materials are concentrated in sediments of the northern
Okinawa Trough north of 26°N.
A. Mineral Compositions
Mineral compositions of sediments in the study area are of three types:

terrigenous, authigenic, and volcanic minerals. Of these, terrigenous minerals are the
most abundant. Authigenic and volcanic minerals are concentrated locally.
Fifty-seven terrigenous minerals are identified (Chen et aI., 1979). Among these,
quartz and feldspar are the most abundant light minerals, while hornblende, epidote,
schistose minerals (nuscovite, chlorite, and biotite), and ilmenite are the most
abundant heavy minerals.
Ten different authigenic minerals have been found, of which glauconite is the
most abundant, pyrite ranks the second, collophane the third. A small amount of
goethite, aragomte, siderite, magnesite, dolomite, manganese nodules, and
ferrinodules are also present.
Glauconite may be divided into three types on a morphological basis: glauconite
pellets, glauconite as fillings of organisms, and glauconite in booklets. Glauconite
pellets are the most abundant type. Most glauconite pellets in the East China Sea are
black, while those in the Huanghai Sea are brownish-green. Yellowish-green and light
yellow ones are less abundant. Some glauconite pellets have shallow sutures or
networks of cracks on their surfaces. The size of glauconite pellets ranges from 0.1 mm to
1 mm, and most greater than 0.25 mm. They contain quartz, feldspar, mica, and
hornblende impurities. Organisms having glauconite fillings include mainly
foraminifera, secondarily mollusca· and bryozoa, and rare ostacod. The infilling
glauconite varies in color from black to light yellow, most black. The glauconite
booklets vary in color from black to brownish-green, most black.
Table 2 shows chemical compositions of various types of glauconite. X-ray
powder diffraction data show that glauconite has a series of reflections of basal
spacing (001), d(060)= 1.519-1.525 and has a micaceous structure between
dioctahedral and trioctahedral. Diffractograms of black glauconite pellets in the East
China Sea indicates the glauconite has a random interstratification of non-expanding
and expanding layers.
Table 2. Chemical Compositions of Glauconite
Glauconite in the outer continen- Infilled glauconite in Glauconite pellet in

Chemical tal shelf of the East China Sea the Okinawa Trough the Huanghai Sea
compo-
sition Pellet Infilled Booklet Light Brownish- Light
Green
{black} {black} {black} yellow green green
Si0 2 44.65 34.23 43.50 47.65 43.6 46.7 46.38
Ti0 2 0.29 0.22 033 0.62 0.56 0.65 0.72
Al 20 3 4.95 5.01 5.05 5.13 7.16 6.45 13.28
FC 20 3 23.82 19.49 23.46 21.95 15.25 24.55 11.96
FeO 1.44 2.00 1.50 1 1.0 1 1.2
CaO 1.62 8.56 1.38 3.14 9.77 1.45 5.91
MgO 4.87 8.17 6.88 3.76 3.12 3.1 3.47
Na 20 0.44 036 0.26 030 0.27 0.29 1.17
K 20 4.48 2.46 330 3.16 2.04 4.4 3.25
H 2O+ 7.00 9.1 8.70 8.8 6.8
HP- 5.07
CO 2 0.62 3.52 7.94 1.54 5.12
P2 0 S 0.15 0.11 0.12 0.2 0.33
MnO 0.03 0.06 0.15 0.34
Sediment:1 tion in No,·thern China Seas 399
Glauconite is widely distributed. A high content of glauconite pellets is found in

sediments in the northern part of the Bohai Strait (121°20'E, 38°30'N) and on the
outer shelf of the East China Sea (126°00'E, 29°30'N). Infilling glauconite is
concentrated in the northern part of the Okinawa Trough (128°00'E, 300 00'N).
Booklet glauconite is seen mainly in sediments on the outer shelf of the East China
Sea, but generally in a low content. Its sedimentary environment was studied by Chen
(1980).
The authigenic pyrite in sediments appears as fillings of foraminifera, as
framboids, and as sticks. Most pyrite grains are framhoidal. SEM photos show that
these pyrite consists of octahedral microcrystals as its basic building units. The
framboidal pyrite is spheric in shape, about 22-270 JLm in diameter (Cheng, 1981).
Infilling pynte is mainly concentrated in 0.25-0.10 mm grains, while framboidal pyrite
is largely concentrated in grains of >0.25 mm and 0.1-0.05 mm sizes and closely
related to organic muddy sediments. Authigenic pyrite is mainly distributed in areas
near the Bohai Strait and in the eastern part of the South Huanghai Sea. Cheng
(1981) investigated the sedimentary environment for authigenic pyrite in the eastern
part of the South Huanghai Sea, where the Eh is low, pH and mud content are high
(Table 3). In such environment, sulphate reducing bacteria tend to induce colloidal
chemical precipitation of iron sulphide.
Table 3. The Sedimentary Environment of Rich Authigcnic Pyrites in the
Eastc"n Pa,·t of the Southern I-Iuanghai Sea" (from 9 Samples of Mud)
Media Matter Value

pH 9.04
Fe 3 + (%) 0.119
Bottom solution Fe 2+ (%) 0.96
SO/- (%) 0.277
pH 8.02
SO/- (mg/l) 2540.8
Bottom water CI- (mg/l) 18647.8
Salinity 32.067
Content of mud (%) 79.63
Sediment Mud 0.00127
So 3.285
Organic matter (%) 1.85
9 From Cheng. 1981.
In general, authigenic pyrite is concentrated in muddy and silty sediments, while

authigenic glauconite in sandy sediments. This results in a spatially inverse correlation
between these two authigenic minerals on the continental shelf of the East China
Sea.
Volcanic minerals include hypersthene, augite, hornblende, magnetite, feldspar
with vesicular wall, quartz, acicular apatite, and volcanic glasses. These minerals
usually appear as euhedral crystals with complete domes and are distributed mainly
in the northern part of the Okinawa Trough.
Compositions of clay minerals in the study area are rather uniform. Illite is the
major component; chlorite, kaolinite, montmorillolite, halloysite, vermiculite, and
interstratified clay minerals are less in quantity, and palygorskite-sepiolite is scarce.
High content of montmorillolite is found in the Liaodong Bay, the mouth of the
Yalujiang River, and the eastern slope of the Okinawa Trough. The content of
kaolinite is higher in the East China Sea than in the Bohai Sea (Shi et al.,1984). In
the Bohai Sea, the content of SiO z in clay minerals decrease southwards, while
contents of CaO, KzO, and LOI (loss of weight on ignition) of clay minerals decrease
northeastwards.
Based on distributions of mineral assemblages, the northern China seas may be
divided into eight mineral provinces (Fig. 3).
tI±tIj,
ITIIIJ 2
30 0 E2Z3 3 Fig. 3. Mineral provinces in the Bohai, Huanghai
and East China seas. 1, South Bohai Sea and
-
k:=~14 northern Huanghai Sea mineral province; 2, North

E:35 Bohai Sea and northern North Huanghai Sea
28 0
1=-::.--:::) 6 mineral province; 3, Qingdao mineral province; 4,
Ancient Huanghe River mineral province; 5,
-
[SS37 Southeast Huanghai Sea-middle East China Sea

~8 mineral province; 6, Western East China Sea
mineral province; 7, Okinawa Trough mineral
province; 8, Transitional mineral province.
1) South Bohai Sea and northwest Huanghai Sea mineral province, which is
characterized by a high content of schistose minerals and calcite supplied by modern
Huanghe River.
2) North Bohai Sea and the northern North Huanghai Sea Mineral province.
Sediments in this province have a high content of orthoclase and are contributed by
many rivers, such as the Liaohe, Luanhe, and Yalujiang rivers. Marine erosion of
coast and islands also contribute.
3) Qingdao mineral province, whose sediments contain a significant amount of
epidote, which is known as one of the relict minerals.
4) Ancient Huanghe River mouth mineral province, which is recognized by its
high content of schistose minerals. Sediments in the province were supplied by the
ancient Huanghe River and reworked later.
5) Southeast Huanghai Sea to middle East China Sea mineral province. This is
a hornblende and metamorphic mineral (staurolite, lcyanite, and andalusite) province.
Mainly derived from the ancient Changjiang River, Its materials were reworked in a
later period. A portion of sediments in the northern part of this province are supplied
by the Huanghe River.
6) Western East China Sea mineral province, which is characterized by high
contents of dolomite and schistose minerals derived from the modern Changjiang
River.
7) Okinawa Trough mineral province. This is a hypersthene and volcanic glass
province with sediments supplied mainly by eruptions of oceanic volcanoes.
8) Transitional mineral province.
B. Chemical Compositions
Some chemical compositions in sediments of northern China seas are shown in
Table 4 and FigA. In general, Bohai Sea sediments are relatively rich in Fe;
Huanghai Sea sediments rich in organic matter; and sediments in the East China Sea
are rich in P and N.
Table 4. The Average Content (%) of Main Chemical Compositions in the Sediments of the Bohai,
lIuanghai and East China Seas
Bohai Sea Huanghai Sea East China Sea

Chemical
composition
II III II III II IIJ
Fe 387 0.73-5.15 3.48 62 1.33-4.45 3.06 200 1.10-4.77 3.20

Mil 387 0.03~.175 0.076 62 0.01~.24 0.082 196 0.22...{J.134 0.052
P 387 0.01...{J.09 0.05 62 0.021...{J.071 0.048 200 0.030...{).084 0.051
CaCO, 387 0.04-35.08 4.66 365 0.35-38.93 5.6 572 2.83-58.33
N 387 0.0Z...{J.21 0.08 365 0.004-0.239 0.058 80 0.04...{).22 0.09
Organic 387 0.05-1.16 0.52 286 0.05-3.13 1.27 572 0.06-2.96 0.54
matter
Note: I. Number of samples; II, Range; III, Average content.
The grain size of sediment plays an important role in controlling the contents of
elements. Average contents of most elements increase with the decrease of grain size.
The enrichment of elements in fine-grained sediments are attributable to their high
adsorption capability, high abundance of organic matter, and low content of quartz.
Besides grain size, the effect of authigenesis may be important locally. For
example, Mn content increases with the decrease of gr!lin size in most areas, but the
maximum content of Mn (0.14%) in sediments of the Huanghai Sea is recorded in
sandy sediments, in which authigenic Mn is 86% of the total Mn content.
On the inner shelf of the East China Sea, regional distribution of Fe, P, Cu, and
Ni is roughly parallel to the coastline (Fig. 4). This may be due to the variation of
grain size and mineral content in relation to the distance from the coast, the decrease
of terrigenous materials, and the intensification of chemical and biological processes
with increasing distance from the shore, and the action of alongshore current.
In sediments of the Huanghai Sea and the shelf of the East China Sea, the
terrigenous detrital index (Zs) of Fe, Ti, Cu, Co, Ni, Zn, Cr, and B, except of Mn
and P, is considerably greater than their authigenic index (Zz) (Table 5). ThIS feature
may be called "the philo-continental property", and these elements may be used as
indicators for a continental origin (Zhao, 1983). The abundance of indicator elements
in sediments of the Okinawa Trough is intermediate between that of the shelf of the
East China Sea and that of the Pacific Ocean (Table 6). This is the consequence of
the intermediate geographic position of the trough.
121" 121" 123"
Fe p
2- 3% ' 0.04- 0.05%
lllIIIl ITIIIll
•
3- 4% 0.05- 0.06%
III
>4% >0.06
Cu Ni
t:=::=::1 t=::=:=l
C::::::::l (:::::::::t
1- 10ppm I 30- 40ppm
§
10- 20ppm 40- 50ppm
illIID ITIIlll
1~~~:-:~:-I50- 60ppm
>20ppm
>60ppm Fig. 4. Distribution of Fe, P, Cu

and Ni in the sediments of the
East China Sea.
Table 5. Tel"\"igeuous DelI·ital Index (Zs) aud Authigenic Index (Zz) of the Elements in
the Sediments of the IIuHnghai Sea and the East China sea"
Huanghai Sea East China Sea Continental shelf

Element
Zs Zz Zs Zz
Fe 87 13 80 20
Mn 44 56 48 52
Ti 96 4 92 8
P 38 62 35 65
Cu 82 18 78
CAl 80 20 22
Ni 83 17 76 24
Zn 93 7 85 15
Cr 86 14
B 73 27
b From Zhao. 1983.
The source of CaC03 in these shallow seas includes terrigenous calcareous

deposits, marine chemical and biochemical deposits, and especially, loess.
Predominant load discharged from the Huanghe River is loess rich in CaC03, thus
CaC0 3 content in sediments off the Huanghe River mouth may be used to estimate
the dispersion range and intensity of the river load. Distribution of CaC0 3 in sedi-
Ta ble 6. Abundance of Indicator ElcmentsD
Indicator element East China Sea continental shelf Okinawa Trough Pacific Ocean
Fe (%) 3.20 3.63 5.44
Mn 0.052 0.259 0.74
Cu (ppm) 17 27 338
Ni 25 39 224
Zn 68 84
B 109 147 300
Ra (ppt) 0.41 0.93 8.7
a From Zhao e/ al., 1984.
40°
38°
38° CHINA
34°
t -:::- j 1- 3%
-
a 3- 5%
32"
_ >10%
Fig. 5. Calcium carbonate content in the 126 0
sediments of the Bohai and Huanghai seas.
ments of the Bohai and Huanghai seas is shown in Fig. 5. High content (> 10%) of
CaC0 3 appears off modern and ancient Huanghe River mouths. The relict sediment
in Haizhou Bay also is high in CaC03, probably due to the concentration of calcium
nodules. Moderately high (5%-10%) CaC03 are observed in sediments of central
Bohai bay, the western-central Bohai Sea, Laizhou Bay, offshore northern Shandong
Peninsula, and northern Bohai Strait. These are the areas under the influence of the
Huanghe River discharge. The western part of the South Huanghai Sea and the area
of ancient Huanghe-Changjiang delta complex are also of moderately high CaC03 •
Very low content (1 %-3%) of CaC03 appears in the northern Bohai Sea, suggesting
the lacking of the sediment supply from the Huanghe River.
IV. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE HUANGHE AND CHANGJIANG RIVERS

Sediments of the Huanghai, Bohai, and East China seas are mainly derived from
the Huanghe and Changjiang rivers.
The Huanghe River is famous for its high sediment load. The lower reaches of
the river have swayed back and forth over the North China Plain frequently. The
modern Huanghe River, with a total length of 5460 km and a drainage area of almost
750 000 km 2, runs through nine provinces on its way to the Bohai Sea. Statistical data
recorded at Lijin hydrometric station in 1951-1980 show that its average load of
sediment was 26.1 kg/km3, and average sediment discharge was 1069 X 106 t annually,
more than that from the Amazon River and twice that of the Changjiang River.
Other rivers running into the Bohai Sea contribute about 91 X 106 t annually, less than
10% of the total load entering the Bohai Sea (Qin et ai., 1983).
The large sediment discharge of the Huanghe River causes a rapid seaward
advance of the shoreline and the deltaic apex. Frequent and large-scaled changes of
the lower reaches of the river have led to the alternative sedimentation and erosion-
reworking of both the ancient and modern Huanghe River deltas. The modern
Huanghe River affects mainly the Southern Bohai Sea and offshore northern
Shandong Peninsula (Fig. 6); the ancient Huanghe River affected mainly the western
part of the South Huanghai Sea. A rough estimation by the flux balance method
indicates that about 70% of the sediment load of the Huanghe River settle down at
or near its mouth (Qin, 1982).
40"
36 0
34"
Huanghe River
Fig. 6. Schematic map showing the

influence of sediment loads discharged
122 0
118 0 120" 124 0 126 0 from the Huanghe River. 1, strong; 2,
medium; 3, weak; 4, no influence, 5,
direction of sediment transport.
SediDlenta tion in Northern China Seas 405
There is a tidal standing wave node near the Huanghe River mouth. Suspended
matter is transported by a fast alongshore current from the east to the west. Its
velocity drops gradually as the current flows toward the top of the Bohai Bay,
resulting in the deposition of sediment in the western Bohai Bay. Remaining
sediment load is carried by a residual current flowing northward. In summer, the
alongshore and residual currents are intensified under the influence of southeastward
winds, and the sediment discharge of the Huanghe river is large since it is the flood
season. Then most sediments are transported to and deposited in the Bohai Bay and
the central Bohai Sea. In winter, an eastward residual current develops due to the
wind blowing from the north. It joins the eastward density current and transports the
suspended matter from the mouth of the Huanghe River to the Laizhou Bay. At this
time, however, the sediment discharge from the Huanghe River is much smaller than
that in the summer, so the influence of the river on the sedimentation in the Laizhou
Bay is weaker than that in the Bohai Bay. On the Liaodong Bank and in the northern
part of the Bohai Strait, the sediment load from the Huanghe River does not settle
down because the fast tidal current erodes the seabed.
33° 30'
,
Ch81)
"-
~' -- '~j
~-- -' /
\'\~::
~-'C; I, , "'-
- -l ~
'I' 1
\
'l' \ f
"
..../ \ f
1
\
\
Fig. 7. Schematic map showing the I
I'
t / i ~,
2
transport direction of terrigenous
sediments (1) and materials derived
26" I / ~
120· 128-
from the ocean (2).
In summary, sediment load from the Huanghe River exerts the greatest influence
on its estuary, large influence on the Bohai Bay and the western central Bohai Sea,
and some influence on the Laizhou Bay and southern Bohai Strait.
There are water exchanges between the Bohai and Huanghai seas through the
Bohai Strait. A cold and high-salinity Liaonan alongshore current and density
currents from the North Huanghai Sea enter the Bohai Sea via the Bohai Strait,
forming a circulation in the Bohai Sea, and then flow out to the Huanghai Sea
through the southern Bohai Strait. This outward flow carries the sediment load
discharged from the Huanghe River to the Huanghai Sea. The net sediment transport
from the Bohai Sea to the Huanghai Sea is about 5-10 million tons annually.
The Huanghai warm current flowing to the north and the Liaonan alongshore
current flowing westwards restrict the northward and eastward spreading of the
sediment load from the Huanghe River. Hence, this load has little mfluence on the
northern Bohai Sea and the eastern Huanghai Sea.
The Changjiang River is the longest river in China. It delivers about 4.8x 108 tons
of sediments annually into the sea. These sediments mainly deposit at the mouth of
the river. A portion of fine materials is carried southward onto the inner shelf of the
East China Sea (Fig. 2). Obstructed by the high-velocity Kuroshio current, these
materials do not go further east. Thus the outer shelf of the East China Sea is
dominated by relict sediments, which were supplied by the ancient Chanjiang River
and then reworked.
The directions of sediment transportation in the northern China seas are
schematically shown in Fig. 7.
REFERENCES
Chen, Li-rong, Xu, Wen-qing, and Shen, Shun-xi (1979) "Mineral composition and their distribution pattern
in the sediments of the East China Sea". Sciellce Bulletill 15, 709-712 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Chen, Li-rong, Xu, Yu, and Shi, Ying-min et af. (1982) "Glauconite in the sediments of East China Sea",
Scielltia Geologica Sillica 3,205-217 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Chen, Li-rong, Luan, Zhao-feng, and Zheng, Tie-min et al. (1982) "Mineral assemblages and their
distribution patterns in the sediments of the Gulf of Bohai Sea", Chin. 1. of Oceano/. Limllo/. 1(1),
82-103.
Cheng, Qing (1981) "Study on the authigenic pyrites in sediments of the South Huallghai Sea", Acta
Geologica Sillica 3, 232-244 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Qin, Yun-shan (1963) "A preliminary study on the topography and bottom sediment types of the
continental shelf of China Sea", Oceallologil1 et Limllologia Sinica 5(1), 71-86 (in Chinese, with
Russian abstract).
Qin, Yun-shan (1979) "A study on sediment and mineral compositions of the sea floor of the East China
Sea", Oceaflologica Sillica 4(2), 191-200 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Qill, Yun-shan and Li, Fan (1983) "Study of influence of sediment loads discharged from Huanghe River
on sedimentation in Bohai Sea and Huanghai Sea", in Proceedings of International Symposium on
Sedimentation on the C-Ontinental Shelf, with Special Reference to the East China Sea, Hangzhou,
China Ocean Press, Beijing, p. I and Pl'. 91-101.
Shi, Ying-min, Yang, Guang-fu, Chang, Guo-xian, and Li, Kun-ye (1984) "Investigation of clay mineral in
the sediments of the Bohai Sea", Studia Marine Sillica 21,305-318 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhao, Yi-yang (1983) "Some geochemical patterns of shelf sediments of the China Sea", Scientia Geologica
Sinica 4,307-314 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhao, Yi-yang and Yu, De-ke (1983) "Geochemical analysis of the sediments of the Huanghai Sea",
Oceanologia et Lil1lflologia Sillica 14(5),434-446 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN SEDIMENTATION
IN SOUTH CHINA SEA
SU Guang-qing and WANG Tian-xing

South ChiJla Sea IlIStitlite of Oceall%gy, Academia Sillica
Guollg::1101l 510301, China
I. INTRODUCTION
The south China Sea (SCS) is one of the largest marginal seas of West Pacific.
Complicated geological processes have resulted in various topographical forms and
geomorphical types. These provide sources and control the process of sedimentation.
During the last three decades, more than 1500 bottom sediment samples were
collected from the SCS. These samples were analyzed for grain size and biological,
mineral, and chemical compositions. Major sedimentary processes were studied; basic
characteristics and laws of modern sedimentation were summarized (SG, 1980;
SCSIO, 1985a, b; LMS, 1987; Su et al., 1989).
II. GRAIN-SIZE AND GENETIC TYPES OF SEDIMENTS

Sediments in the SCS may be classified into six grain-size types: gravelly sand,
coral sand-gravel, sand, clayey silt, silty clay, and clay (Fig. 1). These sediments also
may be divided into four genetic types: terrigenous, bIOgenic, biogenic-terrigenous,
and volcanic-biogenic-terrigenous types (Fig. 2).
A. Terrigenous Sediments
1) Nearshore modern terrigenous mud is distributed on the inner shelf shallower
than 80 m, mainly in the northeastern and southern portions, especially in the
Zhujiang (Pearl River) Mouth, the Beibuwan Gulf and the Thailand Gulf. It contains
mainly mud (>80%), then sand «15%). Bioclasts commonly seen are fragments of
shell, spiral case, foraminifera, ostracoda, and sponge spicule, etc. Locally tests are
stained by ferromanganese oxide or filled with glauconite. A small amount of heavy
minerals exist, such as ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, and monazite.
2) Nearshore modern terrigenous sand and silt are mainly distributed in the
southwestern portion of the SCS, within the 100 m isobath. More than 80% of the
terrigenous clasts are quartz sand and silt (2-0.004 mm), with rock fragments and
small amount of feldspar. There are 2%-5% gravel and 5%-10% bioclasts (shell,
spiral case, test of foraminifera, ostracoda, etc.). Heavy minerals are common, such
as ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, monazite, etc. Some minerals form placer deposits,
mainly littoral type.
407
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceallology o/Chilla Seas. Volume 2,407-418.
Indochina Pen.
:::. : .
- - ~~ A~ ~
-:-
-~.. - . '
6J~-
. - .- "® -
. -' @.
10' &- .
'~
- &.. ..
-~ Q)' - ,
~
~ Nansha Islands -
F=1 , -Q) ~. - '® - ,
-@ , - fi'J.' - , - ,~- , - ,',:'
~
~..:. ~- ..:. t!? ~ ~.:... ~ ~ -:-,::,:
.: ",
[J ...
-:
.' ".
, ' '
D
~@-:
o. .'
,: ,
':,', :, .::. :",.. ':::. ....
",
.',', '--,":'-' @:- ~ ,-.. . :
:. :: : ': : ',', ',': : ,', .. ',e: -: ,,",
... '. ••... .• ' ~ngmu Ansha
~L-~____-L____~L-~~~~~~~------------~----~
Fig, 1. Map of grain-size types of l'Cdiments in the South China Sea, 1, Clay; 2, Silty clay; 3, Clayey silt;
4, Sand; 5, Gravel-containing sand; 6, Coral sand and gravel.
Characteristics of Modern Sedimentation 409
108°' 112°' 116 0

120·
20·'
16·
Indochina Pen.
12·
E~j5
t-jl t~j 6
D..··
.:.'. 2
III
~3
~
II N
0 8
Fig. 2. Map of genetic types of sediments in the South China Sea. I, Terrigenous type: 1, Nearshore
modern terrigenous mud; 2, Nearshore modern terrigenous sand and silt; 3, Neritic (paleo-littoral) relict
sand; II, Biogenic type: 4, Neritic coral sand and gravel; 5, Semi-abyssal-abyssal calcareous ooze; 6,
Abyssal siliceous ooze; III, Biogenic-terrigenous type: 7, Abyssal clay; IV, Volcanic-biogenic-terrigenous
type: 8, Volcanic material (account for about 5%± of the sediments).
3) Neritic (paleo-littoral) relict sand forms a NE-running belt on middle and

outer shelves of the northern and southern SCS, between isobaths of 20-600 m and
generally parallel to the coastline. The relict sand is composed of mainly medium and
fine sands (each > 30%), and silt « 15%). Quartz is dominant; its grains are
rounded, yellow or yellowish brown in color. Bioclasts (mainly tests of foraminifera
and ostracoda) are 5%-50%, locally up to 70%, and often stained by ferromanganese
oxide or filled with glauconite. Inter-tidal shell layers appear betweenl60 .and 80 m
isobaths. About 1.5%-2% of silt and fine sand are composed of rounded heavy
minerals, mainly ilmenite and zircon. Characteristics of these sediments indicate an
ancient littoral sedimentary environment (SG, 1980), which was the product of Late
Pleistocene glacial period and was submerged during the post-glacial transgression.
B. Biogenic Sediments
1) Neritic coral sand and gravel are seen mainly on the shelves (0-400 m water
depth) of the Dongsha, Xisha, Nansha islands, the Palawan Island, and some
segments of the southern Leizhou Peninsula, littoral Hainan and Kalimantan islands.
It is composed of mainly > 2 mm fragments of coral and other organisms such as
shell, algae, and foraminifera, overlying primary -coral reef. -
2) Bathyal-abyssal calcareous ooze is seen in the continental slope with water
depth of 400-2000 m. The calcareous ooze is grey or yellowish grey in color, with silt
and tests of planktonic foraminifera and other calcareous organisms. The content of
CaC0 3 is mostly >30% and up to 62%. It also contains clay minerals, pyroclasts, and
manganese nodules. The mineral composition of foraminifera is mainly calcite.
3) Abyssal siliceous ooze is distributed in lower slope and deep-sea basin, with
water depth of 2000-4000 m. It contains 30%-55% Si0 2, mainly radiolaria and then
diatom. The skeleton of radiolaria is made of opal. In the eastern portion of the
deep-sea basin, siliceous ooze is interbedded with or contains volcanic materials.
In the lower slope and deep-sea basin between the Dongsha Islands and the
Huangyandao Island, manganese nodules are often seen in siliceous ooze, locally may
be 20%-40% of the coarser portion or 2%-3.2% of the total sediment. The
distributional range is about 32 000 km 2•
C. Biogenic-Terrigenous Sediments
Abyssal Clay is distributed in the central basin of the SCS with water depth
>4000 m. It is yellow-grey or grey-brown in color and contains mainly <0.004 mm
fine-grained terrigenous quartz, feldspar, heavy minerals, and clay minerals such as
illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, and chlorite. The content of organic tests is
generally less than 30%, mainly foraminifera and radiolaria, less amount of diatom.
Locally it contains pyroclasts and manganese nodules; the latter may appear in a
large quantity occasionally. In major composition, this clay is similar to the abyssal
brown clay or red clay in the Atlantic Ocean (LMS, 1987). This suggests that the self-
enclosed deep-sea basin of the SCS has some property of oceanic basin.
D. VoIcanic-Biogenic-Terrigenous Sediments
These are seen mainly in the deep-sea basin and lower slope between the
Zhongsha Islands and the Huangyandao Island with water depth of 2000-4000 m,
trending in E-W direction. They are also seen on the outer shelf south of the Taiwan
Characteristics of Modern Sedinlentation 411
Island and the upper slope southwest of the Dongsha Islands, trending in S-N or NE
direction. Its distribution is controlled by faults. Volcanic materials are mainly
composed of pyroclasts and less amount of volcanic glass, ash, and volcanic mudballs.
These make up about 5% of total sediments, which are abyssal siliceous ooze and
abyssal clay.
III. MINERALOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACfERISTICS
A. Mineralogical Features
Mineral species of the sediments in the South China Sea are diversified. Clastic
minerals, clay minerals and authigenic minerals are very common. Clastic minerals
are the most prominent group and distributed principally on continental shelf; clay
minerals rank the second in abundance and deposit mainly in continental slope to
deep-sea basin; authigenic minerals are relatively limited in both abundance and
species, but distributed extensively from continental shelf to deep-sea basin. In
addition, there is a small amount of volcanic materials deposited principally in deep-
sea basin (Fig. 3).
1. Clastic Minerals
Among the 64 species of minerals identified in the SCS, there are 53 heavy
mineral species and 11 light mineral species. Dominant categories are silicate and
oxidate, with carbonate and phosphate ranking the second. Sulfide and hydroxide are
relatively limited; sulfate, fluoride and tungstate the fewest (Table 1).
2. Clay Minerals
Major species include illite, montmorillonite, chlorite and kaolinite, as well as
small amount of inter-layered clay minerals. Semi-quantitative data of minerals are
obtained by meays of ~aIcul1,lting tbe ratio of peak-height/peak-width in X-ray
diffraction at 18 A, 10 A, 7 A, 3.5 A and 3.53 A respectively (Chen, 1973). The
quantity of kaolinite declines gradually from shore toward the deep-sea basm; the
content of montmorillonite, on the contrary, increases seaward. The quantity of illite
decreases progressively from the north to the south, while that of chlorite is relatively
high in the deep-sea basin.
3. Authigenic Minerals
This category includes the minerals comprising manganese nodules, glauconite,
pyrite, collophane, zeolite, etc. (Wang and Su, 1987). The first three are dominant
minerals, whereas the latest two appear only locally. Manganese nodules distribute
principally in continental slope and deep-sea basin; glauconite in continental shelf
and upper slope; pyrite mainly in continental shelf but also in slope; collophane in
shelf locally; zeolite only in one station in the deep-sea basin.
4. Volcanic Materials
Major materials are volcanic glass, pyroclastic minerals, volcanic ash, volcanic
mudball, etc.
11ro_._______________1_1r2.________~=_--~lT14-·------~~-----lT16~·------------~~__________~--_,120·
24°c...
22·-
R7JIhnenite-zircon-chlorite-
b:J!J mica zone
r-:1jiIZircon-ilmenite-quartz
l.::!J!!I zone
~Limonite-zircon-ilmenite
l!.£I -quartz zone
GlVIZircon-ilmenite-epidote
I::::,:B zone
ISlVlQuar.tz -feldspar-clay
~ mmeral zone
~ Clay mineral zone
~ Volcanic substances (1 %
~ -1.5% of sediments),)
rrznVolcanic substances (2%
~ -5% of sediments)
rn m
12·
'L.22....-!.0 km
Fig. 3. Map of mineralogical zonation of modern sediments in northern and central South China Sea. I,
Ilmenite-zlTcon-chlorite-mica zone; II, Zircon-ilmenite-quartz zone; III, Limonite-ilmenite-zircon-quartz
zone; IV, Zircon-ilmenite-epidote zone; V, Quartz (bearing some volcanic substallces)-feldspar-clay mineral
zone; VI, Clay mineral zone (bearing some volcanic substances); 1, Volcanic substances (account for
1%-1.5% of sediments); 2, Volcanic substances (account for 2%-5% of sediments); P, Collophane; S,
Relict organic shell.
Chamcteristics of Modern SediUlentation 413
Table 1. Clastie Minerals in the Sediments of SCS
Heavy mineral Light mineral

Content
Major Minor Trace Major Minor
Pyrite Marcasite
Sulphide (a u thigenic) (authigenic)
Sulfate Barite
Fluoride Fluorite
Magnetite, Anatase, rutile, Spinel, chromite, Quarts Volcanic
Oxide hematite, titanomagnetite cassiterite, brookite, glass
ilmenite, pyrolusite
leucoxene
Hydroxide Limonite Goethite
Zircon, Pyroxene, Kyanite, staurolite, K-feldspar, Chlorite,
hornblende, garnet, titanite, vesuvianite, top as, plagioclase glauconite
nlica, andalusite, sillimanite, zoisite, ( au thigenic,
tourmaline chloritoid, piemonite, detrital),
Silicate tremolite, glaucophane, zeolite
olivine, diopsite, basalt
actinolite hornblende,
hyperstene, aegirine,
iddingsite,
corundum, allanite
Monazite,
Phosphate apatite,
xenotime
Dolomite Malachite, siderite Aragonite,
Carbonate (rhodochrosite ), calcite
magnesite
Tungstate Wolframite
B. Geochemical Features
Distributions of chemical elements in modern sediments of the SCS are closely

correlated to the grain-size of sediments. Three geochemical sedimentation zones are
distinguished by means of factor analysis and cluster analysis (Chen et aL,1984).
1. The Inner Continental Shelf Sedimentary Zone (Zone A)

This zone is characterized with the accumulation of clay minerals, clastic
minerals and organic carbon. Mechanical differentiation and flocculation are the
dominant factors affecting the distribution of these materials. The representative
elements are C, AI, Fe, Ti, Na, K, Mg, P, Co, Ni, V, L, Rb, B, etc. The correlation
coefficients of AI with other elements are significant (>0.55), indicating that the
enrichment of these elements is related with clay minerals and silicate clastic
minerals.
2. The Guter Continental Shelf Relict Sedimentary Zone (Zone B)

This zone is further divided into two subzones. Zone Bl is characterized by the
enrichment of strontium carbonate, while Zone B z is abundant in SiOz, mainly in the
form of quartz.
3. The Deep-Sea Sedimentary Zone (Zone C)
This zone is characterized by relatively high oxidation-reduction potential, at
which the colloid and nodules of ferromanganese oxide often form. Thus the contents
of Mn and Mo are high. Other trace elements, such as Ba, Cu, Co, and Ni, are also
high due to their high absorption on ferromanganese oxides.
IV. SEDIMENTARY FACIES
The SCS has a significant geographical diversity, which results in diverse

sediment types, mineral assemblages, geochemical features and sedimentary
organisms. Five sedimentary facies are identified.
1. Neritic Facies in Inner Shelf
This facies distributes within the area from the coast to the 50-80 m isobath. In
this belt developed modern and ancient Zhujiang deltas, the under water Hanjiang
Delta, and terraces I and II at isobaths of 20 m and 40-50 m, respectively. Sediments
in the belt include modern terrigenous clayey silt, silty clay, and locally bioclast-
bearing relict sand. Clastic minerals are mainly light ones (>98%), such as quartz,
plagioclase, K-feldspar, and chlorite. Heavy minerals (0.6%-2%) are represented by
ilmenite, zircon, monazite, and cassiterite. Among clay minerals, illite is the highest,
then chlorite and kaolinite, and montmorillonite the lowest. Authigenic minerals
include pyrite and less amount of glauconite and collophane. In sediments, C, Fe, Ti,
Ca, K, Mg, P, Co, Ni, V, Li, Ra, and Ba are closely correlated with Al and enriched
in clay and silicate minerals. From the nearshore area seaward, tests of foraminifera
increase, mainly Ammaniatepida-Pararotalia inermis assemblage; those of ostracoda
increase, mainly Sinocythers abroptus-Munsetella japonica assemblage. These are
mainly nearshore euryhaline species. Tests of mollusk are common; but diatom and
radiolaria are rare.
2. Neritic Facies in Outer Shelf
This facies distributes in the shelf area from 50-80 m to 400 m in water depth,
where developed ancient Zhujiang and Hanjiang deltas and the terraces III and IV
at isobaths of 65-80 m and 100-110 m, respectively. Sediments are mainly relict
littoral, bioclast-bearing, fine or medium-fine sand. Light minerals (>97.5%) are
mainly quartz, feldspar, chlorite, and fragmented glauconite. Heavy minerals
(1 %-2.5%) are mainly ilmenite, magnetite, zircon, and monazite. Clay minerals
consists of a high content of illite, then chlorite, unevenly distributed
montmorillonite, and a small amount of kaolinite. Among authigenic minerals,
glauconite is relatively rich, and pyrite and collophane are also seen. SiO z deposit is
often seen in the northern part of the outer shelf, but carbonate mostly in the
western and southern portions. In bioclasts, foraminiferal tests are rich, mainly
Characteristics of Modern Sedimentation 415
Cibicideides mundula-Uvigrina assemblage; ostracoda is especially abundant, mainly

Occeultocythereis-Amphileberis assemblage, which may concentrate in small areas.
Mollusk is seen, and radiolaria and diatom are sparse.
3. Neritic Facies in Island Shelf
Sediments of this facies are seen in the shelf areas 0-400 m in depth around
islands, such the Zhongsha, Xisha and Nansha islands which often form underwater
plateau. Sediments are composed of coral sand and gravel overlying coral reefs. Coral
fragments are the major composition, then tests of mollusk, diatom, foraminifera, etc.
The content of calcareous clasts is >60%; that of sand >20%; that of coral blocks
and calcareous mud small. Mineral compositions are mainly biogenic aragonite and
Mg-calcite, and less amount of terrigenous quartz, feldspar, mica, and kaolinite. The
content of carbonate is high. In addition to shallow-water species, there are deep-
water, tropical, and sub-tropical species of foraminifera and ostracoda.
4. Bathyal-Abyssal Facies
This facies develops in 400-2000 m deep continental slope as well as on
submerged plateaus and downfaulted troughs, such as the Xisha Islands and the
North Xisha Trough. Sediments are clayey silt and silty clay, forming calcareous mud.
Clastic minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and mica are in relatively small quantity.
Clay minerals are more abundant, consisting of illite, montmorillonite, chlorite, and
kaolinite. Pyroclastic minerals are seen. Glauconite is seen on upper continental
slope; manganese nodules locally in the northeast. In sediments there are relatively
high contents of Mn, Fe, and Mo, which adsorb Ba, Cu, Co, and Ni and form oxide
colloid or nodules. Contents of foraminifera and ostracoda decrease with water
depth; the former has Balivina ovata-B. robusta and Alabamina wilcoxensis-Reophax
distans as main assemblages, and the latter has Abyssocythere atlantica-Krithe
sawanensis assemblage. Radiolaria and diatom increase with water depth. In addition
to shelf species, there are radiolaria species of Amphisphyris retceulata, Encoronis
challeng, Heliodiscus asteriscus, Hexalonche philosophica, Lithelins solaris, etc. Major
species of diatom are Coscinodiscus radiatus-Cos. noduliJer-Rhozosolinia bergonii-
Hernidiscus spp., etc. Mollusk is rare.
5. Abyssal Facies
This includes the sediments in lower slope to the deep-sea basin at the water
depth of 2000-4000 m. Upon the basin develops a deep sea plain scattered with
seamounts. The sediments consist mostly of clay with basic to ultrabasic volcanic
materials and manganese nodules. Volcanic materials are enriched (up to 5%) near
the Huangyandao Island in the southern part of the deep-sea basin. Manganese
nodules are widely distributed, but enriched (2.3%) in the central portion of the
deep-sea basin. Among clay minerals, illite is the most abundant, montmorillonite the
second, kaolinite and chlorite are present. Relatively high contents of trace metals
Mo, Ba, Cu, Co and Ni are carried in the colloid and nodules of ferromanganese
hydroxides and manganese. Radiolaria tests are abundant, including species of
continental shelf and slope, such as Spurnllaria and Nassellaria. Diatom is also rich,
mainly Coscinodiscus radiatus-Cos. excentricus-Rhizosotenis bergonii-Hemidiscus.
Foraminifera is sparse.
V. EVOLUTIONAL PATTERN OF SEDIMENTATION

The evolutional pattern of sedimentation in the SCS essentially corresponds to
the developmental phases of the Zhujiang Delta (Huang, et aI., 1982). It has six
phases formed in three cycles of transgression and regression (Fig. 4 and Table 2).
a
01
EJ2
83
B4
B5
86
87
!Lll.m.IV!9
~10
/:- 3000 ----,

--"";":".:....:i.l'r Deep-sea Basin
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of evolutional pattem of sedimentation in northern and central SCS. 1, Coral
sand gravel; 2, Fine-medium sand; 3, Fine sand; 4, Silt; 5, Clayey silt; 6, Silty clay; 7, Clay; 8, Old delta and
paleo-delta; 9, Number of terrace; 10, Coral reef. a, Regressional phase--outer paleo-neritic sediments
formed; b, Intermittent transgressional phase-paleo-neritic sediments deposited, paleo-delta developed
and Terrace III and IV initially sculptured; c, Regressional phase-Terrace III and IV finally formed,
paleo-neritic sediments and paleo-delta partially preserved; d, Intemlittent transgressional and ensuing
stable phase--old neritic seduuents formed, old delta developed and Terrace I and II initially sculptured;
e, Regressional phase-Terrace I and II finally formed, old neritic sediments and old delta partially
preserved; f, Transgressional phase-paleo- and old neritic sediments and deltas reconstructed and neo-
delta developed. ZR, The Zhujiang River.
The First Sedimentary Cycle occurred during the early and late stages of the
Wiirm sub-interglaciation. This cycle includes two stages:
1) The stage of regression with paleo-littoral sedimentation. In the early stage
of the Wiirm sub-interglaciation Epoch (0 32-1), about 40 000 a B.P., the paleo-
coastline was located near the present 400 m isobath. In the outer shelf deposited
fine sand and silt, containing foraminiferal tests and fragments of Neogene glauconite.
Characteristics of Modern Sedimenta tion 417
Table 2. Comparison of Sedimentary Stages of the SCS and those of the Zhujiang Delta
Evolutionary stage of Zhujiang Delta Sedimentary stage of South China Sea
Evolutiollal stage Time Sedimentary faci .. and developmental stage Time

_ B.P.
Paleo-neritic, old neritic
IV, Trans- Sub-Atlan- sediments and corres- 6. Trans- Sub-Atlantic
0.' ponding deltas recan- gression epoch (0.'>
gression tic epoch
structed. neo-delta
Neo- developed
del 1.1 2500
V. Local Submerged Terraces I and
Sub-North-
regression Q42--Z ern epoch II finally formed. old 5. Regres- Sub-Northern
neritic sediment and old sion epoch (0."")
delta remained
5000
Old neritic sediment clepo-
4. Stable _f-
sited. old delta deve- tee inter-
IV. Trans- Q,,2-1 Atlantic loped, Terraces I a nd II Atlantic epoch
mittent
gression epoch sculptured, and grey- trans- (0.'-')
green glauconite
gression
Old accumulated
del1.1 7500
Northern Submerged Terraces III Northern epoch
0.' epoch and IV finally formed.
III. Regrcs. 3. Regres- (0.')
10000 paleo-neritic sediment
SIOI1
Late Wlifl1l and paleo-delta
sion
Late Wilfm epoch
0,' epoch remained (0,')
20000
Late stage of Paleo-neritic sediment and 2. Inter- Late stage of
II. Trans-
Wurm paleo-delta developed. miUent Wurm sub-
0]1-1 inter- Terraces III and IV trans- in ter glacier
gression
glacier sculptured, and green gressioll epoch
Paleo-
epoch
32000
glauconite accumulated (0,"')
delt.1
Early stage Early stage of
ofWunn Paleo-neritic outer sedi-
I. Regres- 1. Regres- Wiinn sub-
0]2-1 inter- ment containing black
sion sion glacier epoch
glacier glauconite
(0,"')
epoch 40000
2) The stage of intermittent transgression with paleo-neritic, deltaic and terrace

sedimentation. It occurred in the later stage of the Wiinn sub-interglaciation Epoch
(0/ 2), about 32 000 a B.P. The global warming caused glacial ablation, sea-level rise
and transgression. The transgression paused at the present isobaths of 200 m, 100 m,
and 80 m,forming underwater terraces III and IV and paleo-deltas, then forwarded
to about 50 m. In addition to the sand from the outer shelf, a large quantity of
terrigenous materials were carried onto the area, forming sandy and silty deposits.
Authigenic glauconite is seen.
The Second Sedimentary Cycle occurred from the regression in the Late Wiirm
Epoch (0/) and Northern Epoch (0 4 ') to the transgression in the Atlantic Epoch
(0/').
3) The stage of regression with sedimentation in residual paleo-sha]]ow sea.
During the global regression in 20 ODD-to 000 a B.P., the shoreline retreated to the
present 80 m isobath. Paleo-deltas emerged, and the residual shal10w sea accepted
bioclast-bearing fine sand.
4) The stage of intermittent transgression with old-neritic sedimentation and the
formation of the terraces I and II. During the global sea rise in the Atlantic Epoch
about 7500 a B.P., the sea water advanced to the present 20 m isobath, paused for
a while, and then advanced again to near the present coastline. In the area deposited
paleo-neritic silt and fine sand, and littoral silt and clay. Paleo-deltas and terraces I
and II developed.
418 Oceanology of Chilla Seas
The Third Sedimentary Cycle occurred from the regression of the Sub-Northern
Epoch (Q/ 2) to the transgression of the Sub-Atlantic Epoch (Q/).
5) The stage of regression in the Sub-Northern Epoch about 5000 a B.P., when
the coastline retreated to the present 50 m isobath. Old-deltas and the terraces I and
II emerged, and silt and fine sand deposited in the residual sea.
6) The stage of transgression in the sub-Atlantic Epoch about 2500 a B.P., with
the reworking of paleo- and old-sediments and the development of new deltas. The
coastline was close to the present position. The sediments deposited during this
period represent the modern sedimentary environment of the SCS.
Coral reefs are growing in the Xisha islands during all the stages.
REFERENCE
Chen, P.Y. (1973) "Clay minerals distribution in the sea-bottom sediments neighboring Taiwan Island and
northern South China Sea", Acta Oceanologica Taiwanica (3), 25-64.
Chen, Shao-mou, Wu, Bi-hao, and Gu, Shen-chang (1985) "Preliminary study on geochemistry for the
scdimentation frolll the northern South China Sea", Nan/wi Studia Marina Sinica Science Press,
Beijing, pp.7-31.
Huang, Zhen-guo, Li, Ping-ri, and Zhang, Zhong-ying (1982) The Formation and Evolution of Pearl River
Dclta, Scientific Popularization Press Guangzhou Branch, Guangzhou.
LMS (Laboratory of Marine Sedimentology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology) (1987) "Genetic
types of sediments in central and north South China Sea", Tropic Oceanology 6,1-4.
SG (Sedimentary Group of Marine Geology Department, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology),
Academia Sinica (1980) "Characteristics of the surface sediments on the north shelf of the South
China Sea", Nanhai Studia Marina Sinica, Science Press, Beijing, pp.35-50.
SC-SIO (South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica) (1985a) Research Reports of
MUltidisciplinary Investigation in South China Sea Waters (I), Science Press, Beijing.
SCSIO (South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica) (1985b) Research Reports of
Multidisciplinary Investigation in South China Sea Waters (II), Science Press, Beijing.
Su, Guang-qing, Fan, Shi-qing and Chen, Shao-mou (1989) The sedimentary Atlas of Northern and
Central South China Sea, Guangdong Science and Technology Press, Guangzhou.
Wang, Tian-xing and Su, Guang-qing (1987) "Glauconites in the northern South China Sea", Nan/wi Studia
Marilla Sillica, Science Press, Beijing, pp.71-86.
PALEOCEANOGRAPHY IN CHINA: PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS
WANG Pin-xian
Department of Marille Geology, Tongji University
Shanghai 200092, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Paleoceanographic studies started in China early in the 1980's with Quaternary

carbonate cycles in the West Pacific (Wang and Zheng, 1981, 1982; Gao et al., 1982).
Very soon the research interest moved to the China seas and the emphasis was laid
on late Quaternary paleoceanography of the South China Sea (SCS) with a variety
of topics including paleotemperature, isotopes, carbonate dissolution, coral reef
history and others. There are ten volumes of scientific papers or monographs
published or being published since 1987 on paleoceanography or related micro-
paleontologic, sedimentologic topics of SCS (Second Institute of Oceanography, 1987,
1989; Feng et al., 1988; SOA, 1988; Multidisciplinary Expedition Team to the Nansha
Islands, 1989, 1991; Hao et al., 1989; Zhang et al., 1989; Ye and Wang, 1992; Zheng
and Chen, in press). Active research work has been carried out also in the Okinawa
Trough.
Due to the interdisciplinary and international nature of paleoceanography, its
development in China from the very beginning has benefitted from internatIonal
exchanges and collaborations. Prof. Ken Hsu (1984) was the first to advocate
paleoceano~raphy in China together with Prof. Ren Mei-e (1983, 1983, 1985). Many
of the studIes were carried out in the frame work of joint projects with U.S.A.,
Germany or other countries, quite a number of samples studied in China were taken
by RN Vema, Sonne or Conrad, and some analyses were done in laboratories in
Germany, U.S.A., U.K., Australia, etc.
The paleoceanographic studies in China are not limited to late Quaternary.
Intensive offshore petroleum explorations have provided a wealth of data for Tertiary
paleoceanography in the South and East China Seas. More and more land-based
geologist are getting involved in studies of paleo- and Mesozoic paleoceanography.
This can be illustrated by the progressively growing annual number of publications
dealing with paleoceanography in China (Fig. 1).
II. SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND CIRCULATION
Sea surface temperature (SST) and circulation pattern are the first concern in
paleoceanography. In the SCS, late Quaternary SST in winter and summer has been
estimated on the basis of quantitative data of planktonic foraminifera treated with
419
420 The Oceanology of China Seas
Fig. 1. Annual number of publications in China

dealing with paleoceanography (based on incom-
40 ,/-- ......
plete statistics). Solid line donates the number of
30
'"
'" ..... scientific pUblications on offshore paleoceanography
20 in China in strict sense, dotted line shows the
number of publications on paleoceanography in
10 China in broader sense to includes Pz-Mz studies,
0 '" micropaleontological or sedimentological studies
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992
concerning paleoceanography, as well as Chinese
Year translations of paleoceanographic studies abroad.
the paleoecological transfer function FP-12E proposed by P. Thompson (1981) for

the West Pacific. The resulted paleo-SST curves over the past 200,000 years from 3
sediment cores in its northern continental slope (Core V36-3, 19°00.5'N, 116°05.6'E,
water depth 2809 m; Core V36-5, 19°26.0'N, 115°01.1'E, 2x32 m; Core S049-8KL,
19°11'N, 114°12.0'E, 1040 m) show (Fig. 2) that the glacial/interglacial contrast in
winter SST of the SCS reaches 6.8-9.3°C, much higher than that (about 3°C) in
tropical and subtropical West Pacific (Fig. 3). Meanwhile, the seasonal difference in
SST in the northern SCS was 9-10°C during the glacial, 4-6°C during the inter- and
post glacial times, again far exceeding the glacial seasonality in the West Pacific (2°C
for the Tropics and 8°C for the Sub tropics) (Wang and Wang, 1990).
V36-3 S049-8KL V36-5

8"O(PDB) SST("C) SST("C) SST("C)
(%0) W S w S W S
-2 30 20 25 30
o
200
400
E
-.\!
600
""0..
~
800
1000
1200
, Pink Gs. TUber L, AD
Fig. 2. Paleotemperature curves of ('.ore V36-3, S049-8KL, and V36-5 from the northern continental slope
of the South China Sea (redrawn from Wang and Wang, 1990). Paleotemperature estimations made by
applying Transfer Function FP-12E, oxygen isotope data of Globigemoides sacculifer in Core V36-3 from
P. Wang et al., 1986.
The paleo-SST data provide a basis for reconstructing the late Quaternary
paleocirculation pattern in the SCS. The lowest sea level standing during the last
glacial maximum (LGM) at 100-120 m below the present level transformed the SCS
into a semi-enclosed gulf with the only connection with the Pacific in its northern
Paleoceanography in China 421
corner through the Bashi Strait between Taiwan and the Philippines. The monsoon-
driven transbasinal pattern with opposite directions in winter and summer (Fig. 4a,
b) for the post- and interglacial SCS was replaced by semi-closed basin flow pattern,
400 100' 110'. 130' 140" 150"
""",,""'" polar front
30
25
~26.4
28,0
Fig. 3. Winter SST CC) in China seas and the 026. '
adjacent Wcst Pacific at the LGM and the major
surface current. Paleotempperature data from
Moore et 01., 1980; Thompson, 1981; Wang and
Wang, 1990; Li et 01., 1992.
IOcr \\(t 120" \00° 110° 120°
a b
/
Modem Modern
20°
summer winter
d
LGM
10°
100° 110° 120°
Fig. 4. Surface circulation patterns of the South China Sea. a, modern, summer; b, modern, winter; c,
LGM, summer; d, LGM, winter. Dash-line denotes paleo-coastline at the LGM. The glacial circulation
patterns (c and d) are speculative.
the East Asian monsoon created clockwise (summer, Fig. 4c) and counter-clockwise
(winter, Fig. 4d) surface ~yre during glacials (Wang and Wang, 1990). The reorgani-
zation of surface circulatIOn together with the southward displacement of the polar
front in the northern West Pacific, as well as the cut-off of the Tropical Indian Ocean
waters from the southwest (Fig. 3), have given rise to an enhanced decrease in glacial
SST and to an increased glacial seasonality in the SCS as compared with the open
ocean (Moore et ai., 1980; Thompson, 1981).
Now, late Quaternary paleo-SST are available at least at 7 sites from various
parts of the SCS (Wang and Wang, 1992). As seen from Fig. 5, the summer SST at
the LGM ranges from 24.9°C on the north to 23.0°C on the south. Thus, the SST
patterns in the SCS at the LGM are essentially different from the modern ones (Fig.
5a, b) and show a E-W gradient for summer (Fig. 5c) and a NE-SW gradient for
winter (Fig. 5d). This is well in agreement with our inferred surface circulation
patterns for the LGM (Fig. 4c, d), if the temperate water was entering the SCS from
the Bashi Strait as assumed.
100" 110" 120" 100" 110" 120"
a b
Modern
2cf summer
a wi)1ter
\)
~
10" 10"
27.9 ~26. 6
LGM
0."--
)/.
•f~\2" 6;" winter
(27.5 .' o.~.

