0021886315617531

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JABXXX10.1177/0021886315617531The Journal of Applied Behavioral ScienceAgote et al.
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The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
2016, Vol. 52(1) 35–63
Authentic Leadership © The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0021886315617531
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Emotions in Organizational
Change Processes
Laida Agote1, Nekane Aramburu2, and Rune Lines3
Abstract
Despite the increasing interest in emotions at work, there is still a need for more
research that focus on the antecedents of emotions in organizational change
contexts. Moreover, literature on the subject considers leadership and trust to be
fundamental when dealing with change processes. Taking into account both ideas, it
is proposed here that authentic leadership (AL) perception can influence followers’
trust and emotions during change. To test these hypotheses, we gathered and
analyzed the experience of 102 Spanish human resource managers using structural
equation modeling based on partial least squares. Findings show that AL is directly
and positively related to followers’ trust in the leader and the experience of positive
emotions. Furthermore, we found that trust mediates the relation between AL
perception and the experience of negative emotions. Based on these findings, some
practical implications are proposed, such as the implementation of training initiatives
in order to provide human resource managers with a better understanding of the
AL concept and facilitate different actions that could be carried out by them so as to
contribute to trust building.
Keywords
authentic leadership, trust, emotions
1Talleres
Villalvilla, Burgos, Spain
2DeustoBusiness School, San Sebastian, Spain
3NHH, Bergen, Norway
Corresponding Author:
Nekane Aramburu, Deusto Business School, Camino de Mundaiz, 50, San Sebastian 20012, Spain.
Email: nekane.aramburu@deusto.es
36 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 52(1)
Introduction
Change has become an increasingly common context in organizations (Kiefer, 2005).
Acknowledging this managerial concern, researchers have long tried to find the key
success factors in change processes. One overarching conclusion has been that the
reactions of change recipients are an important determinant of success and failure in
implementing change. Much of this research has, until recently, taken on a cognitive
and/or behavioral perspective in which emotions have been considered an obstruction
(Kiefer, 2002). However, new integrative alternatives are arising to fill the gaps left by
cognitive theories. It is now thought that emotions guide people in adapting to new
environments; they are thus a vital part of change and do not always have negative
consequences as used to be thought (Kiefer, 2002). Several proposals, such as affec-
tive events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) or informational theories (Forgas,
1995, 2002), posit that people not only engage in behavior rooted in conscious think-
ing and deliberation but also in more spontaneous, emotion-based behavior, especially
in uncertain and ambiguous contexts (e.g., organizational changes) or when they lack
sufficient interest, motivation, or resources to create a more elaborate response
(Bartunek, Balogun, & Do, 2011; Forgas, 1995, 2002; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).
Interest in emotions in the organizational context has been intense and increasingly
popular. However, many theoretical and methodological opportunities remain (Brief
& Weiss, 2002). In particular, research has focused more on the consequences of emo-
tions than on explaining how and why they occur and how they can be explained
(Giæver, 2009b). Thus, it is proposed that more research is needed on antecedents of
emotions during organizational change to understand better the factors underlying suc-
cessful change implementation (Lines, Sáenz, & Aramburu, 2010). And this is exactly
what this investigation attempts to do.
In addition to emotions, leadership style and level of trust in the leader are consid-
ered fundamental elements for the success of change processes, and have also been
thought to influence emotions. On the one hand, few articles have tried to demonstrate
the general belief that leaders’ behavior is a fundamental source of employees’ emo-
tions at work. In terms of our interest in a relatively new leadership style, there has been
a smaller amount of research in the form of authentic leadership (AL). And there are
even fewer studies if we focus on organizational change contexts. On the other hand,
trust is considered an important element in the