\
\
\
\
Fig. 5. Surface water temperature of the South China Sea CC). a, modern, summer; b, modern, winter; c,
LGM, summer; d, LGM, winter. Dotted line is isotherm ("C) and dashed line denotes paleo-coastline. a
and b from Wang and Wang, 1990; c and d from Wang and Wang, 1992.
Despite of the limited paleoceanographic studies in the East China Sea, recent
analyses have shown a similar enhanced glacial/interglacial SST contrast in the
Okinawa Trou~h (Yan and Thompson, 1981) displaying again an amplifying role of
marginal seas III paleoenvironmental response to glacial cycles.
III. PALEOPRODUCTIVITY
Since the last decade, benthic foraminifera have been playing a progressively
increasing role in paIeo~eanographic studies and this can be explained, at least partly,
by their use in paleoproductivity reconstructions. In fact, the infaunal versus epifaunal
ratio in benthic foraminiferal population (Corliss and Chen, 1988), the presence of
species indicative of productivity (Altenbach and Sarnthein, 1989), and the abundance
of benthic foraminifera (Herguera and Berger, 1991)-all these proxies of paleo-
productivity can be applied to the SCS.
In Core S049-8KL, for example, the infauna/epifauna ratio curve shows its peaks
at the glacials (8 180 stage 4, early part of stage 6, the turn between stages 2/3) and
decreases at interglacials (Fig. 6C). This is well correlated with the ratio between
high-productivity species Uvigerina peregrina and low-productivity species Cibicidoides
wuellerstorfi, as well as the 8130 of Globigerinoides sacculifer (Fig. 6B) (L. Wang,
1982a). Thus, the records in Core S049-8KL show a high productivity for the later
part of the stage 3 and is comparable with the glacial level according to its
productivity. The conclusion is supported by the down-core variations of the relative
abundance of benthic foraminifera (Fig. 6D).
Planktonic forams Pteropods Benthic forams

abundance abundance proportion
8 U'O b'180 p (PDB)(%o) 8 1 .1 C p (PDB) (%0) l/E n X 1O'/g n/g (%)
stage I 0 -I -2 -3 1.41 2.22 3.03 0.9 1.8 4.50 10 15 0 51012345

o I .---...,....,,--r-~----.
200
] 400 4
ao
.<:
o 600
800
1000
A B c D E F
Fig. 6. DOWllwre variations of productivity and carbonate dissolution indicators in Core S049-8KL, South
China Sea (data from L. Wang, 1992). A, E, oxygen and carbonate isotopes of Globigerilloides sacculifer,
C, infauna/epifauna ratio (liE) in benthic foraminiferal popUlations; D, abundance of planktonic
foraminifera (1000 specimens per gram); E, abundance of pteropods (specimens per gram); F, proportion
of benthic forms in total foraminiferal population (%).
Two benthic foraminiferal genera, Uvigerina and Bulimina, belong to infauna and
usually are indicative of high productivity. We use the relative abundance of the two
genera (U + B) in benthic fauna to indicate high productivity, and it turns out that in
the SC5 the highs of the U + B value are related to glacials whereas the lows to
interglacials, as shown by the down-core variations of U + B in 3 sediment cores from
the northern South China Sea (Fig. 7; for locations see Fig. 8) (Bian et ai., 1992a).
This is well agreeable with the early proposition of the increase of productivity in the
equatorial Pacific (Arrhenius, 1952), a problem of great significance in the global
change studies.
V36-3
V36-3 (%) S049-8KL (%) V36-5 (%)
o"O(PDB)(%o)
o -1 -2 o 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 20 40 60 80
o _1._
"
100 "
200
300
-----\
400
,-
, /
/
- -
4
-
5
\
- -\ \
\ \
_ 500
E ,/ ------\\
~
.<: 600
'5.
/
_ _ _ _ -1/ ,
, \ \
\
~ 700 / , 6 \ -
/ /
I \
800 I \
I
900 I -~--~-
1000
, I
1040m
7
l 2332m
I
I
---'
1100
-
1200 2809m 6
Fig. 7. Relative abundance of Uvigerina and Bukimilla in benthic foraminiferal population in 3 cores from
the northem South China Sea (for core location see FIg. 8).
IV. CARBONATE CYCLES

The carbonate compensation dellth (CCD) in the China seas is estimated as
about 3500 m and is reached only 10 the SCS (Tu, 1984; Li, 1989), where the
lysocline lies at about 3000 m. The late Quaternary deposits in the SCS are made up
mainly of terrigenous clay and biogenic carbonates, and their proportions in
sediments are vulnerable to environmental changes. Thus, the CaC03 percentage in
Core V36-3 in the northern slope (water depth of 2809 m) varies from about 11 %
at the LGM to 20%-25% for the Holocene (Fig. 9), and its downcore variations
remind those of «5 180 or paleo-SST (compare Fig. 9 with Fig. 2), with glacial decrease
and interglacial increase (P. Wang et aL, 1986). The same trend has been found in
Paleoceanogrllphy in China 425
the carbonate curves of other cores taken from the SCS and the Okinawa Trough
above the lysocline (Wang, 1990). An example is Core Z14-6 from the middle part
of the Okinawa Trough with water depth of 750 m where the CaC03 % declines in
glacial and rises in interglacial stages (Fig. 9, data from Can et aL, 1988; Qin et al.,
1987).
115' 120' 125'
30'r-~T-----~~___--~;:-~------'
214-6
•
/'
/
/'
20' / V36-5
• • • V36-3
S049-8KL
I• S050-29KL
South China SUJ .

Fig. 8. Locations of cores used 111 this paper,
northen South China Sea.
Z 14 - 6 V 36-3 SO 50-29KL
Car %) O'''O(%-;)
o 20 40 o -1
o 1
~
e 4
..c
Fig. 9. CaC0 3 % curve in 3 cores from the East and South China seas: Z14-6 (27°07'N, 127°27'E, water
depth 739 111), V36-3 (19°00'N, 116°05'E, 2809 Ill), S050-29KL (18°20'N, 115°59'E, 3766 m) (Data from
Wang, 1990; Zheng and Chen, in press).
There are two ell known types of Quaternary carbonate cycles in the world
ocean: the Atlantic type with glacial decrease and interglacial increase, and the
Pacific type with glacial increase and interglacial decrease (Luz and Shackleton,
1975). The Atlantic type of carbonate cycles has been ascribed to the intensified input
of terrigenous load during the glacial and hence classified as "dilution cycles",
whereas the Pacific type is controlled by deep-water carbonate dissolution and called
"dissolution cycles" (Berger, 1992). The above-described late Quaternary curves in the
China seas above lysocline are consistent with the Atlantic type and opposite to the
Pacific type, because the biogenic carbonate are diluted by increased supply of
clastics during glacial. This can be easily demonstrated with a comparison of
carbonate/noncarbonate sedimentation rate during glacial/interglacial times. As seen
from Table 1, the total deposition rate in Core V-36-3, northern SCS, varies from
about 7.5 cm/ka in interglacial to 10.6 cm/ka in glacial. The glacial/interglacial
contrast is, however, caused by the difference in non-carbonate component (about 6
cm/ka for interglacial, 9.2 cm/ka for glacial), while the deposition rate of carbonate
remains very little changed (1.3-1.6 cm/ka). Similar glacial/interglacial variations,but
lower deposition rate of noncarbonate clasts, have been revealed in Core SCS 15A
from southern part of the SCS (C. Wang et al., 1986) (Table 1).
Table 1. Deposition Rate Estimations for the South China Sea above Lysocline
8180 CaC0 3% Sedimentation rate (cm/ka)

stage Depth (cm) average" Total CaC0 3 NOIl-carbonate
Core V36-3 the northem SCS, 19°01'N, 116°06E, 2809 m
b,
1 0-82 21.38 7.45 1.59 5.86

2-4 82-762 17.49 10.63 1.43 9.20
5 762-1162 17.00 7.69 1.31 6.38
Total 0-1162 15.43 9.15 1.41 7.74
Core SCS-15N, the southern SCS, lOo 25'N, 114°14'E, 1812 m
1 0-18 69 1.6 1.1 0.5
2 18--80 45 3.7 1.7 2.0
3 80-160 40 2.6 1.0 1.6
4 160-193 39 2.5 1.0 1.5
5 193-248 55 1.0 0.6 0.4
Total 0-248 46.5 1.9 0.9 1.0
• Based on CaCO, CUNe; • From P. Wang.' 01., 1986; < From C. Wang.' 01., 1986.
Along with the widespread Atlantic type carbonate curves above the lysocline in
the China seas, Pacific-type curves have been found below the lysocline. An example
is the CaC03 curve of Core S050-29KL taken from the northern SCS just below
CCD P8°20'N, 115°59'E, 3766 m) which displays roughly a negative correlation with
the 8 1° curve (Zheng and Chen, in press) (Fig. 9). As shown by calculations, the
glacial noncarbonate deposition rate still exceeds that of interglacial, but the
interglacial reduction of CaC03 deposition rate is much more significant and, hence,
leads to glacial highs and interglacial lows of CaC0 3 %. Judging from the variation
of preservation status of planktonic foraminifera in the core, the low carbonate
content during interglacial is caused by carbonate dissolution. The enhanced
dissolution effect at interglacials can be observed above the lysocline as well. The
occurrence of pteropods only in glacial sections of the Core S049-8KL (water depth
1040 m) has provided evidence for a deeper aragonite compensation depth (ACD)
during glacial times (L. Wang, 1992b) (Fig. 7E), implying a reduction in carbonate
dissolution or a higher carbonate saturation of water. The increased abundance of
planktonic foraminifera at glacial stages in the same core also suggests a higher
saturation of carbonate (Fig. 7D).
Thus, the deep-sea carbonate dissolution cycles in the SCS are actually agreeable
to those in the Pacific. The carbonate cycles observed in the SCS result from a
superposition of both "dilution cycles" by terrigenous clasts and "dissolution cycles"
of biogenic carbonates. Above the lysocline, the diluting effect predominates and the
carbonate cycles are of "Atlantic type"; below the lysocline, the dissolution effect far
exceeds the dilution and the "Pacific type" carbonate cycles are recorded (Bian, et a/.,
1992b).
V. PROBLEMS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
All the above discussed late Quaternary changes of environmental parameters

in the China seas are nothing else as paleoceanographic responses of marginal seas
to the glacial cycles. The recent progress in late Quaternary paleoceanography of the
SCS has revealed glacial SST and circulation patterns, has recognized the productivity
cycles and two types of carbonate curves. However, there are too few cores
adequately studied for paleoceanography and too many paleoenvironmental aspects
to be explored in the China seas.
First of all, GCM-type modelling is needed for understanding the glacial
circulation in the China seas. More cores are to be analyzed to reconstruct paleo-SST
pattern which will test the model to be proposed. SST-history is to be reconstructed
on the basis of high-resolution stratigraphy, particularly for periods of rapid
environmental changes such as the last deglaciatIon.
Deep-water paleoceanography is a new frontier of research. Recent studies on
deep-water benthic foraminiferal and ostracod faunas in Core S049-8KL from the
fluctuations of oxygen content in bottom water during late Quaternary, related to the
water exchanges over the sill of Bashi Strait (Ye and Wang, 1992). There is, however,
some controversy in interpretation and much more work is requested to find out the
deep-water evolution in the China seas.
It is of great academic and practical significant to outline the paleoceanographic
history of the China seas following the basin opening process. The wealth of
geological data accumulated during the extensive hydrocarbon exploration off the
China coast favors these studies. For example, a marine Quaternary sequence over
2000 m in thickness has been found by oil drilling in the Yinggehai Basin, northern
shelf of the SCS, providing with opportunities for the high-resolution stratigraphic
and paleoceanographic studies (Wang et a/., 1991). As Prof. K. Hsu said in his
congratulatory message addressed to the FIrst Chinese Symposium on
Paleoceanography in 1989, an "opportunity for getting to the 'frontiers of
paleoceanography' is to take advantage of the peculiar geography of the South China
Sea. This relict marginal basin has a shallow sill and a very hIgh sedimentation rate.
The sill depth may be sufficiently shallow to monitor the influence of sea-level change
on basin sedimentation. The high sedimentation rate is, of course, a necessary
condition for precision-stratigraphy and for investigating short-line anomalies in
paleoceanography. Being a relatively young feature, its passive margin is an ideal
target for unravelling the subsidence history during initial stages of basin evolution.
Being surrounded by land on all sides, a correlation of the land and marine records
should be facilitated".
To sum up, paleoceanographic processes in marginal seas are the main subject
of paleoceanography in China. The above reviewed research results are on the first
page of a book which largely remains to be written. Nevertheless, this is already
sufficient to demonstrate the amplifying effect of oceanic climate signals in marginal
seas. On the other hand, the future studies on Tertiary paleoceanography will shed
light on the environmental conditions for petroleum formation and accumulation in
the offshore basins. Paleoceanography in China is still in its infancy. The great
attention paid to its specific targets presages its continuous rapid development and
further contributions to the new branch of science.
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Wang, Pin-xian and Wang, Lue-jiang (1992) "Surface circulation and paleotemperature of the South China
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Pleistocene in northern shelf of the South China Sea", Acta Geologica Sinica 4, 427-439.
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Carbonates of the Xisha Islands, China Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese).
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Studies in the South China Sea, China Ocean Press, Beijing (in Chinese, with English abstract).
PART V
COASTAL RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, significant progress has been made on coastal

research in China. The seven papers included in this volume only
highlight some of the important aspects of this progress.
Recent relative sea level changes, changes III the level of the sea
surface in relation to the land surface, has received considerable
attention from the Chinese scientists as well as the Chinese
government because of its important scio-economic implications in
coastal habitation. Professor Ren Mei-e's paper presents a
comprehensive analysis of this subject for the whole country.
A distinctive characteristic of the coast of China is its extensive
mud plain coast. many papers have been published on this important
subject. Professor Wang Ying and Zhu Da-kui's paper outlines the
progress made in the study of tidal mud flat, particularly its dynamic-
sediment zonation.
A considerable part of the Chinese coast is sandy coast where
varied depositional forms, spit, tom bolo, barrier etc., have long
attracted the attention of Chinese geologists and geomorphologists. In
fact, some of the earliest works on the Chinese coast deal with these
depositional forms. Professor Li Cong-xian's paper summarized his
work on barrier-lagoon systems, a most remarkable depositional system
in the coastal zone of China.
The littoral placer deposits in China are of considerable economic
importance. Xu Dong-yu's paper on their formation and distribution
will be of interest to economic geologists as well as coastal scientists.
The other three papers, focussing on South China coast, present
some of the most interesting results of coastal research in China:
coastal dynamic-geomorphic systems, modern coral reefs and coastal
environmental problems.
It must be pointed that the review in this part of the book should
be not regarded as exhaustive. Some of the most important recent
results, such as coastal evolution and littoral sediment transport of the
431
432
Modern Huanghe (Yellow) River Delta Evolution and dynamics of

submarine sand ridges in the South Huanghai Sea etc. have not been
included in this volume.
REN Mei-e
Department of Geology, Nanjing University
Nanjing 210008, China
RELATIVE SEA LEVEL CHANGES IN CHINA OVER
THE LAST EIGHTY YEARS
REN Mei-e
Department of Ceo and Ocean Sciences, Nanjiflg University
Nanjillg 210008, ChiJla
I. RELATIVE SEA LEVEL VS. EUSTATIC SEA LEVEL
There are tow kinds of sea levels: eustatic sea level and relative sea level. The former
is global or general sea level; its recent rise is chiefly due to global warming and the
resulting melting of glaciers. On the contrary, the relative sea level change at specific
site is the sum of the eustatic sea level rise plus local land-level change. Evidently,
the latter is much more important for the human-kind and hence has greater socio-
economic significance.
It should be pointed out that: i) in time scale, our discussion focuses in relative
sea level changes in the past 80 years and does not include Quaternary and Holocene
sea level changes; ii) in resolution, the magnitude of change is in cm and the rate in
mm/a. The purpose of our research is to provide data for designating coastal
protection measures (sea wall, storm barrier etc.) against future sea level rise.
A marked characteristic of the relative sea level changes in the world is its great
difference between regions and between specific localities, both in its nature (rise or
fall) and in its magnitude (rate of rise or fall). This has been proved by many
previous publications (Aubrey and Emery, 1986; Emery and Aubrey, 1980, 1986,
1989; SCOR WG'89, 1990). This is also true in China as will be shown in this paper.
II. SHORT HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF RECENT SEA LEVEL CHANGE IN CHINA
The first systematic treatment of recent (1950-1980) sea level change in China
is by Emery and You (1981). However, their study is based on tide-gauge records of
only 8 stations (including Hongkong), therefore, the result is far from satisfactory. A
later paper by Emery and Aubrey (1986) discussed the relative sea level changes in
China in great detail by using both simpfe regression analysis and eigenanalysis. But
insufficient tide-gauge records (only 13 stations, including 3 stations in Hongkong)
and incomplete knowledge of local environmental conditions (especially vertical
deformation, ground water withdrawal etc.) of specific stations still prevent them
from obtaining accurate conclusions. The same is true in works of numerous Chinese
scientists (Wang, 1986). But detailed studies in recent years have improved our
knowledge of sea level changes in Shanghai (Chen, 1991; Wang et aL, 1991). However
a comprehensive and more reliable account of relative sea level changes in whole
China is still lacking. It is hoped that this paper may help to fill this gap.
433
Zhou Di et at. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 2, 433-444.
In this connection, a very peculiar condition in Chinese tide-gauge records must

be noted. Some Chinese tide-gauge stations, notably two key stations, Tanggu and
Wusong, have made land-subsidence correction in their records, Tanggu since 1959,
Wusong sine 1922. It is evident that the corrected tide-gauge records do not reveal
the true relative sea level changes at the specific stations. This can be clearly seen by
comparing sea level curves of Wusong and Huangpu Park near Wusong before and
after correction (Fig. 1).
E
~ 2.35
"0
~ 2.15
"
:;s 2 . 10 '---'----'_..L..---l----'_~_'___L.___I_.J.-.
1912 1920 1928 1936 1944 1952
Fig. 1. Sea level CUlVes in Wusong and Huangpu
Park before and after correction for land
Year
subsidence, 1912-1952 (after Zhu, 1990).
Moreover, as 0 datum at some stations had been changed through time, utmost
care must be taken when using Chinese tide-gauge records. Overlooking this
important fact has led to great mistakes.
III. RElATIVE SEA LEVEL CHANGES FROM TIDE-GAUGE RECORDS OF CHINA
In this paper, the author has collected tide-gauge records of 28 stations (Fig. 2),
among which 3 stations have records of nearly 80 years (Tanggu, Wusong and
Macao), 13 stations with records of more than 30 years, 7 stations with records of
20-30 years, 4 stations with records of 15-20 years, and 1 station (Haikou) has record
of only 14 years. The available tide records of 4 stations in Taiwan have a time span
of less than 18 years, but the trends of relative sea level changes have been worked
out (Liu, 1989). All records except the 4 Taiwan stations have been subjected to
linear regression analysis, the results of which are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1.
It may be noted that the seawater surface near the coast of China is not uniform,
being higher in South China than in North China. Thus the absolute elevation of the
Zhujiang (Pearl) River 0 datum used by stations of Guangdong Province is 59 cm
higher than the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea 0 datum (the Huanghai Sea mean sea water
surface). In China, different 0 datums are used by tide-gauge stations in different
parts of the country, the elevation differs considerably from each other. However, as
this paper deals with relative sea level changes, difference in elevation of 0 datum
will not affect our result.
All tide-gauge records have been carefully studied and evaluated in connection
with local tectonic framework, recent vertical deformation, land subsidence and
human activities.
The relative sea level changes at a specific site is greatly affected by land
subsidence because of land subsidence may be 10-100 times greater than that of
eustatic sea level rise. The cause of land subsidence may be natural or human
induced. The most important natural factor is recent vertical crustal movement or
Relative Sea Level Changes 435
o Q inghua~gdao-
Beiiin~Tanggu \ ;J.b~lian
Longkou
\ . 6i" 0 o~y"(I~tai
. _~L - Yangjiaogo u /
South China Sea' -,.~ Q ingdao
_.--1- 11'" ~~--b-Li;''-;~~;ng

I '\J
I
i" 9Shijiushuo __ _
... ;~" \
•
(~_
I
!
...c-' /F
{,r- / l!_~~. ", .. I
I -7 - . -
I'JifoUfiiiJ
110 115
25
----------- ------
China Sea
Fig. 2. Tide-gauge stations ill China.
vertical deformation. Between 1951-1982. repeated precise levelling was carried out
over the whole country and a map on recent vertical deformation in North China has
been published. The map shows that deltas and coastal plains are undergoing uplift.
Rate of subsidence and uplift is generally 1-4 mm/a (Shen, 1986; Ying, 1988).
In China, human-induced land subsidence is mainly triggered by overpumping of
ground water. Tianjin (Tanggu station) and Shanghai (Wusong station) may be cited
as typical examples. Both cities are located in the great deltas, the former in the old
delta formed by the Huanghe River in 3000 BC-1128 AD, and the latter in the
Changjiang (Yangtze) River delta. According to repeated precise levelling, the
background value of recent crustal sinkin~ in the North China Plain is 1.0-1.5 mm/a.
But it reached approximately 2.0 mm/a III Tianjin urban area where a benchmark
subsided 38 mm between 1931 and 1951, averaging 1.9 mm/a. Since overpumping of
ground water had not began in this time, the rate of subsidence of the benchmark
may roughly represent the background value of recent crustal sinking in Tianjin urban
area. Since 1959, owing to overpumping of ground water, the rate of land subsidence
in Tianjin urban area rapidly increased, reaching 81.6 mm/a between 1970 and 1984.
The situation in Tianjin coastal area is similar to the urban center. In Tanggu,
with overpumping of ground water, the rate of land subsidence was greatly increased
since the mid-1970's, reaching 137 mm in 1984. Since 1985, strict measures were
taken to limit ground water pumping and land subsidence was reduced to 28 mm in
1988. The trend of land subsidence on the coast near Tanggu may be seen from the
land subsidence curve at Haihe Lock which is 3 km from Tanggu tide-gauge station.
Record at Tanggu Tide-gauge station (including Beipotai station) began in 1910.
Average rate of relative sea level rise was 1.77 mm/a between 1910-1937 when
ground water had not been exploited. This figure approximately indicates the sum of
eustatic sea level rise plus neo-tectonic sinking. But it is utterly incomprehensible that
according to tide-gauge record, the average rate of relative sea level rise was only
about 1.2 mm/a between 1959-1985 when large quantity of ground water was
pumped. The explanation lies in the fact that since 1959, correction for subsidence
has been made in tide-gauge records. During 1959-1985, the correction totals 129 em
or 47.8 mm/a. Also, 0 benchmark at Tanggu tide-gauge station sunk 48.9 cm between
1966-1985, or 24.5 mm/a. Therefore, during the last 30 years, the true rate ofrelative
sea level rise at Tanggu should be 24-48 mm/a.
In area of rapid land subsidence due to ground water overpumping, great
temporal and spatial variability in the rate of relative sea level rise should be noted.
With the increase in amount of ground water pumping, subsidence of 0 benchmark
at Tanggu tide-gauge station increased from 3.5 mm/a in 1966-1970 to 44 mm/a
between 1977-1985 and the rate of relative sea level rise must be correspondingly
increased. Drastic reduction of ground water pumping had reduced subsidence of the
benchmark to 4 mm between November, 1985 and October, 1986. Hence the relative
sea level rise should also decrease to about 5 mm (the sum of land subsidence plus
eustatic sea level rise). However, the low figure (4 mm subsidence) is only limited to
the site of tide-gauge station. The land subsidence in this period was much greater
(10-20 mm/a) in the whole area of the Tianjin New Port where the tide-gauge station
is located, also, Hangu and Dagong, a little north and south of Tanggu respectively,
are still subsiding at a rate of 100 mm/a. It is evident the rate of relative sea level rise
at Tanggu tide-gauge station is not true for other parts of the coast of Tianjin.
Therefore, in the risk assessment on future sea level rise, care should be taken in
using record of one key station as basic scenario for the coast of the whole delta.
The case of Shanghai is similar. According to record at Wusong station, the
average rate of sea level rise is 2.79 mm/a between 1956-1989, but tide-gauge record
has been corrected for land subsidence since 1922, the total amount of correction
;o~~
200
Dol ion
150
54 58 70 74 78 82 86 9'0 year
ft Beipotoi
56 year
em
330
320
Yongi ioogou
310
300
Fig. 3. Linear regression line of tide-gauge records in 28 Chinese stations listed in Table 1.
emt
100
Longkou
9(\
flnl , ,
54 5~
Vanta;
em Qingdao
250
240
230
'm~
". Shijiushuo
260
250
54
,
58 6'6
~~ 70 74 7~' 8'2 8~' g'oyear
Fig. 3. (continued)
em
220 Wusong
210
Fig. 3. (continued)
440
em
-10 Chiwan
-20
-30
70 74 78 82 86 year
em
190 Sanpanzhou
180
170
66 70 74 78 82 86 year
em
10 Huangpu
o
-10
66 70 74 78 82 86year
em
710 Macao
703
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6YO
25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 65 73 year
em
Sanzao
o
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-20
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Fig. 3. (continued)
Zhaipo
em
215
Weizhou
205
195
~~t
150
Haikou
140~-------- ____________________~'~~__~'__~~___
70
0:
~. ~.,~~
e-<;r-
~_~~~'~~'~~~__~'~
74 78 82
~
..
86
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90 year
Fig. 3. (continued)
reaching 87.7 cm between 1923-1963, or 21.4 mm/a. The great temporal variation of
rate of land subsidence at Wusong is shown in Fig. 3. In Shanghai urban area,
although the land subsidence has been essentially brought under control since 1965,
but subsidence is still considerable at Wusong where a benchmark sunk 6.8 mm/a
between 1975-1985. Therefore, the true relative sea level rise at Wusong in the last
20 years should be the sum of 2.79 mm plus land subsidence 6.8 mm, i.e., 9.59 mm.
Along the Huangpu River, a little upstream from Wusong, the rate of land
subsidence in several localities is about 10 mm/a. For Shanghai urban area, Guo
(1991) documented that between 1921-1987, the total amount ofland subsidence was
1.80 m, averaging 27.2 mm/a. According to the recent measurements at 265 spots in
128 km 2 area of Shanghai, mean rate of subsidence between 1978-1987 was 4.6 mm/a
(13.6 mm in 1987).
In Taiwan, Taixi on the western coast has the largest value of relative sea level
rise, 27.8 mm/a. This is also mainly due to overpumping of ground water for
aquaculture.
The example of Hongkong also illustrates the important role of human being in
local relative sea level. North Point station and Taipokau station are only 17 km
apart, but the former registers a rising sea level while the latter has a falling sea level.
The main reason for this discrepancy is that the former is located on newly reclaimed
land which is uplifting along an active fault zone (Yim, 1988).
The Zhujiang River delta is different from both the Huanghe River delta and the
Changjiang River delta in that it is crisscrossed by a complex set of active faults;
Quaternary sediment cover is thin (generally 20-30 m); withdrawal of ground water
is insignificant and the surface is dotted with many rocky hills. Therefore, in the
Zhujiang River delta, relative sea level changes are essentially determined by vertical
movements of active faults. Stations on sediment layer generally have rising sea level
but a few stations near or on rocky terrain register falling sea level (e.g., at Huangpu
and Chiwan).
Table 1. Relative Sea Level Changes at Major Tide-gange Station in China During the Last 20-80 Years
Station Period Rise (+) or fall (- ) Rate ( mllI/a)

Dalian 1970-1989 + 3.07
Huludao 1960-1989 + 1.86
Qinghuangdao 1960-1989 1.95
Tanggu, Beipaotai 1910-1936 + 1.77
Beipaotai 1937-1953 0.43
6 meter 1959-1985 + 1.20
Yangjiaoguo 1952-1986 1.20
Longkou 1961-1989 1.31
Yangtai 1960-1989 3.39
Qingdao 1952-1985 1.07
Shijiushuo 1968-1989 0.85
Lianyungang 1963-1985 1.86
Lusi 1969-1989 + 8.27
Wusong 1912-1936 + 2.50
1957-1983 + 3.00
Changtu 1960-1989 + 2.42
Kanmen 1960-1961 + 2.10
1963-1989 + 2.10
Sansha 1973-1989 + 1.10
Pintan 1967-1989 + 1.77
Xiamen 1958-1989 + 2.31
Dongshan 1960-1989 + 0.24
North Point, Hongkong 1962-1988 + 2.60
Taipokau, Hongkong 1970-1988 5.00
Chiwan 1971-1985 2.00
Sanpanzhou 1967-1984 + 0.39
Huangpu 1967-1985 0.69
Macao 1925-1973 0.09
Sanzao 1966-1985 + 3.28
Zhaipo 1959-1989 + 2.60
Weizhou 1960-1989 + 6.09
haikou 1976-1989 + 3.85
Keelung + 6.00
Taixi + 27.80
Hengchun + 0.20
Fugung 24.50
Note: Figures of 4 Taiwan stations after Liu, 1989.
The dominant influence of geotectonics on the relative sea level changes is vividly
shown in the contrast between the relative sea level in the Huanghe River delta and
the Changjiang River delta and their adjacent rocky terrain. The former are located
in subsiding basins; hence Tanggu and Wusong record rising sea level. On the
contrary, the latter are uplifting area of the Yanshan Mountains and the Shandong
Massif; hence, all 6 stations, including important ports of Qinghuangdao and Qingdao
have falling sea levels. In Taiwan, the great difference of relative sea level changes
between the east and west coast is striking. Influenced by the rapid uplifting of the
Coastal Range of Taiwan, Fugung (north of Taitung) on the east coast records a very
large rate offalling sea level (24.5 mm/a). By contrast, Taixi, located on the subsiding
west coastal plain and greatly affected by overpumping of ground water, has a rising
sea level amounting to 27.8 mm/a. Similarly, the relative sea level is rising at Keelung
(6 mm/a) in the north coast. The disparity may be attributed to the fact that Keelung
is in a subsiding area and that Keelung station is located on a pier which has recently
been tilted, whereas the coast near Hengchun is slowly uplifting (Liu, 1989; Liu,
1990). Two stations (Lusi and Weizhou), on the mainland coast north and west of
Taiwan Strait respectIvely, also record large relative sea level rise. Both stations have
quite unique local environment. Lusi is located on a sandy islet off the coast of
Jiangsu province and Weizhou is on a volcanic island near a deep fault with strong
vertical displacement.
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1) In the 32 stations listed in this paper, 20 stations have rising relative sea level,
but relative sea level in 12 stations is falling (about 1/3 of the total number of
stations). Influenced by local environmental conditions and human activities, relative
sea level changes vary greatly from place to place. Therefore, an average rate of sea
level rise has little significance in coastal disaster prevention and risk assessment.
2) Owing to the ignorance on corrections for land subsidence in tide-gauge
records, many authors have published low figures for the rate of relative sea level rise
at Tanggu (0.2-1.5 mm/a) and Wusong (0.2-2.0 mm/a). They departed greatly from
the actual situation and minimized the risk caused by future sea level rise, giving a
false picture of safety which is extremely harmful for evaluating future coastal
hazards and for formulating plans and measures for their prevention.
3) Relative sea level rise in China during the last eighty years is small, generally
1-4 mm/a. Usually high rate ofrelative sea level rise of more than 10 mm/a appears
in deltas and coastal plains and is largely caused by overpumping of ground water.
This is similar to other parts of the world, for example Bangkok in the Menam delta
(rate of sea level rise 15.6 mm/a between 1960-1982) (Milliman, 1989). Therefore,
to prevent future sea level rise and the resulting disaster, prime effort should be
made to limit ground water withdrawal.
4) The rate of eustatic sea level rise in China over the last eighty years is small,
about 1-2 mm/a. This agrees with figures given by many scientists (Ren, 1990).
Although there are many uncertainties in the prediction, it is generally agreed that
eustatic sea level rise over the next century will not exceed 60-100 cm, or probably
much less than this amount (Kennett, 1988, 1990; Morner, 1988, 1991; Pirazzoli,
1990).
5) It is hard to predict future trend of relative sea level changes in Huanghe
River delta and the Changjiang River delta, the two most important regions on the
coast of China, because in addition to eustatic changes, human activity plays a
dominant role in the relative sea level changes of these regions. As it is unlikely that
overpumping of ground water could be entirely stopped in the foreseen future,
current rate of land subsidence at Tanggu and Wusong will probably continue for
sometime. Therefore, the best estimate for rate of relative sea level rise at Tanggu
and Wusong over the next 25-50 years is about 12-16 mm/a and 8-12 mm/a
respectively, that is, a eustatic sea level rise 2-6 mm/a plus land subsidence 10 mm/a
for Tanggu, 6 mm/a for Wusong.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is most grateful to Dr. C. L. So and Wyss W S. Yim of University

of Hongkong, Prof. T. K. Liu of Taiwan University and Dr. C. K. Shao of Shanghai
Bureau of Water Conselvancy and many other Chinese colleagues for the help in
acquiring data and information for this paper. The author wishes to express special
thanks to Prof. Charles W Finkl of Florida Atlantic University who carefully
reviewed the manuscript and improved the English text. The help of Mr. Zhang Ren-
shun of Nanjing University III preparing sea level curves is also gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Aubrey, D. G. and ErneI)', K. O. (1986) "Relative sealevels of Japan from tide-gauge records", Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull. 97, 194-205.
Chen, She-peng (1990) "Some information on Quaternary environment changes from satellite image in
North China Plain", Quatemary Science 1990(1),51-63 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Chen, Xi-qing (1991) "Sea level changes since the early 1920's from the long records of two tidal gauges
in Shanghai, China", J. Coastal Research 7(3),787-799.
Emel)', K. O. and Aubrey, D. G. (1986) "Relative sea level changes from tide-gauge records of Eastern
Asia Mainland", Marine Geology 72, 33-45.
Emel)', K. O. and Aubrey, D. G. (1988) "Coastal neo-tectonic of the Mediterranean from tide gauge
records", Marine Geology 81, 41-52.
Emel)'. K. O. and You, Fang-llU (1981) "Sealevel changes in the Western Pacific with special emphasis on
China", Oceanologica et Limnologica Sinica 12(4),297-310.
Guo, H. C. (1991) "Causes and performance of the construction work for flood tide prevention in
Shanghai", in "Impact of Sea Level Rise on Cities and Regions, Marsilio Editori, Venice,pp. 150-156.
Kennett, J. P. and Barker, P. F. (1990) "Latest Cretaceous to Cenozoic climate and oceanographic
development in the Waddell Sea, Antarctica: an ocean-drilling perspective", in P. F. Barker, J. P.
Kennett et al. (cds.), Proceedings of Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 133, 937-960, Washington
D.C.
Liu, Chi-ching (1989) "Impact of crustal deformation on tide gauge records", Proc. Geol. Soc. of China
32(4),321-338.
Liu, Tsung-kwei (1990) "Neotectonic crustal movement in northeastern Taiwan inferred by radiocarbon
dating of terrace deposits", Proc. Geol. of China 33(1), 65-84.
Milliman, J. D., Broadus, J. M. , and Bable, F. (1989) "Environmental and economic implications of rising
sea level and subsiding deltas: the Nile and Bengal examples", Ambio 1(6),304-345.
Morner, Nils-Axel (1988) "Terrestrial variations within given energy, mass and momentum budgets;
palaeoclimate, sea level, palaeomagnetism, differential rotation and geodynamics", in F. R. Stephenson
and A.W. Wolfendale (eds.), Secular Solar and Geomagnetic Variations in the Last 10 000 Years,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 455-478.
Morner, Nils-Axel (1991) "Global eustatic sea level changes: causes, trends and perspective", in Abstract
of Papers, AAAS Annual Meeting 91, Washington D.C., February 14-19, 1991, p.23.
Pirazzoli, P. A. (1990) "Present and near-future sealevel changes: an assessment", in Paepe et al. (eds.),
Greenhouse Effect, Sea Level and Drought, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 153-163.
Ren, Mei-e (1990) "Recent development in study on global c1imaticchanges and sealevel rise", Scielltia
Geographica Sillica 10(3), 195-207.
SCOR WG'89 (1990) The Response of Beaches to Sealevel Changes:A Review of Predictive Models.
Shen, Yun-chi et al. (1986) "Characteristics of recent vertical defonnation in North China, Geodetic Lalld
Defonnalioll Survey 1986(3), 1-7, State Seismological Bureau, Beijing.
Wang, Zhi-hao (1986) "The sea level changes in 20th century", in China Sea Level Changes, China Ocean
Yim, W. W. S. (1991) "The analysis of tide gauge and storm surge data in Hong Kong, Hong Kong Meteo-
rological Soc. Bull. 1(1), 16-22.
Ying, Shao-fen et al. (1988) "Basic characteristics of recent vertical crustal movement of China Mainland",
Earthquake Research ill China 1(1), 1-8.
TIDAL FLATS IN CHINA
WANG Ying and ZHU Da-kui

Departmellt of Ceo and Oceall Sciences
State Pilot Laboratory of Coast and Island Exploitation
Nal/jing Ulliversity, Nanjing 210008, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Tidal flats in China occur on a larger scale and are associated with two different
types of coast. The total length of coastline represented by tidal flat is about 4000 km
long. The tidal flat coast is dominated by tidal processes and is often associated with
a large sediment supply.
Major tidal flats in China are developed along the fringing zone of the North
China plain where tidal range is about 3 m and the velocity of tidal currents is less
than that found in the estuaries. The tidal flats are between 3 to 18 km in width and
are much more extensive than in estuarine areas. Because the slope of the coast zone
is very gentle (the gradient is less than 1/1000), wave action is restricted to offshore
areas and tidal currents are the dominant dynamic processes on the flats. The tidal
flats along the East China Sea and the South China Sea are developed in narrow
embayments or other types of sheltered coasts. Fetch within such environments limits
the wind/wave interaction. Hence, tidal currents are, once again, the major agents
controlling sedimentary processes. Thus, major factors which control the development
of tidal flats are tidal dynamics, the gentle coastal slope, and the abundance of fine-
grained sedimentary material.
Silt is the major constituent of the deposits, ranging from fine to coarse silt. Very
fine sands and clays are also present on most tidal flats. All such sediments are
carried onto the flats mainly by the flood tidal current which brings material eroded
from the adjacent seabed; this process infers a landward transport. Sediments on tidal
flats in China, being fluvial in origin, have been supplied to the coastline during times
of lowered sea level by large rivers, such as the Huanghe (Yellow) River and the
Changjiang (Yangtze) River. In contrast, most of sediments on the tidal flats along
the Atlantic coast were laid down originally as offshore glacial deposits during lower
sea level stands of the last glaciation.
Tidal currents carry sediments in traction, saltation, and in suspension towards
the land. Velocities decrease because of friction from the intertidal zone seabed
(Wang, 1963, 1983; Evans, 1965). Thus, sediment grain size decreases on intertidal
flats from low water level towards high water level, and in the vicinity of deep waters.
Generally, flood tides attain higher velocities and have shorter duration than the
corresponding ebb. Furthermore, the extensive accretion on flats suggests that flood-
tide deposition has been dominant over ebb-tide erosion. Even though the flood tide
445
may be of longer duration, given the additional energy from waves, the flood tide is
still dominant. Micro-morphological features, such as ripples and small creeks,
exposed on intertidal flats during the passing of the ebb tide, reflect the last phase
of the ebb current.
Morphological, sedimentary, and benthic faunal zonations are typical features on
intertidal flats everywhere; which are a reflection of changes in tidal dynamics.
Zonations have been recorded in the sediment as ripple bedding, polygon cracks, a
mosaic of sandy coarse bedding, or as lenticular and other structures that are
intervened with primary structures of fine lamination and delicate bedding.
Sedimentary facies can be used to identify sedimentary environment of ancient
deposits.
II. CLASSIFICATION AND REGIONAL SETTING

Tidal flats in China can be classified into two major types: the plain type and the
embayment type, depending on their coastal setting. The plain type is developed on
a large scale and is distributed in lower reaches of large rivers and river deltas or
along the edge of coastal plains. Tidal flats associated with plains in the Bohai Sea
are the head of the Liaodong Bay near the mouth of the Liaohe River, and the Bohai
Bay and the Laizhou Bay in the vicinity of the modern Huanghe River delta. The
coastal plain along the Huanghai Sea is near the North Jiangsu coast where the
ancient deltas of the Huanghe and Changjiang rivers occurred. In the East China Sea,
the coastal plain of the Changjiang River delta and the estuary of the Hangzhou Bay
are under the influence of fluvial sediment influx. The embayment type is developed
in long, narrow, and rocky tidal inlets along the coasts of the East China Sea and
South China Sea. For example, the embayments in Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong,
Hainan provinces (Fig. 1). These embayments may have local sediments from small
rivers or from coastal erosion, but main agents of sediment delivery are flood tides
which erode the offshore sea-bed. In South China, under tropical and subtropical
climate conditions, most bay head environments and shallow waters formed behind
sand bars are dotted by mangrove forests. The mangroves have trapped particles of
silt and clay-size through the filtering action of their well-developed root systems. The
associated muddy flats have special features and unique sedimentary dynamics.
Tidal flats can be classified also into three types according to their characteristic
morphology and sedimentary features. This approach is especially important for
coastal plain flats that face the open sea, because the classification shows the
different levels of wave energy input in addition to the predominating effects of tidal
dynamics (Wang, Collins, and Zhu 1990). Coastal plain tidal flats are divided into:
i) Sand flat. The Wash of East England IS an example of an intertidal flat with high
wave energy influences. In China, a similar type of flat appears in the Xiamen Bay,
Fujian Province. ii) Silt flat. This well developed flat occurs along the northern part
of Jiangsu plain coastline facing the Huanghai Sea. A medium level of wave energy
stirs up sand and silt material offshore, and then transports the material onshore
through the action of flood currents. iii) Mudflat. This type is exemplified by the tidal
flats of the Bohai Bay. Tidal currents are the only predominant transport agents with
minimal wave influences, but with a large source of clay and fine silt size material
supplied by the Huanghe River. Only this kind of flat has a "Fluid mud" zone that
marks the mean high tide level. An abnormal type of boulder flat is developed in the
Arctic environment because of frequent of floating ice that is carried onto the flats
by storms and tidal currents (Dale, 1985).
Tida I Fla ts in China 447
Fig. 1. Location map of tidal flat

coasts in China.
Ll:E=~==~~~~=- ___ 0:!:.~~-==:l:~§::~~
A. Tidal Flats of the Plain Coast
This type of tidal flats is the most important one along the Huanghai Sea coast
north of the Hangzhou Bay and along the Bohai Bay coast of the Great Plain of
North China. This coastal area has subsided over 300 m since the beginning of the
Cenozoic and has been built out by huge volume of sediment brou~ht down to the
coast by several large rivers, notably the Huanghe and the ChangjIang rivers. The
great plain built up by these sediments extend onto the continental shelf at times of
low sea level, and was partly submerged during the postglacial transgression. At the
present, the Huanghe River and the Changjiang River continue to deliver sediment
to the coast and continental shelf, forming extensive coastal tidal flats in the Bohai
Bay and to the north of the Changjiang River.
1. Tidal Flats Along the Coastal Plain of the Bohai Bay
The Bohai Bay is located in the west of the Bohai Sea and with a water depth
less than 20 m. The center tip point of the arc-shaped gulf is located in Qikou where
it has a very gentle submarine coastal slope. The slope gradually increases on both
sides to the Haihe River mouth and towards the Huanghe River mouth (Wang, 1983).
In the Bohai Bay, waves are mainly wind-induced with very little swell. There are
strong waves during winter and spring, when northeast maximum wave height is 1.9 m.
During the summer and autumn, southeast and east waves predominate with average
heights in the order of 0.4-0.5 m. The effect of wave action on the tidal flat is weak
because the water is shallow during the period of the flood tide. The waves stir up
the sediment offshore which is then transported by tidal currents along the intertidal
flat. When NE wind waves reach a Beaufort Scale of 7, the turbid coastal waters can
be 30 km wide. In addition to tidal currents, there are also wind-induced currents
with velocities between 10 and 30 cm/s. These currents are important in carrying
suspended sediment as longshore drift, but cannot move sediment in a transverse
direction across the flat. Tides in the Bohai Bay are of the irregular semidiurnal type.
The tidal range is 1.65 m in average and more than 3 m in maximum, and the
minimum is 0.8 m around the mouth of the Huanghe River. Currents are rectilinear
along the coast. Flood currents dominate towards the east (65°_95° or 135°), except
at the Huanghe River mouth. Tidal periods are unequal; the ebb tide lasts 7 hand
the flood 4 h. As a result, the velocity of the flood is higher than the ebb, especially
on the intertidal flat. Maximum current velocities appear during the middle period
between high tide and low tide. The highest concentration of suspended particulate
matter (SPM) is found at the beginning of the flood tide when the water is shallow
and turbulent. The SPM concentration decreases to a minimum at high tide as the
water becomes deeper and less turbulent. During the ebb tide, the suspended
sediment concentration is low because of the long-lasting ebb period with lower
current speeds. As a result, the principal transport of sediment is by the flood tide
in a landward direction. Very fine sand and coarse silt are transported mainly as
traction load. Fine silt is transported in suspension in the bottom 20 em of the water
column, and clay in the upper part of the column.
The coastal plain profile of North China consists of three parts from land to sea.
They are: the salt marsh plain, intertidal flats, and the submarine coastal slope.
1) Salt marsh plain. The marsh plain is located above the maximum high tidal
level, landward of shell beach ridges (cheniers) or artificial banks. The plains are flat
and contain several lagoon depressions. Vegetation is sparse.
2) Intertidal flat. In the Bohai Bay, the width of the intertidal flat is generally 3-7
Ian, increasing toward the south to 16-18 km at the Huanghe River delta. The
intertidal flat can be divided into 4 geomorphological and sedimentary zones (Wang
et al., 1964). From land to sea, these are: the polygon zone, the inner depositional
zone, the erosional zone, and outer depositional zone (Table 1).
The polygon zone is located between lower high and maximum high tides with
its landward limit marked by a chenier. The zone is 70-80 m wide with slopes of
0.5-0.6 m/km. The characteristic sediment is greyish-yellow clay, with grey silt clay
1.5 m bellow the surface. The zone is only covered by water during the spring high
tide, and under dry conditions, polygonal desiccation cracks develop in the clay.
These average 10-50 cm in diameter with cracks that are 1-2 em wide, where there
is a freshwater influence, several grass species may grow such as Suaeda salsa Bunge,
S. glauac, Limonium sinensis Kumtie, Phragmites australis and so on.
The inner depositional zone consists of soft mud in the form of pools with an
average slope of 0.67 m/km. Clayey silt and clay deposit here during the flood tide.
The erosional zone occurs at about mid-tide level. In the northern Bohai Bay,
this zone is 500 m wide with a slope of 0.57 m/km.1t exhibits alternating laminae of
fine silt and clay, and the surface is eroded into an overlapping series of scours called
fish scale structures. These structures are 3-18 m long and 0.5 m wide and dip
seaward. Scarps between each layer of scales are 2 to 10 cm high and face the coast.
These are erosional forms produced by the ebb flow. In the middle part of the Bohai
Bay, the erosional zone is about 1000 m wide, with a slope of 0.42 m/km and consists
Tidal Fla ts in China 449
Table 1. The Zonation of the Tidal Flats of the Bohai Bay
Outer Inner
Zone depositional Erosional zone depositional Polygon zone
zone zone
Immediately Around mid-tide level Immediately Between lower high
Location shoreward below the and maximum
of the low lower high tidal level
tidal level tide level
Sandy silt flat Tidal channels follow ebb Mud pools Polygon field with
with wave current's direction, with wormhole;
Morpho-
logy or current overlapping fish scale Marsh (near
ripple erosional structures river mouth)
between channels or
elongated depressions
Sedi- Very fine Alternating laminate of fine Clayey silt Clay or silt clay
ment sand or silt and clay and clay
coarse silt
Tidal currents Tidal currents, mainly ebb Tidal currents, Tidal currents
Dyna- and micro- currents mainly and evaporation
mlCS waves flood due to solar
current heating
Deposition of Deposition during flood, Extensive Stable (deposition
Process thin layers erosion during ebb flow deposition, during maximum
over large mainly by tide, erosion
area SPM during storm)
of silty clay. Tidal creeks may be eroded into the mud by ebb tide currents. The
sediments are carried to the margin of the zone, mainly toward the sea where silt
settles in the outer depositional zone.
The outer depositional zone is present between the erosional and the low tide
level. It is approximately 1000 m wide and has a 0.5 m/km slope. The zone consists
of coarse silt and very fine sand with current ripple marks on the surface. The ripples
have a wavelength of 3-7 cm, with their steep slope facing seaward along the outer
part of this zone and shoreward along the inner part. In the middle part of the zone
they are symmetrical. At the low tide level, the ripples are overlapped by microwave
marks. Wave action always influences the low tide zone, where coarser material
(coarse silt and very fine sand)is deposited. The sediments become finer in both
offshore and onshore directions.
3) Submarine coastal slope. This slope is very gentle in the Bohai Bay. The
sediment becomes finer offshore, changing from a sandy silt at the low tidal level to
a very fine silt and clay in water depths of more than 10 m.
In the Bohai Bay, the principal source of sediment is the Huanghe River, which
plays a predominant role in the development of the tidal flat coast. The plume of
suspended river sediment is the major source of coastal sediment. "Fluid mud" is
deposited only in the upper part of tidal flats or in deep water. Several years of
monitoring indicated that the flats are areas of rapid sediment deposition with
relatively high deposition in the outer and inner depositional zones.
The tidal flat zonation is the result of the spatially-varying nature of different
tidal processes acting on the flat. Sediment type on the flat itself is controlled by the
velocity of tidal currents. On very low gradients, frictional drag is of importance. The
deposition of very fine sand and coarse silt on the lower flat, alternating laminae of
fine silt and mud on the middle flat and clay on the upper flat, reflects a settling lag
process (Postma, 1967; Wang et al., 1964) and a landward decrease in current velocity
as water depth decreases. Although the ebb current has a lower velocity than the
flood current, gravitational acceleration on the steeper middle flat promotes slight
erosion that is recorded by alternating clayey and silt laminae.
Seasonal changes in depositional processes are also important. In the Bohai Bay,
freezing starts in late November. Coastal ice up to a thickness of 0.5 m accumulates
mainly between the high and middle tide levels. Normally, there are alternating layers
of ice and mud. During March, the ice melts, leaving patches of mud on the flat.
During May and June, winds are predominantly northeasterly. The tidal flat
experiences erosion by strong wind waves, but sediment is redeposited during the low
energy conditions of the summer. With southeasterly and easterly winds, the flat is
covered by a yellowish fluid mud. Tidal flat zonation is apparent during spring and
autumn. Sediments on tidal flats of the Bohai Bay can be traced to two sources: a
tongue of fine materials extends from the Huanghe River and reaches Qikou, another
tongue from the Haihe River consists of silt and very fine sand; it also reaches
Qikou. Thus the bay head is the boundary of two sources of sediment. Heavy
minerals also indicate two sources. The Huanghe River sediments have a low heavy
mineral content of 1%, consisting of more stable minerals (garnet, zircon,
tourmaline) and an increasing proportion of secondary minerals (allochite, hematite).
All of the heavy minerals have lost their original crystal shapes and most unstable
minerals have disappeared, indicating that the sediments have been transported over
a long distance. Sediments from the Haihe River indicate an igneous rock and
metamorphic rock source from the nearby Yanshan Mountains. The mineral
composition of the Haihe sediment is distinctly different to that of the Huanghe.
2. Tidal Flats Along the Coastal Plain of North liangsu
Much of the North Jiangsu coast is developed on the pre-1855 delta of the
Huanghe River that lies immediately north of the ChangjIang River. The total
coastline of tidal flat in north Jiangsu is 883.6 km long. During historical times, the
Changjiang River was also present in north Jiangsu, entering the Huanghai Sea from
Qianggang. The two rivers brought in large quantities of sediment which has
influenced the geomorphology of the coast. Tidal processes are powerful along this
coast. Thus, 10-13 km wide tidal flats have been developed. Their average slope is
2/10 000 and their maximum width is 36 km.
The annual sediment discharge of the Changjiang River is 478 million tons,
which is only one-third that of the Huanghe River; at the present time most of this
sediment load is deposited in the channel at the river mouth. Sediment deposited
outside the river mouth channel is remobilized as longshore drift and carried towards
the south where it forms the tidal flats in the embayments of Zhejiang and Fujian
provinces. Longshore drift towards the north from the Changjiang River mouth
contributes little to the development of the North Jiangsu coast.
Along the coast of the Huanghai Sea, semidiurnal tides are predominant with
varying tidal ranges. The average tidal range is 1.5-1.7 m around the abandoned
Huanghe River mouth and along the southern part of the coast. The average tidal
range is 3.0-3.4 m in the middle part of the north Jiangsu coastline, with the
maximum tidal range of 6-9.28 m in the area of the Huangsha Yang Channel. Tidal
Tidal Flats in China 451
elevation determines the altitude of tidal flats and also has an effect on their width.
Flood currents, which last nearly 8-10 h, are faster than ebb currents. The wave
heights in this area are smaller (0.6-1.2 m) because the coast is protected by offshore
sandy ridges. Outside sand ridges, wave heights can reach 4 m. Along the North
Jiangsu coast, waves are also controlled by the wind. Northeast/north-northeastwaves
prevail during the winter season with maximum height of 2.9-4.1 m. Southeast waves
predominate during the summer, with maximum heights in the range of 1.7-3.2 m.
In the autumn, an easterly swell prevails.
On the tidal flats, maximum flood tidal current appears to be associated with
maximum sediment concentration which lags the tide by about one hour. Maximum
sediment concentration during the ebb also appears about one hour after the
maximum ebb flow. Tidal currents approach the coast at an angle of 20°_30°. The
angle increases to about 90° on the high tidal flat level, thereby giving rise to
rectilinear currents that flow onshore or offshore. During one tidal cycle, sediment
movement is mainly landward, and the area of highest deposition is in the middle
part of the flat between high tidal level and low high tidal level. The sediment
depositional pattern is parallel to the HHTL and LHTL boundaries and is charac-
terized by the highest sediment concentration seen on the flat (Zhu and Xu, 1982).
Wave action influences tidal flats through winnowing which increase sediment
concentration. These high concentrations promote the formation of sedimentary
structures such as ripples, inclined bedding, and storm records of scores and sandy
layers (Ren et at., 1983).
Basically, they are 3 zones on the intertidal flat. A mud zone forms the upper
part of the flat near the high tidal level. This zone is characterized mainly by fine-
grained material which forms silty-clay or clayey-silt thin laminae. A silt zone
dominated by ripples is located in the lower part of the intertidal flat, immediately
above the lower tidal level. This zone forms the widest part of the intertidal flat and
is composed of sediment deposited mainly by traction processes. These sediments fall
within the coarse silt or very fine sand size range. It is basically an homogeneous silt
deposit, with relatively thick laminae structures. A silt or silty-mud zone occurs over
the middle part of the intertidal zone. It is composed of transitional deposits derived
mainly from fine silt-sized material moving in saltation and clay-sized material which
is deposited from suspension. These two depositional mechanisms give rise to
alternating thin laminae. Erosional or micro erosional features are quite common in
this zone. They may indicate that this part of the flat has a steeper slope which tends
to focus the stronger ebb current activity. The zonation of the North Jiangsu coastline
is a typical example of an accretionary intertidal flat, with silt as the main textural
component over the entire range of the flat. This textural characteristic reflects the
dominance of tidal current processes. Even though the flat occasionally suffers from
storm wave erosion, it soon returns to a normal profile. Such a flat may be referred
as a "silt flat". Including the supratidal salt marshes or grass flat, four zones of
sedimentmy facies can be recognized. As the tidal flat extends and progrades towards
the sea, these zones gradually supersede one another. After a tidal flat reaches a
mature stage, an entire series of tidal flat sedimentary facies can be seen in the
stratigraphic cross-section. The section begins with a lower layer of sandy deposits
that is overlain by an upper layer of clayey deposits. The lower silt and fine sand
Geposits represent bed-load sediments carried by higher energy currents that are
produced near low tidal level. Sediments carried by these currents have been
deposited on the lower tidal flat between low tidal level and outer boundary of
submarine coastal slope. These sediments form base of the tidal flat deposit; their
thickness is about 15-20 m. Sandy material moves as traction load from the sub-
marine slope advancing towards land, gradually expanding the size of the tidal flat.
The upper layer clayey sediments are carried in suspension by tidal currents and
accumulate on the highest part of the tidal flat. Although the surface of tidal flat
reaches the spring high tidal level, it is only occasionally flooded by sea water. As a
result, the surface of the tidal flat cannot be built up further by material carried in
suspension. The maximum thickness of clayey deposits is usually 2-3 m and
equivalent to the height difference between the levels of middle tide and spring high
tide. There are intervals of suspended clayey deposits and of tractional bed-load
sandy deposits, giving rise to the alternating clay layer and sand layer deposits
observed in the section.
Heavy minerals that occur in the tidal flats of North Jiangsu can be classified into
two provinces. One is the Changjiang mineral complex, which consists of hornblende,
magnetite, apatite, hyposiderite, collophane, zircon and rock fragments. The first
three minerals are characteristic. The second province represents ancient Huanghe
mineral complex. Its characteristic minerals include hornblende, epidote, hyposiderite,
zircon, tourmaline, titanioferrite and garnet. Among these, zircon, tourmaline,
titanioferrite and garnet are the major and characteristic ones. Heavy mineral content
increases from the high tidal level (0.84%) to the low tidal level (5.1%).
Grass pollen species occur in the sediment of the high tidal level of tidal flats
(grass flat and mud flat). They decrease in number and species from landward to
seaward and are absent in the low tidal level. The pollen of tree species are
characteristic of low tidal level tidal flat deposits. This distribution implies that the
grass pollen is derived from a local source on the upper flat while the tree pollen
represents material carried by longshore drift from river sources such as the
Changjiang. This distribution indicates that sediment movement is from sea towards
land and that sediment transport in a seaward direction is rare. This pattern of
sediment movement is also evidenced by the distribution of microfossils. Tidal flat
sediments contain shallow water foraminifera species such as Ammonia, Elphidium
and Nonion, which are associated with 10.3% of planktonic marine species of the
genera Globigerina and Orbulina. In this area, these planktonic species typically live
in water depths of more than 200 m. There are also benthic species such as Bolivina
(7.2%) and Quinqueloculina which are typically associated with water depths of more
than 50 m in this area. The mixed species of deep water foraminifera with shallow
water forms also demonstrates that sediments move from deep water to the shallow
water environment of the flats (Zhu et at., 1986).
The sedimentary composition of tidal flats along north Jiangsu coast indicates
three sediment provinces: Changjiang River sediment, sediments derived from erosion
of the abandoned Huanghe River delta, and offshore submarine sand ridges.
In summary, the tidal flat of the plain coast of China has certain basic
characteristics of sedimentation conditions:
1) There are three zones developed on the tidal flat. Mud flat occurs at the high
tidal fevel; muddy silt mixed flat at the middle tidal level; and silt flat at the low tidal
level. The stratigraphic section consists of 2-3 m thick muddy deposits of the upper
layer and 10-15 m thick sandy deposits of the lower layer; a mixed muddy and sandy
deposit comprises a transitional middle layer.
2) Tidal flat deposits are homogeneous and rather stable with respect to their
grain size, chemical, mineral, and microfossil compositions.
3) Tidal flat deposits represent a large scale geologic feature; their total area can
range from tens to several hundreds of square kilometers. They occur mainly in areas
of subsidence and can be formed over several sedimentary cycles reaching a thickness
of several tens to hundreds of meters.
B. Tidal Flats of Embayment Coast
Different types of coastal embayments have developed along the coastal fault
zone of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. These coastal areas are associated with large
tidal ranges, more than 4 m in the average. Powerful tidal currents are found in most
embayments; current speeds can exceed 1 mis, but wave energy is weak because the
bays extend inland and are sheltered. The average wave height in these bays is less
than 0.5 m. Diluted fresh water from the Changjiang River flows to the south and
mixes with the long shore drift of the Zhejiang-Fujian coast; it can travel to the
northern part of Fujian coast during winter season. Thus, the powerful tidal
environment combined with fine-grained sediment supplied by diluted fresh water
provides requisite conditions for developing tidal flats in these embayments. This kind
of tidal flat coastline is about 1500 km long.
1. Tidal Flat in the Leqing Bay
The Leqing Bay is 40 km long from bay mouth to bay head with an average
water depth of 10 m. Total area of the embayment is 250 km 2 • The maximum tidal
range is up to 8.34 m. Rectilinear currents flow towards the bay and backwards to the
East China Sea. Flood current velocity is higher than that of the ebb flow. Sediment
concentration is 0.4 kg/m 3 • The average width of tidal flats in the Leqing Bay is 1.8
km, coastal slopes are 1/1000-1.4/1000, and the total area of tidal flats is 134.8 km 2 •
Tidal flats in this area consist of fine grain materials. The surface layer is a 20-40
em thick deposit of greyish yellow mud; the lower layer is a few meters to 10 m thick
deposit of greyish dark mud. The bottom sediment layer of the flats consists of fluvial
deposits of silt-clayey sands and shingles. The tidal flat deposits is of a homogenous
clay size with a medium diameter (Md) of 8.734>. There is no variation in grain size
and no apparent stratification. Heavy minerals in this tidal flat consist of two suites:
i) In the bay head area, there is a magnetite-epidote assemblage (88.9% and 5.3%).
The heavy mineral content there is relatively high but consists of relatively finer
grains supplied by local rivers whose influence is restricted to the bay head. ii) Other
parts of the bay are characterized by a hornblende-magnetite-epidote assemblage of
heavy minerals. This assemblage indicates that sediments in the large part of the
Leqing Bay are mainly from the sea and carried into the bay by tidal currents.
2. Tidal Flats of the Shacheng Bay
The Shacheng Bay is a narrow embayment 55.5 km in length and 1.85 km wide,
located in Fuding County of Fujian Province. Its total area is 11.23 km 2 with a water
depth of at least 15 m in most parts of the Bay. There are 6.05 km 2 of islands in the
bay, and the tidal area is 53.81 km 2 • The average tidal range is 4.10 m and the
maximum tidal range is 6.90 m. Rectilinear flood and ebb currents typically flow
through the bay with a velocity 1-1.5 m/s and a maximum velocity 2 m/s; the ebb
current is faster than flood. Wind waves in the bay are suppressed. Even during a
typhoon with wind speed of 8-10 Beaufort scale, the wave height is only 0.5 m.
Tidal flats in the Shacheng Bay are distributed in the bay head and along both
sides of the inlets, forming a discontinuous pattern. The width of tidal flats is less
454 Oceanology oC China Seas
than 1 Ian with a relatively steep slope in the order of 5/1000-10/1000. Surface
sediments consist of 30 cm thick yellowish mud. The lower layer is greenish-grey mud
of several meters thick, and the bottom layer consists of fluvial sand and gravel. The
tidal flat deposits in the bay can be divided into Two types, gravel-sandy and muddy.
The gravel-sandy type is distributed in the head of the bay and in mouths along
the sides of the bay. Sand content is 4.6%-65%; clay 22.5%-66%; small gravel 9.3%;
heavy mineral about 236 mg/IOO g. This kind of flat is the result of coastal streams
that discharge to the bay. They form small alluvial fans at stream mouths, that
combines with fine material carried into the bay by flood tidal currents.
The muddy tidal flat type is not influenced by stream discharges. Muddy tidal flat
deposits contain up to 57.5%-65% clay sizes sediment, 35%-42.5% of silt, and heavy
mineral content of about 7.3 mg/100 g. The grain size of tidal flat sediments
decreases from the bay mouth to the bay head. Heavy mineral contents of both types
of tidal flats in the Shacheng Bay are similar, iron minerals 62%, epidote 22.8%,
leucoxene 11 %, and zircon. All associated with secondary pyrite. These sedimentary
features indicate that fine materials of these flats were carried by tidal currents from
seaward areas. Mud is distributed all over the bay but is limited in quantity. The
present sedimentation rate of tidal flats in the bay is small.
3. Tidal Flats of the Xiamen Bay
The Xiamen Bay is a fault-subsided and submerged embayment with more open
water areas. Consequently, wind wave action predominates. Tides in the bay are
semidiurnal; the average tidal range is 4 meters. Maximum tidal range is 6.9 m and
the ebb current speed (0.89 m/s) is larger than that of the flood current (0.77 m/s).
The tidal flat area is 87.3 km 2 in the bay; its width is from several hundred meters
to 1 or 2 km. The flat slope is 1/1000-2/1000 and is dissected tidal creeks. Apparent
rhythmic changes of sediment strata can be seen in stratigraphic sections. There are
intervals composed of thin layers of mud and sand with rare occurrence of cross
bedding, reflecting wave or current-formed ripples. Tidal flat sediments are a mixture
of sands, silty sands, clayey sands, sandy clay, and clayey silt. There are gravelly sands
appear on tidal flat located on the erosional coast in the north. Sand is distributed
over wide areas and represent the major component of tidal flat deposits observed
in the bay. Sediments are derived from northern erosional coastal terraces, submarine
banks and coastal river discharges. Waves act on the deposits found on the high tidal
level of tidal flats while tidal currents have a major influence at the low tidal level.
These relationships give rise to an upper coarser and a lower finer facies of the
depositional profile. Heavy mineral content is relatively high in .the sediments, the
average content is 151.2 mg/IOO g reflecting a local sediment supply from the erosion
of bedrock embayment.
Sedimentary characteristics of embayment type of tidal flat can be summarized
as follows:
1) Sediments on the tidal flats are mostly muddy deposits. There is neither
apparent stratification of upper muddy or lower sandy layers, nor clearly surface
zonation between the high tidal and low tidal levels.
2) The multi-sediment sources of some tidal flats cause the changes of particle
size and composition over short distances.
3) Tidal flat deposits are small-scale formations. They are typically several meters
thick and occasionally reach thickness of more than 10 m. The area of sedimentation
is usually several square kilometers and up to several tens square kilometers.
III. CONCLUSIONS
Tidal flat development is controlled mainly by the quantity of sediment supply

and by tidal action. Whereever there is an abundant sediment supply in association
with a large tidal range, a tidal flat will develop. Whenever the sediment supply stops
or decreases, the tidal flat will succumb to wave and tidal current erosion. Thus
sediment supply is a major controlling factor, and different kinds of tidal action shape
different type of tidal flats with their own characteristic sedimentary structures.
1) River sediment dischar~e, coast erosion and offshore submarine erosion are
the processes that supply sedIment to the tidal flat. Most of the offshore-source
sediments have a fluvial origin, especially in China.
Sedimentary characteristics of the Zhejiang and Fujian coast tidal flats also
demonstrate that river discharge and offshore sediment supply are major factors for
developing these features. The fine sediments discharged by the Changjiang River are
transported as far as to the Shacheng Bay in the northern Fujian Province. In
contrast, the Xiamen Bay tidal flats are formed from local sediments supplied by
coastal rivers and weathered coastal bedrocks.
2) Tidal action affects the spatial scale and sedimentary characteristics of tidal
flats. If the sediment supply is sufficiently large, the width of the tidal flat is
dependent primarily on tidal range. The varying characteristics of the tide (e.g.,
spring tide or neap tide) and the accompanying tidal level influence the nature of
sedimentary structures (Zhu and Gao, 1985). In a sequence of neap tide to spring
tide, a thin sand wedge is deposited from seaward to landward. After several such
cycles, a mixed sediment layer of clay and sand forms between the tidal flats of A and
B as shown in Fig. 2. In the Bohai Bay, there is a 1.91 m difference between the
levels of spring high tide and neap high tide; the horizontal distance of the two levels
is 1500 m. Consequently, the entire tidal flat facies shifts in the distance. In the
Jiangsu coastal zone, the tidal level difference between spring high tide and neap high
tide causes a shift of 1900 m horizontally in the sedimentary facies of tidal flats. As
a result, a complex sedimentary structure is produced on the tidal flat. In Jiangsu, the
tidal current velocity of the spring tide is twice that of the neap tide. Sediments
deposited on the tidal flat during the spring high tide has a medium diameter of
Md =5.34>, and a medium diameter of 6.54> during the neap tide. This process fonns
laminae of clay and fine silt (Ren et al., 1984).
UI"...
spring tide
Uo -----------
I
I
I MHTL
LLTL MLTL ...7'--~-=:-==~=-
Fig. 2. Sediment function to the tidal levels. A is

Ll TL Low low tidal level
the upper limit of sand deposition during spring 1 sandy deposits 2 mud deposits
U1mu Flood current velocity of spring tide ML TL Mean low tidal level
high tide. B is the upper limit of sand deposition Ue Ebb current velocity of neap tide MHTL Mean high tidal level
during neap high tide. I Distance to low tidal level HHTl High high tidal level
In the Bohai Bay and J iangsu, the direction of flood tidal current changes as it
approaches coast flats. At low tide, it approaches the coastline at an angle of 20-30°
relative to the tidal current direction. This angle increases to 40° at the middle tidal
level, and to 70°_80° during the upper tidal level, i.e., almost perpendicular to the
coast. Similar results have been observed on the tidal flats in the Wash (Evans, 1965).
Changes in the direction and velocity of tidal currents influence sediment content,
that promotes the zonation of three textural types, i.e., a muddy flat, a muddy and
sandy mixed flat and a sandy flat in the Jiangsu area (Zhu and Gao, 1985).
3) Tidal flat sedimentary structures reflect the range of environmental variation
in the coastal zone. The study of tidal flat will yield new understandings for the
interpretation of ancient tidal flat facies and for the management and utilization of
modern tidal flat environments.
This project was supported by National Science Foundation of China. Project
coding: SCIEL21192105.
REFERENCES
Dale, E. 1. (1985) Physical and Biological Zonation of Intertidal Flat at Frobisher Bay, in N.W.T. 14th
Arctic Workshop, Nov. 6-8, 1986, Halifax, pp. 180-181.
Evans, G. (1965) "Intertidal flat sediments and their environments of deposition in the wash", Quart. 1.
Ceol. Soc. 121, 209-245.
Postma, H. (1967) "Sediment transport and sedimentation in the environment", in LAUFF (ed.), Estuaries,
AAAS Publication 83, pp. 158-199.
Rcn, Mci-c, Zhang, Ren-shun, and Yang, lu-hai (1983) "The influence of stoml tide on mud plain coast",
Marine Ceol. alld Qua/emary Geol. 3(4), 1-24.
Ren, Mei-e, Zhang, Ren-shun, and Yang, lu-hai (1984) "Sedimentation on tidal mudflat in Wanggang area,
liangsu Province, China", Marille Science Bulletill 3(1),40-54.
Wang, Ying (1983) "The Mudflat coast of China", Calladian J. of Fisheries alld Aquatic Sciences. 40
(Supplemcnt I), 160-171.
Wang, Ying, Collins, M. B., and Zhu, Da-kui (1990) "A comparative study of open coast tidal flats: the
Wash (U.K.), Bohai Bay and West Yellow Sea (Mainland China)", Proceedillgs of International
Symposiul'Il 011 the Coast Zone, pp. 120-130.
Wang, Ying and Ke, Xian-kun (1990) "Cheniers on the east coastal plain of Olin a", Marine Geology 90,
321-335.
Wang, Ying and Zhu, Da-kui (1990) "Tidal flats of Olina", Quatemary Sciences 12,291-300.
Wang, Ying and Zhu, Da-kui, Gu, Xi-he, and Chuai, Cheng-qi (1964) "The characteristics of mudflat of
the west coast of Bohai Bay", in Abstracts of Theses in the Annual Symposium of Oceanographical
and Limnological Society of China, 1963, Wuhan.
Zhu, Da-kui, and Gao, Shu (1985) "A mathematical model for the geomorphic evolution and sedimentation
of tidal flats", Marine Sciellce Bulletin 4(5), 15-21 (in Chinese).
Zhu, Da-kui, Ke, Xian-kun, and Gao, Shu (1986) "Tidal flat sedimentation of liangsu coast",!. ofOceano-
graphy of Huallg/wi alld Bohai Seas 4(3), 19-27 (in Chinese).
Zhu, Da-kui and Xu, Tin-guan (1982) "The coast development and exploitation of middle part of liangsu
coast", Acta Scelltiarum University Nankinesis 3, 799-818 (in Chinese).
STRATIGRAPHIC MODELS OF BARRIER-LAGOON SYSTEMS IN
THE COASTAL ZONES OF CHINA
LI Cong-xian and WANG Ping

Department of Manne Geology, Tongji University
Shallghai 200092, China
I. INTRODUCTION
The barrier-lagoon systems (BLS) cover 13% of the coastline in the world (Leontjeev,
1960), but more than 20% in some provinces of China (Zhuang et ai., 1989). It is
rational to deduce that BLS should also be widely distributed during the geological
past. The BLS is favorable for the generation and preservation of oil and natural gas
(Shepard, 1960) and have become important exploration target. It is useful to
establish the stratigraphic models for the identification and prediction of BLS in
stratigraphic sequences.
Some BLS classifications have been put forwards from different point of view.
Shepard (1973) suggested a classification depending on the climate zones where the
BLS are located. Leontjeev (1960) classified lagoons into enclosed, and bay-lagoon
types according to the stages of barrier development and lagoon enclosure. Thorn
(1983) proposed a stratigraphic classification of BLS based on postglacial
transgressions and regressions.
The study of the BLS in areas of the Luanhe delta, Changjiang (Yangtze) delta,
Shandong Peninsula, and Liaoning, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangxi provinces (Li et
at., 1983, 1984, 1986, 1991; Chen et at., 1984; Fu et at., 1986; Zhuang et ai., 1983,
1987, 1989; Wang el al., 1979; Cai and Cai, 1984) shows that the BLS in China
distribute in different climate zones and in various developing stages. Only in process
of transgression and regression can BLS be superimposed, forming different
depositional sequences.
The stratigraphic models of BLS proposed in this paper are based on the
observations on the BLS in the coastal zones of China, with considerations of above-
mentioned classifications.
II. STRATIGRAPHIC MODELS
A. Transgressive 'lYpe BLS

Transgressive barrier-lagoon systems are found in the northern flank of the
Changjiang delta (Li el ai., 1991), the West Lake of Hangzhou (Wang et ai., 1979),
and some places of continental shelf in China (Gen, 1982; Li, Chun-chu el ai., 1986).
The underlying strata of the transgressive BLS belong to the terrestrial facies, which
457
§ Forams Other
Microfossils diversity
]~-=~~~~S~fu~ fossils Facies
Freshwater
o facies
5 ::=c- Regressive
.. .:..:-::: 7 2-3 0.9 lagoon
facies
7-22 1.6
10 =_= 6
- 2 5 0.4
== 5 - 1.2
§
15 - 4 6-10 0.9 o Bay
facies
-
-=~ =. 3 1. 3
~rm
~U
Q 20 __ 5 -23
0/ Fig. 1. Transgressive and regressive
barrier-lagoon system in the West
2 ~ ~
=- 3-6 0.5 QO® Lake, Hangzhou (after Wang et
al., 1979). 1, sand with angular
25~;+--+~~-~~-+-+--+----=~=----1 Transgressive
gravel; 2, gravelly sand; 3, silty
n 1
~ @ CD 2-4 0.4 ~ l:a~o: clay; 4, dark grey clay; 5,
artificially disturbed layer; 6,
Ammonia tepUla (Cushman); 7,
30_ 0 Elphidium nakanokawaese
(d'Orbigny); 8, PseudonollXelia
-to=:;:o-:.':'o°l----I---------,I--f--+---=-----tTerrestrial
variabilis; 9, Trochammilla inflata;
~ facies 10, Cribrollollioll sp.; 11,
35 ;,.,,0 Hoplophragmoides canariensis
JA i,J 1 C32 1#==.:=.#13 t====1 4 fIIIIIII[]] 5
(d'Orbigny); 12, Corbicula japonica
salldaiformis Yokoyama; 13,
Sin ocyth eridea latiovata; 14,
~6 ®7 W8 ~9
W ~ 10 shieldform fossils 15, Centropyxis;
16, Oospore membranes of Chara;
f;; 11
~12 013 o 14 0J 15 17, diatom; 18, fish bone; 19,
echinoid spine; S, number of
@16 0 17 stP 18 /19 foraminifera species; Hs, diversity
of foraminifera.
consist of greenish grey and tan stiff silty clay in the Changjiang delta and of tan stiff
sandy clay and gravelly sand in the West Lake (Fig. 1). The overlying bed is
characterized by abundance of foraminifera includmg typical marine species and
belongs to the marine-prodelta faCies in the Changjiang delta, to the bay facies in the
West Lake, and to the submarine facies on the continental shelf. The number and
diversity of foraminifera species increase upwards, suggesting that the lagoon have
progressively wider connection with adjacent sea (Fig. 1).
The transgressive BLS usually appear in group and are arranged en echelon. For
example, four sets of transgressive BLS have been identified in the Changjiang delta
(Li et aI., 1991). A similar multiplicity of the transgressive BLS is also found in the
Kargeninian Bay of the Black Sea (Zenkovich, 1967).
St.-atig.-aphic Models of fianier-Lagoon Systems 459
Zenkovich (1957) and Hoyt (1967) pointed out that the formation of the coastal
barrier is due to the breakup of beach ridges away from the land to form barrier
islands when the sea level is rising. The formation of the barrier islands makes the
coastline stable at the given place for a short time. The appearance of the
transgressive BLS might only represent a short-time stop of transgression, but it does
not mean a pause of sea level rise.
B. Regressive 1Ype BLS
Regressive Barrier-lagoon systems are most widely distributed in the coastal zone
of China, such as the BLS in the Diaolongzui of Yexian, Shandong Peninsula
(Zhuang et al., 1983, 1987), in the Luanhe delta (Li et al., 1983), and in the upper
portion of the postglacial strata of the West Lake, Hangzhou.
The underlying strata of the regressive BLS are of marine facies which consist
of grey mud (in the West Lake) or dark grey sandy silt (in Yexian and Rongcheng
counties, Shandong Province), and is characterized by abundant foraminifera with
high content of typical marine species, such as Bllccella frigida, Elphidillm advenllm,
E. simplex, E. magellanicum, Quinquoloculina seminula etc.
The lagoon sediments are grey silty clay and sandy silt, containing euhaline
foraminifera such as Ammonia beccarii var., A. conferti tests and bivalve mollusc
shells, e.g., Meretrix linnaells, Macoma incongnua, Mya arenaria japonica, Noverita
didyma etc. In the upper portion of the lagoon facies, the species and diversity of
foraminifera obviously reduce, and fresh-brackish water ostracoda, e.g., Candeniella,
co-exists with diatoms (Fig. 2). This indicates the graduate enclosure of the lagoons.
The barriers are composed of low-angIe cross bedded sand and gravelly sand, and
have upward-coal'sing vertical sequences.
--NW
Drill-) Drill-2 DriU-3
Fig. 2. Regressive barrier-
lagoon system in 'L1oyuan
area of Rongcheng Omuty,
Shandong Peninsula. I,
barrier sand with gravel; II,
semi-closed lagoon mud; lIT,
bay-lagoon sandy clay; IV, -12 =-=.-.:::-=.-
bay sandy silt with clay; V,
fluvial gravelly sand, 01 Gill ~IJI CZJ IV
alternated by stiff sandy clay;
VI, terrestrial sandy clay; VII, G'l rnm VI WJvn
Bedrock.
The overlying strata of the regressive BLS are usually tan sand clay of fluvial
facies or well sorted fine sand of eolian facies. The regressive BLS are underlain by
marine deposits and overlain by terrestrial ones, with marine influence decreasing
upward.
c. Stationary 1Ype BLS
The stationary barrier-lagoon systems are very common in the Shandong

Peninsula (Zhuang et al., 1989), Liaoning Peninsula (Fu et al., 1986), Guangdong
Province (Li et aI., 1986), and Guangxi Province (Li et aI., 1987). They lie on
terrestrial strata, and the overlying layers are also of terrestrial facies. The stationary
regressive BLS record the transition from transgression to regression. The sequences
in lagoons usually consist of swamp sediments rich in organic matter, with some peat
layers, and no indication of shallowing or deepening of water.
The stationary BLS may be divided further into subtypes of normal stationary,
superimposed stationary, and relative stationary. The northern flank of the
Changjiang delta may be considered as an example of the superimposed stationary
BLS. The thickness of the BLS near the boundary of maximum transgression is much
greater than that of other three seaward sets of BLS (Li et ai., 1991). Consequently,
the BLS near the boundary of maximum transgression should be formed under the
circumstances when sea level rise synchronizes with sediment accumulation. The
relative stationary BLS are found in Weisha (outer barrier) of the Beihai City,
Guangxi Province, where barrier sand and lagoon mud inter-fringe each other (Li et
ai., 1987).
D. Locally Transgressive BLS
The locally transgressive BLS are characterized by superposition of lagoonal

deposits by barrier sand. Sometimes lagoonal sediments even outcrop on the seaward
side of a barrier, demonstrating landward moving of the barrier. An example is the
barrier-lagoon system in Dashipo area of the Rongcheng County, Shandong
Peninsula. This barrier-lagoon system is built on weathered granite and consists of
barrier sand lying on dark-brown and organic-rich la900nal clay. A few euhaline
foraminifera such as Ammonia beccarii var were found. 4C datings at the bottom and
top of the lagoonal deposits are 6160±80 a B.P. and 4060±70 a B.P., respectively
(Fig. 3). Similar facies assemblage of BLS has been reported in the Dianbai County,
the western Guangdong Province, where locally transgressive Barrier-lagoon systems
of Pleistocene and Holocene ages exist (Li, Chun-chu et ai., 1986).
Fig. 3. Locally transgressive

barrier-lagoon system in Dashipo
area, Shandong Peninsula. 1,
barrier sand; 2, lagoon sandy mud;
3, bedrock; A, 4060±70 a B.P.; B,
6160±80 a B.P.
The locally transgressive BLS may be transformed from transgressive, regressive

or stationary types, thus various vertical sequences are formed. In Fig. 4, the
sequences A, Band C are created by transformation from the regressive BLS into
the locally transgressive type; the sequence D shows that the locally transgressive
BLS is derived from stationary type; the sequence E is a result of the change of a
transgressive BLS.
The formation of the locally transgressive BLS in China is mainly resulted from
the decrease in sediment'input. For instance, in the Shandong Peninsula, the sedi-
Stratigraphic Models of Barrier-Lagoon Systems 461
~
...... Barrier facies ~..
....• , ..
_.~
.-
--
lagoon faCIes
. -
-.............
-
.-
Barrier facies
Lagoon faCIes
:::..:.::.-:
~- =
Barrier facies
Lagoon facies
..< Delta plain facies .-- ---
Fig. 4. The facies sequences ,c,
. -.:.'.. '_ .... Delta front,
.. c c· Delta front
'-.-, f . ~...
.
Subman~e or'
of the locally transgressive :.:.~-, -' facie; . ~". aCIe5 . .... bay faCies
barrier-lagoon systems (after _-: Prodelta facies :- Prodelta faCies C
Li et af., 1991, rerrinted by A B
permission of Elsevier Science
~
Publishers B.Y.). 1, terres- facies _. Barrier facies
trial; 2, barrier-lagoon; 3, _ ,Lagoon
littoral; 4, neritic; 5, barrier; facies = facies 0 1 ~2 ~ 3 11111111111114 05
6, lagoon; 7, delta plain; 8, E c:J6 1237 [338 D 9
delta front; 9, prodelta.
ment supply for coastal sand barriers by rivers has been reducing progressively and
even extincted for some rivers during the last 30 years (Zhuang et aI., 1989). Mining
of beach sand and the sand in lower reaches of rivers is another important factor that
reduces the sediment input to the coastal zones and favors the formation of the
locally transgressive BLS. The shifting of the main distributary in the Luanhe delta
leads to the formation of the locally transgressive BLS at abandoned distributary
mouths. The variation of sediment supply in flood and drought seasons usually bring
about the creation of locally transgressive BLS near the month of the main
distributary in the Luanhe delta (Li, 1985).
III. DISTRIBUTION OF BARRIER-LAGOON SYSTEMS IN COASTAL ZONES
OF CHINA
The geological model of barrier-lagoon systems along the coast of China are
summarized in Fig. 5a. The ideal distribution model of different types of BLS in a
section perpendicular to the coastline is shown in Fig. 5b. The transgressive type
occurs on the continental shelf and in the lower part of postglacial strata in broad
coastal and deltaic plains, and does not exceed the boundary of maximum
transgression. The BLS present in the upper part of Holocene strata between the
coastline and the boundary of maximum transgression. The stationary type distributes
in the narrow zone of maximum transgression. The locally transgressive type would
be associated with anyone of the three above-mentioned types. Thus the ideal or
complete distribution model of BLS may be established.
It must be pointed out that the ideal distribution model of different BLS may co-
exist in one region, but could hardly be detected in a single section as shown in Fig.
5b. However, in the West Lake of Hangzhou there exists a transgressive BLS in the
lower part and a regressive BLS in the upper part with bay deposits between them
(Fig. 1).
The distribution of barrier-lagoon systems in the coastal zones of China depends
on the sediment supply which is in turn related to the tectonic background. The
coastline of China cuts through several tectonic subsidence and uplift belts. Most
rivers, such as the Changjiang, Huanghe (Yellow), Liaohe, and Luanhe rivers,
debouch to the coastal zones of subsidence belts. Annual suspended load of rivers
entering such coast zones is about 1627.6x109 kg, covering 94% of the total load.
The average value of suspended load per kilometer of coastline in subsidence belts
is about 492.5 X 106 kg (Table 1). Thus, broad strandplains with 20-30 m thick post-
Type Section Example

b
Qilihai Jlebei
Changjang
Delta
Weisha.
Guangxi
Fig. 5. Geological model of the barrier-lagoon
systems (a) and their distribution (b) ill the coastal
zones of China (after Li et al., 1991, reprinted by
Zeotao.
Guangdong
permission of the Elsevier Publishers BV). 1, barrier
Shuidong. facies; 2, terrestrial facies; 3, lagoon facies; 4,
Guangdong marine facies; I, transgressive BLS; II, regressive
BLS; III, stationary BLS; IV, locally transgressive
BLS; A, boundary of maximum transgression; B,
a coastline.
Table 1. Distribution of Annnal River Discharge and Suspendcd Load in Snbsidcnce and Uplift Bclts
along the Coast of Chinaa
Subsidence belt Uplift belt

Total value
Value % Value %
Drainage (10" km2 ) 3.22 75.94 1.02 24.06 4.24
Discharge (109 m 3) 961.28 67.02 473.06 32.98 1434.34
Susp. load (10 9 kg) 1627.61 93.96 104.71 6.04 1732.32
Length of coast (km) 3305 17.63 15444 82.37 18749
Dischargelkm (10" 1113) 290.86 30.63
Susp. loadlkm (10" kg) 492.47 6.78
• After Li el af., 1991, reprinted by permission of Elsevier Publishers B.V.
glacial strata are formed, which provide favorable condition for the development of
ideal distribution model of BLS in coastal sections. However, in the main portion of
great river deltas, such as those of the Changjiang and Huanghe rivers, the sediments
Stratignlphie Models of Ranier-Lagoon Systems 463
transported by the rivers are very large in quantity and very fine in grain size and
thus are not favorable for the formation of BLS. Numerous drilling cores in the
ancient Changjiang and Qiantangjiang estuaries have not encountered the BLS,
it seems that the paleo-valley is an unsuitable environment for BLS formation.
The rivers discharging into the coastal zones of uplift belts are mainly medium
and small rivers except the Zhujiang (Pearl) River. Their suspended load makes up
less than 10% of the total (Table 1), and every kilometer of the coastline receives
only about 6.8 x 106 kg of sediment per year, seventy times lower than that from the
subsidence belts. High content of sand, sinuous coastline, and strong waves are
profitable conditions for the BLS generation. For instance, the BLS in the Shandong
Peninsula and in the Guangxi Province comprise 21.8% and 20% of the total
coastline, respectively (Li et al., 1987; Zhuang et al., 1989).
In uplift belts, limited sediment supply results in narrow coastal plains with thin
postglacial strata, and the stationary and locally transgressive BLS are mainly
developed. In areas adjacent to subsidence belts, where alongshore transportation of
sediments lead to a rapid accumulation, forming broad strandplains, various types of
barrier-lagoon systems are observed. The ideal distribution model may develop, such
as those in the southwestern and northwestern Shandong Peninsula as well as in the
Luanhe delta. This suggests that the transitional areas between subsidence and uplift
belts are the optimistic areas for the formation of BLS.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
1) Depending on the stratigraphic position, facies relationship, and nature of

overlying and underlying strata, the stratigraphic types of barrier-lagoon systems have
been established for the coastal zones of China. They are transgressive, regressive,
stationary and locally transgressive types.
2) The ideal distribution models of barrier-lagoon systems on a transect
perpendicular to the coastline has been found. The transgressive barrier-lagoon
system tends to occur in the lower part of postglacial strata, while the regressive type
in the upper parts, marine beds in between them, and the stationary system in the
narrow zones near the boundary of maximum transgression.
3) Various types of barrier-lagoon systems may develop in subsidence belts and
in transitional zones between subsidence and uplift belts, with possibilities of
occurrence of ideal distribution model. Whereas in uplift belts the stationary and
locally transgressive barrier-lagoon systems are dominant.
4) Preliminary study shows that the stratigraphic models of barrier-lagoon
systems summarized for the coastal zones of China are also suitable for the coastal
zones of SE Australia and for the Paleozoic strata in the Gangsu, Ningxia and Inner
Mongolia provinces in China (Cai and Li, 1992; Li et al., 1992). The stratigraphic
models of barrier-lagoon systems should further be examined.
V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express thanks to their colleagues for field
observations and laboratory analyses. This project is supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China.
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DYNAMIC GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS OF SOUTH CHINA COAST
YUAN Jia-yi
Department of Geology, Z/lOflgshan Ufliversity
Gaungzhou 510275, Chula
ZHAO Huan-ting, LV Tie-song, SONG Chao-jing, and ZHANG Qiao-min

South Chula Sea IlIStitute of Oceanology, Academia Siflica
Gua/lgz/lOu 510301, Chula
I. CONDITIONS FOR DYNAMIC GEOMORPHIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE

SOUTH CHINA COAST
Geomorphy is the product of endogenic and exogenic processes on the earth surface.
Dynamic geomorphology mainly studies the formation and evolution of geomorphic
features under exogenic forces. This paper concerns the dynamic geomorphy of the
South China coast since the Atlantic Transgression.
A. Regional Geology and Landform
The coast of South China, including the coast of Guangdong, Guangxi and
Hainan provinces, has a coastline of 9240 Ian, of which the coastline of 1690 islands
is 4420 Ian. Geologically, the mainland and the northern Hainan Island belong to the
South China Fold System, and the southern Hainan Island and the Xisha Islands to
the South China Sea Platform. The Nansha Islands may be similar to the Xisha
Islands geologically. The coast of South China is made up of metamorphic rocks of
Paleozoic Era, clastic and igneous rocks of Mesozoic Era, and basalt and clastic rocks
of Cenozoic Era. Rifting, block faulting, differential uplifting and subsidence well
developed. Elevated mountains and hills and subsided lowlands and bays appear
alternatively in the coastal zone. The Zhujiang (Pearl) and Hanjiang river deltas are
located in fault subsidence zones and exhibit alternative sediments of continental and
marine facies formed during the two transgressions in 37 000-24 000 a B.P. and
8000-5000 a B.P., and one regression in 2 4000-8000 a B.P. Seawater transgressed
to the foot of coastal hills and platforms in the South China coast zone during the
maximal transgression of the post-glacial period (7500-5000 a B.P.) formed drowned
valleys, bays, headlands, and islands, as well as the curved coastline.
B. Exogenic Forces
The runoff and sediment discharges of rivulets running into the sea are small, but
the discharges of the Zhujiang and Hanjiang rivers are much larger. According to
investigation reports in 1986, sediment discharge from the coastal zone of
Guangdong, Hainan and Guangxi averaged 1.13600x108 t/a, which means some
1.76x104 t of sediment was discharged into the sea in every 1 km of coastline. Tidal
465
waves alongshore are in the forms of mixed tide, semi-diurnal tide and diurnal tide.
The mean tidal range is mostly less than 1.5 m and locally 1.5-3.0 m. The northeast
Beibuwan Gulf has a higher tidal range of 3.0-3.5 m. The maximum tidal range is
usually related with storm tide, whose maximum range is 6.41 m in Tieshangang,
Guangxi and 5.13 m in Zhanjiang, Guangdong. The tidal current velocity is mostly
low (0.5-1.0 m/s), and a current velocity greater than 1 m/s is associated with
moderate tidal range. The coast of the southwest Hainan has the current velocity
above 1.5 m/s. Althou~h the Qiongzhou Strait has a low tidal range, it has a
maximum current velocIty as high as 2.0-3.0 m/s because of the necking effect.
The NE monsoon is dominant in fall and winter; the SE and SW monsoons in
spring and summer. Typhoons from the West Pacific and the South China Sea appear
mainly from May to November. The annual typhoon landing averages 12.7 times for
Guangdong (including Hainan) and 2.3 times for Guangxi. The contour lines of the
mean annual wind velocity are parallel to the coastline. The wind velocity is 4-6 m/s
between the east Guangdong and the east Leizhou Peninsula and for the west coast
of Hainan, and 2-3 m/s for the east coast of Hainan and the coast of Beibuwan Gulf.
Mean annual occurrence of gale (>8 scale) is 91 days in the Nan'ao Island of the
east Guangdong, 54 days in the Shangchuan Island off the Zhujiang River Mouth,
and 50 days in the Xisha Islands. In typhoon the radius of >6 scale gale may be
several hundreds of kilometers. The wind velocity of more than 48 m/s was recorded
in Qionghai of Hainan during the No. 7314 typhoon.
Around the South China mainland, a narrow longshore current flows from the
east to the west within the 20 m isobath all the year. This is a low salinity geostrophic
flow (POL, 1973). So the longshore transport is mainly westward. The direction of
the longshore current is variable around the Hainan Island.
The direction of dominant waves is influenced by monsoons. Prevailing wave
directions are E and SEE in the coast of east Guangdong, SE off the Zhujiang River
Mouth, and more variable off Hainan and near the islands of the South China Sea.
The annual mean wave height is 1.4 m in the Xisha Islands; 1.1 m off the east
Guangdong and decreasing westward, and low (0.53-0.6 m) off Hainan and in the
Beibuwan Gulf. The maximum wave heights are related to typhoon. The highest one
ever reported was 10.4 m in the Henglan Island, Hongkong.
II. DYNAMIC GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS
The coast of South China has seven types of dynamic geomorphic system, i.e. the
systems of river delta, drowned valley, headland-bay, barrier-lagoon, tidal flat, dished
sand islet and sag on coral reef, and erosional trough and tidal delta in strait. These
systems also distribute extensively in other coastal zones.
A. River-Mouth Delta System
The main river-mouth dynamic agents are runoff, tidal current, salt water wedge,
and wave. The landform development is characterized by the evolution of the delta
and its distributaries. The Zhujiang River mouth (Zhao, 1990) is an example. It has
a strong runoff (mean annual discharge of 10 525 m 3/s, annuaf incoming seawater of
3320x 108 m 3 in 1956-1979), weak tide energy (mean tidal range of 0.86-1.60 m), and
low silt content (0.1-0.3 kglm 3 in average). The mean annual discharge of suspended
load was 8745 X 104 t in 1955-1980. The bed load discharge was estimated as 9OOxl~ t
yearly, more than 90% of which was issued in the flood period. The accumulation is
Dynamic Geomorphic Systems of South China Coast 467
significant in the flood period. The waters, from upstream to sea, can be divided into
three parts, namely, the runoff in radial distributaries, the mixed water in the
Zhujiang River Mouth, and the open sea water on the outer continental shelf. It
forms a dynamic system consisting of, in the direction from the land to the sea, main
river stem, delta and distributaries, delta front, estuaries, and prodelta areas. Estuary
and delta coexist.
In the Zhujiang River delta, beds of distributaries undulate in the amplitude of
5-15 m. Distributary beds in the lower delta are higher than those in the upper delta
because of the sediment accumulation caused by bifurcating, effluent dispersing, flood
wave flattening, currents meeting, and salt-water wedge intruding. The accumulation
appears in flood period and the erosion in low water period, but in a long term the
accumulation is dominant. Distributary channels are of straight or slightly curved
shape and usually have sandbars. The erosion and siltation are generally in the range
of 0.5-1.0 m/a. The ratio of width to depth is generally 1.80 to 11.5, mostly less than
5. It indicates that the cross section is narrow and deep, meandering is small, and
channels are relatively stable. About 72.6% of the total length of the channels
exhibits accumulation with a mean rate of 3 em/a. The total accumulation is 9 times
as much as the total erosion. The river bifurcates again and again and forms a radial
distributary network as the delta progress seaward. In the delta front, bifurcating
distributaries form a new distributary network. In the upper delta, however, the
network simplifies as the tidal dynamic zone moves seaward. The deltaic plain is the
product of the accumulation in spring tide and flood period.
Two types of mouth, river flow dominated and tide dominated, are distinguished
by the ratio of river flow to tidal prism. The Zhujiang River has eight mouths, among
which six are river flow dominated with an annual mean ratio greater than one,
except the Humen Mouth with a ratio of 0.25 and the Yamen Mouth with a ratio of
0.30. The Modaomen Mouth of the Xijiang River, which is the largest distributary of
the Zhujiang River, has the annual mean tidal range of 0.86 m, the annual runoff of
884 x 10 m 3 ; the annual mean suspended load of 2340x 104 t, annual mean tidal prism
of 160x 108 m 3 , and the annual tidal discharge of 507 m3/s. The ratio of river flow to
tidal prism is 5.5, the highest one of eight mouths. During the flood period, fresh
water appears on the surface layer as a jet flow, and salt water flows landward in the
deeper layer as a compensation (Fig. 1). This two-layer circulation controls the
sediment transportation and water chlorinity in the mouth. The strong river flow and
the large sediment load created within the mouth the deep channel and parallel
sandspit and sand ridge (subaqueous levee). In the Modaomen Mouth, fresh and salt
waters mix in layers or para-layers, and the salt-water wedge appears outside the
mouth in the flood period but inside the mouth in the low water period. The salt-
water wedge dynamic zone results in the formation of the bow-shaped mouth bars.
H is generally considered that mouth bars are located outside the mouth if the ratio
of river flow to tidal prism is greater than 0.1. The bars in the Modaomen Mouth are
located outside the mouth (Fig. 2). Sediments in mouth bars are mainly composed
of suspended load and saltation load. In mouth bars the accumulation is the main
trend, and the mouth bars move seaward by bar back erosion and bar front
accumulation. The sea charts of 1853 and 1964 showed that the shoreline at sandspit
and sand ridge had moved seaward with a mean speed of 126 mfa, and the mean
accumulative rate was 1.5 cm/a in the ridge crest and 3.5 cm/a in the ridge front. The
channel, mouth bars, and sand spit and ridge are the products in the evolution of the
river mouth. The development of mouth bars makes the river bifurcate and
accumulate seaward, thus the delta progresses seaward.
Mangzhou
e 0 O.OO:=- . ~n 78 5 ill ;::~5~.1~19·-FiF:w-===-===10~.01;'---
0.00=-===---------0.00 : _ =--1.5.18==---18.30 -='17.99
..c 10.00 17 11 -·18.31 -'18.38
0.. scale of current speed
~
I-; 20 9 5,0 190 cm/s ec -·18.24
:." _ flow arrow
., 30
~~~5_~is:oh:a~ls~in~,~N~um::~~r~s~a~re~ch:lo:r~in~i~tY~(~~~)~_ _ _~___-=====~~~
° 10 20 30 40 kin
Fig. 1. The two-layer flow at the Modaomen Mouth, the Xijiang River in June, 1977.
The Lingdingyang Estuary is the largest one in South China, 70 Ian long and
4-58 km wide, lying outside of the Humen Mouth. Its mean tidal range increases
landward from 1.1 m to 1.6 m. The total water discharge from its four distributaries
averages 1740 X 108 m 3 with suspended load of 3728 X 104 t annually, of which one
third comes from the Humen Mouth (ZRWRC, 1987). The bed load of the Humen
channel deposits inside of the mouth. However, the bed load of other three channels
spread further to the shoals outside the mouth. Tidal currents moving forward and
backward are the main dynamic agent to configure the estuary. The surface residual
current flows southward all year round, indicating the direction of Zhujiang River
effluent. The residual currents in the middle and near-bottom layers flow northward
in the low water period, representing the seawater flowing landward. In the flood
period, fresh water spreads out on the top, and salt water with a salinity of 28.37
wedges at the near-bottom layer. The ebb tidal current flows in the west, while the
flood tidal current flows in the east because of the effect of Coriolis force and the
prevailing eastly wind. Therefore, the estuary has a horn shape; tidal channels and
sand ridges (channel margin bars) well develop in a longitudinal direction, and
channels alternate with shoals. In the flood period, the moving zone of the salt-water
wedge, the nip point of the dominant current, and the accumulation point of the net
silt discharge coincide with the types of bed sediments. Historical sea charts
(1853-1974) showed that the upper east channel was an ebb-tide erosional channel;
the lower east channel a floor-tIdal erosional channel, and the segment between them
an accumulative area. In contrast, the west channel was entirely accumulative. The
Lingdingyang Estuary has a general tendency of accumulation (Fig. 3).
The pro~elta syreads out SSE-ward from the delta front WIth a wa.ter depth of
20-50 m, a wIdth 0 150 Ian, and a slope of 1 X 10-3 • The trace of extendmg channels
can be seen. In the flood period, diluted fresh water from the Zhujiang River spreads
out on the prodelta, and the suspended load deposits slowly. The mean deposition
rate is 0.26 cm/a according to the 210Pb analyses of a sediment core from the water
depth of 30 m. The analyses of the uniform temperature, positive anomaly, and
negative anomaly segments of the core discovered the geological evidences for strong
historical typhoons and floods in the subaqueous delta.
B. Drowned Valley System
When the lower reaches of rivers submerge during sea transgressions or crustal
depressions, drowned valleys are formed, composed of tidal troughs and tidal deltas.
Tidal current is a main exogenic force, and the runoff, longshore current and wave
come the second. Tidal deltas consist of channel fringing bars, mouth bars, etc. The
Zhanjiang drowned valley is the largest one in South China and was formed in the
o Tanzhou
o
o 3 km
L-....J
Fig. 2. The geomOlvhy of the Modaomen Mouth.

The water depth is <2 m at bar crest, 2-10 m at
bar front, and 10-20 III at distal bar.
Fig. 3. The development of bottom relief in the

Lingdingyang Estuary. -1977
Holocene transgression. Its upper reach is the Suixi River; the middle reach the
Zhanjiang Harbor, which has extended landward for more than 50 Ian with four fifths
deeper than 10 m; and the lower valley extends seaward to the isobath of 85 m. The
tides are mesotidal with a mean tidal range of 1.96 m at the mouth and 2.6 m at the
head. The tidal prism is 5.0 x lOB m 3 in average and up to 10 X lOB m 3 in maximum.
Such a high tidal energy is sufficient to form and maintain such a large tidal inlet and
trough (Zhang et al., 1985) (Fig. 4). The total discharge of the Suixi River is some
lO.4xlOB m3/a, but the suspended load is only 23.7x10 4 t/a. Hence, siltation occurs
only slightly in channel margins and slopes. The Jianjiang River 20 Ian northeast of
the harbor mouth has a suspended load of 190x 104 t/a in average, which drifts
southwestward with longshore currents. The total littoral sediment transport is
42x 104 m 3/a, some of them deposits as littoral bars, some flows with the tidal current
into the harbor and deposits as shoals, but most accumulates as mouth bars.
P-
f''' · .
-:-Itidal flat FFfFHm.ou~h bar rto;jtidal
- - &bed ,lopettjjjj( 1l1SICle & &Jcooflueoce
o:...f)
~
ShIm en
.
I0 Ishoal 8 outSIde)
reef
~longshore
~cransport
c1 sand
~ ~trough I."7l sea cliff 1_ll,u'dpened
~ - _
_
L)~ t.:.......J oa tran-
sport
•
_ __
C - """d",_, I.FI''''''
~frmgtng ,bar?" direction
'-;:- (..;0£way
- - - ~
~-=- -=--~ ~ '.!

- " if
Chikano "
""
/
/"
oI 5
I
lOkm
I Naozhou 1.
Fig. 4. The geomorphy of the Zhanjiang
drowned valley.
c. Headland-Bay System
Headland-bay coasts with rocky cape and loose deposition at bay head are
broadly seen in South China. Waves are the main dynamic agents. Abrasion landform
develop at the headland; accumulative landform at the bay head. The secondary
landform at the headland are marine cliff with marine caves, abrasion platforms, sea
stacks, and submerged reefs. Eroded materials transport from the cape to the bay
head and then accumulate as barriers, sand banks and sand beaches at the bay head.
When there is no large river inflow or no abundant littoral transport of sediment,
such as in the Daya Bay and the Dapeng Bay near Hongkong, and the Yalong Bay
in Sanya of the south Hainan, capes are steep, and bay siltation is slow. These bays
are naturally excellent harbors.
Some bays have inflows of small rivers and a gross sediment transport of
20x 10 4-70 X 10 4 m 3/a. Beaches develop well in these bays. Yasso (1965) pointed out
that the arc shape of a beach between rocky capes coincides nicely with a logarithmic
spiral. Silversten (1972) indicated that in equilibrium the upper segment of such
beach is in the form of logarithmic spiral, but the lower segment is a straight tangent.
The spiral coastline adjacent to the headland, called a shadowed segment, is of
almost no deposition, but the tangential segment has deposition. The spiral coasts
develop well in South China. The Qiwang Bay south of Shantou is an example (Fig.
5). A tidal channel with minor silt content enters the bay head. The mean tidal range
is 0.76 m and tidal current velocity is low in the bay. Prevailing waves in E and NE
direction entering the bay are refracted and diffracted to SWS waves with a mean
height of 0.9 m at the bay head. The annual longshore transport caused by waves is
up to 20x 104 m 3 • Liang (1986) developed a computer model for the coastline in
equilibrium (Fig. 6). The shadowed segment is a good site for harbors and waterways,
for example, the new waterway of the Jinghai Harbor southwest of Shantou.
theoretical coastline
a ceua 1 coastline ~ / 1--- ~

cliff r a ction
,
I
centreR.,
di reetion of
' " compositive wave
01.53bn
! , !
Fig. 6. The comparison of the computer simulated

Fig. 5. The gcoIllorphy of the Qiwang Bay, and the obselVed coastlines for the Qiwang Bay.
Shantou. (from Liang, 1986)
D. Barrier-Lagoon System
Lagoons are separated from the open sea by wave-built barriers. Main exogenic
forces are wave and tidal current. Barrier-lagoon systems are composed of coastal
barriers, lagoons, inlets, flood-tidal deltas, and ebb-tidal deltas (Wang et al., 1982;
Zhao et al., 1987; Zhang et al., 1990). For example, in the Xincun Harbor of Hainan
(Fig. 7; Song, 1984), the lagoon has a tidal flat of 10 km 2 and a water area of 14 km 2 •
Rivulets bring muddy sand into the lagoon. The volume of the spring prism in the
20
o,
2
!
4
,
6bn
!
Fig. 7. The Xincun and Lian lagoons in the east 1--...::= Idirection I...-I'-~ )coral reef
Hainan Island. of wave
lagoon is 2280x 104 m 3 • Coastal barriers are formed on both sides of the tidal inlet
because of the bilateral transport of sediment under the effects of prevailing SE and
SW waves. The gross sediment transport is estimated as about 40x 104 m 3 • The inlet
is narrowed by siltation and becomes only 240 m in width and 5.7 m in mean depth
at the mouth. An ebb-tidal delta develops with the minimum depth < 1 m. A small
flood-tidal delta also develops and is obstructive to navigation.
The stability of tidal inlet is the first concern when developing harbors in lagoons.
Researchers demonstrated that the throat area of tidal inlet (A) is a power function
of the prism (P). The ratio PIA in tidal inlets of South China ranges between
0.7 x 10 -2.0 x 10 and averages 1.33 X 104 (Song, 1984). The best re~ression equation
for thirteen tidal inlets of barrier-lagoon systems in South Chma is the power
function A =0. 1667xPl.063 (Zhang, 1987). It is necessary to investigate the sources and
directions of longshore transport of sediment, and to predict coastal erosion and
accumulation in order to dredge a tidal inlet (Lu, 1986; Lu et al., 1988).
The beach sand in the coastal barrier front is driven by wind and accumulates on
the barrier as sand dunes or to the barrier back as sand sheets. Hence, coastal
barriers gradually move landward, and lagoons shrink gradually. Then another bay-
mouth barrier may form, and a new lagoon may appear. Three or four old barriers
and dry lagoons are usually seen in one barrier-lagoon system (Zhao, 1980). The
coastal barrier at the northeast Hainan Island is an example for the formation and
decline process of a barrier-lagoon system (Fig. 8). The barrier, 100 km long, 3-5 km
wide, and 30-60 m high, is perpendicular to the prevailing NE wind. Now the barrier
has become a sand dune zone, and some sand dunes have moved 10 km landward.
Small lagoon or fresh lakes appear in the barrier back.
A. ~
zone on t~
oastal sand bank
o,
5I
10lcm
I
dune zone .1 barrier-lagoon----------i,1 sea

15 B. NE80°
Wulonggang 1380±80a -
10 (a freshened lagoon ) 2500 ± 100 a
1020 ±80a.BP
5
..
o
'
--,., . . ' .......- . J . -
-5
~ ~ o 50 100m
(m) d une rock sand bank rock
Fig. 8. The map (A) and cross section (B) of a coastal barrier in the northeast Hainan Island (from Wu
etai., 1987).
E. Tidal Flat Systems

Main exogenic forces for the tidal flat system are tidal current and then
longshore current and waves. Tidal flats develop well in the coasts of North China
and East China but poorly in South China, because in South China the sediment
discharge from rivers is small, and tidal ranges are low.
Based on depositional environment, tidal flats can be divided into four types:
1) Inter-distributary tidal flats. Broad tidal flats develop in shallow bays
between distributaries or behind their mouth spits. For example, the tidal
flats in several bays of the Zhujiang River Mouth (Yuan, 1985).
2) Marginal flats in estuaries. In coasts of estuaries, the deposition is
speeded up by the flocculation and thus forms flats. Such as the tidal flats
at the coasts of Lingdingyang and Huangmaohai estuaries (Yuan, 1985).
3) Tidal flats bordering river mouths. These are formed in the coasts
adjacent to river mouths and the lower longshore currents by silts and clays
transported by longshore currents and flood-tidal currents, such as the tidal
flats from the Yamen Mouth to the Zhenhai Bay (Zhao, 1980).
4) Tidal flats in lagoons. Depositions at intertidal zones of fagoons have
variable areas and complex compositions.
Tidal flats also may be classified into the highest flats, the high flats, the medium
flats, the shoals and tidal trenches. A tidal flat has evolve from shoal to the highest
flat. The people living on the Zhujiang Delta called the four stages as those of "fish
swim, sculls touch bottom, egrets stand, and grass spreads" (Fig. 9). Mangrove grows
on medium and high tidal flats in tropics and south subtropics. Reed-Cyprus
malaccensis-mangrove community, which speeds up the deposition in tidal flats, grows
on the medium and high tidal flats of the Zhujiang River Mouth.
under tide Lone
shoal
stage grass spreads egrets sculls touch

fish swin
stand bottom
e
= 0.5
.§ Or---------------------==~-=~~~----
E -0.5
-.; -1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of the tidal flat landscape in South China coast.
F. Dished Sand Islet and Sag Systems on Coral Reefs
Most islands in the South China Sea are sandy ones compose9 of coral reef and
loose organic fragments on top of the reef. A typical atoll consists of reef front slope,
reef flat and lagoon. Sediments in the islands originate from reef erosion and marine
organism remains. Exogenic dynamic agent are mainly waves, winds, and then tidal
currents. Sand islets accumulate on reef flat, and lagoons change into sags. Monsoon
prevails in the South China Sea. For example, the prevailing wind directions in the
Xisha Islands are NE40°, and then SW15°, and the annual mean wave height is 1.4
m. Typhoon occurs north of 6.5°N. Waves and currents wash and erode coral reefs
and biogenic clastic rocks and result in numerous caves, cliffs, and grooves in the
reefs. These are seen, for example, in the northeast coast of Shidao in the Xisha
Islands. Eroded materials driven by waves and currents deposit and form sand-gravel
beaches and barriers with a height of 1-3 m, such as those in the Zhongjian Island.
Some sandy barriers accumulate up to 3-6 m high, and sand sheets of dozens of
meters wide formed in barrier back by winds, such as those in the Yongxing, Taiping,
and Nanwei islands. Generally, because of the winds come in all directions, barriers
form a circle around the reef, with a small lagoon or sag in the center (Fig. to).
Sandy islets have a dished shape. Beach rocks and dune rocks are easy to form in
sand beaches and barriers. When sand sources are abundant and the accumulation
on the reef has lasted for a long time, underground water will stay and plants will
grow, and the sandy island tends to be large and stable, such as the Yongxing Island
(Zeng et at., 1985; Ye et at., 1985).
Fig. 10. The geomorphy of the Ganquan Island in

the Xisha Islands (from Zeng et aI., 1985).
G. Erosional Trough and Tidal Delta Systems in Straits
Because of the necking effect, tidal currents are fast in straits but slow outside
strait mouths. This forms erosional troughs in strait and tidal deltas off strait mouths.
Secondary features in tidal deltas are tidal ridges, mouth bars, shoals, channels, and
holIows, etc. The Qiongzhou Strait, 80.3 km long and 29.5 km wide in average, is
located along a fracture zone between the Leizhou Peninsula and the Hainan Island.
Tidal currents are the main dynamic agent and have a high velocity of 2 mls at near-
bottom layer in the center of the strait, and scoured a trough of more than 50 m in
depth. The trough has the maximum depth of 120 m, with grooves, ridges and sand
ripples at bottom (Liang et aL, 1982). Tidal currents disperse outside the strait
mouths, in which eroded sands and gravel deposit and form tidal deltas (Fig. 11).
Linear ridges and channels with depths of 6.5-27 m extend in the delta. Some
sediments are carried by longshore currents and waves and deposit on the deltas (Jin
et ai., 1982).
[QJ ~ [/ZO--[ [2J o'-,_....1.'_-,-,

10 20 30km
_~I
tidal flat trough isobath corat reef
Fig. 11. The erosional trough and tidal delta system in the Qiongzhou Strait.
REFERENCES
Jin, Bo et of. (1982) "Geomorphic Feature and Origin of the Tidal Deltas at the East and West Months
of Qiongzhou Strait", Marine Geological Research 4, 94-101.
Liang, Guo-xiong (1986) "('..nast line development in Qiwang Bay, south of Shantou City", Tropic
Oceallology 5(3), 33-41 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Liang, Yuan-bo and Xie, Yi-xuan (1982) "Submarine topography of the Qiongzhou Strait", Nan/wi Studio
Marilla Sillica 3, 45-56.
Lu, Tie-song (1986) "Application of fuzzy mathematic in a study of longshore drift sand", Tropic Oceallology
5( 1),28-36 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Lu, Tie-song and Zhao, Huan-ting (1988) "Sand transport and coastal relief development near the inlet
of Jieshi lagoon, east Guangdong", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 3,318-326 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
POL (Physical Oceanography Laboratory of South China Sea Institute of Oceanology) (1973) Surface
Currcnt Condition Along Coast of Guangdong and in Beibuwan Bay, SCSIO report.
Silvester, R. et 01. (1972) "Use of crenate shaped bays to stabilize coasts", in Proc. of 13th Coastal Eng.
Confercnce 2, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 1347-1365.
Song, Chao-jing (1984) "Geomorphic features and tidal channels of the southeastern coast of Hainan
Island", Nail/wi Studio Marilla Sillica 5, 31-40.
Wang, Ying and Chen, Wan-Ii (1982) "Some problems of coastal geomorphology in Sanya Bay", Marille
Sciellce Blllletill 3, 37-45.
Wu, Zhcng and Wu, Ke-gang (1987) "Sedimentary structure and developing model of coastal dunes along
the northeastern coast of Hainan Island", Acta Geographica Sillica 3, 257-272.
Yasso, W.E. (1965) "Plan geometry of headland-bay beaches", The J. of Geology 4, 702-714.
Ye, Zhi-zheng et 01. (1985) "Researches in island type division and their characteristics of Xisha Islands",
Mari/le Geology & Quatemary Geology 1, 1-13.
Yuan, J ia-yi (1985) "Characteristics of tidal flats of the Zhujiang River mouth", Acta Oceallologica Sillica
3,433-442.
Zeng, Zhao-xual) et 01. (1985) "A preliminary study of evolution law concerning sandy islands of atoll in
Xisha Islands", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 3, 472-483.
Zhang, Qiao-min et 01. (1985) "Development of the tidal channel of drowned valley type in Zhanjiang Bay",
Tropic Oceallology 4(1), 48--57 (in Chinese, with English abstract).

Zhang, Qiao-min (1987) "On P-A relationships of tidal inlets along the South China coast", Tropic
Oceanology 6(2), 10-18 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhang, Qiao-min et al. (1990) "Contemporary geomorphic evolution of the entrance of Shapa tidal inlet,
Guangdong", Tropic Oceanology 9(4), 45-52 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhao, Huan-ting (1980) "Geomorphic features of embayed coast from Yaman to Moyang River",
Oceallologia et Limllologia Sillica 2, 122-133.
Zhao, Huan-ting and Song, Chao-jing (1987) "On the improvement of navigation channel in the inlet of
Jiazi lagoon, east Guangdong", Nail/wi Studia Marilla Sillica 8, 19-32 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zhao, Huan-ting (ed.) (1990) The Evolution of Zhujiang (Pearl) River Mouth, China Ocean Press, Beijing.
ZRWRC (Zhujiang River Water Resources Commission) (1987) "Hydrographic features of Zhujiang
Delta", ZRWRC Report.
MODERN CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH CHINA SEA
GUO Li-fen, NIE Bao-fu, ZHU Yuan-zhi, and ZHONG Jin-Iiang

South China Sea JllStitute of Oceallology, Academia Sillica
The South China Sea (SCS) lies in the tropic monsoon zone between the equator and
Tropic of Cancer, and its climate is suitable for the development of reef-building
corals. Coral reefs, mainly atolls but no barrier reefs, grow from coastal zones to
deep-sea basins. The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the West Pacific. Reef-
building lives there belong to Indian-Pacific Ocean fauna, but no algae ridges are
developed. Almost all carbonate sediments in reef areas are biogenic. Contents of
surface carbonate sediments change with the water depth. Shallower than 60 m there
is an aragonite zone, mainly with reef-building corals; 60-400 m the Mg-calcite zone;
deeper than 400 m the calcite zone.
I. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND REEF DISTRIBUTIONS
The reef areas in the SCS, spreading from the Penghu Is. in the north to the
Nansha Is. in the south, have a water temperature above 18°C, and mostly in the
range of 25-29°C. The daily temperature variation is small «3°C). The salinity in the
reef areas ranges from 30.0 to 34.5, except in large estuaries along the Hainan coastal
zone which have a lower salinity. These provide good conditions for developing
reef-building corals.
Most reef-building corals can not live if covered by silt for 24 hours (Mayer,
1918). Thus in the northern Hainan Island, no reef-building corals develop along the
east and west coasts of the Nandujiang River mouth. Rivers in the eastern Hainan
Island are small and thus only result in the discrete reef distribution. The Dongsha,
Xisha, Zhongsha and Nansha Is., as the main coral-reef regions in the SCS, are far
away from continents and less affected by terrigenous sedimentation. The water
transparency is higher all year long (mostly 20-30 m), except in some storm days. The
transparency in most part of the SCS is greater than needed for reef-building coral
growth, which makes the corals have enough sunlight for growing.
The growing depths of reef-building corals in the SCS reef regions are similar to
those for the Bikini Atolls in Indian-Pacific oceans (Wells, 1957) and differ from
those in the Caribbean Sea and Red Sea where the number of coral species does not
decrease at a water depth of 30-40 m (Milliman, 1974). In the SCS, most species
grow in the water shallower than 20 m; small number of species deeper than 30 m.
Typical atoll regions in the Indian-Pacific oceans are in trade wind zones, where
mono-directional wind prevails, and algae ridges with red calcareous algae of
477
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology of China Seas. Volume 2, 477--486.
"crustose" type are developed in windward reef margins. In contrast, the SCS belongs
to monsoon zone, where NE and SW winds prevail in shifts every year. Due to the
frequent change of wind direction, algae ridges are not developed.
Coral reefs are widely distributed in the SCS, such as in coastal zones, continental
shelves and slopes, as well as on sea mountains in deep-sea plains (Fig. 1). Clastic
sediments accumulated from the reefs seaward to <50 m water depth all have corals
as their main bio-components.
II. CORAL REEF GEOMORPHOLOGY

The coral reefs in Australia have the Great Barrier Reef as their wondrous view;
the coral reefs in the Red Sea are famous for their extensive fringing reefs. As to the
SCS, coral reefs are characterized by the wide distribution of atolls. For instance, the
main body of the Dongsha Is., the eight reefs in the Xisha Is. (except the Zhongjian
Is.), and the main body of the Zhongsha Is. are all atolls. In the Nansha Is., more
than half of the 120 reef bodies are atolls. There are about 40 table reefs in the SCS.
Pinnacle reefs exist locally on outer shelf and upper slope.
Several groups of cays are developed on reef flats, distributed unevenly and
mostly north of 9°N. Among the major islands in the SCS, only the Dongsha Island
in the Dongsha Is. is a cay. No cays are developed in the Zhongsha Is. In the Xisha
Is. there are eight atolls, one table reef, 16 vegetated islands and 14 cays. The total
area of cays in the Xisha Is. is 7 km 2, the largest in the SCS. The vast Nansha Is.
have about 120 atolls, table reefs and submarine reefs, but only 11 cays and 10 sand
shoals. The cays in the Nansha Is. are small, with a total area less than 2 km 2• The
development of cays are severely influenced by wind-wave conditions.
Based on typhoon data of the SCS in 1951-1980, typhoons affecting the Nansha
Is. (south of 12°N) occur only in October-December (monthly average occurrence
of 0.1-0.3 times) and mostly in the area north of 9°N. Most cays and sand shoals in
the Nansha Is. are developed north of 9°N. The Xisha Is. is often hit by typhoons in
lune-December (monthly average occurrence of 0.2-0.6 times). This may be one
reason for the more intensely appearance of cays and sand shoals in the Xisha Is.
According to the drilling data, coral reefs began to develop from the Late
Oligocene in the northeastern Nansha Is. (the Sampaguita-l well, Taylor and Hayes,
1980), and from the Early Miocene in the Xisha Is. (the Xiyong-1 well, Huang, 1980).
Coral reefs off the Hainan and Taiwan islands and on the northern shelf of the sCS
were developed during the Holocene high sealevel period with the oldest 14C dating
age of 8000-9000 a B.P.
III. MAIN CALCAREOUS BIO-COMPONENTS IN CORAL REEF REGIONS
The SCS reef region crosses over about 27 latitude. Reef-building lives there
belong to the Indian-Pacific ocean fauna but differ from those in the central area
of the oceans, such as in the northern Great Barrier Reef, Sulawesi and Marshall Is.
First, the genera and species of reef-building corals are less in the SCS reef region.
There are over 60 genera of reef-building corals in the northern Great Barrier Reef
and Philippines, but only about 40 in the Xisha, Dongsha, Hainan and Taiwan (no
careful investigations carried out in the Nansha Is.). Acropora and Porites, the most
important reef-building corals, have over 1006 and 50 species, respectively, in the
world. But in the SCS reef regions, the species of the former are less than 50 and
those of the latter about 10.
Modern Coral Reefs 479
Yongshu Rf.d
"'IS.
0 Xuande atoll
8°
Dong I. 4 Shi I.
Zhongjian 1.
6 Zhengbe a toll
7 Xinyi reef
4°
11 Nanwei I.
12 Weizbou I.
13 Bei reef
.:: Patch reefs 14 Renai reef
T Plalform reefs 15 Unchang 16 Erman
-<}- Pinnacle reefs 17 Xilnao 1.
... :) Submerged atoll. 18 Luhuiton
30km
I
o Qtber C«al reefs 19 Xia odonghai
0°
Fig. 1. The distribution of coral reefs in the SCS.
The calcareous algae in the SCS reef region are not so rich as compared with
that in the Central-Western Pacific Ocean. Halimeda are sparsely scattered in the
480 Oceanology of Cbina Seas
Zhongsha, Xisha, and Hainan islands but only in some lagoons of Nansha Is. This
species increases and prevails in some debris samples.
The calcareous lives in the SCS reef region, according to their function in reef
building, may be classified as 2 main types, reef-frame-building lives and filling ones.
A. Main Bio-Compositions of Reef-Frame-Building Lives
The most important reef-frame-building lives in the SCS are Porites, Favidae and
other big corals. Other reef-frame-building corals include Symphyllia and Lobophyllia
(seen in the reef flat of Xiaodonghai, Hainan Island) and Pavona (widely developed
in the Linchang reef flat). In the rear edge of the Ximaodao reef flat, the Hainan
Island, Acropora pacifica individuals with an over 10 cm diameter are seen. Massive
Montipora sinensis prevails in some regions of Zengmu Ansha in the Nansha Is.
B. Bio-Compositions of Filling Lives
Acropora is the main debris provider. It has many species and grows quickly. The
growth rate is generally 75-80 mm/a in the SCS reef regions and 125-130 mm/a in
Singapore (Ma, 1959). Other commonly seen twig or leaf corals as filling lives include
Montipora, Pocillopora, Seriatopora, etc.
Calcareous algae, mainly referring to coralline-algae, not only provide sediment
sources, but also cement loose particles into solid masses. Main species of coralline-
algae in the SCS reef region are Porolithon, Neogoniolithon, Lithoporella,
Lithothamnillm and Lithophyllllm. Halimeda of Chlorophyta is also commonly seen.
The species of Mollusca in the SCS reef region are numerous. There are more
than 700 species in the Hainan Island and over 500 in the Xisha Is. They constitute
10%-30% of the loose sediments in reef flats and lagoons.
Foraminifera is an important debris provider in the SCS reef region. In the
Shidao Island of the Xisha Is., foraminifera-coralline-algae limestone is mainly
composed of foraminifera and coralline algae. In the southern-central SCS, there are
over 100 genera, among which benthonic foraminifera have 95 genera and 240 species.
Allcyonacre needles are easily dispersed and commonly found in fine sediments.
Their contents are generally less than 1%, but exceptions exist. On top of an uplifted
primary reef in Luhuitou, Hainan Island, there is a layer of a1cyonaria spiculils
linlestone of about 40 cm thick and with a 14C age of 5180± 190 a B.P. (Zhu et al.,
1982). Big pebbles (10-30 cm in diameter) of this limestone are found in
Xiaodonghai, Ximaodao and Luhuitou tombolo of Hainan Island.
Echinodermata, especially echnoildea, are often seen in debris of the SCS reef
region, but generally less than 5% in content.
Bryozoa are also common. According to samples from Zengmu Ansha in the
southern Nansha Is., Cyclostomata and Cheilostomata have 40 genera and 69 species.
But their contents in weight are lower than < 1% due to their small size.
IV. YEARLY GROWTH RATES OF REEF-BUILDING CORALS AND CORAL
SKELETAL FINE STRUCTURES
Yearly growth rates of reef-building corals in the SCS reef region are different
from those in Central-Western Pacific Ocean. Our X-ray photograph showed that the
yearly growth rates of several reef-building corals in the SCS are generally lower than
those in the Eniwetok Atoll (Table 1).
Modem Coral Reefs 481
Table 1. The Yearly Growth Rate (DIm/a) of Several Reef-Building Coralsa
Species Haillall Is. Xisha Is. Nansha Is. Elliwetok Atoll

Porites [utea 4.5-7.4 6 8.3-8.5 8.5-11
Astreopora my,iophtJlOlma ~9.5 10.0 7.5
GOlliastrea retifonnis 7 7.8
Hydllop/zora microcollos 7 11.5
a Data for the Eniwetok Atoll are from Buddemeier et 01. (1974).
So far in the reef region of the SCS only 45 genera including nearly 200 species
of modern reef corals have been reported and described on their appearances. In
order to meet the needs of the carbonate reservoir researches, a study of fine skeletal
structures of corals has been carried out. The 41 genera, 112 species and 2 sub-
species of reef-corals commonly seen in the SCS (including Hexacorallia, Hermatypic
coral of Scleractinia, Tubipora and He/iopora of Octocorallia, and Millepora of
Hydrozoa) have been studied in detail. Some of them have been compared and dis-
cussed based on their variations in size, morphology, and arrangement of essential
skeletal elements such as sclerodennite, trabeculae, and fen systems (including septa,
dissepiments, wall, axial structures, and coenosteum, etc.). According to the similarity
in fine skeletal structures, we propose that Galaxea jascicularis and G. aspera belong
to the same species, and so are Acropora pulchra andA. pulchra stncta, although they
are different from each other in surface morphology. The internal structure and fine
structure of Psammocora nierstraszi is different from their genotype species. Thus
their classification is questionable.
V. THE MINERALS IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA CORAL REEF REGION
Only in fringing reefs there exist terrigenous minerals and rock fragments.
Sediments in reef-buildups on the continental shelf, slope and deep-sea basin are
almost entirely composed of life skeletons and shells. X-ray diffraction analysis
showed that different life skeletons or shells have different mineral compositions, but
they are all carbonate minerals (Milliman, 1974).
The main factor determining the vertical zonation of carbonate minerals in reef
regions are water depth. When water depth increases, sunlight gradually vanishes,
temperature decreases, and pressure increases. According to quantitative analysis
(Zhu et al., 1990), three zones could be divided:
1) Aragonite-rich zone, in which aragonite is the dominant component. This zone
includes the seaward slopes of reefs, lagoons, and reef flats with water depth less tan
60m. Reef frames are mainly composed of aragonite corals. The percentage of
mineral components in clastic sediments is aragonite> Mg-calcite > calcite.
2) Mg-calcite enriched zone. It lies between 60 m and 400 m water depths.
Mineral contents in most sediments are Mg-calcite > Aragonite> calcite.
3) Calcite-rich zone, occupying the area from 400 m water depth to the foot of
the reef slope. The content of calcite in most samples is the highest. Contents of
aragonite and Mg-calcite change greatly. Calcareous lives are mainly planktonic
Foraminifera, which has more than 70% of the total weight. This zone represents a
transition from reef facies to non-reef facies. Carbonate sediments in non-reef facies
contain no reef-building corals.
This zonation shows that different lives exist in different environments. Aragonite
lives live in shallow-sea area. The maximum water depth for reef-building corals is
about 60 m. The deepest reef-building coral ever found in the SCS is at 50 m;

Mil/epora at 30 m, and Halimeda at 40 m. Mg-caIcite lives have a larger living depth.
For instance, Coralline algae exist from tidal zone to 300 m water depth. Benthonic
foraminifera is enriched in 50-400 m water depths in the SCS (Cai et al., 1985),
octocoralla, echinodermata and bryozoa can live in less than 400 m water depth.
The region <60 m is the aragonite-life reproducing zone. From 60 to 400 m water
depths, most aragonite lives can not reproduce, but Mg-caIcite lives can. So it is the
Mg-calcite life enriched zone. Deeper than 400 m, both aragonite and Mg-calcite lives
can hardly live since they are sub-stable minerals and difficult to retain in deep-water
environment. Calcite is a stable mineral and can exist under CCD.
VI. ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF CORAL REEFS
Trace elements are widely used to study paleo-environments for carbonate rocks
and to discriminate reef- and non-reef facIes (e.g., Chilingar et al., 1967). Based on
investigations in Xisha atolls, especially in the Xuande, Beijiao, and Zengmu Ansha
atolls (Fig. 1), Guo (1987) determined element abundances of coral reefs and their
main controlling factors, element distribution, correlation, and facies-index elements.
In the present section, results from a study of 409 samples collected from the SCS
reef regions are presented.
A. Element Distributions and Correlations
Element contents in lagoon and reef-flat sediments are similar. Most lagoon
sediments have higher contents of organic carbon, Na, K, S, Zn and Sr. Contents of
other elements are different in different atolls.
Comparing with sediments on the seaward slope (60-100 m) of the Zhongsha
Atoll, the sediments on the southern seaward slope of the Ren'aijiao in the Nansha
Is. has lower Ca and Sr, but higher organic carbon, Na, P, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn,
Ba and Pb. This indicates the high contents of Mg-calcite coralline algae, benthonic
foraminifera, bryozoa, echinodermata, alcyonaria and low contents of aragonite
reef-bu ilding corals.
Reef rocks may be divided into three types according to their bio-components.
The first type is the reef rocks enriched with aragonite reef-building corals. These
rocks have high Ca, Sr, B, Na, Cu, Zn, Ba but low Mg, Mn, Fe, Cr, Co, Ni contents.
The second type is the reef rocks composed mainly of Mg-calcite coralline algae.
The contents of Mg, P, Cr, Mn, Co and Ni are high and of Ca, Sr are low.
The third is mixed reef rocks. Scleractinia, coralline algae and other Mollusca are
abundant. Contents of Ca, Mg and Sr have no certain pattern.
Contents of Ca and Sr; organic carbon and Fe, Mn, Si, AI, Pb, Cr, Cu; Fe and
AI, Mn, Cu are in positive correlations. Sr and Mg, Ca and Mg, organic carbon, Fe,
AI, Mn, Cu are in negative correlations.
B. Main Factors Related to Element Distributions
Element distributions are controlled by distributions of life and mineral

compositions, and these compositions are closely correlated with water depth.
Reef rocks and sediments are composed of life skeletons and shells, their mineral
components are carbonates, including calcite and aragonite. Aragonite reef-building
scleractinia, Halimeda, Mil/epora, Polychaeta have high Ca, Sr and low Mg contents.
Aragonite mollusk have high Ca and low Sr, Mg contents. In Mg-calcite lives such
as coralline algae, alcyonaria, echinoderm, bryozoa, benthonic foraminifera, the
content of Mg is high and those of Sr and Ca are low. Calcite lives such as Ostrea,
planktonic foraminifera have low Mg and Sr contents (Fig. 2).
4.5 ' "

8 Scleractina * Echinoidea
4.0 "-A"", ~ Halimeda
~ Polychaeta
o Bryozoa
R Benthic Foraminifera
+ Bivalvia tf Planktonic Foraminifera
3.5
" ® Gastropoda Sediments in the
" 8. Corallinaceae Lagoons
3.0 "". Alcyanaria o Sediments in the
,. reef flat
~
01)
2.5
2.0
"
"
o
'" "'"
x Sediments in the
seaward slope
-4r Millepora
1.5
"'"
"'"
"" '"
1.0
0.5
". . ...
Fig. 2. C'AJntents of Mg and Sr in lives and sediments in the SCS reef regions.
The correlation between element distributions and water depth is displayed

mainly in seaward slopes. When water depth increases, the elements Ca, Sr, and Mg
decrease. Ca changes slightly in the water shallower than 200 m, but decreases
obviously when water depth becomes greater. Element contents also decrease when
farther away from their life sources.
AI, Fe, Mn, Cu, Na, P, S, K, Ti and organic carbon increase with the increasing
water depth. These elements are closely related with clastic minerals which are
accumulated in fine sediments far from coral reefs at a greater water depth.
C. Element Contents and Ratios as Facies Indices

Based on the studies of Guo (1987) and additional data from 29 coral reefs in
the Nansha Is., the element contents and ratios indicative of reef facies are
summarized in Table 2.
Sediments on seaward slope are transitional from reef facies to non-reef facies.
Thus their element contents and ratios could exceed the values in Table 2, especially
when they approach non-reef facies. Element contents and ratios in reef rocks,
lagoon and reef-flat sediments, although with some exceptions, are generally within
these ranges.
Table 2. Element Contents and Ratios Indicative of Reef Facies
S Sr K MIl Ti V Y Zr Ca/Mg SrlBa Mn/Cu

2400- >2000 <1700 <300 <260 <18 <10 <6 >13 >65 <14
5300
VII. LITHOLOGY OF REEFS IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA

In addition to reef rocks which composes reef frames, sediments in many bio-
clastic dunes and barriers developed on reef flats in the SCS may have been
cemented into rocks. Structures and textures of accumulating sediment bodies vary
with different formation dynamics. The rocks formed in different environments have
different cements and cementation textures; their modifications in diagenesis are also
different.
A. Rock 'lYpes
According to the sedimentation, diagenesis and composition, the rocks in reefs

may be divided into the following types (Zhu, 1987):
1) Biogenic reef limestones, including two subtypes. The coral-reef limestone
subtype, constituting reef frame and crack-filling debris, are composed of mainly reef-
buildmg corals. The most important cementations are those of fixed-growing
organisms and coating coralline algae. Less important are small bio-detritus and mud
fillings. Aragonite and Mg-calcite crystal precipitations are seldom seen.
The alcyonaria spiculis limestone subtype (Zhu et al., 1982) is seen in the
southern coast of the Hainan Island. It forms pocket-like bodies of about several to
dozens meters wide and 30-50 cm thick, located just above the uplifted coral-reef
limestone or covered by bio-clastic limestone. The rock grains are all alcyonaria
spiculis arranged in good order and lamination. The cements are granular calcite in
upper portions and mud in lower portions.
2) Bio-clastic limestone, which accumulates in intertidal and suppertidal zones
of bio-clastic island and barriers on reef flats. According to the occurrence,
sedimentary dynamics and diagenetic environment, four subtypes could be identified:
The beachrock subtype is well developed in bio-clastic islands and barriers.
The beach-ridge rock subtype is formed by the cementation of the sediments
accumulated by storm waves in beach ridge. It is seen in Luhuitou and Eman of the
Hainan Island (Zhu, 1987).
The dune rock subtype is seen in Shidao of the Xisha Is. (Zhu et al., 1984), which
is a typical cay. The whole island is cemented into rocks with relict eolian-dune
structures.
The guanophosphorite subtype is distributed on vegetated cays. Its grain
composition is similar to that of beachrock, but cements are collophanite. Some
bioclasts are replaced by CaP04, and P is from bird shits.
B. Cementation
In subtidal zone, modern reef limestone seldom have aragonite or Mg-calcite as
cement, except in the subtidal corals of Beijiao, the Xisha Is. (Huang et aL, 1986).
Cementation occurs quickly in tidal zone. The cement is aragonite needles and
lime mud, but the cement of the beachrock in the southwestern Hainan Island sandy
coasts is Mg-calcite. Mineral compositions in bioclasts are not changed. Data showed
that the tidal zone environment in the SCS are most favorable for diagenesis.
The suppertidal zone is generally not affected by seawater, so cementation occurs
in a fresh-water environment. The cement is calcite. Bioclasts, aragonite and Mg-
calcite are partially transformed into calcite. In thin sections, solution holes are
always seen and sometime filled with granular calcite, indicating that solution,
cementation and mineral inversion occur at the same time.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
In the South China Sea, climate and coral-reef development vary obviously from
the south to the north. The central and northern SCS are affected by frequent
typhoons, so corals in reef front and reef flat are often destroyed into bioclasts
covering reef flat or being transported to form cays. Less than 20% area of reef flats
are covered by living corals. Most reef flats are exposed during low tide, and zones
of big reef debris are seen in front of reef flats. The southern SCS (the Nansha Is.)
is located in low-latitude (south to 12°N). Except that reefs in the northeast are
accidentally hit by typhoons and that the northeastern reef flats are covered by
bioclasts, most reef-buildups are not covered. Corals in inner reef flats are flourish
and mostly Acropora and Porites. The area covered by corals is more than 50%.
The development of reef-building corals and reef-living calcareous lives are also
different from south to north. The species and quantities of Mollusca in the Hainan
Island and Xisha Is. are more than those in the Nansha Is. But Gorgonacea,
alcyonaria, Halimeda and Mille/pora are well developed in the Nansha Is. Halilmeda
in lagoon sediments can reach 70%. Porites are well developed in lagoon slopes and
with a big size (3~ m in diameter), which shows transitional features to Quator-
Pacific Ocean fauna.
REFERENCES
Buddcmcicr, R. w., Margos, J. E., and Knutson, D. W. (1974) "Radiographic studies of reef coral
exoskeletons: rates and patterns of growth", J. Exp. Mar. Bioi. Ecof. 14, 179-200.
Cai, Hui-mei et af. (1985) "Biogenctic sedimentation", in Symposium on Research Reports on the Sea Area
of South China Sea (2), Science Press, Beijing.
Chilingar, G. v., Bissell, H. J., and Fairbridge, R. W. (1967) Carbonate Rocks (Developments in
Sedimentology, 9A, 9B), New York.
Guo, Li-fen (1987) "Geochemical characteristics of coral reef of China", Manile Geology & Quatemary
Geology 7(2), 71-83 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Huang, Jin-sen, Zhu, Yuan-zhi, Zhong, Jin-liang, and Guo, Li-fen (1986) "A comparative study on the
Xuande Horsechoe Reef and Beijiao Atoll of Xisha Is., South China Sea", Nail/wi Studia Marilla
Sillica (7), 13-48 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Ma, T. Y. H. (1959) "Effect of water temperature on growth rate of reef coral", Oceallographio Sillica
spec.(l), 1-116,321 pIs., 12 figs.
Mayer, A. G. (1918) Ecology of the Murray Island C.oral Reef, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub!. 213, 1-48.
pI. 1-19,9 figs.
Milliman, J. D. (1974) "Recent sedimentary carbonates (Part 1)", in Marine Carbonates, Spring-Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Wills, J. W. (1957) Coral Reefs, Treatise on Marine Eeology and Paleoecology. Vol.1, Ecology Mem. 67,
609-631.
Zhu, Yuan-zhi (1987) "Holocene carbonate-cemented rocks on Hainan Island and Xisha Is.", in
Proceedings of the Symposium in Quaternary, China-Australia, Science Press, Beijing, pp. 239-244.
Zhu, Yuan-zhi and Zhong, Jin-liang (1984) "A preliminary study on the dune rock of Shidao Island, Xisha
Islands and Hainan Island, Tropic Oceanology 3(3), 64-72 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhu, Yuan-zhi, Zhong, Jin-liang, and Nie, Bao-fu (1982) "A preliminary study on alcyollaria spiculils
limestone in Luhuitou, Hainan Island", Tropic Oceanology 1(1), 35-41 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zhu, Yuan-zhi, Guo, Li-fen, Nie, Bao-fu, and Wang, You-qiang (1990) "Vertical distribution zones of
recent biocarbonate sediments in South China Sea", Tropic Oceanology 9(1), 43-51 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
DISTRIBUTION AND FORMATION OF LITTORAL PLACER
DEPOSITS IN CHINA
XU Dong-yu and TAN Qi-xin

IllStitute of Marine Geology, Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources
I. INTRODUCTION
China has a long coastline which is rich in littoral placer deposits. These deposits
have been exploited by Chinese people since ancient time. Commercial reserves have
been found for the following minerals: zircon, ilmenite, monazite, xenotime, rutile,
magnetite, cassiterite, chromite, niobotantalite, quartz, and gold. Grains of diamond
and sperrylite have been found also. There are over 90 placer mining sites, mainly
distributed in the coastal areas of Liaoning, Shandong, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi,
and Taiwan provinces.
II. TYPES OF PLACER DEPOSITS
, The littoral placer deposits in China includes four commercial types (Table 1) or
six genetic types (Table 2). Among the genetic types, the marine type has the largest
scale, and the alluvial type the second. As for the geomorphic setting, placer deposits
from sand bar, spit, sand flat, and deltaic plain of accumulation are the most
commercially important, and than are those from beach, alluvial terrace, sand dune,
and marine terrace.
III. DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROLLING FACTORS
Among the coastal provinces of China, Guangdong has the most extensive
distribution of various types of large placer deposits. In Liaoning, Jiangsu, and
Zhejiang provinces only are seen a few small deposits (Fig. 1). The deposits with the
largest commercial reserves are zircon, ilmenite, monazite, and quartz sand. Zircon
is widely distributed in all the coastal areas, especially in Shandong, Hainan,
Guangdong, and Taiwan. Ilmenite is mainly found in Hainan, Guangdong, Fujian,
Guangxi, and Shandong. Monazite and xenotime are scattered everywhere, but only
those in Hainan and Taiwan are commercially significant. High quality quartz sand
is mainly distributed in Fujian, Guangdong, and Guangxi, and then in Shandong.
Placer gold is mainly seen in Liaoning, Shandong, and Guangxi and in forms of ore
spots or mineralization sites, a few small deposits. Cassiterite, chromite, rutile, and
niobotantalite are mainly found in Guangdong, forming medium or small deposits.
Factors which control the distribution of placer deposits in China include the
487
material source, hydrodynamic condition, ~eomorphology, neotectonics, climate and

sea-level changes, and some other geologIcal factors.
Table 1. Commereial1Ypes of Littoral Placer Deposit in China a
Type SubtyPe TyPical mine

Magnetite Magnetite Shijiushuo, Rizhao of Shandong
Zircon bearing magnetite Jinshan, Shuangxi of Taiwan
Chromite Chromite Dongli, Haikang of Guangdong
Chromite associated by zircon Shalao, Sangengshi, Yiandun of Guangdong
Ilmenite Ilmenite Xiaohai, Longshan of Hainan
Ilmenite-zircon Changan, Xincungang of Hainan
Rutilc Rutile associated with Shidao of Shandong; Liuwei, Xuwen of
ilmenite, zircon and Guangdong; Baoding and Wushi of
monazite Hainan
Gold Gold Sangshandao of Shandong
Zircon-gold Jinchangwan of Liaoning
Platinum Sperrylite associated with Kenglong of Hainan
II ilmenite, zircon
Cassiterite Cassiterite Yangpu, Haifeng of Guangdong
Cassiterite associated with Shazhui, Taishan and Gaolan, Zhuhai of
niobite Guangdong
Niobotan- Fergusonite Dayang, Taishan of Guangdong
talite Niobite Nazhang, Taishan of Guangdong
Nb-Ta bearing ilmenite Dongao, Baoding of Guangdong
Zircon Zircon Shidao of Shandong; Jiazhi, Longshui,
Shangyang, Puqian of Guangdong
Ilmenite-zircon Shaiao, Tanmen, Changan of Hainan
Monazitc Monazite Nanshanhai, Dianbai, Shawei of Guangdong
III
Huangli of Fujian
Ihnenite-rutile-monazite Baoding of Haillan
Xenotime Xenotime-Illonazite Dianchang, Dianbai of Guangdong
Rutile-ilmenite-rutile-
monazite Liuwei, Xuwen of Guangdong
Xenotime Shawei, Dianbai of Guangdong
Monazite Wuyang, Wuchuan of Guangdong
Diamond Diamond Fuzhouwan of Liaoning
Quartz Glass quartz sand Wulong of Fujian; Beihutou of Guangxi;
IV sand Cast sand Shanji of Fujian
G lass-cast sa nd Xukou, Shuangdao, Yunxi of Shandong
Sand for construction Wangjiazhao of Shandong
b From 'f.111, Qi-xin and SUllo Van, 1988. Y. Ferrous metal; II. Nonferrous meL'll; III, R..-'lre met.,I; IV. Nonmetal.
A. Material Source
The material source is the prerequisite factor for placer mineralization. The
coastal placer in China are derived from two types of source: bedrock or ore
deposits. In the coast zones of China, magmatic, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks
cover more than 80% of the total area; only the estuaries of large rivers are covered
by Quaternary sediments. Statistics of more than 1300 panning data show that
magmatic rocks supply the most abundant useful minerals for placer deposits;
metamorphic rocks the second, and sedimentary rocks the last (Table 3). A mineral
may form a placer deposit when its enrichment coefficient (K=C/C, where C 1 and
Dish'ibution and Formation of Littoral Placer Deposits 489
Table 2. Genetie 1Ypes of Littoral Plaeer Deposits in China Q
Genetic type Subtype Typical occurrence

Eluvial-deluvial Monadnock Placer gold in Sanshandao, Shandong
Denudation Placer ilmenite in Xinglong, Guangdong
Alluvial River bed Placer ilmenite in Wushi, Guangdong
River shoal Placer fergusonite in Dayang, Guangdong
River terrace Placer gold in the Zhuliuhe River, Shandong
Buried river valley Placer diamond in Fuzhouwan, Liaoning
Small alluvial Placer zircon in Shidao, Shandong
Marine Beach Placer ilmenite in Wushi, Hainan; Placer gold in
Jinchangwan, Liaoning
Sand bar Placer ilmenite-zircon-monazite in Baoding,
Sand spit Guangdong; monazite in Dongshi, Taiwan
Placer zircon in Shidao, Shandong
Sand flat Placer zircon in Puqian, Guangdong
Tombolo Placer Zircon in Shidao, Shandong
Erosion Terrace Placer ilmenite in Hengshan, Guangdong
Marine-lacustrine Sand dune Quartz sand in Muping, Shandong
Alluvial Lagoon Placer zircon-ilmenite in Tanmen, Nangang, Hainan
River mouth plain of Placer cassiterite in Yangliupu, Guangdong
accumulation
From Tan, Qi~xill e( al., 1988.
1 II
·.
ill
••
IV
X 1: r x
,0 ,-, .,-
•
0 0 0
to
II
12 0 0
•• 0 0
tJ
*
Fig. I. Distribution of littoral

placer deposits in China. I,
magnetite; 2, chromite; 3,
ilmenite; 4, rutile; 5, gold; 6,
sperrylite; 7, cassiterite; 8,
niobotantalite; 9, zircon; 10,
monazite; 11, xenotime; 12,
quartz sand; 13, diamond; I,
large; II, medium; III, small;
IV, occurrence; V, minerali-
zation.
Table 3. Number of Placer Deposits Associated with Different Source Rocksa
Source rock Source rock

Placer deposit Placer deposit
II III IV II III IV
Gold 15 Zircon-monazite 1
Diamond 1 I1menite-rutile-zircon- 2
Cassiterite 1 5 4 monazite
Zircon I 21 5 Zircon-rutile 3
Fergusonite 5 Ilmenite-zircon 11
Monazite 9 17 Ihnenite-zircon-monazite 4
Xellotime 1 5 Chromite-ihnenite-zircon 2
I1mcnite 11 4 Chromite-monazitc- 1
MOllazitc-xcnotime 1 ilmenite
N iboite-cassiterite 3
I. sedimentalY rock; II. igneous rock.; III. metamorphic rock; IV, primary deposit. From Wang. Ziti-xi and Liu, Qi-rong, 1988.
Table 4. Relationship of Scale and Grade of Placer Deposits with Enl"iellluent Factor and Source Area a
Placer type Enrichment Source area Grade Scale

Region factor (km) (g/m)
I Zircon 0.064 40 1313-1341 Occurrence
Shallctong II Zircon 0.165 300 2366 Small
Pcn. III Zircon 0.115 5000 1000-3000 Small
IV Zircon 0.413 1000 3570.89 Large
S. FlIjian and E. Zircon 0.015-0.123 150-550 800-3400 Small
GlIangctong Ilmenite 0.001-0.103 150-550 1000-8985 Small
Leizholl Pen. and Zircon 0.014-0.144 500-900 1129-3530 Medium
Hainan Ilmenite 0.005-0.140 500-900 1900-57040 Medium
Dongzhan, FlIjian Monazite-
xenotime 0.029-0.400 180 880 Point
Yallgjiang, Monazite-
Guangdollg xenotime 0.056-1.450 1240 236-1003 Large
a After Wang. Zhi-xi and Liu.. Qi-rong, 1988. I. Shazikou; II. Baigoushu; III, Fengcheng; IV, Shidao.
C represent respectively the grade of the mineral in the source rock and the cutoff
grade of its placer deposit) is greater than the critical value 0.05 and the area of its
source rock larger than 50 km 2 (Table 4). For example, along the coast of the
Shandong Peninsula the enrichment coefficient of zircon is high (0.115-0.556) and
its source area large (50-1000 km 2), then large-scaled and high tenor placer deposits
are built up. Along the coast from the Liaodong Peninsula to the Hebei Province,
however, the enrichment coefficients of zircon, ilmenite, and monazite are lower than
0.05, and no placer deposits have been found except in the localities where gneiss,
leucogranulite, or Yanshanian granite develop with high enrichment coefficients.
B. '!ype and Geomorphology of the Coast
Using the Hangzhou Bay as the dividing point, the northern coast of China is
mainly of accumulation type, while the southern coast of China erosion type. There
are also biogenic type of coast occurring in Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan and Taiwan.
The accumulation type coast is made up of plain coast, plain muddy coast, delta
coast, deltaic embayed coast, and plain sandy and gravel coast. The erosion type
Distribution and FOl'lnatioll of Littoral Placer Deposits 491
includes mountain and hill coast, embayed gravel, muddy, or rocky coast, and faulted
rocky coast. The biogenic type consist of only coral-reef coast and mangrove coast
(Fig. 2).
110° II," 120 •
~\ luul8
40,1 ------1 I····}
2
I '13 I" ·1\0

vv
I"-'-"-I_
lls [U12
35'-~6 [DlJ
1'-uI 7
30'
Fig. 2. Coast types in China. 25'

1, plain coast; 2, plain mud
coast; 3, delta coast; 4, deltaic
elllbayed coast; 5, plain sand
and gravel coast; 6, mountain
and hill coast; 7, elllbayed
coast;8, embayed rock coast; It China Sea
9, elllbayed sand and gravel
coast; 10, embayed mud
20'
H~ Sour
i
j
coast; II, fault coast; 12, coral

reef coast; 13, mangrove 110· liS"
coast (from Sun, Yan, 1988).
Among these types, the most favorable one for placer formation is the embayed
gravel coast, which composes about one third of the total coastline and contains
about 80% of large and medium placer deposits, such as the placer zircon and gold
in the Liaodong Peninsula, the high-quality quartz sand in the southern Fujian, the
placer cassiterite in the eastern Guangdong, the placer rare earth in the western
Guangdong, and the heavy minerals in the western Guangdong and Hainan Island.
The second favorable type is the narrow plain sand-gravel coast in front of mountain
and hills, where large to small placer deposits formed in beaches or sand barriers,
such as the placer monazite and zircon in the west coast of Taiwan, and the placer
gold in sand barriers of the eastern Laizhou Bay. Placer deposits usually form neither
in the deltaic coast of large rivers, nor in rocky coast, coral-reef coast, and fault coast,
where botll source and sedimentation are lacking.
Various accumulative and erosional geomorphic types are formed in coast zones
of China because of intensive interactions of marine and continental agents. The
distribution of placer deposits is closely related to coastal geomorphic types. In
general, for the formation of littoral placer deposits, mountains and hills are more
favorable than plains, marine accumulation types are better than marine erosion
types, and modern coasts are better than ancient coasts (Table 5). Accumulative
geomorphic units such as marine sand barrier, sand spit, small marine plain, alluvial
valley, and estuarine plain are advantageous for the formation of large or medium
placer deposits; lagoon, wind dune, and eluvial-deluvial apron may be good for
medium and small deposits; but denudational or erosional units are too poor to be
involved in placer mineralization. Placer minerals are enriched in specific portions
of the units, for example, the root of a sand barrier, the high-tide portion of a beach,
the boundary between beach and sand barrier or between subunits in a small marine
plain, one or two sides of a river-mouth alluvial fan, or the edge of a lagoon, etc.
Table s. Coast lYpes and Dish·iblltioll of Littoral Placer Deposit in Chilla a
Coast type Condition

Coast subtype Geomorphic feature Distribution of placer
of deposit
Plain mud coast Lr1goon, shell bar, march Possibly

unfavorable
Delta coast Bay mouth bar, delta Possible in
Plain eoast front slope. sand dune, slllall delta
tide fla 1, barrier is la nd,
saud bar, sh~al
Plain sand and Longshore bar, sand bar Possibl y better Monazite. zirooll in west coast of
gravel coast Taiwan; gold placer in Shandong
Estuarine gravel Lagoon, sIllall bar, sea Best Zircon, gold of Liaoning and
L'03St cliff Shandollg Pen.; quart sand of
south Fujian; cassiterite of east
Mountain Guangdong; Tare earth placer
and hill deposit of Guangdong
coast
Estuarine mud Tide na~ lagoon General
coast
Estuarine rock Wave-cut platform, gravel Unfavorable
coast coast
Fault Coast Sea cliff. rock beach Unfavorable
Biogenic Coral reef coast, U nfavorahle

coast mangrove coast
a Modified after SUIl. Yan, 1988.
C. Hydrodynamic Conditions
Rivers are the major transporters of terrigenous detrital materials. The length,
drainage area, discharge, silt content, and flow velocity of the rivers directly influence
the formation and scale of littoral placer deposits.
Large rivers (longer than 100 Ian), such as the Changjiang (Yangtze), Huanghe
(Yellow), Liaohe, Zhujiang (Pearl), Minjiang, Qiantangjiang, and Luanhe rivers,
usually flow through plain areas. They have distant source, large drainage area, and
large silt discharge. Through the long-distance transportation, the materials deposited
in their mouths are usually fine and poor in heavy minerals, and thus are not
favorable for placer deposits.
The rivers flowing through the coastal zone of South and East China are mostly
small in length. They are characterized by steep river bed, fast flow, and deep
trenching. A large load of sandy and gravel materials are carried by these rivers into
Distribution and Formation or Littoral Placer Deposits 493
littoral areas and then, after being sorted by wave and tide, form placer deposits.
Statistics show that the rivers of 20-60 Ian long are the most favorable ones. For
instance, the large monazite deposits in Nanshanhai and Diancheng of the
Guangdong Province and the placer gold deposit in Zhuliuhe of Shandong.
Rivers less than 5 Ian in length are not competent for the formation of placer
deposits due to their small source areas and insignificant silt discharge.
Wave is the most important agent in nearshore areas. The intensity of wave
actions depends mainly on its height. The higher the wave, the stronger the erosion
and transportation. The high-energy sea area is dominated by erosion, and the
low-energy area by sediment accumulation. In both areas, placer deposits are difficult
to form due to the destructive erosion or the diluting accumulation. The enrichment
of placer deposits only happens in the intermediate-energy area where erosion and
accumulation tend to keep balance.
The intensity of wave action along the China coast increases gradually from the
north to the south. The coast with balanced erosion and accumulation develops
mainly in Liaoning, Shandong, Fujian, Guangdong, Taiwan, and Guangxi. In these
areas, placer deposits formed in beaches, sand barriers, sand bars, spits, or tom bolo
barriers due to the traverse transportation by waves or by coastal currents. Examples
are the large ihnenite and zircon deposits in the Wushi-Gangpo area of the Hainan
Island, the large monazite deposit in the Nanshanhai area of Guangdong, the large
zircon deposits consisting of ore bodies of spits in Taoyuan and those of tombolo
barriers in the Zhudao Isle of Shandong, and the medium-scaled quartz glass sand
deposits in tom bolo barriers in the Jimu Island of Shandong.
Tidal currents also exert a great effect over the enrichment of heavy minerals at
the top of a beach or at the roof of a sand barrier, such as that in the Wuchangling
area of the Hainan Island.
D. Climate Conditions
The littoral areas of China stride across temperate, subtropical, and tropical
zones. The climate condition influences the formation of placer deposits (Table 6).
In the coastal areas of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, and Taiwan, which are located
in the tropical or subtropical zones, the high temperature (mean annual temperature
of 20-26°C), the large rainfall (1150-2000 mm), and the great humility (mean annual
humility of 80%) cause an intensive chemical weathering of bedrock and result in
thick regolith (1()-20 m in Fujian and 50-60 m in Guangdong). The regolith is easy
to be denuded and transported, and thus rrovides rich supply for placer deposits.
This is one reason for the occurrences 0 numerous large placer deposits in the
southern coast of China. The coastal areas of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan,
and Taiwan contain 21 large placer deposits, 37 medium deposits, and 62 small
deposits. These account resrectively for 87.5%, 90%, and 83.8% of the total numbers
of large, medium, or smal placer deposits in China. On the contrary, the coastal
areas in the Liaoning and Shandong provinces are located in temperate zone and
have relatively low temperature, precipitation, and humility. Thus the weathering in
these areas are weak, and only small placer deposits are formed.
E. Sea-level Changes
During the Quaternary, frequent alternation of glacial and interglacial stages have
caused repeated sea-level changes and coastline shifts (Fig. 3). With the repeated
Table 6. Minerali7.ation Period of Littoral Placer Deposits in Chinao
Early Mid. Late Pleistocene Holocene

Pie is- Pleis-
tocene tocene Early Mid. Late Early Mid. Late
Gold +++ +++ +++

Cassiterite +++ +++
Zircon-
ilmenite +++ *** *** +++
Monazite-
xenotime *** *** +++ *** ***
Magnetite
Fergusonite +++ +++
Molybdenite +++ +++
Quartz sand +++ +++ *** ***
Chromite
Commercial value: * * *. large; +++. medium; ===, small; - - -, very small. a From Tan, Oi-xin and Sun, Yan, 1988.
liS' 125'
110"
... CD 1:\0 x I 03-KO X

(£) -lOX lOJ
CD~6XlllJ " h.p
h.p.
10.1
" h.p
@3()X[O·l
" h.p.
G)23X ]()~
" h,p.
@20X[O.I
" h.p.
(J) 17X I()-~
" h.p.
® 16X 10-'
" h p.
@)12X]()J "
" h.p.
". @ lOX J(]-~ :l h.p.
Ji:lngsll
<1) .'iX 10"--6 X [0"
" h.p
Fig. 3. Fluctuation of paleocoastal

line of China since late Pleis-
tocene.
Dish'ibution and Fonnation of Littoral Placer Deposits 495
transgressions and regressions, terraces, sand barriers, and other geomorphic units
formed, Thus the placer deposits of both transgression type and regression type have
come into being.
In transgressions, pre-existed sediments are reworked, and the placer deposits
usually occur in nearshore areas, such as the monazite deposit in theiTItohua Island
of the Zhejiang Province.
During regressions, placer deposits in terraces or submarine slopes may form in
the early time, such as the terrace placer in the Liuwei and Maling areas of
Guangdong. Placer deposits of eluvial-deluvial or fluvial may form in the later time,
such as the submarine channel deposit in the Shidao Island of Shandong. The
alternation of transgressions and regressions has produced many epochs of placer
mineralization.
IV. MINERALIZATION EPOCHS OF LITTORAL PLACER IN CHINA

The littoral placer deposits in China are the products of Quaternary
sedimentation. They have multiple mineralization epochs due to the effects of
neotectonic movements, climate and sea-level changes. According to 14C dating, the
following epochs are identified (Table 6)
1) Early Pleistocene. So far only ilmenite mineralization has been found in some
eluvial-del uvial layers in coastal China.
2) Middle Pleistocene. Mineralization of zircon, ilmenite, rutile, monazite, and
magnetite occurs in eluvial-deluvial layers, and eluvial-deluvial deposits are found.
3) Early to middle Late Pleistocene. This is the second important epoch for the
littoral placer formation in China. Deposits of marine, alluvial, eluvial, and
alluvial-marine origin formed during this epoch, especially in middle Late Pleistocene.
These deposits are large and commercially significant, but are damaged to a certain
extend by later reworking.
4) Late Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene. About 25000-15 000 a B.P. when
the last glaciation began and then reaches its climax, the sea level was 150-160 m
lower than the present one. Marine, alluvial, and eluvial-deluvial placer deposits
formed, such as the zircon deposits in Lufeng and the monazite deposits in Yangjiang
of the Guangdong Province, as well as some heavy mineral anomalies in the coast of
East China.
5) Middle and Late Holocene. It is the most important epoch when the majority
of littoral placer deposits in China formed. These deposits are mainly of marine,
eolian, alluvial, or alluvial-marine origin.
V. FORMATION MODEL FOR LITTORAL PLACER DEPOSITS
As mentioned above, the formation of placer deposits depends on many factors,

among which the material source is the prerequisite, and proper environment is
decisive. Placer deposits are the final product of these factors. The formation model
of littoral placer deposits is proposed (Fig. 4), which includes the following stages
1) The stage of mother-rock weathering and denudation. Igneous, metamorphic,
or sedimentary rocks or primary ore deposits are destructed by weathering under the
influences of neotectonic movement, sea-level changes, surface flows, waves, currents,
wind, sunlight, and biological actions, etc.
2) The stage of material transportation. The weathered materials are transported
by various media such as surface flows, rivers, tides, currents, and wind.
High Stand
I Low Stand
I Wave Base
...... ', ~ ;.' ::: .
I
I I I
Erosion MouDtains +Dcnudation Hill + Alluvial Plain t Marine Plain
Fig. 4. Mineralization model of littoral placer of China.
3) The stage of mineral enrichment. During the process oftransportation, detrital

materials are sorted by mechanical and chemical differentiations, and heavy minerals
are gradually separated from other detrital components. When the favorable
geomorphic localities are encountered, these heavy minerals are enriched, forming
placer deposits.
REFERENCES
Jiang, Yu-chi (1988) "Effect of climate and hydrodynamics on the littoral placer deposits of China", Marine
Geology & Quatemary Geology 8 (Sup. 1),35-54 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Sun, Yan (1988) "Relations of littoral and offshore geomorphic features with the formation of placer
deposits", Marine Geology & Quatemary Geology 8(Sup. 1), 13-24 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Tan, Xi-xin (1988) "Types and mineralization law of littoral placer deposits of China", Marine Geology &
Quatemary Geology 8 (Sup. 1), 3-12 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Tan, Oi-xin and Sun, Yan (1988) Littoral Placer Deposits in Olina, Science Press, Beijing, pp.I-158.
Wang, Zhi-xi and Liu, Oi-rong (1988) "Sources of littoral placer deposits in China", Marine Geology &
Quatemary Geology 8 (Sup. 1),25-34 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Yang, Huai-ren and Chen, Yue-qing (1985) "Quaternary sea-level changes, transgression and regression,
and coastal line changes in the east part of Olina", Marine Geology & Quatemary Geology 5(4),59-80
AI!HeHep, A. H., KDHlll,HH, r.l1. (1982) PDCCblllH ll1,e1I40Bbx ZOH, MI1pOBOrO ilieaHa HaYKa.
IMPROVEMENT OF NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS OF COASTAL
ZONE IN SOUTH CHINA
ZHAO Huan-ting, LU Tie-song, and ZHENG De-yan

SOlllh Chilla Sea IllSlilllle of Oceanology, Academia Sillica
Gual/gzlw/l 510301, China
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL CONDITIONS
The South China coastal zone has a nice natural environment (Zhao, 1988). It slopes
towards the sea and consists of mountains, hills, terraces, constructive plains and tidal
flats. The land is located south of the Tropic of Cancer, bordering the tropical sea,
and influenced by monsoon winds and typhoons. It is warm all year through. Annual
mean atmospheric temperature is 21.2 (Chaozhou)-25.5 (Sanya)-27SC (Taiping
Island, Nansha Islands). It has much rain, the annual rainfall is between 993.3 mm
(Dongfang) to 2869 mm (Dongxing), and about 1500 mm for the most parts. It has
a marine climate. The surface runoff is large, whose isopleth is mostly between
600-1800 mm. Off the coast, water temperature is rather high, the mean temperature
of many years is 21.2 (Nan'ao Island)-23.5 (the Zhujiang River mouth)-25.1
(Haikou)-26.8 (Yinggehai, the southwest Hainan Island)-27.9°C (the Nansha
1slands). It has a great variety of organisms, belonging to the Indian-Malayan Zone.
Of nearly 2000 varieties of vascular bundle plants, most are tropical. In the Guangxi,
central and eastern Guangdong provinces, southern subtropical zonal vegetation and
crimson red soil develop. But to the south in the Hainan Island and the Leizhou
Peninsula there are tropical zonal vegetation and laterite. In the islands of the South
China Sea, evergreen forests are formed with a dominant species of Pisona alba and
many species of animals. There are 1539 organism species in the tidal zone of
Guangdong and the Hainan Island. the later has 115 species of reef-building coral
and some unidentified species. The southern South China Sea has even more coral
species. Most marine organisms near the coast are the species widely distributed
in the Indian-Pacific marine tropical zone, and most organisms found in the coastal
waters of the Hainan Island and the southern South China Sea are tropical species
common in Indian-Malayan waters.
Major unfavorable factors for the South China coastal zone include damaged
vegetation, soil erosion, wind-driven sand movement, siltation, pollution, and
ecological imbalance. These are partially caused by mankind, and thus may be
overcome by mankind. The latter is the topic of this paper.
A natural division of South China coastal zone is proposed and shown in Fig. 1
and Table 1.
497
112" 122"
REPUBLIC OF
Is. ./
Bashi Channel
A2
i
16'
Ir:-----------4-------------
'\ =
:' '
<'BRUNEI
A4-1 r::
• • --..J ,r .......... ......,.
./
',<0 Zengmuansha Reef" ,: V ~\'-- ['
. \
,..... :~
: ~\'--). ~/
~6
f
'\' "' ..................J
.:. ."' ......... ,.-".
_ _ _--1-.--.:~____LINDONESIA
150 300 km
o· L _ _ _ _...L_L..::::='J:::~'-....J
Fig: 1. Natural division of South China coastal zone. Thick solid lines are boundaries for the areas. For
the numbering sec Table 1.
Improvcmcnt of NatUl'lIl Ellvh'olllncnts of Coastlll Zone 499
Tuble 1 Natural Divisions of South China Coastal Zone
Natural zone Natural region Natural environment area

AI' Southem subtropical, AI_I' Hanjiang delta area
evergreen, monsoon A I _2• Lianhuashan rocky, embayment coast area
A. Subtropical A I _3 • Zhujiang River mouth delta area
zone rain woods, crismson
red soil region A I _4 • Taishan-Yangjiang rocky,embayment coast area
A I _5 • Guangxi terraces and drowned valley area
B I . Northern torrid, ever- B I -6' Leizhou Peninsula terraces and drowned valleys
green, monsoon rain area
forest, laterite region BI _7 • Northern Hainan terrace and bay area
B 2 • Central torrid, ever- B2_s' Southwest Hainan semiarid, terraces and sandy
B. Tropical coast area
zone green monsoon rain
forest, laterite region B2_•• Southeast Hainan sandy bank-lagoon area
B2_1O" Xisha, Zhongsha and Dongsha coral-reef area
By Southern torrid, coral- B3_H • Nansha coral-reef area
reef woods phosphorus
rendzinas region
C. Equatorial Cl" Equatorial, tropical C I _12• Zengmuansha coral-shoal area
zone shoal region
II. SOIL AND WATER EROSION AND CONSERVATION

In the coastal zone of South China, the regolith is thick, and the erosion by rivers
is strong. The annual erosion module is 192.5 t/km2 for the Zhujiang River, 250 t/km 2
for the Hanjiang River, and 200 t/km2 in average. Soil is seriously eroded in some
areas because of the damage of vegetation, excessive cultivation of barren land,
planting in steep slopes, road and other constructions, and mining and quarrying, etc.
These cause soil erosion in sheets, gullies and collapses. Locally the erosion module
may be as high as 584 t/km2. a, The total area of soil loss and eolian sand coverage
in the coastal zone is about 3000 km 2. In the granitic low hills and terraces of the
Shenzhen area adjacent north to Hongkong, the speed of erosion amounts to more
than 9100 t/km 2 • a (0.7 cm/a) in scarcely vegetated gully head, 6500-9100 t/km 2. a
(0.5-0.7 cm/a) in the grass slope with 20% vegetation cover, and 2600-6500 t/km 2. a
(0.2-0.5 cm/a) in area with more than 50% vegetation (Li, 1986). The soil loss has
resulted in the loss of organic matter, N, P, K, and other nutrients and in the grow
of pests in farm land. This also causes the siltation in rivers, canals and reservoirs and
thus greatly decreases the efficiency of irrigation systems.
In the past decades, people in South China have accumulated some experiences
for soil conservation, such as closing hillsides to facilitate the afforestation and
grassing, recovering vegetation, digging fish-scale pits and contour canals on hill sides,
cutting steep slopes in gully heads, and constructing dams in gullies against sand etc.
(Chen, 1987). Cultivated land on hill sides steeper than 25° is forced to be replaced
by afforestation. More gentle slopes would be reformed into terrace fields, which
would be cultivated in manners of ridge, crop rotation and interplanting in order to
conselve water, soil and fertility. Trees and grasses to be planted should be chosen
carefully to suit the climate, landform and soil texture (Huang, 1987).
III. DAMAGE AND RECOVERY OF VEGETATION

The rate of forest cover is only 21.07% in Guangdong and Hainan Island and
24.7% in Guangxi because of the long term damage and less artificial afforestation.
Many rare organisms are nearly extinct. Natural and artificial forests along the coast
of South China were almost destroyed in late 1950's; only relic secondary forests left.
Wind-break forest, roadside forest and mangrove were damaged seriously from 1967
to 1980. As the result, evergreen monsoon forests or evergreen monsoon broad-
leaved forests growing in hills and platforms have changed into savanna and shrub;
wind-break forest at sandy area into sparse grass land; mangrove into swamp with or
without grass. The damage of vegetation facilitates soil and water erosion and the
formation of bad land. Furthermore, it brings arid and hot climate. For example, in
the western Hainan Island it reduces orographic rain in dry season and water storage
of reservoirs, dries rivers and increases torrential flood in rainy se,/-sons.
To recover good vegetation is possible. Experiments in the Dingbushan Natural
Conservation Area for the southern subtropical forests, which is located about 80 km
west of Guangzhou, showed that a longitudinal evolution of vegetation or a new
effective artificial ecological system may be reconstructed within 25 years. Original
broad-leaved forests are preserved, and 6 km 2 of coniferous forest, mainly Pinus
massioniana, are planted on barren hills. Both the vicissitude of the community
structure of natural forest and the evolution of artificial forest to natural forest have
the trend towards the best forest ecological system (Wang et ai., 1982). Thus for the
South China coastal zone, Pinus massoniana and other plants of Pinus family may be
planted on barren hills and grass-slopes as pioneer trees. After these trees growing
up, they may be intercut, and sun-loving broad-leaved plants such as Schima superba
and Castanopsis fissa may be seeded. Finally, after the broad-leaved woods growing
up, Pinus massoniana could be all cut down, and shade-resisting broad-leaved trees
could be planted. As a result, artificial forests will evolve towards the climax
community, which improves the natural environment.
The water and soil conservation station in Xiaoliang, the Dianbai county in
western Guangdong lies about 5 km away from coastline. After 25 years (1959-1983),
an artificial forest has been built in a granite platform with an area of 4.3 km 2, where
soil and water erosion had been so serious that no plants could grow. By simulating
the formation process of primary forests and applying the plan of "large variety of
plant community", a luxuriant tropical forest was formed in 25 years, which has 320
kinds of plants consisting of high arbors, short-trees, shrubs, and prostrate plants. In
addition, more than 100 species of vertebrates, more than 400 species of insects, and
38 species of fungus (soil microorganism) are developed in the region, and economic
tropical plants are planted in lowland interforest. Thus the ecological environment
has been improved greatly. The annual product of rice in nearby farmland has
increased by 6-13 times. This example demonstrates a new way to a fast recovery of
vegetation in erosion areas of the coastal zone of South China.
If the "Forest Law" and other regulations issued by our government are seriously
practiced, through the afforestation of hills, planting trees, and improving
management, the environment may be improved in 20-30 years. For example, people
in the Xinhui county from the 1950's to 1987 have grown artificial forests of 534 km 2
on hills (97.3% of the total hilly area) and shelter forests of 288 X 104 km 2 (86.6% of
the total applicable area), and a subtropic-tropic forest park with many species of
trees formed. The artificial forests can resist wind, store water, and protect
agriculture. Also it provides lumber, firewood and fruits. The Xinhui county set a
Improvement of Natural Environll1ents of Coastal Zone 501
model in China for afforestation. A project of "Afforestation Decade" has been in

practice in the Guangdong province since 1985.
IV. IMPROVEMENT OF SANDY BARRENS ALONG COAST
Sand bars scatter widely in the coast of South China. Farmlands and farm houses
are easily to be covered by wind-driven sand. Sand banks and sand lands in the coast
occupy a total area of 2063.3 km 2 and mainly distribute in the coastal zones between
Shantou and Lufeng of the eastern Guangdong, between Dianbai to Zhanjiang of the
western Guangdong, and from Wenchang to Wanning of the eastern Hainan, in
Dongfang of the western Hainan, and in Beihai of Guangxi, etc. For example, only
4 out of the 18 villages near the Haimen town, Chaoyang county were retained after
sand-fixing plants (Pandanus tectoriliS etc.) were destroyed in about 1934. When
Japanese troops occupied the Hainan Island in the 1940's, they destroyed all forests
in the Ganen plain, and then the plain become a semi-desert.
In the 1950's, wind-break forest, consisting of mainly the fast growing and
drought-tolerant Casuarina eqllisetifolia L., was planted on the sandy land along the
coast. Till mid 1960's, it effectively stopped wind-driven sand. From mid 1960's to late
1970's, however, some forests were destroyed by typhoon or denuded by people. The
wind-driven sand became serious again, and desertization started locally in western
Hainan and eastern Guangdong coasts. In the 1980's, wind-break forest was planted
again along the coasts. Till 1987, the shelterbelt of 2000 km long in Guangdong
and Hainan occupied 71.4% ofthe afforestable coastline. The circum-Hainan shelter-
belt, 1043 km long, occupied 90% of its afforestable coastline. It is possible to control
wind-driven sand again.
Diversified plantation is successfully developed in the shelter belt. For example,
orange, plum, green plum, litchi, longan or guava were planted. The thin sand layer
was removed, and farm land was formed and cultured with sweet potato, radish,
watermelon and peanut. In some places, lac insect was bred in Acacia allpericll-
la eform is, and the herbage grew beneath the trees were used to raises cattle.
V. DAMAGE AND RECOVERY OF MANGROVE
In the coast of South China, typical mangrove has 12 family, 14 genus, 22 species;
and semi-mangrove 7 family, 12 genus, 14 species. These consist of 43% of the total
mangrove species in the world, among which there are 8 species of Rhizophoraceae,
namely Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. Gylindrica, B. sexangula, B. sexanguia var.
rhynchopetala, Ceriops tagal, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, and R. stylosa. The
mangrove in South China belongs to the east flora and is similar to those in Malaysia
in species and structure (Gao, 1985).
The tidal-flat mangrove distribute in saline soil of intertidal zone, such as in the
Dongzhaigang lagoon and Qinglanggang lagoon of the northeastern Hainan, in the
Tieshangang drowned valley of the southern Guangxi, and in the Leizhouwan Bay of
the western Guangdong, each with a mangrove area of more than 6 km 2 • The
vegetation mainly consists of 13 communities, i.e. Acanthus ilicifolius, Kandelia candel-
Aegiceras cornicuiatum, Avicennia marina, Excoeaaria agallocha, R. stylosa, Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza, B. sexangula, Sonneratia caseolaris, Ceriops tagal, Nypa fruticans-
Acrostichum aurellm, and Rhizophora apiculata. The super-tidal semi-mangrove, in
contrast, has ahnost no Rhizophoraceae but salt-prone and salt-tolerant plants of 4
communities, i.e. Cerbera manghos-Hibiscus tiliaceus, Heritera littoralis-Excoecaria
agallocha, Hernandia sonora-Pongamia pinnata and Barringtonia racermosa-A. aureum.

Mangrove can protect the coast and speed up silting. It forms a superior
ecological system in the coast. For example, when the strong No. 8309 typhoon
landed at Zhujiang River Mouth and caused a storm surge, almost all seawalls in the
west coast of the Lingdingyang Estuary were submerged, 2129 places in 47 Ian lon~
seawalls broken, 32 bridges, 316 culverts and sluice gates damaged, and 1533.3 Ian
farm land and fish ponds drowned. However, the seawalls in east coast were safe
because it was protected by tall mangrove, reeds and weeds, which 6.95 1an2 in total
area. Similarly, the strong typhoon No. 8609 landing in the Beibuwan Gulf ruined
more than 80% of the seawalls in Guangxi and resulted in more than 100 million
yuan (RMB) economic loss. Fortunately, the 1.8 Ian long seawall in the Yingluo
Harbor was conserved because of the protection of the 0.089 1an2 tall mangrove,
although the wall had not been maintained for decades (Ye et ai., 1987). Statistics
shows that every hectare mangrove may provide 8 t of deciduous leaves annually. The
leaves are the natural food for marine fishery, and may increase the organic matter
in sediment and thus are favorite for benthic mollusca and algae. Biomass and
habitat density in mangrove tidal flat are high, e.g., the annually average biomass is
about 119.96 g/m 2, the average density 346 ind./m2 in the mangrove tidal flat of
Dandouhai of Tieshangan, Guangxi. Mangrove is an ideal location for fish and
shrimp to eat, propagate and rest, and is habitat for kinds of birds. Dugong, a rare
animal, perches in the the shallow sea off the mangrove coast of the Yingluo Harbor
east of Tieshangang.
In the early 1950's, mangrove of about 50 000 ha existed in South China coast.
However, only are left about one third at the present because of the tideland
reclamation and excessive cutting of mangrove during the past decades. Moreover,
the forest facies of mangrove becomes worse. Seawalls without mangrove are exposed
directly to storm surges and thus easy to be damaged. The aquatic resources are also
decreased (Sun, 1983). Existing mangrove must be protected, and bases for mangrove
marsh research should be established. Artificial mangrove should be developed to
recover mangrove forest quickly. There are about 30 000 ha mud flats suitable for
mangrove in the intertidal zone of South China. Up to now, mangrove has been
planted in some tidal flat of Guangxi. Some mangrove conservation regions have
been established, such as Futian in Shenzheng City, Shankou in Tieshangang, Beilun
river (a boundary river between China and Vietnam) mouth, Dongzhaigang lagoon,
and Qinglangang lagoon.
VI. DAMAGE AND CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs intermittently grow along the South China coast south of the Tropic
of Cancer. Coral reefs are a natural protector for coast and an ideal place for manne
organisms to perch, hunt for food, propagate, and escape from natural enemies. The
productivity of the ecological system in coral reefs is high.
According to the investigations carried out from April 1984 throgh December
1985 in the tidal zone of Hainan Island, coral flats have a biomass of 332.46 g/m 2 and
a habitat density of 126.93 ind./m2, lower than those for rock reefs, but higher than
those for sandy beaches or muddy flats. 491 species of organism were found. In
submarine tidal zones of coral reefs, precious fishes, lobsters, mollusca, and algae are
abundant. Gorgonia and soft corals are highly valuable for medicine. Eucheuma
muricatum is cultured in coral reefs and used to produce agar in the Qionghai
County.
Improvement of Natural Environments of Coastal Zone 503
Coral reefs have been used to produce lime in areas of South China where
limestone is sparse. Some primary reefs are used as building materials because of
their beauty and durability. Coral reefs in the coast of South China have developed
slowly since the Holocene transgression. They have been exploited for more than
2000 years, but the more severe damage occurred in recent years because of the
overdue exploitation by villagers. Many coral reefs have been blasted away, which
affected the coastal stability and resulted in the erosion of the coast by waves. This
also reduced or even extincted marine organisms living in coral reef areas. At the
present, most coral reefs in the Hainan Island are barren.
To recover the damaged coral reefs needs 20 years or more. It is possible,
however, to protect the ecological system of coral reefs by practicing "The Fishery
Laws", prohibiting the blast of coral reefs, forbidding limekilns and cement plants
from the use of coral reefs. Natural conservation areas for coral reefs should be
established; scientific knowledge should be propagated; scientific experiments should
be conducted for improving the productivity and for protecting the ecological system
of coral reef areas. The Sanya City and Qionghai County have established
respectively two natural conservation areas for coral reefs.
VII. SILTATION AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF PORTS AND WATERWAYS
The siltation in ports and waterways is more serious than before because of the
unreasonable exploitations on land and waters. For example, the annual average of
suspended load in the Zhujiang River was 8336 X 104 t/a until 1972 but 8735 x 104 t/a
until 1980, with an increase of more than 50x 104 t/a. Sediment of 120x 10 4 m 3 is
dredged yearly in the channel of 31 km long between the Guangzhou and Huangpu
harbors to maintain the water depth for passing 3000 tonnage ships. The channel
from the Huangpu Harbor to Guishan Island, 115.77 km in length, has to be dredged
(360x 10 4 m3/a) to maintain the water depth for 20 000 tonnage ships. Irrigation
constructions in upstream of some rivers lowered the water level and resulted in
siltation. For example, after the Hedi Reservoir was constructed upstream of the
liuzhoujiang River, Leizhou Peninsula, the Anpu Harbor (50 km to the northwest of
Zhanjiang) in the river mouth can only berth ships of 50 ton rank, but could berth
ships of 300 tonnage rank in the past.
Many harbors in lagoons, estuaries or drowned valleys in South China coast have
serious siltation in mouth bars because of the blind reclamation of sea in the 1960's
and 1970's. This decreased the tidal prism and thus affected the tidal inlet stability.
For example, 61.33 km 2 of sea area have been reclaimed in 1950-1980 in an estuary
where the Shantou Harbor is located. This resulted in a 47.6% reduction in water
area and the annual average rate of siltation of 10-15 cm inside the estuary and 1-2
cm off the estuary to the 5 m water depth. In 1980, the waterway at the mouth bar
was dredged, but filled up again just in three months.
It is possible to resolve the siltation problem by carefully selecting sites for
waterways and ports, by maintaining a good balance of construction and dredge. Each
port has its own evolutional process; therefore we must base on hydrometric,
geological and geomorphic data and mathematical dynamic-geomorphic analyses. For
example, according to analyses and surveys in lieshi port, rules of sand transport and
sedimentation were understood (Lu et aL, 1988), a new engineering plan (Fig. 2a)
was proposed which corrected the error of previous plan, and conditions of the port
have been improved. After model tests, a plan of waterway engineering in Shantou
mouth bar has been worked out (Fig. 2b). It is now under construction.
b Hanji ang Ri ver Del t a

22'
hills 20'
hill ':" ) i eshi' '~'a~'~on

.6 .
17.2m·· ":'. 18'
···.'Sand .......... .
'. Sp.i t / .......;:
spur' .
dike .. ; .... : :
pia nne "-:: .. ' 16'

dike '\". sand bank
~ isle
£ 0 r e cas ted .'.
\'. ABC planned
coastline-4··. jet t y
dri £t// CD planned

Submerged jetty 28"l4'N
oL - - -200m
J E,F, G,H planned dike
Fig. 2. a, Tidal inlet engineering in lieshi (after Lu et al., 1989); and b, WatelWay engineering in Shantou
(after Huang, lian-wei, 1987).
VIII. EROSION AND PROTECTION OF COAST
Generally, erosion appears at headland, and accumulation appears in bay head.

Erosion process at rock headland which usually is located in barrens is very slow and
is easy to be overlooked. A sand bank at the northeast coast of the Dapeng Bay (east
of Hong Kong) collapsed partly in 1982 because of the mining of sand at the seafloor
near the bank as building materials for Hongkong. The erosion weakened and the
slope did not collapse any more after the dredging was stopped. In the east coast off
the Qinglangang lagoon, Hainan Island, because coral reefs offshore had been blasted
away, waves directly washed and eroded the coast and forced it to retreat for 800 m
from 1966 through 1983. A coconut forest, a sand bank, and a dried lagoon were
submerged. Such coastal erosion is caused by human activities and should be stopped
by banning damaging activities and/or by building protective structures.
IX. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND ITS PROTECTION
In the coast zone of South China, pollutants with a total weight of 88.12x104 t/a,
Improvement of Natural Environments of Coastal Zone 505
are composed mostly of oxygen-consuming chemical matters (such as organic

matters), and then oils, heavy metals, and organic chlorine. In addition, industrial
sewage and daily live sewage, respectively 3.93xl04 t/a and 4.34x104 t/a, directly flow
into the sea from Hongkong and Macao. Chemical oxygen consuming, oil and organic
chlorine in the surface and sea waters along the coast often exceed the critical values
of environmental protection (Ke, 1988). Pollutants also exceed the criteria in bottom
sediments and organisms of tidal flat and shallow sea in some areas. This indicates
that the environment pollution is affecting severely the daily life, saltern, and aquatic
resources. Red tide occasionally appears in waters of Lingdingyang, Hongkong, the
Dapengwan and Dayawan bays, and the Zhanjiang Harbor, and results in aquicultural
loss. The pollutants may be carried by polluted water, dust, as well as aquatic
products to damage people's health.
Prevention and control of pollution are a basic policy of our country. The Laws
of Environmental Protection, the Laws of Marine Environmental Protection, and the
Laws of Preventing Water Pollution have been established and practiced. Efforts have
been made to control the sources of pollutants and to reform productive procedures.
In addition, techniques for prevention and control of pollution and for self-
purification of waters are being studied.
X. CONCLUSION
The environmental problems of the coastal zone of South China are severe in
some aspects but are being resolved through making suitable policies and laws,
developing scientific education and studies, and utilizing engineering and biological
measures. Natural environments could be improved gradually through the effort of
human being.
REFERENCES
Chen, Wen-biao (1987) "Bad lands and their harness in south China", Peoples Zhujiang 6, 40-44 (in
Chinese).
Gao, Yun-zhang (1985) "Mangroves of Guangdong", Tropic Geography 5(1), 1-8 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Huang, Bing-wei (1987) "Utilization and improvement of hill slopes in south China", Geographical Research
6(4), 1-14 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Huang, lian-wei (1987) " A study of realignment measure in Shantou mouth bar", Sciences of Water
ConservOlILY and Water Transport 3, 13-24 (in Chinese).
Ke, Dong-sheng (1988) "A preliminary analysis of oil pollution in offshore Guangdong", Marine Science
7(1),35-37 (in Chinese).
Li, Xiao-bin (1986) "On the erosion of soil and water in Shenzhen city", Tropic Geology 6(2), 163-169 (in
Lu, Tie-song e/ al. (1988) "Sand transportation and coastal relief development near shore outside inlet of
lieshi Lagoon, East Guangdong",Acta Oceanologica Sinica 10(3),318--326 (in Chinese).
Ren, Mei-e and Zeng, Zhao-xuan (1991) "The extent of tropical zone in China", Scientita Geographica
Sillica 11(2), 101-108 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Sun, Xiang-ping (1983) "Problems of some marine resources near extinction in the Hainan Island", Marine
Science Bulletin 2(2),98--103 (in Chinese).
Wang, Bo-sull et 01. (1982) "Evolution of forest community in Dinghushan mountain protective region",
Tropical and Subtropical Forest Ecosystem Research 1, 142-156 (in Chinese, with English).
Ye, Wei-qiang et al. (1987) "Relations with environment and coastal protection of mangrove in Guangxi",
Marine Environmental Science 6(3), 32-38 (in Chinese).
Zhao, Huan-ting et al. (1980) "Physiographic development of Shiziyang (Lion Channel) at the mouth of
the Zhujiang (Pearl) River", Nan/wi Studio Marine Sinica 1, 17-34 (in Chinese, with English).
Zhao, Huan-ting (1981) "Bottom relief of Lingdingyang of the Zhujiang River estuary", Acta Oceanologica
Sillica 3(2), 255-274 (in Chinese, with English).
Zhao, Huan-ting (1988) "Analyses of natural environment in coastal zone of south China", Tropic
Oceall%gy 7(4), 35-44 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhao, Huan-ting (1989) "Natural divisions of South China coastal zone", Tropic Oceallology 8(2), 65-74 (in
PART VI
MARINE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY

SOME RECENT ADVANCES IN UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS IN
CHINA
GUAN Ding-hua
Institute of Acoustics, Academia Sinica
Beijing 100080, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Sound waves can propagate over a long distance in the sea. The east coast of China
is bounded by very wide continental shelf with shallow water. Great emphasis was
paid on the research of sound propagation in shallow water by Chinese acousticians,
problems such as the optimum frequency in propagation, sea-bed remote sensing,
average sound field, long range reverberation, mode filtering, influence of internal
waves on sound transmission, abnormal attenuation, propagation in range dependent
environment, transformation between rays and modes, etc. are of great interest in
shallow water acoustics.
In the last two decades, researches in sound propagation in deep water very
much interested Chinese acousticians. In deep ocean there exists deep sound channel
in which sound may propagate over a very long distance. Recently some theoretical
and experimental researches on the propagation were conducted by us.
This paper reviews some recent significant developments achieved in China.
II. SHALLOW WATER ACOUSTICS

A. Optimum Frequency for Shallow Water
Sound propagation loss in shallow water depends on the attenuation in sea water
and in sea-bed sediments and also the ratio of sound energy propagating in sea water
and sea-bed sediments. The attenuation of sound in sediments is several orders of
magnitude higher than that in sea water. In the case of isovelocity profile in a high
frequency range, the propagation loss is mainly due to the volume attenuation in the
water column and the scattering loss at the rough boundaries, and the loss increases
with increasing frequency. As frequency decreases, the loss due to these two
mechanisms decreases monotonously, and more energy propagates in the sea bottom.
Thus the attenuation loss in sediments becomes the dominant loss mechanism. If the
sea-bed attenuation (in dB/m) decreases linearly with the frequency, the overall
propagation loss in shallow water will increase with the frequency decrease. These
two mechanisms cause the existence of the so-called optimum frequency. Jensen and
Kuperman (1983) found that the optimum frequency was strongly dependent on the
water depth and somewhat dependent on the sound speed profile, but only weakly
509
dependent upon bottom type. For the isovelocity water and homogeneous sediments,
the optimum frequency is almost inversely proportional to the depth of water column.
But it seems to us that the optimum frequency does not always exist. Sea going
measurements of the propagation loss in several shallow water areas off the China
coast have been conducted but have never obselVed any apparent optimum
frequency. Either there is no optimum frequency in these areas, or the optimum
frequency is much lower than that is predicted by the existing theories. The first
possible explanation is that the sediment attenuation has a nonlinear dependence on
the frequency. Zhou (1985) and Zhou et aL (1987a; 1987b) have made a dispersion
analysis and normal mode measurement to extract the acoustic attenuation coefficient
and speed in sea-bed sediments. Under the assumption of homogeneous sediments,
it is found that the sound attenuation in sea-bed sediments is proportional to 1.6-1.8
power of the frequency. Another possible explanation is that the in sediments the
attenuation decreases with depth.
B. Remote Sensing of Sea Bed Sediments
Acoustical properties of seabed sediments may be measured in laboratory or in

situ. Since the type of sediment varies from place to place and have complicated
depth structure, it is very expensive and time consuming to take probes or
measurements in situ. Several methods of remote sensing of sea-bed sediment by
normally incident sound pulses and by propagation data were developed by us. To
extract information of surficial sea-bed sediment in small areas, relatively high
frequency acoustic signals were used b~ Meng and Guan (1985). Using normally
incident sound pulses and measuring 'tails" of reflected signafs may give some
estimation of sound attenuation in sea-bed sediments. These waveforms may also be
used for classifying sediments with rather high classification rates (Meng and Guan,
1982). Zhou and Meng (1988) developed a method to estimate the thickness and
porosity of the surface sediment layer by explosive pulses.
For the prediction of the propagation loss in shallow water it is necessary to
know the averaged parameter of sea-bed sediments. It is attractive to determine
parameters of marine sediment for a rather large sea area from acoustic propagation
data. For the prediction of long range propagation loss, the reflection loss and the
backscattering strength at a small grazing angle is an important problem. As to
simplify the calculation for small grazing angles, linear relationship between the
bottom reflection loss and the grazing angle has been widely used by many authors.
Many calculations conducted by our scientists were based on this assumption. Among
them, the vertical coherence method suggest by Zhou (1981) gives an expression for
the vertical correlation coefficient between two hydrophones in a homogeneous layer.
From the expression, the bottom reflection loss at small grazing angles can be found
easily. For a linear negative gradient sound speed profile, the exponential decay of
sound waves may be used for extracting the bottom reflection loss (Zhou, 1980).
Spatial filtering (Luo et at., 1983) of normal modes may give the bottom reflection
loss through the amplitude ratios of higher modes to the first mode. The dispersion
analysis and the attenuation of the first mode may be used to calculate the sea-
bottom sound velocity and attenuation (Zhou, 1985).
Liang and Lu (1987) have studied the physico-mechanical properties of
continental shelf sea-bed sediments.
Based on the averaged sound field theory, an inverse method for calculating the
bottom loss and scattering coefficient of sea bottom are proposed. For isovelocity
Recent Advances in Underwater Acoustics 511
water, it is proved (Guan, 1979) that the angular dependence of bottom loss may be
analytically transformed from transmission loss curves. In more general cases for
obtaining bottom loss, an inverse method based on the criterion of the least square
error between the calculated and measured transmission losses is proposed (Wang
and Zhang, 1989).
c. Average Sound Field
The sound field in shallow water usually consists of a great number of rays or
modes and forms a complicated interference structure in space which often could not
be observed or does not coincide with calculated one. In order to simplify the
calculation, many authors studied the average field in shallow water.
Brekhovskikh (1984) and others studied the average field in inhomogeneous
shallow water and proposed integral expressions of the average intensity by using
methods of ray and normal mode, respectively. However, their integral expressions
are divergent, i.e., the average intenSIty becomes infinity when the receiver depth
equals to the source depth. Zhang (1981) used a generalized phase-integral
approximation to overcome this difficulty and suggested a smooth averaged field
method.
The average sound field method is widely used to calculate the propagation loss,
noise field, and reverberation and always gives good result. Especially simple and
clear result may be achieved for isovelocity cases and in the cases where the bottom
loss may be expressed as linearly dependent to the grazing angle at small grazing
angles. A small personnel computer may be used for predicting the averaged sound
field when the normal-mode program is used. This method also is adapted well to
range-dependent cases.
D. Long Range Reverberation
The reverberation in the sea is formed mainly by the scattering from sea surface
and sea bed. The basic theoretical frame of the reverberation in deep water has been
established quite well for a long time. The backscattering strength of the sea bed has
also been reported by a number of investigators. In deep water, the path from source
to bottom and from bottom to receiver are simple, and the grazing angle of the
incident sound and the sound scattered back from the bottom is readily determined
from the ray diagram. In shallow water, however, the matter is not so simple. The
problem is that the mUltipath transmission in shallow wave guide and the multi-angle
scattering at the bottom must be taken into account. In shallow water, the intensity
of reverberation in definite time interval corresponds to the scattering of sound from
the sea bed at definite distance. Sound rays transmitted at different grazing angles
can reach this area of sea bottom at the same time, and sound rays backscattered at
different angles can also go back to the receiver at the same time. Thus there is a
double integration process. The reverberation in deep water decays due to the two
way spherical spreading and the decrease of bottom backscattering strength with
grazing angles. But for reverberation from a long distance in shallow water, decays
with time due to the two way cylindrical spreading and stripping of energy at larger
grazing angles caused by a larger bottom reflection loss, and also due to the decrease
of scattering strength with grazing angles. A long range reverberation may be
calculated by the angular power spectrum (averaged flux) method (Zhou et aL, 1982)
and the mode theory (Tang et ai., 1978). By using thIS model, the reverberation
derived backscattering strength for the frequency band of 0.8-4.0 kHz and a grazing
angle of 2°_10° was achieved. These data well join the data from deep sea
measurement.
E. Mode Filtering
For sound propagates in shallow water over a long distance, only several modes
may be used to determine the characteristics of sound field. Recently, mode filtering
becomes an important approach for the research of multipath field in shallow water.
Experiments were conducted in model tanks (Wang et al., 1980) and others at the sea
in China (Luo et aL, 1983). In these experiments, a vertical array of receivers and an
eigenfunction weighing network are used. From the output of the weighing eigen
function network, signals of several modes may be separated. These experiments
show that the fluctuation of each normal mode is much less than that of the total
field. The fluctuation of total field is mainly due to the interference of modes (Clay
et al., 1985). Sea bottom parameters such as the bottom loss at different grazing
angles may be extracted from the sea experiments of mode filtering.
The difference in group velocities cause the elongation of signals and the
decrease of their amplitude. These phenomena make trouble in the transmission of
signals. Using the above-mentioned method, these normal modes may be filtered out
or added together after the correction of arrival time and phase. Then a compressed
and enhanced signal is obtained.
The spatial structure of guided wave field is much different from the free field.
Owing to the modal interference in wave guide, the conventional beamforming
technique can not be used. Based on the mode filtering, some authors suggest several
methods for source ranging and depth estimation in a wave guide (Shang, 1985;
Shang et aL, 1983).
F. Influence of Internal Waves on Reansmission of Sound
Internal waves exist when the density of sea water varies abruptly with depth.
Internal waves have horizontal scales of 100 m to 10 km, vertical scales of 1-100 m
and time scales of 1 minute to 15 hours. Characteristics of internal waves depend on
the vertical density profile of sea water. In shallow water, many interesting
phenomena in sound propagation are induced by internal waves. The study of
internal waves and the fluctuation of sound was conducted in the shallow water of
the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea for many years (Wang et aL, 1981). In this region, very
strong and sharp thermocline occurs in summer time, when the temperature change
in a vertical distance of several meters is as large as 10°C. The Vaisala frequency of
this region is II/min, the highest one ever reported.
Several chains of thermistors were fixed in the sea for measuring internal waves.
Analyses of the results show that the internal wave spectrum decreases with
increasing frequency as -2.5 power of the frequency. This spectrum lies in between
-2 pow~r curve of G-M spectrum and -3 power curve of Brekhovskikh's spectrum.
In the vertical direction, internal waves have a multimode structure. The propagation
direction of internal waves is toward the shore. In its activity there are relatively
active and relatively passive periods.
Internal waves are one of the factors which causes the fluctuation of sound.
Measurements in shallow water show that the active and passive periods of the
fluctuation of sound signals coincide with that of internal waves. Phase fluctuation
Recent Advances in Underwater Aconstics 513
of sound occurs mainly in the period of fading sound signals. The spectrum of sound
phase fluctuation decreases with increasing frequency in the power of - 2--3, similar
to that of the internal wave intensity spectrum. The spectrum of amplitude
fluctuation of sound decreases with increasmg frequency in the power of -1--1.5.
In the frequency band between 1 and 12 minutes there are peaks of amplitude
fluctuation. In the active period of internal waves, an amplitude fluctuation up to 20
dB at very low frequency has been observed. Such strong fluctuation would severely
interfere the work of undetwater sound systems.
G. Abnormal Attenuation of Sound

In some shallow water regions in the Huanghai Sea in the summer time, there
are very strong and sharp thermocline and internal waves, and abnormal attenuation
of sound propagation loss at the frequency range between 300 Hz and 1200 Hz has
been observed. In order to explain such a strange phenomenon, Zhou et al. (1991)
made continuous observation over a four year period in August at same area. They
found that there are very large deviations in the frequency response of sound
transmission loss for different directions and time. Different frequency response
curves of transmission loss were obtained for seven different directions; there was 30
dB deviation at some frequencies. At the experiment site the sea bed was flat. The
sediments along different tracks are similar, and no evidence of fish shoal was found.
Since it always occurs at summer time when there are sharp thermocline and internal
waves, quite possibility this phenomenon may be caused by moving internal wave
pakets. Theoretical analyses were given by Zhou et al. (1991) and Zhang et al. (1992)
or calculating the effect of internal wave paket on sound propagation when there is
strong thermocline. It is shown that the abnormally large transmission attenuation
can be caused by "acoustic mode-coupling" loss due to the interaction waves.
H. Modes and Rays
In theoretical studies of wave propagation, there are two well known

representations of the field, the mode representation and the ray representation, each
one has advantages and disadvantages in different cases. The members of each
representation possess different amount of information for describing the field. The
different representations of the same field must have some interrelations, and to find
these is of considerable interest to undetwater acousticians. By introducing the
general function of the mode and the generalized ray, a strict Fourier transformation
between rays and modes was proved by Gao and Shang (1982) for the case when the
branch-cut does not appear. In a later paper (Gao and Shang, 1983), the effect of the
branch-cut on the transformation between modes and rays was discussed. Though
these analyses were carried out by using the Pekeris model for the convenience of
calculation, these results may be generalized to other cases without any difficulty.
Recently, so-called "hybrid methods", which combines normal modes and ray
technique for the calculation of field in waveguides, was developed (Felson, 1981).
This method has many advantages.
III. DEEP-SEA SOUND PROPAGATION RESEARCHES
A. Development of WKBZ Theory
In order to overcome the problem of singularity at turning depths of the
conventional WKB approximation, the generalized phase-integral approximation
(WKBZ approximation) were proposed by Zhang (1979; 1990). The eigenfunction

of the turning modes is given by
z< 1] I
where B=2.152 and D= 1.619, VI is the eigenvalue, k(z) = w/c(z) , b= I dk?-(z) I dz, SI is
the cycle distance of a mode, 11 and ~I are the turning depths above and below the
channel axis, respectively.
This method is used for calculating the turning point convergence-zone. Turning
points can be divided into three kinds. The first kind exists at the depth of sound
source, the second kind at the conjugate depth, and the third kind at other depths.
The intensity of sound at convergence-zone are
2.06 S(<<o) tan«o k 2/3

Imax - (-) for turning point of the first kind;
,2S(<<0) «
2.86 k 1/3 ab 213

Imax - (--) for turning point of the second kind;
, a-b
2.86 S( «0) tan«o k 1/3

Imax - (- ) for turning point of the third kind.
,2 S( «0) tan«l «
This method is developed in the adiabatic mode approach for sound propagation
in gradually range-dependent channels. In this calculation, the WKBZ approximation
is used to calculate the "local" eigen function of modes.
B. Propagation of Sound in the South China Sea and Pacific Ocean
Some parts of the South China Sea is too shallow to have deep sound channels.
Recent Advances in Underwater Acoustics 515
But it was very interesting to show that in these areas due to the reflection of sea bed
there also exist convergence zones. Recently, a joint Sino-Russian research in sound
propagation was conducted in the East Pacific regions. Very interesting results have
obtained, which well coincide with theoretical calculations.
c. Absorption of Sound by Sea Water
In our institute we use a large, thin-walled aluminum cylindrical vessel and

improved method of measurement which lowered the loss of radiation. The minimum
loss of sea water is about 0.02 dB/km. So the relaxation frequency of borid acid may
be measured by the resonator method. We measured the relation between the
relaxation frequency of borid acid and the density of borid acid, NaHC0 3 +, calcium
ions, and pH value. It is discovered that there exists a chemical relaxation induced
by MgHC0 3 +, which is independent of pH value. The relaxation frequency is about
10 kHz (Oiu et al., 1988).
D. Ocean Noise
Wu (1989) developed a geoacoustic model, which considers the sea bed as a solid
but homogeneous half space, and established a modified transfer function which
incorporated the effect of both bottom reflectivity and shear-wave excitation.
Aspects deserving attention in the theoretical studies have been the relative
importance of inhomogeneous and homogeneous components of the source-pressure
field, the directivity property of this field, and the nature of the low frequency bottom
reflection loss in a multilayered visco-elastic sea bed. It has been shown that: i) at
very low frequencies( <0.1 Hz) the reflection loss from a multilayered seabed is
resulted primarily from the transmission of energy through the deepest interface into
the solid half space, but at high frequencies (~50 Hz) it arises mainly from the
absorption in the upper sedimentary layers;at intermediate frequencies the loss
increases as more layers become involved in energy partition; ii) when a train of
plane waves is incident on the seafloor at low grazing angles, trapped modes may be
excited in any low-velocity layer lying between any two high-velocity layers, leading
to periodic peaks in the reflection loss at the mode eigen frequencies; and iii) the
sediment absorption significantly enhances any reflection loss peaks arising as the
result of the excitation of trapped modes at low grazing angles, but reduces any peaks
observed at normal incidence.
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Brekhovskikh. L. M. (1984) Fundamental of Ocean Acoustics. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Clay, C. S., Wang, Yun-yu, and Shang, Er-chang (1985) "Sound field fluctuation in a shallow water
waveguide",l. Acollst. Soc. Am. 77, 424-428.
Felson, L. B. (1981) "Hybrid ray-mode fields in inhomogeneous waveguides and ducts", 1. Acollst. Soc. Am.
69, 352-361.
Gao, Ten-fu and Shang, Er-chang (1982) "The transformation between the mode representation and
generalized ray representation of a sound field", 1. Sound Vib. 80, 105-115.
Gao, Ten-fu and Shang, Er-chang (1983) "Effect of the branch-cut on the transformation between modes
and rays",J. Acollst. Soc. Am. 73, 1551-1555.
Guan, Ding-hua (1979) "The relationship between sound field and bottom-reflection loss in homogeneous
shallow water", Acta Oceallologica Sillica 1, 52-57 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Jensen, F. B. and Kuperman, W A. (1983) "Optimum frequency of propagation in shallow water
environments", 1. Acoust. Soc. Am. 73, 813-819.
Liang, Yuan-llo and Lu, Bo (1987) "Acoustic environment and physicomechanical properties of the shelf
seabed off the Pearl River mouth", Marine Geoteclmology 6, 377-392.

Luo, En-sheng et al. (1983) "Normal mode filtering in shallow water", 1. Acoust. Soc. Am. 74, 1833-1836.
Meng, Jin-sheng and Guan, Ding-hua (1982) "Acoustical method for classification of sea floor sediments",
Acta Oceallologica Sillica I, 48-53 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Meng, Jin-sheng and Guan, Ding-hua (1985) "Estimation of the attenuation of sound in marine sediments
by normally incident pulses", Acta Oceanlogica Sinica 4,503-509 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Qiu, Xin-fang et al. (1988) "Measurements of the PH dependence of low frequency sound absorption in
sea water", Chinese J. Acoust. 7, 295-301. (in Chinese, with English abstract)
Shang, Er-chang (1985) "Source depth estimation in waveguides"']. Acoust. Soc. Am. 77, 1413-1419.
Shang, Er-chang et al. (1983) "Passive source ranging by using mode filtering and mode phase comparing
in waveguides", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. (supp\. 1), 74, 578.
Tang, Da-jun et al. (personal communication).
Wang, De-zhao (1981) "Internal waves and fluctuation of sound field", Acta Acustica 3, 209-217 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, Qin and Zhang, Ren-he (1989) "An inversion method for obtaining bottom reflection loss", Chinese
J. Acoust. 8, 57-64 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wang, Yun-yu et al. (1980) "The model experimental studies on the spatial filtering of modes", Acta
Acoustica 2, 78 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Wu, Cheng-yi (1989) "Wave-wave interactions and the infrasonic pressure field in the ocean", Doctoral
dissertation, University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Zhang, Ren-he (1979) "Smooth-averaged sound field in underwater sound channel", Acta Acoustica 4, 102
Zhang, Ren-he (1981) "Smooth-averaged sound field in shallow water", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 3,
Zhang, Ren-he (1990) "Range and depth averaged fields in ocean sound channels", JASA 87,633.
Zhang, Xue-zhen, Zhou, Ji-xun, and Rogers, P. H. (1992) "The effects of internal solitions or bottom relief
on sound propagation in shallow water", Proceedings ICAI4 Beijing 1992, B4-3.
Zhou, Ji-xun (1980) "The analytical method of angular power spectrum, range and depth structure of
echo-reverberation ration in shallow water sound field", Acta Acoustica 5, 86-99 (in Chinese, with
English abstract).
Zhou, Ji-xun (1981) "Vertical coherence of the sound field and boundary losses in shallow water",Acta
Acustica 4,34-43 (1979) or Chill Phys. 1,494-504 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Zhou, Ji-xun (1985) "Normal mode measurements and remote sensing of sea-bottom sound velocity and
attenuation in shallow water", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 78, 1003-1009.
Zhou, Ji-xun, Guan, Ding-hua, Shang, Er-chang, and Luo, En-sheng (1982) "longe-range reverberation and
bottom scattering strength in shallow water", Chinese 1. Acoust. 1, 54-63 (in Chinese, with English
abstract).
Zhou, Ji-xun, Zhang, Xue-zhen, and Rogers, P. H. (1987a) "Effect offrequency dependence of sea-bottom
attenuation on the optimum frequency for acoustic propagation in shallow water", 1. Acoust. Soc. Am.
82, 287-292.
Zhou, Ji-xun, Zhang, Xue-zhen, Rogers, P. H., and Jarzynski, J. (1987b) "Geoacoustic parameters in a
stratified sea bottom from shallow-water acoustic propagation", J. Acout. Soc. Am. 82, 2086-2074.
Zhou, Ji-xun, Zhang, Xue-zhen, and Rogers, P. H. (1991) "Resonant interaction of sound wave with
internal solition in the coastal zone", J. Acoust. Sco. Am. 90, 2040-2054.
Zhou, Zhi-yu and Meng, Jin-sheng (1988) "Acoustic estimation of porosity and thickness for thin soft
surface layer of sea floor", Marille GeotecJmology 7, 211-219.
TECHNOLOGY FOR OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH AND
INVESTIGATION IN CHINA
LI Yun-wu and LI Jing-guang

/llStitute of Oceall Techllology, State Oceallic Admillistratioll
Tialljill 300111, Chilla
I. INTRODUCTION
In view of the extreme variety of marine environmental conditions and the important
role that seas and oceans play in national economy, China has attached great
importance to ocean research and marine environmental observation. For promoting
oceanographic research and investigation, the Chinese government has devoted
considerable effort to the development of ocean technology and equipment.
Particularly, the State Oceanic Administration conducted a national marine
environmental observation program in the early 1980's, an important part of which
is the creation of a comprehensive marine environmental observation network
consisting of research vessels, data buoys, subsurface mooring systems, submersibles,
coastal stations, remote sensing aircraft and satellites. Now, considerable progress has
been achieved in the implementation of the program.
II. RESEARCH VESSELS
Research vessels remain the most important platform for oceanographic study
and sUlvey in China. The research fleet, with a total tonnage of around 150 000 tons,
consists of about 170 ships, of which about 80 are of considerable size. Research
vessels of the Navy in Taiwan Province, Hongkong and Macao are not included.
The most recent members of the fleet are RN "Jidi" and RN "Haijian 72". On
October 31, 1986 to May 17, 1987, RN "Jidi" had its first cruise to the Antarctic and
completed a round-the-worId trip survey successfully. RN "Haijian 72" is a
multi-purpose ship primarily designed for marine pollution monitoring and
surveillance. Data acquisition and navigation is controlled by a computer network.
III. MOORED SURFACE DATA BUOYS
The first attempt to develop moored data buoys began in the mid-1960's. To
meet the growing needs for environmental data, a decision was made in 1985 to
create a national buoy network of 15 buoys, both imported from Marex of UK and
made in China, along the coastal areas of China. These buoys are intended to
provide quality environment data to the national marine environmental forecasting
service, the scientific community and the industrial users. A diagram of China's data
517
buoy locations is given in Fig. 1. Specifications of the FZSl-l data buoy made in
China are given in Table 1.
• Data
400 Regional buoy

@ center
A Automatic coastal
station
35°e---------'
30°
Fig. 1. Locations of data buoys and automatic

coastal observation stations.
5°L----L---~-~~---~--~
Table 1. FZSl-l Data Buoy Capabilities
Parameter Range Accuracy

Average wind speed 0-60 m/s (0.5x5% Vm ......ed) m/s
Average wind direction 0-360· ±5·
Air temperature -15·C-40·C ±OSC
Barometric pressure 850-1050 hPa ±1 hPa
Water temperature -3·C-+35·C ±OSC
Wave height 0.3-20 m (±lO%xVm..""~ m ±2 s
Wave period 2-15 s ±5 cm/s
Current speed 0.05-2 m/s ±1O
Current direction 0-360·
IV. SUB-SURFACE MOORING SYSTEM

Measurement of current as well as other parameters at different depth below the
sea surface is necessary for both scientific and operational purposes. The mooring
Technology for Research and Investigation 519
system consists of a bottom anchor, an acoustic release, a mooring line, instruments

and floats. Main specifications of the mooring system are
• Maximum depth of operation: 1000 m;
• Capability of continuous operation: 90 days;
• Loading capacity: 1.5 t.
As the main floats are set below the sea surface, the buoy system is no longer
subjected to surface excitation. Furthermore, the risk of theft of the mooring
assembly and the danger of collision with surface vessels are eliminated. During the
operation in 1986, invaluable current data were provided. In order to study the
Kuroshio current and ocean circulations, a mooring system with a depth capability
of 6000 m is to be developed.
V. COASTAL STATIONS
Land-based and offshore platform-based coastal stations have been playing an

important role in marine environmental observations in China. There are now over
300 coastal stations. Among them 54 coastal stations operated by the State Oceanic
Administration (SOA) measure the surface water temperature, tide, wave, salinity,
visibility, wind speed and direction, barometric pressure and air temperature. Part of
these stations are also equipped with instruments for pollution momtoring. 3 coastal
stations installed on the Yongshu Reef, the Nansha Islands in the South China Sea,
Lusi and Qingdao (Fig. 1) have been equipped with automatic oceanographic and
meteorological observational systems, all designed and developed in China. These
systems have operated without interruption and provided invaluable data about the
passage of typhoons. The capabilities of the system are given in Table 2. For ice
observation, a radar station has been set up on the coast of the Liaodong Bay.
Table 2. Capabilities of the Automatie Observational System
Parameter Range Accuracy

Maximum wind speed 1-60 m/s ±(0.5+0.0S) m/s
Average wind speed 1-60 m/s ±(0.5+0.0S) m/s
Average wind direction 1-360· ±1O.
Air temperature -50---50·C ±O.3·C
Relative humidity 30---1005 ±S%
Barometric pressure 940---1060 hPa ±1 hPa
Tidal level 0---800 cm ±2cm
Wave height 0---15 m ±3%
Wave period 2s ±S%
Water temperature -2·C-35·C ±O.I·C
Salinity 10---36 ±0.2
VI. AIRCRAFT AND SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing technology holds great potential in oceanographic observation.
An infrared radiation thermometer with accuracy of ±5°C has been developed for
airborne remote sensing of sea surface temperature over large areas. A black body
is used for reference of measuring temperature. In order to obtain the true value of
sea surface temperature, airborne expendable temperature measuring buoys are
attached. The data provided by the system have been used since the late 1970s in
making sea surface temperature charts to selVe the fishery industry.

In China, experiments have been performed for years on the application of
remote sensing technology to marine pollution monitoring and sea ice obselVation.
The instruments employed in the pollution monitoring operation included a multi-
spectral camera, an 8-12 m airborne infrared radiation thermometer and a ccrY.
A multi-spectral camera, a color infrared camera, an infrared radiation thermometer
and an air-borne imaging microwave radiometer are selected for sea ice sUlVey.
Aircraft remote sensing has also been used in the study of coastal sedimentation
process in estuarine areas. In 1988 and 1990, China launched her first meteorological
satellite "FY-1". In addition to meteorological ones, parameters such as water color,
sea surface temperature and ice coverage are also measured by "FY-1". We are now
planning to receive data obtained by the European Satellite ERS-l.
VII. SUBMERSIBLES
Submersibles are unique tools capable of obselVing and conducting research

activities below the ocean surface. The design and development of manned
submersibles, ROVs, AUVs and diving suit has been put forward in China. For
example, HR-01 was developed in 1986 and has a length of 2.7 m, a weight of 2100
kg in air and a maximum depth of operation of 200 m. HR-01, equipped with an
undelwater TV, manipulators, a positioning sonar and other auxiliary devices, is
capable of undertaking various underwater obselVations and operations. Information
and power are transmitted through umbilical cables.
VIII. INSTRUMENTATION
For conducting systematic and reliable oceanographic studies, a considerable

effort has been made in the design and development of oceanographic instruments
and techniques in China. The temperature, salInity and depth of sea water are the
important parameters which oceanographers are interested in. A series of STD
systems with depth capabilities ranging from 50-6000 m have been developed and
used in many important research projects, such as the National Coastal Zone
Investigation Project, the Antarctic Expedition, China-US Joint SUlVeys in Pacific,
deep ocean nodule sUlVeys, etc. One of the typical products is Model SZC4-1 STD
System, a self-contained, magnetic tape recording system. Its principal specifications
are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Principal Specifications of Model SZC4·1 STS System
Parameter Range Accuracy Time constant

T -2°C-32°C ±0.05°C 0.7 s
S 20-28 ±0.05 0.5 s
D 0-1000 m ±0.5% FS 0.5 s
The newly developed lab salinometer features data digitalization, microcomputer

control and with an accuracy up to 0.003. For current measurement, several types of
current meters have been developed, including propeller current meter, GEK current
meter. Savonius rotor-type current meter, acoustic current meter and ADCP.
Extensive efforts have been made in the development of wave measuring systems.
Among the successful products are Model SBA 3 Coastal Acoustic Wave Gauge and
Technology for Research and Investigation 521
Model SBF1-1 Wave Buoy. Model SBA 3 is designed based on the acoustic principle,
and its acoustic transducer is fixed on a gimbaled frame on the sea bottom. During
the construction of the Harbor at Nouakchott, Mauritania, the wave gauge provided
data of long period wave. Both float-type and pressure-type tide gauges have been
developed. Model SCA2-2 Tide Gauge, with a measuring range of 0-20 m and an
accuracy of ± 10 mm, consists of a pressure converter, a pressure measuring unit and
a microcomputer-controlled recording and display umt. No stilling well and air
bubble source are required when the tide gauge is operated. In 1984, the SCA2-2
Tide Gauge was selected as the demonstration instrument of international training
course sponsored by IOC and the State Oceanic Administration of China.
A great number of instruments and devices for geological and geophysical studies
have been developed in China. They include gravity dredger, spring loaded dredger,
box corer, gravity corer, vibrating piston corer, boomerang sediment corer, echo-
sounder, side-scan sonar, sub-bottom profiler, deep-bottom profiler, gravimeter and
proton magnetometer. Model DYCl-2 4000 m Boomerang Sediment Corer is capable
of sampling core of 6.5 cm in diameter and 1.2 m in length. Model GPY Precision
Sub-bottom Profiler is the world's first versatile profiling system which offers highly
reliable records in extra-shallow water as well as in deep water. The principal
specifications of Model GPY Precision Sub-bottom Profiler are
• Penetration in mud: 100 m;
• Sub-bottom layer resolution: 0.1-0.3 m;
• Maximum recording depth: 360 m.
Model DDC-I Bottom Profiler, another new system, has been tested in an area
with a depth of 6700 m in the Ryukyu Trench. Results show that the instrument has
a penetration capability of 500 m with ideal resolution. The MBSP Acoustic System,
jointly developed by China and USA, is mainly designed for manganese nodule
exploration. In addition, it is also capable of performing bathymetry, sub-bottom
profiling and pinger-tracking. Nodule abundance derived from the data provided by
the MBSP system is in good agreement with the results provided by grab and camera.
Instruments and equipment for coastal monitoring and marine environmental
protection have received increasing attention in China since the mid-1970's. Water
sampler, corer, boom, skimmer, mercury analyzer, DO meter, pH meter, spectro-
photometer, spectrofluorimeter, turbidity meter and instrument for studying sediment
transport are some of the products.
IX. EVALUATION AND CALIBRATION
For evaluating and calibrating oceanographic instruments, China created the

National Marine Meteorological Service in 1965. The following are the main facilities
at the Service for testing and calibration purposes
• Model JWA2-1 Large Volume Thermostatic Water Bath;
• Type 4162 Smith Bridge;
• Triple-Point-of-Water-Cells;
• Model JDA1-1 Precision Conductivity Ratio Measuring System
(precision better than ±0.0003);
• Autosal Model 8400 Laboratory Salinometer;
• Model 601 MK III Inductive Coupled Salinometer;
• Model SYC1-1 Inductive Salinometer;
• Grade II Standard Dead Weight Tester;
• Model JSA1-1 30 MPa Pressure Test Vessel;
• Model JSAI-2 100 MPa Pressure Test Vessel;

• Jet Flow Tank.
x. ENVIRONMENTAL TEST CHAMBER
The SelVice also has the capability of preparing secondary standard seawater
having 6 different salinities. In March 1986, 20 ampoules of the standard seawater of
three different salinities were supplied to the Institute of Oceanographic Science at
Wormley, UK. for a comparison with the IAPSO Standard Seawater, and results of
comparison were satisfactory.
Emphasis will be placed on the modification of sensors, data acquisition and
transmission as well as measuring platforms. It will require concerted actions by both
governmental and non-governmental agencies as well as international cooperations.
THE OPTICAL INFORMATION TRANSMISSION IN THE OCEAN
LIU Zhi-shen
Oceall Optics alld Remote Sensing Laboratory, Oceall Ulliversity of Qingdao
Qingdao 266003, Chill a
I. INTRODUCTION
Ocean optics is generally considered as a branch of oceanography, but in recent years
is also as a branch of the modern optics. Because of recent development of laser,
optical electronics, computer and information processing, satellite remote sensing and
their wide application in ocean science and exploitation, many new problems in ocean
optics have been put before scientists. The specially important one is the optical
information transmission in the ocean, includmg the narrow beam transmission of
lidar in the ocean, the image transmission of underwater vision system, the data
transmission of underwater laser communication, the information extraction of
upwelling spectral radiance. So the ocean optics should be developed from a new
point of view, i.e. the information transmissIOn of light in the sea. This paper will
discuss several problems in this aspect.
II. RADIANCE TRANSFER AND INFORMATION TRANSMISSION
The radiative transfer theory of ocean optics, defined as the quantitative study
of the transfer of radiant energy through water body, is the central theory of ocean
optics. According to the radiance model of radiative transfer, the radiative transfer
equation has been established
dL
---cL+ f. L(r, 8')P((J, (J')dw' (1)
dr 4"
where L is the radiance, c the volume attenuation coefficient, f3 the volume scattering
function, and r the distance in the sea.
In the classical ocean optics, the solution of Eq. (1) is obtained by the spherical
harmonic function method (Well, 1977), it is very complex and rather laborious to
compute c and f3 from the given L(O, r) data. It is difficult to analyze the information
variation along the path r in the ocean from Eq. (1). According to the information
theory, the frequency spectrum distribution of a signal represents information
content. In order to analyze the information variation in water, we can transform the
radiative transfer Eq. (1) in the spatial domain to frequency domain (Liu and He,
1986). Taking the Founer-Bessel transform of Eq. (1), we can give
523
Zhou Di et at. (eds.), Oceanology oj China Seas. Volume 2,523-532.
dL(r, "') --cL(r, ",)+B(",)L(r, "') (2)

dr
where 1/J is the spatial angular frequency, and black letter represents the Fourier-
Bessel transform. Obviously, the complex integra-differential Eq. (1) become a simple
linear differential Eq. (2), whose solution can be written as
L(r, ",)-Lo(O, rJr)exp[ -(c-B)r] (3)
If B is constant, that means the frequency spectrum of f3 is constant and has infinite
frequency bandwidth, then L(r, tp) fre~uency spectrum of L(r, 0) decay along path r,
but the bandwidth remains constant. Smce B equals to constant, f3 must equal to the
Dirac function 8(0), that means no scattering exists in medium, or we have a pure
absorption medium. For the ocean, f3(0) must not equal to 8(0). In general, f3(0) is
a strong forward scattering function (Figs. 1 and 2).
200.0
150.0
50.0
- 3.0 ~_~:--~;-;;---:;-~;--' 0.0 '::-----......,..-L;~---'--=_'

0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 on In 2n
Angle (deg.) Angle (deg.)
Fig. 1. The measured volume scattering function of Fig. 2. A typical small angle scattering function
sea water in the East China Sea. (from Preisendorfer, 1976).
The forward scattering is 4-5 orders of magnitude stronger than the back
scattering. In other words, the f3(0) function is a kind of sharp narrow function, so
the Fourier-Bessel transform or frequency spectrum of f3(O) must be a limited
bandwidth, bell-shaped function. From Eqs. (2) and (3), we can predict that the
bandwidth of L(tp, r) will become narrow with the increase of path r, that means the
information content of L(O, r) will decrease with the increase of path r.
The typical radiance data in the sea measured by Tyler is shown in Fig. 3 (Tyler,
1978). We can expect that the bandwidth of L(tp, r) decreases with the increasing
path r or water depth z. The an~ular frequency spectrum L(tp, r) of radiance
distribution is shown in Fig. 4, wlnc1t is given by calculating fram data of Fig. 3.
Obviously, the bandwidth of L(tp, r) decreases as the water depth increases. As a
Optical Information Transmission in the Ocean 525
result of multi-scattering of sea water, we can get the direction variation of radiance
field in the sea from Fig. 3. The radiance field on surface layer, for example water
depth 4.24 m, has clearly directive radiance at zenith angle about 30°, which is closely
related to the apparent direction of the sun, but the radiance distribution in deep
water does not carry any information on the surface layer. This process of
information decreasing with water depth is also of frequency bandwidth or narrowing
maximum.
Fig. 3. The typical radiance data in the sea Zenith angle (deg.)
measured by Tyler (1978).
15.0 a 15.0 b 10.0 c
.~ 5.0
r=4.24 m r=29.0 m ;::I
<U r= 53.7 m
.~ .~
~
~ 5.0 '"
~ 0.0
0.0'--_--'--_ _--'--_--' , , !
- 5.0 ~--:-::-'-=---::-:'--:--_-'
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
Spatial angular frequency Spatial angular frequency Spatial angular frequency
Fig. 4. The angular frequency spectrum L(l/J, r) of radiance distribution.
III. THE MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCfION (MTF) IN THE OCEAN
In the linear system theory, the pulse response function is used to describe the
property of system transmission. In ocean optics, the point spread function (PSF) is
used to describe the property of optical transmission in the ocean. The PSF is defined
as the radiance distribution at distance r around a point light source in the ocean. We
can also use the beam spread function (BSF) which is defined as irradiance
distribution at distance r from narrow light beam (collimating light beam) in the
ocean. According to the reciprocal principle of optics, the PSF and BSF are
equivalent. We can find out the BSF from Eq. (3). Set Lo(O, B)=S(O), which means
that Lo is the collimating beam, then Lo(O, O)=S(O), and
L(r, rJr) -exp[ - (c- B)r] when Lo - o( 8)
that is
MTF(r, rJr) - exp[ - (c - B)r] - exp [ - D( rJr)r] (4)
where D(ljJ) is referred to the space frequency attenuation function. PSF can be
expressed as
PSF- P{MTF} - 21t 10« exp[ - (c - B)r]Jo(21t 8, rJr) rJrd rJr (5)
where 10 is zero order Bessel function. The volume scattering function (3(B) can be
found from MTF
(6)
We can obtain MTF of the sea water body from the measured data of (3 and c on
basis of Eqs. (4) and (6), and also {3 and c from MTF. But it is very difficult to
measure MTF in the ocean. In general, it is necessary to submerge the high power
blue-green laser or high intensity point light source in the sea, and to collimate
strictly with the detector in the sea (Metens, 1977). We think researchers of ocean
optics should consider that MTF can be found from the variation of nature radiance
with water depth in the ocean. It is difficult to find the relation between MTF and
radiance field distribution in the ocean from the radiance transfer Eq. (1), but it is
very easy to find the relation from transform Eq. (2).
Clearly, MTF can be obtained from Eqs. (2) and (4) and expressed as
1 dL
MTF(r, rJr) -exp( - - ) r
L dr
and MTF(r, 1/1) _ L(T, rJr) (7)

L(O, rJr)
Thus, we can get MTF(r, ljJ) from L(r, B). This method has the advantage of
simplicity and does not need to put the laser and point light source in water. MTF
from radiance field is shown in Fig. 5, PSF from data of MTF (Fig. 5) is shown in
Fig. 6. In Fig. 5 the attenuation of high spatial angular frequency component of MTF
is faster than the low spatial angular frequency component with increasing of water
depth. The PSF of Fig. 6 become more and more obscure with increasing water depth
because of the successive scattering along the path r in the ocean. Fig. 6 also shows
that the image of point light source is spread through the path in the ocean, and the
image transmitted in water is ambiguous. The volume scattering function (3(O) found
Optical Infol"lnation Transmission in the Ocean 527
15.0 5.8
4.24 m
~ 4.8
\l)
.:::
=
;:s
\l) lOAm
';; .~
~
...
'-" 16.6m
~
';) 16.6m
~ 29.0m -=-
~ 3.8
~ ~
0.0
29.0m
66.1 m
- 5.0 '::--~"'-::-_ _...L.-_-===> 2.8 '----"'"---7:;;----:--::----'
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 -1.8 -1.3 -0.8 -0.3
Spatial angular frequency Angle (rad.)
Fig. 5. MTF from radiance field. Fig. 6. PSF from data of MTF in Fig. 5.
found from Eq. (6) is shown in Fig. 7. Since f3 will equal to zero when 1/J- IX, so the
volume attenuation coefficient c can be expressed as
c-lim2:..lnIMTFI(r, J/r) (8)

rfr-« r
3.0
1.0
.~
=
;:s
\l)
'S~
~
~
-1.0
-3.0 L-_-'---_ _--L-~-....&.-:--'

0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0
Fig. 7. The volume of scattering function f3(y)
found from Eq. (6). Angle (deg.)
We may conclude that inherent optical properties, for instance c and f3 in the
ocean can be found from optical information transmission or nature radiance field
in the ocean.
IV. REMOTE MEASUREMENT OF OCEAN OPTICAL PROPERTIES BY THE

PULSE LIDAR
Ocean lidar developed steadily from the 1970's (Hoge et al., 1980; Leonard, et
al., 1979; Measures, 1984). Its applications include the airborne lidar bathymetry
(Hoge et al., 1980), Raman lidar for water temperature detection (Liu et aL, 1991),
the fluorescence detection (Measures, 1984) for oil slicks, chlorophyll, and
measurement of ocean optical properties (Liu et al., 1991). The application of lidar
to remotely detect ocean optical parameters is a very interesting research domain.
This method and technique can be used to obtain the vertical profile of ocean optical
parameters from the laser pulse transmission waveform of lidar. If the lidar is just
above sea surface, then the lidar equation can be expressed as
peR) - P(tr)N a I1R[ Q(d) ] TJ (d) TJ (0) T2(..t, R) (9)

n 2 (w)
where peR) is the received return scattering power;
P(tr) the lidar transmitted pulse power;
N the density of scattering molecular or particle;
a the backscattering cross section;
t::.R the range resolution along vertical profile;
fl(d) the solid angle of receiver;
new) the refractive index of water;
7](d) the quantum efficiency of detector;
7](0) the efficiency of optical system; and
T(A, R) the transmission at laser wavelength in the sea.
For a fidar system, parameters of Eq. (9) are fixed, thus the Eq. (9) can simply
be written as
peR) -P(tr)b(R)Aexp( -2kR) (10)
where A is fixed coefficient, b(R) the backscattering coefficient of sea water at the
range R, T 2(A)=exp(-2kR). Apparently, we have
peR)) dP(r) _ -2kP(R)
---exp[-2k(R -~)] or (11)
P(~) 1 dR
from Eq. (8). If we have peRl) and P(R 2 ) which are received signals with different
range R, or we have variability of peR) wIth R, then we can give the value of k. The
return signal power peR) with different R or the variability of peR) is a kind of
transient signal scattered from water layers on different depth. The laser pulse
transmitted by the lidar system should be a narrow pulse, the width of which should
be several nanoseconds. The resolution of range R is
2I1R-I1T-C- (12)
new)
where t::.T is the width of the laser pulse; c the light speed; new) the refractive index
of water. When t::.T is 10 ns, t::.R=1 m. peR) signal should be recorded using a
Optical Infofolation TI'ansmission in the Ocean 529
transient recorder or waveform recorder which may record the digital data of
waveform, such as the return signal of laser pulse peR). The time sample width of
transient recorder should be available for the range resolution flR.
In China seas, the optical attenuation and scattering is larger than in other ocean
areas in the world, because of a large amount of suspended matter discharged from
the Huanghe (Yellow) and Changjiang (Yangtze) rivers, and the content of
suspended matter changes with different seasons and areas. It is of great significance
to detect ocean optical parameters using lidar in China.
We have established an ocean lidar system. The Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with
frequency-doubled (output at 532.0 nm) is used as transmitter with laser pulse energy
100 m] (532 nm), pulse duration 15 ns, repeat frequency 1-5 pps. A 126 mm aperture
Cassegrainian telescope is adopted as the optical receiving system. The schematic
configuration of the !idar system is shown in Fig. 8.
j YAGLaser If--------~-T-------l.,.,.
I Power monitor If------(.,/'/l
I
ITransient recorder If----------,
I I
PMT I
I
[ NEC386 \ IMonochrometer I
I Casegrainian I
Fig. 8. The schematic configuration of the lidar Sea surface
system.
Backscattering return signal wavefonns in two different turbid water areas

offshore Qingdao in the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea are shown in Fig. 9, where return
signal exponentially is attenuated with water depth. TIle Secchi Disc Depth (SDD)
is 2.0 and 1.8 m correspondingly. The resolution of water depth flR is 2.5 m
corresponding to 25 ns sample rate. In Fig. 9a and 9b, the intensity of return signals
in the same water area have 15% deviation. This deviation is due to the influence of
random sea surface. In order to remove the deviation or influence of random sea
surface, the Raman scattering signal can be employed as a built-in reference signal
(Liu, 1990). The backscattering to Raman scattering ratio (B/R) is used to get the
attenuation coefficient k and backscattering coefficient b of different water depth.
Fig. 10 shows the return signal with water depth after the calibration by Raman
signal, and the deviation has been reduced to less than 5%. In this way, the
backscattering coefficient b of different water depth can be obtained using measured
ratio of backscattering to Raman scattering ratio. The Raman scattering cross section
of OH-stretch water Raman band has had detailed study and standard data. The B/R
value 2.27 X 104 has been recorded in situ using the lidar system. So, we can get the
backscattering coefficient b of sea water, which is 0.11 in sea surface layer. Also we
can get the attenuation coefficient k using data of Fig. 10 and Eq. (11). Because the
field of view (FOV) of lidar receiver is 0.005°, the measured k should equal to the
collimated beam attenuation coefficient or the volume attenuation coefficient c,
which is independently 2.4 when SDD=2.0 m with data of Fig. 10. This agrees with
the theoretical estimation (Liu, 1990), which gives theoretically the ex SDD=4.5
(mid-turbid water) or 5 (turbid water).
4.0 4.0
a b
bi) 3.0 3.0

0 bi)
~ 0
~
'"
<!)
:~ 2.0 :B'" 2.0

-
~
'"
~
~ ]
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0
Time (ns) Time (ns)
Fig. 9. Backscattering return signal waveforms in two different turbid water areas offshore Qingdao in the
Huanghai (Yellow) Sea.
1.0
0.8
'"
'80.6
::s
.~
~ 0.4
0.0 ~--:--=-=----;~---;.-;!-;;--~_ _~
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
Fig. 10. The return signal with water depth after
Station No. the calibration by Raman signal.
Results of experiments in field show that ocean lidar can remotely detect the
backscattering coefficient, the volume attenuation coefficient (lidar FOV-+O) and the
diffusive attenuation coefficient k (lidar FOV> 10°).
V. INFORMATION FROM OCEANIC UPWELLING SPECTRAL RADIANCE
How to get the concentration of suspended matter in the ocean from the
multispectral upwelling radiance is very Important in ocean remote sensing. A
Optical Infol"UJation TransUlission in the Ocean 531
number of papers have been published, in which a linear relation or logarithmic

relation between suspended matter concentration and upwelling radiance is generally
used (Amos and Alfoldi, 1979; Curran et at., 1987; Munday and Alfoldi, 1979). But
these methods are too simple and rough for the hie;h concentration regions like the
East China Sea or mixed suspended matters with dIfferent concentrations. Recently,
the pattern recognition techniques have been widely applied in science and
technology for information extraction, image recognition and word recognition. These
methods should be also applicable to multispectral remote sensing for detecting
various contents of suspended matter in the ocean. The block diagram of pattern
recognition used in multispectral information is shown in Fig. 11.
Rn(i)-multispectral radiance
of n samples
Sample
Rn(l) R n(2) .. R.(k)

Orthogonal transform
R;(l) R;(2) .. R;(k) Characteristic
selection
Reduced dimension
Fig. II. The block diagram of

pattern recognition used in multi-
spectral information.
If we have multispectral upwelling radiance Rn(i) (i = 1, 2, ... , k, denotes the

different wavelength or spectral band) of various samples (n = 1, 2, ... , N, denotes the
number of sample) and have known the various content of suspended matter of every
sample, then the characteristic vectors and eigenvalue can be found through the
transform and training of known samples.
We have applied the pattern recognition method to analyze 38 sea surface water
reflectance spectra acquired by four-channel spectrometer from a ship in the
Huanghe River mouth. Four characteristic vectors were obtained. The scaler
multipliers Y (n) with which each of the four vectors are weighted in each spectrum.
Il1
Linear combinations of the scaler multipliers can be used to estimate the suspended
matter. We obtain a good correlation (R=O.91) between them. The result of applying
this relation to the spectra is compared with measured suspended matter
concentration.
Pattern recognition technique is also applied to estimate the number of
independent parameters from Landsat TM data. We collected the digital number of
water pixels at 44 points by TM 1-5 and 7 CCT data on Dec. 3, 1988. Three
characteristic vectors are derived from the co-variance matrix. The first vector
appears dominated because the backscattering effects and atmosphere effect is
removed. The scaler multiplier Yl(n) for the first vector is made from which we can
get the distribution of suspended matters.
REFERENCES
Amos, e.L. and Alfoldi, T.T. (1979) "Determination of suspended sediment concentrations in a macrotidal
system using Landsat data", 1. Sedi. Petro. 8, 168-183.
Curran, P.J., Hansom, J.D., Plummer, S.E., and Pedsey, M.l. (1987) "Multispectral remote sensing of
nearshore suspended sediments: a pilot study", lilt. J. Remote Sensing. 8(1), 103-112.
Hoge, F.E., Swift, R.N., and Frederick, E.B. (1980) "Water depth measurement using an airborne pulsed
neon laser system", Appl. Opt. 19,871-883.
Leonard, D.A., Caputo, B., and Hoge, F.E. (1979) "Remote sensing of subsurface water temperature by
Raman scattering", Appl. Opt. 18,1732-1745.
Liu Zhi-shen (1990) "Estimate of maximum penetration depth of lidar in coastal water of the China Sea",
SPJE 1302, Ocean Optics X, 655-661.
Liu, Zhi-shen and He, Ming-xia (1986) "Fourier optics method of radiative transfer in the ocean", Scientia
Sillica (Series A) 19(4),439-448 (in Chinese, with English abstract).
Liu, Zhi-shen, Zhang, Jin-Iong, and Chen, Wen-zhong et af. (1991) "A Raman lidar for measuring
backscattering in China Sea", SPIE 1558, 379-383.
Measures, R.M. (1984) Laser Remote Sensing, Wiley-Interscience Publication.
Metens, L.E. and Replogle, F.S. (1977) "Use of point spread and beam spread functions for analysis of
imaging systems in water", 1. Opt. Soc. Am. 67(8), 1105-1117.
Munday, J.e. and Alfoldi, T.T. (1979) "Landsat test of diffuse reflectance models for aquatic suspended
solids measurement", Remote Sens. Environ. 8, 169-183.
Preisendorfer, R.W. (1976) Hydrologic Optics, NOAA ERL, Vol. 1, p. 56.
Tyler, J.E. (1978) Handbook of Optics, Section 15, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
WcB, W.H. (1977) "Diffusion of light in the sea", Opt. Eng. 16(2), 119.
AN INVERSION METHOD FOR OBTAINING BOTTOM
REFLECTION LOSS
WANG Qin and ZHANG Ren-he

State Key Laboratory of Acoustics, Academia Sinica
Beijillg 100080, China
I. INTRODUCTION
The direct problem in ocean acoustics is to predict the emission or propagation of

sound on the basis of a known attribute of sources or media. The inversion or
indirect problem is to deduce the features of sources or media from the sound that
has propagated to the hydrophone. In the shallow water, the sound has strong
interaction with the bottom, and many methods calculating the sound field have a
close relation to the acoustic parameters of bottom. However, the determination of
acoustical properties of the bottom is a formidable problem. Since directly measuring
the parameters of the bottom is very difficult, the remote measurement by using
sound wave is prospective.
In many methods of calculating the sound field and deducing the bottom
characteristics, the sound characteristics of the bottom are described in two ways
(Koch et at., 1983): the layered structure of bottom density, velocity and attenuation;
and the bottom reflection loss versus grazing angle. In the past few years, several
inversion methods for the layered structure of the bottom have been proposed
(Newton, 1981; Santon a et at., 1984; Stickler and Deift, 1981). In addition, an insight
into the inversion for bottom reflection loss has been gained through our study of
sound energy that has interacted with the bottom.
In the view of the sound energy (Brekhovskikh, 1984; Smith, 1974; Weston and
Focke, 1985; Zhang, 1979), bottom characteristics are depicted through bottom
reflection losses. Bottom reflection losses of large grazing angles can be, in principle,
measured directly by the Hastrup technique or the seismic technique (Stickler, 1977),
but the precision of the results is not high enough. On the other hand, the sound
energy in a small grazing angle is dominant in the long-range propagation of sound
in the shallow water, and directly measuring the bottom reflection losses of small
grazing angle is quite difficult. Therefore, it is significant that the bottom reflection
losses are inferred from the sound observations.
In this paper, an inversion method for extracting the bottom reflection loss is put
forward on the basis of the theory of smooth-averaged sound field (Zhang, 1979;
Zhang, 1981), and the causes of instability of the inversion problem are analyzed. The
feasibility of the inversion method is demonstrated in several numerical and
experimental examples.
533
II. PRESENTATION OF INVERSION PROBLEM

The theory of smooth-averaged sound field illustrates the propagation of sound
energy. The sound intensity IsFand the transmission loss TL are formulated as follows
, (1)
TL - -10 log 10 [SF . (2)
Here D(z)-0.875 / -2
GJ
-de
dz
r /3
is the correction item of generalized phase-integral approximation, and B(ao) denotes

the boundary reflection loss which includes the reflection losses of surface and
bottom, that is
(3)
where a" a b , and a o are the grazing angles of a ray at the surface, the bottom and the
depth of minimum velocity, respectively. They obey the Snells law
cos ( as)
(4)
c(O)
The Equation (1) shows the close relation between the sound field and the
propagation medium. If the velocity profile and boundary reflection losses are given,
we can predict the sound field (direct problem). If we have measured the velocity
profile and the sound field, we can deduce the boundary reflection losses (inversion
problem).
It should be pointed out that B.(a.) may be neglected when the sound field is
insensitive to the surface refection loss. For instance, the downward-refracting
condition is this case. For simplicity, we suppose B.( a.) =0 in the following discussion.
We parametrize the seekmg bottom reflection losses in terms of piecewise linear
interpolation, which is shown in Fig. 1. Then we get
(5)
Here B represents the bottom reflection losses corresponding to a set of bottom

grazing angles (a l , a 2, ••• , a k ).
I nvel'sion Method for Obtaining Bollom Reflection Loss 535
B,
B(a)
;/1
,/ 1
./ 1
B,./\ I
1 I
1 G(a,B) 1
E
c 1 I
] 1
1
1
1
1
1
Fig. 1. Linear interpolation approximation of the a, a

bottom refection losses. Grazing angle (. )
We use vector TLe to denote the measured transmission losses corresponding to

a set of ranges (rl' rz, ... , rd, while TL(B) to denote the transmission losses calculated
by using Eqs. (1) and (2) for the set of ranges (rl' r z, ... , rd.
Our objective is to seek an optimal bottom reflection loss B so that the deviation
between TLe and TL(B) is minimum under the criterion of the least square error. So
the objective function is given by
T(B) - I TL(B) - TLe IIi . (6)
Furthermore, the optimal reflection loss B is the solution to the standard non-linear
least square equation
oTCB) -0 . (7)
III. OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURE AND ILL-POSED PROBLEM

Generally, it is not easy to obtain the analytical solution to a non-linear least
square problem, therefore, the approximation solutions gained by using some
optimum approaches are attractive.
In our problem, the Gauss-Newton approach is applied so that the non-linear
least square algorithm is equivalent to solving a sequence of linear least square
problems. In addition, the optimum iterative method is also implemented to obtain
approximate solution of B.
Suppose that B n stands for the nth approximation of B. We expand TL(B) into
the Taylor series and take the linear items. Here, we can get linear over-determined
equation, that is
An(Bn+l_Bn)+TL(Bn)- TL e=O . (8)
where A"= VB"TL(B"). At each iteration, we must calculate the coefficient matrix A"
and then solve the Eq. (8) for B"+!. The solution to Eq. (8) is expressed by
Here (Ant denotes the generalized inversion matrix (Marchuk, 1982) of An.
The matrix A" has L rows and K columns, and its rank is M. On the basis of the
Householder transform, the QU method (triangular decomposition) may be
applicable to An. Thus,
(10)
Generally speaking, most inversion problems of mathematical physics are ill-

posed in which one of the conditions of existence, uniqueness and stability is violated
(Sarker, et ai., 1981). Our inversion problem mainly reveals the instability.
Physically, by analyzing the physical causes of the instability of the solution, we
may choose suitable scheme and condition of maritime experiment so that the
stability of the inversion problem is ensured. This is an effective way to obtain precise
and stable results of the inversion. We have investigated the features of the stability
and now emphasize that the stability of our inversion method mainly depends upon
the relevance between the measured transmission loss and the bottom reflection loss.
The inversion problem will be well-conditioned when the transmission losses are very
sensitive to the bottom reflection losses. Otherwise, it will be ill-conditioned.
Therefore, the following aspects should be considered in the maritime experiment for
the well-conditioned inversion problem.
1) Transmission loss TLe should be measured in a large range. In the shallow
water, transmission losses at short ranges have close relation with bottom reflection
losses of large grazing angles, while the transmission losses at long ranges are
especially sensitive to the bottom reflection losses of small grazing angles. Thus, the
transmission loss TLe in a large range will involve a great deal of the information
about the bottom reflection losses, which makes the inversion problem well-
conditioned and also improves the accuracy of the inversion for bottom reflection
losses.
2) Experiment had better be conducted under a downward-refraction condition.
TransmissIOn losses in different velocity profiles have different relevance to bottom
reflection losses. The weaker the relevance is, the worse the stability of the inversion
and the lower the precision of the solution. In general, transmission losses are
sensitive to bottom reflection losses in negative gradient profiles because the sound
energy is refracted downward to touch with the bottom.
Mathematically, the accuracy of solution may be improved by means of
regularizing the ill-posed inversion problem. It is an auxiliary way to offer a
reasonable approximation to the solution of the ill-posed problem. Indeed,
regularization is the convergence of the optimization algorithm. In our inversion
method, regularization is achieved by applying Levenberg-Marquardt regularizing
scheme (Meyer and Roth, 1972).
Considering the Levenberg-Marquardt regularization, the Eq. (8) can be
rewritten in the form
Aft(ljn+l_Bft)+Fft_O . (11)
As mentioned above, the solution to the Eq. (11) may be also represented as
Invel'sion Method for Obtaining Bottom Reflection Loss 537
(12)
where
Here {3 is usuaUy caUed the damping factor.

Note that a set of bottom grazing angles should be properly chosen. Generally,
the inversion problem is well-conditioned when we want to give the "averaged"
description of the target, and the problem is ill-conditioned when we demand an
accurate definition of the target (Sarker et al., 1981). If the value of(ai+l-ai) is too
small, the resolution will be very high, but the inversion problem will be typically ill-
conditioned. Therefore, we must trade resolution for stability, which should be also
considered in other kinds of inversion problems. The loss of resolution is unavoidable
if stability is to be maintained. Consequently, the interval between a i +1 and a i should
be rationally chosen so that both the precision and the resolution of the solution
meet the needs of actual applications, while the inversion problem is also well-
conditioned.
IV. NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLES

A. Some Numerical Simulations with Noise
As shown in Figs. 2 and 3, the velocity profile is plotted at the top left of the
figure, the bottom reflection loss at the top right, and the transmission loss at the
bottom.
For the given bottom reflection loss B(a) and velocity profile, transmission loss
TL may be calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2). And then we add Gaussian noise with
the amplitude of 2 dB to TL as "measured" transmission loss TLe According to our
inversion method, we can reconstruct the bottom reflection loss G(a, B) from TLe'
Results of the inversion in Figs. 2 and 3 explicitly show that
• the bottom reflection loss G(a, B)is consistent with the given B(a), which
demonstrates that the certain perturbation of random noise in TLe does not
result in serious deviation in the solution of inversion problems,
• the transmission loss TL(B) calculated from the Eqs. (1) and (2) is also
consistent with the measured transmission loss TL e,
• the bottom reflection loss of a small grazing angle has higher precision
than those of a large grazing angle because the former are more influential
in TLe than the later,
• the accuracy of the inversion in the case of the thermocline is higher than
that in the surface sound channel.
40 Frequency = 1000 Hz
o Source depth = 25 m
'"
10 .9 70
c:
.:2 80
.~c: 1~~
30 ~UO
120
40 I--_--'---,-'-~_,_
1450 1490 1530 2 4 6 810 20 40 6080100
c (m/s) Grazing angle (0) Range (km)
Fig. 2. Numerical simulation of the inversion in a surface sound channel.
- 40 Source depth = 35 m
o ~ TLe Receiver depth = 35 m
'"'"
..2
]' 14 c: 70
.~ 80
B(a)
""0. 28 .~ 90
~ ~100
41 bUO
1 120
55 '--1---'-_--'_
1450.1490 1530 01--2~4~6~8-'-1~0~1~2~1~4~176~18~20 2 4 6 810 20
c(m/s) Grazing angle (0 ) Range (km)
Fig. 3. Numerical simulation of the inversion in the case of thermocline.
B. Cohen and Cole's Experiment
TLe and real bottom reflection loss B(a) are from Cohen and Cole (1977). We
use our inversion method to deduce the bottom reflection loss G(a, B) from TL e,
results in Fig. 4 show that G(a, B) is consistent with that of Cohen and Cole (1977),
o ~ 40 Source depth = 18.3 m

] 50 Receiver depth = 15.2 m
_ 14 60
E .~ 70
""0. 28 ·s 80
.!l ~ 90
41 ~ 100
110
5\L4..J.5-O--'14
L 9-0-1=-'5=3=0 120
c (m/s) Grazing angle (0) 2 4 6 810 20

Range (km)
Fig. 4. Inversion of the measured data in the Cohen's experiment.

Inversion Method for Obtaining Bottom Reflection Loss 539
and TL(B) calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2) corresponding to G( a, B) is also
coincident with TLe.
C. Experiment in the Huanghai (Yellow) Sea
The measured transmission loss TLe and velocity profile are indicated in Figs. 5
and 6. By applying our inversion method, the author deduce the bottom reflection
loss G(a, B) from TLe'
30 Frequency ~ 400 Hz
~ 40 fL. Source depth ~ 25 m
o 8 en
en
Receiver depth ~ 25 m
_ 7 .£
10 ~ 6 "
.~ 70
80
] ~ 5 .~
.c: 19 "o 4 " 90
0- .;:: 3 '"
~ 100
u G(a,B)
"
Cl 29 ~ 2 110
38 '-::-:-'--LL-L-'--J
1450 1490 1530
"o
<>: 1
'----'2-""4='6~8-:1"::-07:12~1'-;4+:16""'1~8
20
120
2 4 6 810 20 40 6080100
c (m/s) Grazing angle (.) Range (km)
Fig. 5. Inversion of the measured data in the Huanghai Sea, frequency 400 Hz.
Frequency ~ 700 Hz
30
iii Source depth ~ 25 m
::g 40 fL.
o 8 en Receiver depth ~ 25 m
en
.£
iii 7
_ 10 ::g 6 "
.~ 70
E en
.Q 5 -
.~ 80
~ 19 G(a,B)
"o 4 " 90
8 'B 3 ----~ 100
29 ~ 2 110
"
<>: 1 120
3~ 4~5""0-;1-749~0L.-..-,1c;:!53;;-;0~ o 2 4 6 8101214161820 2 4 6 810 20 40 60 100
c (m/s) Grazing angle Range (km)
Fig. 6. Inversion of the measured data in the Huanghai Sea, frequency 700 Hz.
Substituting G(a, B) into (1), we obtain TL(B). TL(B) is consistent with TLe
(Figs. 5 and 6). Hence, we consider G(a, B) as the bottom reflection loss of the
experimental area. On the other hand, we compare the results in Fig. 5 with those
in Fig. 6 and find that the bottom reflection losses at the center frequency 700 Hz is
larger than those at the center frequency 400 Hz, which is agreeable with the general
case that the higher the frequency is, the larger the bottom reflection loss.
REFERENCES
Cohen, J .S. and Cole, B.F. (1977) "Shallow-water propagation under downward-refraction conditions II",
f. Acoust. Soc. AnI. 61,213-217.
Brekhovskikh, L. (1984) Fundamental of Ocean Acoustics, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Koch, R.A. et at. (1983) "Nomlal mode identification for impedance boundary conditions", 1. Acoust. Soc.
Am. 73, 1567-1570.
Marchuk, G.!. (ed.) (1982) Method of Numerical Mathematics, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Meyer, R.R. and Roth, P.M. (1972) "Modified Damped Least Squares: An Algorithm for Nonlinear
Estimation",1. I/lSt. Math. Appl. 9, 218-233.
Newton, R.G. (1981) "Inverse of reflection data for layered media", Geophys. f. R. Astr. Soc. 65,
191-215.
Santona, F. et al. (1984) Inverse Problem of Acoustic and Elastic Waves, Siam Philadelphia.
Sarker, T.K. et al. (1981) "Some Mathematical Considerations in Dealing with The Inverse Problem",
IEEE TrailS Alltellllsa Propagate AP-29, 373-379.
Smith, P.W. (1974) "Averaged sound transmission in range-dependent channels", 1. Acoust. Soc. Am. 55,
1197-1204.
Stickler, D.C. (1977) "Negative bottom Loss, critical-angle shift, and the interpretation of bottom reflection
coefficient", f. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61,707-710.
Stickler, D.C. and Deift, P.A. (1981) "Inverse problem for a stratified ocean and bottom", 1. ACOllst. Soc.
Am. 70, 1723-1727.
Wcston, D.E, and Focke, K.C. (1985) "Caustics in range-averaged ocean and channels", f. Acollst. Soc. Am.
77, 1800-1812.
Zhang, Ren-he (1979) "Smooth-averaged sound field in duct", Acta ACllstica 2, 102-108.
Zhang, Ren-he (1981) "Smooth-averaged sound field in shallow water", Acta Oceanologica Sinica 3,
535-545.
MULTIPLEX FUNCTION MANGANESE NODULE SOUNDING
SYSTEM
LIAO Yun-he
IllStitute of Ocean Technology, State Oceanic Administration
Tianjill 3001 11, China
I. INTRODUCTION
The MBSP acoustic system, jointly developed in 1987 by the State Oceanic
Administration of the People's Republic of China and the Raytheon Ocean System
Company of USA was designed for sounding oceanic manganese nodules. The system
is named on the basis of its four major functions, i.e., the manganese nodules finding
(M), bathymetry (B), sub-bottom profiling (S) and pinger tracking (P). This system
was installed on a Chinese RN "Xianyanghong 16". Results of sea trials and practical
surveys for about 18 months over a period of 4 years show that the performance of
the system is within the expectation. Comparisons between the nodule abundance
estimated by the MBSP system and that obtained by underwater photography or by
grab sampling show that the average deviation of the system is about 20%.
The MBSP acoustic system operates at four frequencies, 18, 12, 7 and 3.5 kHz,
with the maximum output of each frequency being 2000 W (adjustable) and the
sensitivity of receiver being 2 J-L V. The system configuration is given in Fig. 1.
II. SURVEY FOR OCEANIC MANGANESE NODULES
A. Theoretical Bases
Manganese nodules are present on the interface of water and sediments.

Sediments are "transparent" for acoustic wave of certain frequencies, but manganese
nodules are not acoustically transparent. Therefore, the strength of return signal
(SOR) from sea bottom varies with the area covered by manganese nodules.
Depending on this fact, we can calculate the coverage of manganese nodules.
Three types of acoustic wave scattering are caused by spheres. When the
number of waves times the radius of scatterer Ka <<1, the scattering is of Rayleigh
type. As the SOR depends on (Ka)4, the SOR will be very weak. On the other hand,
when Ka»l, the scattering is of geometric type, and the SOR is only proportional to
the area of the scatterer and independent of frequency. Between these two types of
scattering there is a small gap where Ka= 1. It is similar to the filter with a cut-off at
approximately Ka = 1. Using this knowledge, we can detect the radius of manganese
nodules. Rewrite Ka = 1, we obtain f=c/(27Ta). Statistics shows it is possible to detect
541
Zhou Di et al. (eds.), Oceanology a/China Seas. Volume 2,541-546.
manganese nodules with diameters of 2.6, 4.0, 6.8, 13.6 em by using the frequencies
of 18, 12, 7 and 3.5 kHz (Clay and Medwin, 1977; Magnuson, 1981).
Printer Bathy cabinet
...
... Power
.. 0
m
.... .
~
c:::=J ...
... .
function
PDD
PTR 3.5
... PTR 7
PTR 12
PTR 18
CJ CESP
Data Acquisition
Peak detector, sample and hold

Uninterruptable power
Fig. 1. C-Ollfiguration of the MBSP acoustic system.
B. Selection of Operation Mode
In an area with a depth of 6000 m, 40 s will be needed for completing the

travels of the signals of the four frequencies. During a period of 40 s, the ship would
cover a distance of about 288 m at a speed of 14 kn. This makes the survey operation
too expensive. In order to obtain more data, the design was made to have several
signals operate simultaneously in the same water column. For the MBSP system, the
4 frequencies of 3.5, 12, 7, and 18 kHz were selected, with 3.5 and 12 kHz in the first
group and 7 and 18 kHz in the second.
C. Calculation of Key Pulses

At first, the key repetition rate KF is calculated. The KF is restricted by two
factors: i) the safety time should be more than 0.2 s for blinding the revibration; ii)
the safety time for depth allowance should be 0.1 s. Upon the completion of every
operation cycle, the depth is checked by the computer. On the basis of the checked
depth, the key repetition rate KF is selected. The transmission time of the control
pulse is calculated using the following formula.
The arrival time of echo is
Multiplex Function Manganese Nodule Sounding System 543
where n=1, 2, 3. R is the depth, and T z must be larger than 0.2 s.

The opening time of the window of the receiver is
and the sampling time is
The closing time of the window of the receiver is
TIle safety time is
KF is decided by numerous trials in areas with different depths and different

safety time. Resulted KF data values are kept in service programs and can be used
automatically by the computer to calculate T 1, Tz, T3 and T4 and to deliver key pulse
for controlling the operation of the system.
Examples of KF value and corresponding depth in the program are as follows
Depth KF (s) Object for receiver

4673<R<5007 1.4 The same as transmitting
5841 <R<6245 1.5 Different from transmitting
D. Estimation of the Capability of the System
The signal excess is used to check the reliability of this system.
1. Checking the Capability of Sounding Manganese Nodules

The depth is assumed to be 6000 m and other parameters are taken from the
Raytheon data sheet.
Sonar equation is given as follows
SE - Sl- TL - LN - NRD - ND (1)

where SE is the signal excess; LN the noise level; NRD the signaVnoise ratio for
recording; and ND represents other factors. The results of the calculation are as
follows
f (kHz) SE
3.5 21.0 dB
7 21.8 dB
12 19.8 dB
18 14.8 dB
Obviously, the designed system fully meet the needs of the survey.
2. Checking the Capability of Sub-bottom Profiling
When the frequency of 3.5 kHz is used for sub-bottom profiling and the depth
is 6000 m, the depth of penetration through normal deep ocean sediment is 50 m.
The sonar parameters are the same as previously described. A correlator is used to
process the signal, and the gain is increased by 20 dB. Assuming the SE equals to
zero, the transmission loss TL is determined by the following equation
TL - SL - LN - NDR - ND (2)
The loss caused by sediment is given by
TL= 40 10gR+2(aR/lOOO) + BL - (10 10gA + SB) , (3)
where BL is the loss caused by bottom sediment; SB the strength of scattering by unit
area of the bottom; A the area sounded by acoustic wave. When R=6000 m, the
aperture angle is 30°, the bottom flat, and SB= -5 dB. The calculated BL is 53.4 dB.
It is also known that the attenuation coefficients of clay and sand are 0.35 dB/m and
1.82 dB/m respectively. The calculation shows that the depth of penetration through
clay is 76.3 m, which meets the specifications. If the frequency of 7 kHz is employed,
the penetration is only 40 m.
E. Signal Processing
The average method is used to smooth the signal as the manganese nodules are
unevenly distributed on the sea bottom and the echoes vary greatly. The signal over
a period of 5 min is averaged.
The SOR comes from both sediments and manganese nodules of the bottom.
It is expressed by the following formula
SOR= (A - CA)r. + CA rm ' (4)

Multiplcx Funclion Mangancse Nodule Sounding System 545
where A is the area sounded by the acoustic wave; C the percentage of coverage by
manganese nodules (%); rs and rm the reflective coefficients of sediments and
manganese nodules respectively. In regions without manganese nodules, C=O, the
SOR only comes from sediments. If the strength of this level is taken as the basic
level and compared with the SOR from areas covered by manganese nodules, the
coverage Cj of nodules with corresponding diameter can be calculated.
The strength of return signal ~SOR) is the square of the detected peak level.
If the power reflective coefficients rs and rm 2 are put into Eq. (4), the percentage of
coverage of a certain average diameter can be calculated by the formula
(5)
where i = 1, 2, 3, 4 represents frequencies of 18, 12, 7, 3.5 kHz, respectively; the

corresponding diameter are 2.6, 4.0, 6.8, 13.6 cm. H is the depth of water; Ho the
depth of the basic level; fLj the absorption parameter of the frequency, fLj=aj(20l0ge),
a j is the absorption coefficient of the frequency (dB/m). Nodules with diameter less
than 2.6 cm are omitted during calculation. The shapes of manganese nodules are
irregular, and the formula of sphere is used to calculate the volume of manganese
nodules. The calibration factor is introduced for correction purpose. The formula for
calculating the abundance of manganese nodules of the bottom is
(6)
where W is the abundance of manganese nodules; Pm the wet density of manganese

nodules; D j the diameter determined by the frequency; YJ the calibration coefficient.
The experimental value of YJ is 0.55.
E Application and Result
The system has been used in the North Pacific for 18 months during 4 years
and comparisons were made between the system and the grab or underwater
photography. Results of the comparison against the data provided by the grab or the
underwater photography show that the average deviation of the MBSP Acoustic
System is 20%.
III. SUB-BOTTOM PROFILING
The frequency of 3.5 kHz is used for sub-bottom profiling. When the depth of
operation is 5900 m, the penetration reaches 60 m, which is better than the designed
speci fica ti on s.
IV. PINGER TRACKING
During the operations in the ocean, it is often necessary to know the distance
of equipment from the bottom. Tracking of the underwater devices can be realized
by using the signal from pingers on the underwater equipment. The signals coming
directly from the pinger and those reflected by the bottom are received by the MBSP
system and recorded by a line scan recorder. The distance of the equipment from the
bottom can be determined from the difference of the arrival time of the direct and
the reflected signals. Comparison between the result provided by the MBSP system
and that provided by the underwater camera indicates that the error of system is less
than 0.5 m.
V. CONCLUSIONS
Some special phenomena have been encountered during sea operations. For
example, the SOR may increase suddenly and then returns to its original level a few
seconds later (the noise level remains unchanged); the depth of the deep scattering
layer varies during the turnover between day and night.
Although this system has been used in ocean surveys for a fairly long period
and the results of abundance estimation are fairly accurate, much remains to be
done. The data processing program has not been put into the service program; the
resulted abundance estimation are not directly printed out by the computer.
REFERENCE
Clay, C. S. and Medwin, H. (eds.) (1977) Acoustic Oceanography, John Wiley & Son, New York, PI'.
178-189
Magnuson, A. H. (1981) "Acoustic Sounding for Manganese Nodules" OTC 4133.
ACOUSTIC DISCRIMINATION OF SEAFLOOR PROPERTIES
LIANG Yuan-bo and LU Bo

South China Sea IllStitute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica
GuangzllOu 510301, China
How Kin WONG

Ulliversiliit Haillburg, Geologisch-Paliiontologisches Institut, BUlldesstrafle 55
D-2000 Hamburg 13, Germany
I. INTRODUCTION
Acoustic properties of the seafloor playa dominant role in the propagation of sound
in the sea, especially where the water is shallow. However, because of observational
as well as experimental difficulties, effects of shear wave on sound propagation within
the seafloor have often been neglected, so that the description of compressional and
shear properties of bottom sediments is incomplete, and computations of, for
example, bottom reflection loss become less accurate.
In addition, acoustic characteristics of bottom sediments are fundamental to the
estimation of physical parameters relevant to ocean engineering. Dynamic elastic
moduli estimated by inclusion of the shear wave velocity are more useful to marine
geotechnical evaluations and engineering design.
A considerable amount of work, largely unpublished, have been carried out in
recent years on the acoustic discrimination and classification of ocean bottom
sediments for navigational and military purposes as well as on their acoustic
modelling (Guan, 1984; Meng and Guan, 1982; Pace, 1982; Hamilton and Bachman,
1982; Smith, 1983), while much of this work has been based on compressional waves
alone, shear wave parameters have been introduced gradually.
There are three fundamental questions to be answered:
1) How do shear waves affect the propagation of sound in the sea (via the
reflection coefficient R and the bottom losses BL)?
2) What are the effects of acoustic parameters based on both compressional and
shear waves on the elastic parameters of bottom sediments (dynamic elastic modulus
Ed' dynamic Poisson's ratio ad' Lame constant A, bulk modulus K, rigidity or shear
modulus j-L, etc.).
3) How may bottom sediment hardness be quantified?
In this article, we shall propose an acoustic discrimination scheme for bottom
sediments based on their compressional and shear wave properties. Results of
measurements in the South China Sea will be presented and an attempt to explain
their acoustic characteristics will be made.
II. VJVp AND CRITICAL FACTOR q FOR SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS

Seafloor sediments represent a water-saturated, porous medium which consists
547
of a mixture of solid grains and interstitial fluids. They are not perfectly elastic.
Whether the seafloor can be described as fluid, unconsolidated (soft bottom), semi-
consolidated (hard bottom) or basement-like determines the boundary conditions
which constram the elastic wave equation used to model the propagation of sound
through this medium. In the simplest case, the propagation equation takes the form
&-u
p--{A+2Jl)'v{V·u )-JlVxVxJl
- (1)
at 2
u
in which is the displacement vector and t is time. In Cartesian coordinates, two
functions of position, viz. <p and T may be introduced into the solution
U-VlP+VxT (2)
Provided that <p and T satisfy the wave equations
p &- lP _ ( A. + 2 Jl ) V2lP (3)

at2
and
(4)
u was defined by Eg. (2) is a solution to Eq. (1).

We can rewrite Eqs. (3) and (4) in the form
p&-lP-V;valP (3')
at2
and
(4')
whereby
(5)
and
(6)
Vp and Vs are the compressional and shear wave velocity respectively in the
bottom sediments. They are related to each other via the elastic modulus E, the
rigidity modulus /L, and the Poisson's ratio a of the medium, since
A. _ Eo (7)
(1 + 0) (1 - 2 a)
Acoustic Disc"imillatioll of Seanoor Properties 549
and
E or Ji.- - A + 0 (8)
J1.----
2(1 + 0) 20
we have
v: _~ 1+2J1. _ E(1-o) E 1
p p(1+0)(1-20) (9)
p
P (1_2~)
1- 0
and
(10)
so that
Vp_ ~_ ~ (11)
Vs ~~ ~----;;-
We note that the dynamic and static elastic moduli are related to each other.
From Eq. (11), it is apparent that the ratio Vp to Vs formally independent of the
density of the propagation medium. This implies that the introduction of shear wave
could simplify the acoustic discrimination and classification of bottom sediments. Eqs.
(9), (10) and (11) suggest that while Vp and Vs are related to each other via the
elastic moduli, they are entities that require independent measurements.
Although the ratio V p/Vs is commonly used in the study of the physics of rocks
and sediments, we suggest using its reciprocal (VslVp) as a discriminant in the
classification of bottom sediments to avoid the indetermmate case since the seafloor
sedimentary system includes the near-bottom layer of suspended matter for which the
shear wave velocity Vs vanishes (rigidity modulus J.L=O). Thus, bottom sediments are
described as
fluid if Vs=O (or VslVp=O)

unconsolidated (soft) if Vs=O and 0<VslVp<0.31
semi-consolidated (medium hard) if Vs>O and 0<VslVp<0.S8
consolidated (hard) if Vs>O and 0.58<VslVp<1
and basement-like if Vs>O and V p>2000 m/s.
The numerical values of the discriminants (0.31 and 0.58) are given by
ql -(e+0.5r 1 .. 0.31
and
q2 -(e-1)-1 .. 0.58
These discriminants for V slVp, together with the extreme values of 0 and 1, and
augmented by the condition V p >2000 mis, provide us with an acoustic classification
scheme of ocean bottom sediments. The parameter q introduced above will be
referred to as the critical factor, and e is the base of natural logarithm.
For the sake of generality, we shall write q in the form
i-I, 2 (12)
This gives P l =0.5 and P z= -1. However, adjustments to these values of pare
necessary to account for the gas content of the sediment, since gas alters the
compressional wave velocity of a sediment while leaving its shear velocity practically
unchanged (Smith, 1983). Under normal conditions, seafloor sediment saturated with
seawater has a gas content under 0.1% (Liang and Lu, 1983), implying that the
corrections to p are less than 0.01. Thus, except in gas-laden sedIments characterized
for example by the appearance of a bottom simulating reflector, the discrimination
scheme proposed here is robust to a first order approximation.
The proposed discrimination scheme serves an important purpose,namely to
provide a quantitative meaning to the term "hardness" of the seafloor which is
otherwise only subjectively defined. A quantification is necessary because parameters
such as the mineralogical hardness or the sensitivity index of soil are inadequate in
determining the in situ bulk hardness of marine sediments and its role in underwater
sound propagation or engineering geological evaluations. The introduction of the
critical factor q permits the quantitative description of the hardness of an
inhomogeneously mixed medium such as the sea bottom.
The classification scheme defined above is consistent with experimental and
analytic results from engineering geology and marine acoustics. It is common practice
in Japanese engineering geological circles to consider a foundation with V p/Vs from
1 to 1.7 as stable, from 1.7 to 3.2 as unstable (for which reinforcement is necessary),
and greater than 3.2 as fractured and dangerous. The Chinese Earth Classification
Scheme (Lo and Li, 1982) considers a rock body to be structurally integral when
V slVp is greater than 0.8, structurally stratified when it lies between 0.8 and 0.6;
structurally fractured from 0.6 to 0.4; structurally loose from 0.4 to 0.3. Although this
scheme is not necessarily applicable to deposits in the sea, it nevertheless is
equivalent to the scheme we have proposed within an accuracy of 2% in the
discriminant values. In addition, our criterion for a fluid bottom is consistent with
that for the distinction between fluids and solids formulated by Fu et al. (1985).
III. MARINE SEDIMENT-ACOUSTIC EQUATION AND THE PARAMETER 1jJ

We can now present an expression for 1jJ, an important parameter in the
estimation of the effects of bottom reflection coefficient and bottom losses on the
propagation of sound in the sea as well as in seabed engineering geological
evaluation
1/1 -SW- WW-R-Q
{ I/Ij-SW- WW-R-Qj (13)
i-I, 2
The notations are explained in Table 1.

Acoustic Discrimination of Seafloor Properties 551
Table I.tp=SW-WW-R-Q=SW-(WW+Rj-Q
Parameter Definition Notation

SW logVs Vs=Shear wave velocity
WW logVw Vw=Compressional wave velocity of near-bottom seawater
R logr r=Vp/Vw' Vp=Compressional wave velocity of sea bottom
Q logq q=Critical discriminant, defined as follow:
Ql logql q]=(e+0.5)-1
Q2 logq2 q2=(e-l)-1
Note: e, base of natural logarithm.
By combining Eq. (13) with the discussions of the last section, a seafloor
classification scheme using the parameter 1/J may be established (Table 2). Here () is
defined as log (VslVp) , i.e.,
8-SW-(WW+R)
Each term in the last equation has a physical meaning and its numerical value
can be experimentally determined.
The parameter 1/J is very important in marine acoustics. Fluid bottom (type I) is
characterized by an indeterminate 1/J (1/J --+ - 00). In this case, 1/J may be neglected in
any seafloor model computations; the conventIonal fluid seafloor model or layered
fluid model is applicable. A soft bottom (type II) is given by 1fJl <0 (1/Jz is inevitably
also negative). Use of the traditional reflection coefficient and bottom loss suffices.
A medium hard bottom (type III) is implied when 1/Jl>O and 1/Jz<O. Under these
circumstances, the phenomenon of partial energy transport by shear waves
propagating along the water sediment interface (Hastrup, 1980) starts to appear. For
hard bottom (type IV), 1/Jz>O so that 1/Jl is also positive. In this case, partial
conversion of the incident compressional waves into shear waves at the sediment
interface must be taken into account. Shear wave effects must also be included in the
reflection coefficient and bottom loss. Thus, BL acquires an additional term in 1/J,
making BL=J(R, 1/J, () and in R, the effect of VslVp should be taken into
consideration so that the deviation between experimental results and conventional
computations could diminish and natural conditions are better approached.
The equation 1/J=SW-WW-R-Q is referred to as the sea bottom acoustic
equation. Here the term "bottom" includes the meaning "quality of the seafloor". It
may be extended to provide a description of the physical state of any material, but
such a discussion lies beyond the scope of the present paper.
IV. THE R CRITERION
By definition, R=logr=log(Vp/Vw ) (Table 1). The sea bottom is said to have a low
velocity ratio when r< 1; a unity velocIty ratio when r= 1; and a high velocity ratio
when r> 1 (Liang and Lu, 1981, 1983). In the natural marine environment when the
medium grain size is large (cp is low; cp=O separates coarse sand from gravel), r is
often greater than 1, so that we are dealing with a seafloor of high velocity ratio.
Conversely, observational data suggest that r< 1 often implies a fine-grained marine
U1
U1
IV
Table 2
Q q
Definition
e Vo'Vp R r Notation
Bottom aooustic type
"', '" "', Q, Q, q, q,
Fluid bottom I
-00
<0 <1 Low velocity ratio fluid bottom I,
<0 0 0 1 Unity velocity ratio fluid bottom I,
>0 >1 High velocity ratio fluid bottom I,
r>-oo r>O r>-oo r>O Soft bottom II

<0 ~ ~ ~ ~ <0 <1 Low Velocity ratio soft bottom II,
l <logq, l «e+O.Sf' l<Q, l<q, 0 1 Unity velocity ratio soft bottom II,
>0 >1 High velocity ratio soft bottom II,
r>Q, r>q, Medium hard bottom III

>0 <0 >logq, >logq, >(e+O.sf' «e-W' ~ ~ <0 <1 Low velocity ratio medium hard bottom III,
~ <Q, l<q, 0 1 Unity velocity ratio medium hard bottom III,
>0 >1 High velocity ratio medium hard bottom III,
r>logq, r>(e- l r' r>Qz r>q, Hard bottom IV

>0 ~ ~ ~ ~ <0 <1 Low velocity ratio hard bottom IV,
l<O l<1 l <0 l<1 0 1 Unity velocity ratio hard bottom IV,
>0 >1 high velocity ratio hard bottom IV,
Basement-like bottom- V
r<O r<1 r<O r<1

>0 ~ ~ ~ ~ High velocity ratio hard basement-like bottom" VI,l
[>logq, [>(e-lr' l>Q, [>q,
>0 >1
r<Q, r<q,
>0 <0 >logq, <logq, >(e+O.Sf' «e-lf' ~ ~ High velocity ratio medium basement-like bottom" V .. ,
l>Q' l>q,
;;?
r<logq, r «e+O.Sf' r<Q, r<q, DO
"
<0 ~ ~ ~ ~ High velocity ratio soft basement-like bottom" V,,3 ~
=
l>-oo l>O l>-oo [>0 0-
~
• Vp>2000 m/s. ...e
(")
:r
~.
CIl
~
til
Acoustic Discrimination of Seafloor Properties 553
sediment. In general, water-saturated porous surficial sediments have V p values within

the range 500-2000 m/s. Material with a V p beyond this range may be considered to
come from the "basement" senu lacto. With the exception of highly saline water
bodies like the Dead Sea, compressional wave velocitIes of near-bottom seawater
normally lie between 1450 and 1550 m/s. Thus, from the definition of r above, we see
that areas off estuaries or shallow seas with coarse-grained bottom sediments tend
to have r-values greater than 1. At deep ocean bottom, velocity of sound in
near-bottom waters Vw becomes higher so that the corresponding r-values cluster
around 1. This expectation has been borne out by many observations, an example of
which will be presented in the next section.
It is interesting to note that while R provides through tp a criterion (a threshold
value) to distinguish between bottom of high or low velocity ratios and IS therefore
in that sense related to the sedimentary environment, to conditions of sedimentation
as well as to the origin of the sediments, it does not appear directly in the numerical
computation of W. This can be seen if we rewrite Vp in the form Vp= Vwxr or
10gVp=(WW+R), from which tp;=log(VslVp)-logqj follows.
V. VALUES OF tpl AND tp2 FOR THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
The South China Sea is multi-faceted water body with a large variety of bottom
types and physiographic provinces. Continental shelf, slope, deep basin, trough and
deep-sea trench are all presented, and the maximum water depth exceeds 5000 m.
Therefore, values of tpl and tp2 for the South China Sea are of particular interest.
The results reported here are derived from joint cruises with the Institute of
Acoustics of Academia Sinica in 1983 and 1986 aboard a vessel dedicated to the
underwater acoustic research on the continental shelf of the northern South China
Sea, August 1985 in the waters south of Hainan Island, and April 1986 cruises of
the RN "Yanping" on the continental shelf east of the Zhujiang (Pearl) River mouth,
as well as from various cruises with the RN "Experiment II" and RN "Experiment
III" of the South China Sea Institute during 1985 in the waters near the western
entrance to Qiongzhou Strait and in the central and southern South China Sea.
During these cruises, comprehensive acoustic surveys and bottom sampling programs
were carried out. Since the equipments currently available to us do not permit coring
in hard bottom nor in basement, values of tp are lacking for these bottom types. We
intend to remedy this using drill hole materials in the future.
Computed tpl' tp2' Rand r values for the South China Sea are presented in Table
3 and Fig. 1. It can be seen from Table 3 that deep bottom characteristics of the
South China Sea are very homogeneous. Values of r (i.e., V P/Vw ) are by and large
slightly greater than 1, the bottom type is hence characterized by a unity or slightly
high velocity ratio as defined above. Apart from areas of basement outcrops or
biogenic paleo-reefs, values of tpl for the South China Sea are slightly positive, while
tp2 is in general negative, implying a medium hard or semi-consolidated bottom. In
the deep sea, sediments are fine grained, sedimentation rates are low and
hydrodynamic pertur-bations are unimportant, so that sediment consolidation under
the effect of gravity can proceed. Medium hard bottom are therefore expected.
On the continental slope and in shallow straits, r is generally larger than 1 and
the bottom is of high velocity ratio. This is because the influence of currents is
strong, so that the fine grained fraction is winnowed away. However, the resulting
coarse grain size is to a large extent compensated by the high sedimentation rates
encountered. Thus, consolidation is medium and type is medium hard (tpl >0, tpz<O).
Table 3
Water Mean",
Region of South depth
Physiographic province R
China Sea (SCS) (m)
"'. "',
NESCS Open continental shelf <120 -0.346-0.149 -0.619--0.124 <0->0 <1->1
NWSCS Bay and gulf <40 -0.06-0.177 -0.335--0.095 <0 <1
Qiongzhou Strait Shallow coastal slope =20 -0.118 =-0.154 >0 >1
S.SCS Continental slope =150 =0.086 =-0.187 =0.03 =1.07
S.SCS Deep water trough >1300 -0.271 =-0.00116 =0.004 =1.01
Central SCS Deep sea basin >4000 -0.U8 =-0.155 -0.009 =1.02
Fig. 1. (Left) Distribution of 1/'-values on the continental shelf off the Zhujiang River estuary (' 1=1/'1'
'2=1/'2)' and (right) physiographic provinces of the submerged Zhujiang River delta determined
geomorphologically (after the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, 1985).
Conditions on the continental shelf are much more complicated. In the past, shelf
areas are considered to have bottom of high velocity ratio because the deposits are
coarse-grained. Our measurements, however, show that the continental shelf of the
northern South China Sea possesses areas with r> 1 as well as areas characterized by
r< 1. Our detailed investigations on physico-acoustic properties of bottom of low
velocity ratios on the shelf south of Hainan (Liang and Lu, 1981, 1983, 1985; Lu and
Liang, 1984) and our observations on the shelf east of the mouth of Zhujiang River
(Zhujiang) suggest that the distribution of r< 1 areas is quite systematic. On the
continental shelf where there is no significant riverine sediment input, a sediment belt
characterized by low velocity ratios often exists in water depths ranging from 50-100
m sub-parallel to the isobaths. This belt is a result of the outward decrease in mean
grain SIze of the post-glacial, terrestrial deposits. On the mid-continental shelf and
the outer shelf, post-glacial sediments are insufficient to completely cover relict
deposits of the coastal and terrestrial facies, so that the velocity ratio again increases.
High-resolution, low penetration profiles we obtained in August, 1986, on the outer
shelf clearly show that the depth of the glacial/post-glacial interface decreases in the
Acoustic Discrimination of Seanoor Properties 555
direction of the open sea. Seaward of large estuaries (such as the Zhujiang River) in
areas of deposition of coarse, river-transported sediments, r is often larger than 1
(Liang and Lu, 1986). While sediments off large estuaries are not compacted, their
mean grain size is large. These facts lead to a medium hard bottom (1f'1 >0, 1f'z<O).
On the shelf where estuarine influence is negligible, post-glacial, terrestrial deposits
make their way out to the sea only slowly, so that the bottom is "softer" than near
estuaries; here both 1f'1 and 1f'z are negative. Thus, the extent of a submerged delta
can be readily mapped using values of 1f'. This mapping technique supplements that
based on geomorphology, and has the advantage that the discrimination criteria are
quantitative. Fig. 1 shows the distribution of 1f'-values on the shelf off the Zhujiang
River estuary, and compares favorably with the geomorphologically determined
physiographic provinces of the submerged Zhujiang River delta.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
1) Acousto-physical parameters of the sea bottom appropriate to the propagation

of sound in the sea and seafloor engineering geological evaluations are incomplete
if they only take compressional wave data into account. In this paper, we have
attempted to introduced shear wave parameters so as to extend the basis of acoustic
discrimination of the sea bottom.
2) Using the general expression for the critical factor q in the form
ql _(e+pj)-l i-I, 2
Pl-+O.5 , P2 --1
and assigning ql and q2 to the threshold discrimination values for the velocity ratio
Vs/Vp , the concept of hardness of the seafloor in an acousto-physical sense may be
quantified. The above scheme is augmented by the extremum conditions of Vs=O and
V p >2000 m/s. In addition, the sea bottom sediment-acoustic equation 1f'=SW- ww-
R-Q may be derived. It provides a means of correcting the seafloor reflection
coefficient and bottom loss based on compressional waves alone.
3) Because the sea bottom sediment-acoustic equation takes both bottom loss
and acoustic bottom characteristics into account, the relationship between properties
of sound propagation in the seabed and engineering geologic characteristics of
bottom sediments may be established when certain additional conditions are
considered. A quantitative, acoustic seafloor classification scheme can thus be set up.
4) A weakness of the proposed scheme in its present form is that the sound
attenuation coefficient as well as the dependence of tp on frequency (1f'=f(v, a,
are neglected. This is the subject of further studies on the sea bottom
q»
sediment-acoustic equation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support for this work is provided by the Academia Sinica and the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. R850838). Acoustic
surveys at sea have been carried out in cooperation with Assoc. Prof. Zhou, Zhi-yu
and his Seabed Group of the Institute of Acoustics, Academia Sinica, and Engineer
Chen, Yun-fu of the South China Sea Research Station of the Academia Sinica.
Logistical support has been provided by the Chinese Navy. The Fujiang Institute of
Oceanography has made it possible for us to collect part of core samples on the RN
Yanping. We thank Senior Engineer Liu, Ji-neng, Mr. Zheng, Yong, and Technician
Mr. Huang, Shao-jian for their help in laboratory measurements and shipboard
sampling. The numerous fruitful discussions with Prof. Ye, Long-fei and a critical
review of the manuscript by Deputy Chief Engineer Qiu, Yong-de are also gratefully
acknowledged.
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(ed.), Acoustics and the Sea Bed, Bath University Press, Bath, pp. 9-17.
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica (ed.) (1985) Research Reports on the
Comprehensive Surveys of C'-ertain Areas of the South Cluna Sea (II), Science Press, Beijing, pp.
19-21.
OCEAN WAVE DIRECTIONAL SPECTRA BY OPTICAL METHODS
HE Ming-xia, ZHAO Chao-fang, and ZHANG Xiao-dong

Oceall Remote Sellsing alld Oceall Optics Laboratory, Ocean University of Qmgdao
Qi/lgdao 266003, China
I. INTRODUCTION
Ocean wave directional spectrum studies are basic and crucial in the study of ocean
waves, and play an important bearing in both theory and application of wave
researches (Wen and Yu, 1985). Researches in ocean wave directional spectra
depend closely on the survey techniques for waves, which include direct in-situ
measuring and remote sensing. In direct measuring with free-floating buoy and sensor
staff array, instruments operate either in direct contact with ocean wave or very close
to it, this brings about many handicaps and limitations. In the contrary, remote
sensing is of incomparable superiority in measuring ocean wave directional spectra.
The relation between optical power spectra from photo~raphs and slope spectra
of ocean wave was first presented by Stilwell (1969). Ever SInce then, much work in
this respect focused mainly on nonlinear model, uneven skylight distribution and
CCD measuring system. The results were too rough for error discussion or for the
comparison with generally recognized ocean wave statistical formulae and in-situ buoy
measurements. Consequently, these achievements have not been put into application.
In the present paper, the relation between optical power spectra and directional
energy spectra is analysed. The physical meaning of each term in the relation is
discussed for the purpose of laying down some physical foundation for information
processing of photographs. According to the sea state and photograph condition, the
order of magnitude of the nonlinear terms in the relation is estimated, showing that
the linear model proposed by Stilwell is a fairly good approximation. It is also not
difficult to satisfy the need of linear model in the photograph process.
Regarding information processing, technique of optics-computer hybrid image
processing technique is used in dealing with the negatives, not only because of its fast
and parallel processing capacity in two-dimensional optical Fourier transform, but
also because of the high spatial resolution possible in sampling photographs. In
addition, optical filtering can eliminate the direct current term from spectrum easily
and successfully, and partial coherent light can reduce the "noise" incurred by laser.
II. REMOTE SENSING MODEL FOR OCEAN WAVE DIRECTIONAL SPECTRUM

Fig. 1 is a geometric illustration of taking an aerial photograph of the sea
surface with a camera. The radiant intensity received by the camera I(a, (3, 0, ¢) is
557
1(0', p, 0, tf»-L(A, B)r(¢)+S(a, P)+W(1J, () (1)
where L(A, B) reef»~ is skylight reflected into the camera by sea surface, sea, (3) is
scattering skylight, and W('l],~) is upward radiation from sea body. The last two terms
are negligible in reality (Stilwell, 1969; Stilwell and Pilon, 1974; He et aL, 1990). So
the radiant intensity into camera can be taken as
l( a, p, 0, tf» -L(A, B)r( ¢) (2)
Fig. 1. Geometric illustration of skylight in

photographing ocean wave.
Since the ratio of wave height to wave length is normally about 1/10-1/20, it can
be taken that ()< 10°. So Eq. (2) can be represented by a first order approximation
of Taylor's series expansion. In the following paragraphs we will discuss the light
entering camera in slant photographing and vertical photographing.
A. Slant Photographing
Eq. (2) can be expanded at (a o, 0, 0, ef» as Eq. (3) with camera in the X-Z plane.
1(0', p, 0, tf»-l(ao, 0, 0, ¢)+l«(ao ' 0, 0, tf>)(a-ao)

(3)
+lp{ao , 0, 0, lfJ)p+le{ao , 0, 0, lfJ) 0+···
Because of the limitation in the view field of the camera, a-a o is very small.
Parameter estimation shows the factors of higher order terms are all less than 0.6,
so they can be omitted.
Differentiation of I with respect to a, {3, () can be expressed by lUi «(}i is a, {3, ()
respectively when i= 1, 2, 3), and
(4)
Wave Directional Spectra by Optical Methods 559
The photograph condition can be selected to make f 1/' a constant. For cloudy weather,
skylight can be considered to have an even distribution, i.e. Lo;=O, then Eq. (4)
becomes
1(Jj-Lr ~I/I(Jj (5)
The geometrical relation of 1/J to ll', /3, 9, 4> is
cos 1/1- - sin8sini/>sin«sinp + sin8sin¢sinp + cos8cos« (6)
After further simplifying, the radiation into the camera under cloudy condition is
I -/(O} + C(<< - «0) + C 8cosi/> (7)
where C==f,/--. For fine weather, considering 0 comparatively small and 1/J=A,
(8)
LA is a constant if the field of view is comparative small from the analysis to the
in-situ data (Kasevich et aI., 1972).
Similarly it can be drawn that
1-/(0) + C' (<<- «0) + C' 8cosi/> (9)
B. Veliical Photographing
The radiative intensity I can be similarly expanded at point (a=O, /3=/3, 0=0,
4>=4» and take only the first order terms,
1(<<, p, 8, ¢)-I(O, p, O,¢)+la(O, p, 0, ¢)«+lo(O, p, 0, i/»8 (10)
On the condition of vertical photographing, [0;=0, [=0.02, so
dL
I .. - r .. -
dL 1/1 r ... LA 1/10 r (11)
0
d8 dl/l i I
For cloudy condition, LA=O, we can hardly take the diffusion photograph of
ocean wave.
For clear weather, within the view field of camera, LA is a slow-changing function
(Kasevich, 1972), thus the radiation into the camera is
I ( «, p, 8, ¢) - 1(0) + K ( 0) « + K ( 0) 8 cos ( i/> - P) (12)
Whether slant or vertical photographing, the radiative intensity received by

camera is determined by direct current term incurred by skylight, uneven exposure
term by the view field of the camera and a linear term having linear relations with
e, in which the cose is a slow-changing process compared with e.
The intensity transmittance of the negative of an ocean wave is (Goodman, 1965)
(13)
If y=2 then the amplitude transmittance a(X, Y) is
(14)
where C l , C 2 are constants. Make Fourier transform to Eq. (14) as
(15)
The first and second terms of Eq. (15) influence the low frequency portion of wave
spectrum, which can be avoided by a low-frequency stop filter. So the slope spectrum
of an ocean wave is
SI/l(K, O)-I.9'{OW-CI.9'{a(X, y)W (16)
According to the relationshi{> between the slope spectrum and the power
spectrum, the power spectrum S", IS (Wen and Yu, 1985)
(17)
(18)
III. OPTICS-COMPUTER HYBRID PROCESSING METHOD

The diffusion photographs of waves are processed using the optics-computer
hybrid frequency analyzing system as illustrated in Fig. 2. The iIIuminant is a
monochromatic, partially coherent and collimate light, which can be free from the
coherent noise induced by the laser which was often used as light source in earlier
literatures, and can eliminate chromatic aberration incurred by white light. Optical
Fourier lens, f= 1000 mm and 4> = 100 mm produces, in the back focal plane, an
optical power spectrum of the negative placed in the front focal plane. Zero-
Wave Directionlll Spectra by Optical Methods 561
Fig. 2. Optics-computer hybrid processing system for frequency spectrum.
frequency stop filter especially made by photoetching technique can be fine-adjusted

in three dimensions. It filters out zero and near-zero frequency part of the spectrum
[the first two terms of Eq. (15)] to extract the low frequency information of ocean
wave spectrum. TV camera acts as an interface between the optical image processing
system and the digital image processing system. The optical power spectra are put
into the computer system from a TV camera and directional spectrum S(k, 0) and
S(w, 0) can be calculated from Eqs. (16), (17) and (18). Fig. 3 is a flow chart of
obtaining ocean wave spectrum and parameters from sea negative.
Negative of
Optical FT I Zero-frequency
ocean wave
I
stop filter
J
I
I
Slope spectrum
distribution
I Color
encoding
I I
I I
Dimensionless Dimensionless I
directional directional Contour
spectrum S(K,") spectrum S(4J,'lJ) I I
I T-~ __ ~l
I I I
S(1J)
distribution
I Frequency
spectrum
--
S(1J), S(K)
distribution
.- Color
encoding
J
I
~
I
I
Ocean wave
J
Comparison with
para.meter theories and
I I in-situ data
Fig. 3. Flow chart of obtaining ocean wave spectra and parameters from wave negatives.
It need to be pointed out that the calibration scale for the whole optics-computer
system is an optical spacial filter. The wave number or wavelength can be calculated
from directional spectra. Let A be the wavelength of monochromatic light, M be the
ratio of negative to ocean wave field to be photographed, N be the value of radius
(pixel number), then the corresponding wavelength Aw=MnjMNd, where d is the
diameter of zero-frequency stop filter and n is corresponding pixel number in
spectrum.
IV. OBTAINING DIFFUSION PHOTOGRAPHS OF OCEAN WAVE
According to Eq. (1), the scattering skylight in a direction towards the camera
should be lessened as much as possible. If the weather is fine and no clouds exist
during the photographing process, a yellow filter or UV lens can meet this
requirement. It is also important to evade sun glitter.
In Eq. (3) and analysis for the order of magnitude of higher order terms, the
angle of the view field of the camera must be small enough «30°) so that the error
incurred by the view field can be negligible. On the other hand, the small angle may
result in less geometrical anomaly in the pictures of the ocean waves.
Although it is possible to photograph ocean wave in three selective conditions,
i.e., i) slant/clear, ii) slant/cloudy and iii) vertical/clear. It is advised to photograph
wave in verticality and in a clear weather, because, under this condition, there is a
simple distribution of skylight, and photographing process can be carried out easily.
As for slant photographing, the ocean waves in negatives may have geometric
distortion which encumbers the succeeding information processing (He et ai., 1990).
Good statistical quality and stability of measured wave data make it possible to
study ocean waves by their spectra. This demands at least 100-200 waves to be
photographed. The altitude of the camera is determined by the wave number
required and the angle of the view field of the camera. During the photographing
process, there must be no breaking waves. Fig. 4 is a diffusion photograph of the
ocean waves taken in the Bohai Sea.
Fig. 4. Diffusion photograph of ocean waves. The

photgraph was taken on Jan. 17, 1987 at 119°41'E,
39°09'N; wind speed 5 mls; water depth 20 m;
weather fine and cloudless; camera altitnde 2000
m; photographing vertical.
Wave Directional Spectra by Optical Methods 563
V. EXPERIMENT RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 5 is the contour of dimensionless directional spectrum derived from Fig. 4.

Radius from the center represents the angular frequency (J) or the wave number k,
the azimuth reflects the direction of ocean wave, and the value of contour expresses
the wave energy. This is the first successful ocean wave directional spectrum obtained
by the optical method. Fig. 6 is corresponding contour derived from Wen's ocean
wave directional spectrum expression (Wen et aL, 1990). Fig. 7 is the contour drawn
from Donelan's wave directional spectrum expression (bonelan, Hamilton, and Hui,
1985). It may be noted that Fig. 5 is in good agreement with Fig. 6 and is similar to
Fig. 7. In order to make further comparison, the directional spectra are integrated
with respect to azimuth into frequency spectra. Fig. 9 gives comparisons among
spectrum from the present paper, the Wen's theoretical spectrum and JONSWAP's
spectrum (Hassehnann et aL, 1973). Our result tallies well with that of Wen's. Fig.
10 gives the comparison between frequency spectrum obtained from the optical
method and that from the synchronous in-situ data.
~:c;------10
~---10
20
30 20
30
40 40
50 50
60 60
70
60
90 ~~~~~~~_70
60
90
Fig. 5. Dimensionless directional spectrum by Fig. 6. Dimensionless directional spectrum of

optical method. Wen et al.
~~---10 ~-~~!;
20 72
30 96
40 120
50 144
60 168
70 192
60 '-----216
~~==~--/~~---90
Fig. 7. Dimensionless directional spectrum of Fig. 8. Influence of topography toward directional

Donelan. spectrum.
The authors of this paper have had experiments under different sea state in three
areas of the Bohai Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea. In open sea areas, the
swell can be observed, and in coastal areas, as shown in Fig. 8, the influence of
topography on directional spectrum is obvious (He et ai., 1990).
o g
"l
..;
••••• lfen et aL - - P-M
- - He .t aL - - - - NEUMANN
- - - JONSlfAP - - OPTICAL METHOD
00000 IN-SITU DATA
o o
q
'"o
o
~-+~~TITrrnnTrrn~~~~~""~~rrnTMn g~';rn~TrrnOT~~~~~~~~Trrrn
o
0.00 1.00 ~oo 100 ~OO LOO ~OO 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
Ie ,,/,,0
Fig. 9. Comparison of the present paper and the Fig. 10. Comparison between spectrum by optical
frequency spectrum given by Wen's and method and in-situ data.
JONSWAP's methods.
These results listed above indicate that the measuring technique for ocean wave
directional spectra proposed in this paper is feasible, effective, and can be applied
to engineering purposes. It can be used also to verify ocean wave models and ocean
wave information provided by SAR.
REFERENCES
Donelan, M. A., Hamilton, J., and Hui, W. H. (1985) "Directional spectra of wind-generated waves", Phil.
TraIlS. R. Soc. Lond. A315, 509-562.
Goodman, J. W. (1965) Introduction To Fourier Optics, McGraw-Hili, pp. 509-562.
Hasselmann, K. et al. (1973) "Measurement of wind wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North
Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP)", Erganzuligs-beft Zeit. Dew. Hydr. Zeit. 12.
He, Ming-xia, Zhao, Chao-fang, and Zhang, Xiao-dong (1990) "Optical detection and information
processing for ocean wave", in Final Tech. Report of State Key Sci-Tech Project. No. 75760604
Kasavich, R. S. et al. (1972) "Directional wave spectra from daylight scattering", 1. Geophy. Res. 80(23),
4535-4541.
Neumann, G. (1953) "On sea wave spectra and a new method of forecasting undergenerated sea beach",
Erosion Board US Anny Corps of EngiJleers Tech. Mem. No. 43, 42 pp.
Pierson, W. J. Jr. and Moscowtiz, L. (1964) "A proposed spectra form for fully developed wind sea based
on the similarity theory of S. A. Kitarigorodskii",1. Geophy. Res. 69(24), 5181-5190.
Stilwell, D. Jr. (1969) "Directional energy spectra of the sea from photographs", 1. Geophy. Res. 74(3),
1974-1986.
Stilwell, D. Jr. and Pilon, R.O. (1974) "Directional spectra of surface waves from photographs",!. Geophy.
Res. 79(9), 1277-1284.
Wen, Shen-chang and Yu, Zhou-wen (1985) Ocean Wave Theory and Principle of Computation, Science
Press, Beijing (in Chinese).
Wen, Shen-chang et al. (1990) "Analytically derived wind wave directional spectrum" (to be published).
STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND TRANSMISSION
AND SIGNAL DETECTION IN SHALLOW SEA
XU Tian-zeng
Department of Oceanography, Xiamen University
Xiamen 361005, China
I. THE STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
A. Direct Pulses
The solid line and dot line in Fig. 1 show respectively the pulse-to-pulse correlation
coefficients at 1 and 2 n mile, the sea state scale is 3, and the time interval for
analyses is 100 ms. The pulse-to-pulse correlativity between direct signals transmitting
in shallow water acoustical channel is strong, and it decreases with the rising of sea
state and the increase of distance (Xu, 1990).
1 . 0 " = ' - -........-~.......:,..:"'....

- _ - - " " -__
0.8
02 0.6
0.4'------''-----'---'-----'---'-----''-
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Fig. 1. The pulse-to-pulse correlation coefficients. r(s)
The probability density functions (PDFs) of amplitude of the direct pulses shown
in Fig. 2a, 2b and 2c are at the distances of 0.3, 1 and 3 n mile respectively, and the
Rician distribution curve is also drawn.
The PDF of amplitude of direct I?ulses generally follows Rician distribution, but
it tends to follow Gaussian distributIOn at short distance and Rayleigh distribution
at long distance.
The correlation coefficients of ambient noise in Xiamen Harbor is shown in Fig.
3 by curve 1. Curve 2 shows the correlation coefficient of typical ship noise.
The correlativity of typical marine and ship noise is very weak. The ratio of
correlation radius between direct signal and noise is about 104 •
The PDFs of amplitude of ambient noise and ship noise generally follow
Rayleigh and Rician dIstribution respectively.
We have analyzed the statistic characteristics of frequencies shift using the
565
Zhou Di et at. (eds.), Oceanology o/China Seas. Volume 2,565-573.
18 14 b
12
16
14 11
9.8
~ i~ *
~ 8.4
~ 9.1 ~ 7
0 ..: 7.3 0..: 5.6
5.5 4.2
3.6 2.8
1.8 1.4
A A
9.9
8.8
' 0 7.7
0' 6.6
~ 5.5
;;: 4.4
3.3
2.2
1.1
O~--~~~~~LU~UL~L-- Fig. 2. The top of amplitude of the signal pulse.
A
central frequencies of 22.000, 28.000 and 40.000 kc/s at different ranges. The
preliminary result demonstrated that the PDF of frequency shift generally follows
Gaussian distribution. The standard deviation a increases with the increase of
distance d, for example, a=0.614 at d=500 m, a=0.629 at d=1000 m and a=0.673
at d=1500 m for the central frequency of 22 kc/s.
~O.6
~
0.4
0.2
2
Fig. 3. The correlation coefficients of ambient noise
0.6 0.8 1.0
and ship noise. 0.4
«ms)
B. Multipath Pulses
The multipath effect is severe in shallow water acoustical channel, and it is a

main obstacle for detecting reliably a signal with high information rate (Xu, 1991).
Multipath pulses may be considered as to be formed by the repetitive reflections
from sea surface and bottom for a pulse sequence with relatively high carrier
frequency. It was proved true by simple calculations of range differences in the light
of geometric acoustic principle.
As the multipath effect in shallow sea is quite complicated and variable, it is
difficult to analyze theoretically. We have carried out the experimental study for
multipath effect from the point of view of signal processing.
1. The Correlativity of Multipath Pulses

The typical correlation coefficients of mUltipath pulses with the same order are
Ch,uacte"istics of Sound Tt"ansmission and Signal Detection 567
shown in Fig. 4. The solid line rer.resents the distance of 0.3 n mile, the dashed curve
1 n mile and dotted curve 3 n mde. It can be seen that the correlativity of multipath
pulses, as the direct pulses, is close. The values of correlation coefficients decrease
and disperse with the increase of distance as well as sea state.
~ ........ "
'-. -..-
~ 0.9 --.-~.-.._
~ --- .-==----; .::::. -:-.:::
0.8
Fig. 4. The typical correlation coefficients of O.7'----jL

O ----,2"-O----"L30,-------'40,----
lllultipath pulses. r(ms)
2. Fluctuation oj Amplitudes
Fig. 5 shows the variation of PDF of multipath pulses with distance. The curve
of Rician distribution is also drawn in the figure.
9 b
12 a
8
11
9.6
8
*~6.8
~ 5.5
4.1
2.7
1.3 A
0
0.5 n mile 1 nmile
13
12
10
* 9
;;f 7.5
.. 6
0.; 3.5
3
1.5 A
0
3 n mile Fig. 5. The PDF of amplitude of multipath.
In general, PDF of amplitude follows Rician distribution, but there are a

tendency to follow Rayleigh distribution at short and long distances.
Generally speaking,the direct and multipath pulses can not be separated from
each other in a shallow acoustical channel.
The PDF of the amplitude of direct pulses added by multipath pulses is shown
in Fig. 6. There are double peaks in it,which shows the existence of some low
frequency components.
9
8
7
'*
~5
6
'-i4
0.. 3
2
1 ~ n A
Fig. 6. The PDF of amplitude added by direct and
OL-----~WU-U-U~~~~~~~_ multipath pulses.
II. LOW DATA RATE TRANSMISSION

To achieve the signal detection at low data rate in a shallow sea area is easier
than that of high data rate transmission, because the data rate can be sacrificed to
obtain the high detection probability P(d) and low false-alarm probability prJ).
A specific signal processing scheme-digital time correlation accumulation has
been developed. It includes auto-correlation (DTACA) and cross-correlation
accumulation (DTCCA) (Xu, 1991a). The theoretical estimations and practical
application have shown that the scheme has an excellent performance at the low data
rate in shallow acoustical channel.
The block diagram of POOK-DTACA (periodical on-off keying) receiver
configuration is shown in Fi~. 7. When it reaches the receiver through the shallow
acoustical channel, the defimte command signal will change into a stochastic process
in which the noise is involved. After passing matching circuit and amplify-filtering,
if the output from the detector has an amplitude equal to or larger than that of given
amplitude threshold, it will be transfonned into square waves with corresponding
duration by one bit quantizer. The integrator functions are as a pulse duration
discriminator in deciding single pulse. The accumulation decision is used in order to
enhance the ability of anti-interference.
The P(f) and P(d) of DTACA receiver can be estimated with binomial
distribution. The parameters used to estimate the P(f) and P(d) can be obtained
according to their statistical characteristics described in first part (Xu, 1990).
Delay network
Yes
Comparison-decision
No
Fig. 7. The block diagram of POOK-DTACA receiver.
The POOK-DTACA can be used for shallow sea acoustical releaser. The P(J) of
the releaser must approach zero at rather far distance, but its P(d) and information
rate may be low. So that the (SIN)in may be set to be low and the total n\lmber of
pulses M may be increased in designing the POOK-DTACA. M=50, k=45 and
(SIN)in= 1 are chosen in Mode SF-1 Acoustical Releaser, wherek is accumulation
threshold, the P(d) =0.6, P(J)-O, the perfonnances approach that of an optimum
Characteristics of Sound Transmission and Signal Detection 569
detection system of a noninterference accumulation for radio channel. Excellent

performances are achieved in experiment of the releaser in shallow sea.
It is proved that the DTACA can be used in an acoustic channel with severe
temporal-spatial varying, multipath and high noise level. Obviously, the DTCCA
scheme can also be used to the channel with satisfactory results.
The block schematic diagram of POOK-DTCCA receiver is shown in Fig. 8. It
consists of a reception channel and a reference channel. The reference signal may be
composed of preset pulse sequence or introduced directly from transmitter.
We can see that, like in POOK-DTACA, the four thresholds, the amplitude,
pulse duration, repetition period and accumulation, are also set in POOK-DTCCA.
The direct signal,multipath or noise will become an output of "yes" as long as they
have passed through the four thresholds.
Fig. 8. The schematic diagram of POOK-DTCCA

receiver.
The output envelope from the detector for a pulsed CW signal in a shallow water
acoustic channel is shown in Fig. 9. We can see that the signal is obviously distorted
and multipath interference appears. In such a case, the performances of usual copy
correlator will be degraded. The lower part in Fig.IO. is the copy correlation
coefficient which is only 0.265, and there are two side lobes in correlativity (Liang
and Pu, 1990). If we adopt the pulse-to-pulse correlation scheme in which the first
receive signal is taken as a reference signal, both correlation coefficients reach 0.996
without any side lobe in both operations (see the upper part of Fig. 10).
~ ~
r",
~ 0.996/ 0.996
,~
'~ I \../ t
1ms
0 ](j 20 25 ms
~- A
- 0.265
Fig. 9. A receiver signal envelope with multipath. Fig. 10. The coefficients of the copy and pulse-to-
pulse correlation.
From the analysis above we can see that, if a pulse is transmitted behind the
synchro pulse to excite the acoustical channel and to be used as a reference signal,
the performances for such a pulse-to-pulse correlation detection would be higher
than that of copy correlation detection. It is proved true by some experiments.
Some active sonar systems, such as depth sounder, only need to know the
message of range, but other need to know the echo intensity as a reference for
identification of target properties, such as fish abundance in a fish finder.
The block diagram of DTCCA prototype with double-function for both depth
sounding and fish finding is shown in Fig. 11 (Xu and Xu, 1990).
Fig. II. The block diagram of DTCCA double-function prototype.
Considering the large variance of fish echoes and the background noise, a self-
adaptive threshold of amplitude is adopted. The first of transmission pulses N is
taken as a standard to set the self-adaptive threshold of amplitude and to be
introduced to register as a reference signal. The correlation coefficients of echo
signals are stored in the cross-correlator. By passing through the accumulation
decision circuit, the digital information of the depth would be extracted by a
fish-bottom identification network. By changing the soft program,we can obtain the
digital messages of echoes of fish school and eliminate the echoes from the sea
bottom.
An experiment has been done to compare the anti-interference ability of the
prototype with that of a usual fish finder under the same noise background. The
results are shown in Fig. 12. The record on the right column is given by the fish
finder; many obvious points of interference can be seen. The left is the results of the
prototype. Abnost all interferences are suppressed. The first echo 2 and the
secondary echo 3 are also recorded. The P(d) of the first echo is larger than 0.9 in
such a strong interference, which is quite in agreement with the theoretical
estimation.
AiJ.............n.... ~j(.~,__ ~AI "u i
.. ,. . . . .;:- . j....
.... ;,·r:·
J
.'! .,-
......... ,.
f •.
"'" I. ";. ~h~'"",.-"

.. I
." ...
• : .•
. •
Fig. 12. The record showing the anti-interference

ability.
ChaJ'actel'istics of Sound TI'ansmissioll and Signal Detection 571
Theoretical estimations and field experiments have also proved that both
DTACA and DTCCA have a high ability of anti-multipath and even make use of the
multipath energy (Xu, 1991b).
III. HIGH DATA RATE TRANSMISSION
A shallow sea may be considered as an acoustical channel with strong temporal-
spatial-frequency variation, severe multipath, constrained bandwidth and high noise
level properties. It is difficult to achieve the high data rate transmission in the
channel. Multi-frequencies shift keying (MFSK) and digital frequency modulation
(DFM) are the two types of signal processing schemes may be used.
It have been shown from preliminary experiments that the frequency fluctuation
follows Gaussian distribution, the maximal value of frequency shift is about 35 Hz in
usual conditions when 20 kc/s operation frequency is chosen. It would be efficient to
use the DFM in high data rate transmission if the suitable frequency band is selected.
The block diagram of DFM is shown in Fig. 13.
Fast frequency syntl)- PA

SIS
Transmitting transducer
Acoustical Channel j
Self-adaptive
anti-multi path
Digital output
Fig. 13. The block diagram of DFM.
Using 256 frequency codes as 256 amplitude quantizing layers, so that one
frequency code is equivalent to 8 binary codes and the measuring accuracy is 0.4%.
Both transmitting transducer and receiving transducer are cylindrical, they are nearly
omni-directional. Self-adaptive techniques can reduce the influence of random
temporal-spatial-frequency variation, severe multipath and high noise level in shallow
acoustical channel.
The typical applications are briefly described as follow.
1. Undelwater Acollstic Telecontrol, Telemetry and POSitioning
A multipurpose device for the underwater acoustic telemetry, telecontrol and

positioning have been developed. The DFM scheme with 256 frequency elements as
256 quantizing layers are used.
Some field experiments have been done, especially in the Xiamen Harbor where
the depth ranges from 2 to 25 m. Fig. 14a shows one of simulating signal to examine
the telemetry function; the receiving signals at ranges of 3 and 4 km are respectively
shown in Fig. 14b and c. The excellent performances have been proved true by
experimental results.
Fig. 14. A simulating signal and receiving signal at different distances.
2. Digital/Speech Communication
A digital/speech communication system is developed by using the DFM. The data

rate is 7.S kbit/s, the operation range is IS00 m in the shallow sea. Power
consumption is 60 W
3. Video Image Transmission
A prototype of underwater image transmission is also developed by employing
the DFM. The data rate is 10 kbit/s by occupying S kc/s of bandwidth. Power
consumption is 60 W Both transmitting transducer and receiving transducer are
nearly omni-directional.
A simple image (98x 128 points and 3 grey scales), as shown in Fig. IS(a), is
emitted in Xiamen Harbor where the depth ranges from 2 to IS m. Fig. IS(b), (c)
and (d) are of the images received at the horizontal ranges of 400, 900 and 1200 m
respectively.
(a) Transmitted image (b) 400 III

Fig. 15. Image transmission at different horizontal distances.
Chal'lIcteristics of Sound T1'lIllsmission and Signal Detection 573
(c) 900 m (d) 1200 m

Fig. 15. (colltinued)
REFERENCES
Liang, Yun-lian and Pu, Yu-bin (1990) "Characteristics of random time-variant sound channel in shallow
sea", in Proceedings of Intemational Workshop 011 Marine Acoustics, China Ocean Press, Beijing, pp.
233-236.
Xu, Tian-zeng (1990) "A digital time correlative accumulation (I)-au to-correlative accumulation", Chill.
1. of Acoustics 4, 365-371.
Xu, Tian-zeng (1991a) "A digital time correlative accumulation (II)-cross-correlative accumulation", Chill.
1. of Acoustics 1,86-91.
Xu, Tian-zeng ( 1991 b) "A digital time correlative accumulation (rIl)-the anti-multipath ability", Chill. l.of
Acoustics 2, 149-155.
Xu, Tian-zeng and Xu, Simi-yuan (1990) "Application of digital time correlative acculllulation to echo
sounder and fish finder", in Proceedings of International Workshop on Marine Acoustics, China
Ocean Press, Beijing, pp. 165-170.
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1
List of Contributors ix
Preface
ZENG Cheng-kui (CX. TSENG) xiii
PART I. PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
Introduction
HU Dun-xin 1
Water Masses in China Seas

SU Yu-song and WENG Xue-chuan 3
Patterns and Structures of the Currents in Bohai, Huanghai and East China Seas
GUAN Bing-xian 17
Some Striking Features of Circulation in Huanghai sea and East China Sea
HU Dun-xin 27
Current Characteristics of South China Sea

HUANG Qi-zhou, WANG Wen-zhi, Y.S. U and C.W. U 39
On the Variation of Kuroshio in East China Sea

SUN Xiang-ping and SU Yujen 49
Kuroshio Intrusion and Taiwan Wann Current

SU Ji-Ian, PAN Yu-qiu and UANG Xiang-san 59
A Prognostic Model of the Winter Circulation in East China Sea

YUAN Yao-chu, SU Ji-Ian and NI Jujen 71
A Langrangian Model of Circulation in Bohai Sea

FENG Shi-zuo, ZHANG Shu-zhen and Xl Pan-gen 83
Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of the Water Circulation

in South China Sea
WANG Wen-zhi, HUANG Qi-zhou, Y.S. U and Z.W. U 91
Tides and Tidal Currents in East China Sea, Huanghai Sea and Bohai Sea
FANG Guo-hong 101
Tides, Tidal Currents and Storm Surge Set-Up of South China Sea
HUANG Qi-zhou, WANG Wen-zhi and CHEN fun-chang 113
Studies on Wave Climatology, Statistics and Dynamics of Bonai,

Huanghai and East China Seas
YUAN Ye-li 123
Waves in South China Sea

SUI Shi-feng 135
Marine Hydrologic Forecasts in China

DU Bi-lan and HAN Zhong-nan 141
PART IL MARINE CHEMISTRY
Introduction
GU Hong-kan 155
Marine Chemistry in Northern Seas of China

Marine Chemistry of South China Sea

HAN Wu-ying, LIN Hong-ying, CAl Yan-ya and RONG Rong-gui 171
Geochemistry of Major Chinese River-Estuary Systems

ZHANG fing, HUANG Wei-wen and UU Ming-guang 179
The Development of Marine Radiochemistry in China

LI Pei-quan, YU Yin-ting and WU, Yun 189
Biogeochemical Studies of Biologically Important Elements in the Taiwan Strait

HONG Hua-sheng and DAl Ming-han 201
Pollution and Pollution Monitoring in Northern Seas of China

PART m. MARINE BIOLOGY

Introduction
ZENG Cheng-kui (CK. TSENG) and ZHENG, Shou-yi 225
Primary Productivity and Phytoplankton in China Seas
GUO Yu-jie 227
Zooplankton of China Seas

CHEN Qing-chao 243
Foraminiferal Faunal Trends in China Seas

ZHENG Shou-yi and FU Zhao-xian 255
Radiolaria in East China Sea

TAN Zhi-yuan 275
Nektons of China Seas

XU Gong-zhao and ZHENG Wen-lian 281
Biofouling and Fouling Organisms of China Seas

HUANG Zong-guo and YAN Song-kai 291
Aquaculture of Marine Algae in China

ZENG Cheng-kui (C K. TSENG) 303
Scallop Mariculture in China

ZHANG Fu-sui 321
Mariculture of Penaeid Shrimp in China

UU Rui-yu (J.Y. UU) and CAO Deng-gong 331
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2
PART IV. MARINE GEOLOGY
Introduction
ZHOU Di 345
The Geology and Petroleum Resources of Northern China Seas

WANG Shan-shu 347
Basin Evolution and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Northern South China Sea
RU Ke, ZHOU Di and CHEN Han-zong 361
Geological Structure and Geophysical Characteristics of Nansha Block in

Southern South China Sea
XIA Kan-yuan and HUANG Ci-liu 373
Neogene Biostratigraphy of Zhujiangkou Basin, South China Sea:

A Quantitative Study
ZHOU Di and WANG Ping 385
Sedimentation in Northern China Seas

QIN Yun-shan 395
Basic Characteristics of Modem Sedimentation in South China Sea

SU Guang-qing and WANG Tian-xing 407
Paleoceanography in China: Progress and Problems

WANG Pin-xian 419
PART V. COASTAL RESEARCH
Introduction
REN Mei-e 431
Relative Sea Level Changes in China over the Last Eighty Years
REN Mei-e 433
Tidal Flats in China

WANG Ying and ZHU Da-kui 445
Stratigraphic Models of Barrier-Lagoon Systems in the Coastal Zones of China
LI Cong-xian and WANG Ping 457
Dynamic Geomorphic Systems of South China Coast

YUAN Jia-yi, ZHAO Huan-ting, LU Tie-song, SONG Chao-jing and
ZHANG Qiao-min 465
Modern Coral Reefs in South China Sea

GUO Li-fen, NIE Bao-ju, ZHU Yuan-zhi and ZHONG Jin-liang 477
Distribution and Formation of Littoral Placer Deposits in China

XU Dong-yu and TAN Qi-xin 487
Improvement of Natural Environments of Coastal Zone in South China

ZHAO Huan-ling, LU Tie-song and ZHENG De-yan 497
PART VI. MARINE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Some Recent Advances in Underwater Acoustics in China

GUAN Ding-hua 509
Technology for Oceanographic Research and Investigation in China

LI Yun-wu and LI Jing-guang 517
The Optical Information Transmission in the Ocean

LIU Zhi-shen 523
An Inversion Method for Obtaining Bottom Reflection Loss

WANG Qin and ZHANG Ren-he 533
Multiplex Function Manganese Nodule Sounding System

LIAO Yun-he 541
Acoustic Discrimination of Seafloor Properties

LIANG Yuan-bo, LU Bo and WONG How Kin 547
Ocean Wave Directional Spectra by Optical Methods

HE Ming-xia, ZHAO Chang-jang and ZHANG Xiao-dong 557
Statistical Characteristics of Sound Transmission and Signal Detection

in Shallow Sea
Xu Tiang-zeng 565

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Oceanology of China Seas

Part II. GU HONG-KAN

Part III. ZENG CHENG-KUI (c. K. TSENG)

Part V. REN MEI-E

Part VI. GUAN DING-HUA

Responsible Editor PAN YU

ZENG CHENG-KUI (c. K. Tseng)

KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS

ISBN 0-7923-2616-4 (Vol. 1)

Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers,

Kluwer Academic Publishers incorporates

Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada

In all other countries, sold and distributed

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

PART I. PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Water Masses in China Seas

Current Characteristics of South China Sea

On the Variation of Kuroshio in East China Sea

Kuroshio Intrusion and Taiwan Warm Current

A Prognostic Model of the Winter Circulation in East China Sea

A Langrangian Model of Circulation in Bohai Sea

Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of the Water Circulation

Studies on Wave Climatology, Statistics and Dynamics of Bonai,

Waves in South China Sea

Marine Hydrologic Forecasts in China

PART II. MARINE CHEMISTRY

Marine Chemistry in Northern Seas of China

Marine Chemistry of South China Sea

Geochemistry of Major Chinese River-Estuary Systems

The Development of Marine Radiochemistry in China

Biogeochemical Studies of Biologically Important Elements in the Taiwan Strait

Pollution and Pollution Monitoring in Northern Seas of China

PART Ill. MARINE BIOLOGY

Primary Productivity and Phytoplankton in China Seas

Zooplankton of China Seas

Foraminiferal Faunal Trends in China Seas

Radiolaria in East China Sea

Nektons of China Seas

Biofouling and Fouling Organisms of China Seas

Aquaculture of Marine Algae in China

Scallop Mariculture in China

Mariculture of Penaeid Shrimp in China

PART IV. MARINE GEOLOGY

The Geology and Petroleum Resources of Northern China Seas

Geological Structure and Geophysical Characteristics of Nansha Block in

Neogene Biostratigraphy of Zhujiangkou Basin, South China Sea:

Sedimentation in Northern China Seas

Basic Characteristics of Modern Sedimentation in South China Sea

Paleoceanography in China: Progress and Problems

PART V. COASTAL RESEARCH

Tidal Flats in China

Stratigraphic Models of Barrier-Lagoon Systems in the Coastal Zones of China

Dynamic Geomorphic Systems of South China Coast

Modem Coral Reefs in South China Sea

Distribution and Formation of Littoral Placer Deposits in China

Improvement of Natural Environments of Coastal Zone in South China

PART VI. MARINE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY

Some Recent Advances in Underwater Acoustics in China

Technology for Oceanographic Research and Investigation in China

The Optical Information Transmission in the Ocean

An Inversion Method for Obtaining Bottom Reflection Loss

Multiplex Function Manganese Nodule Sounding System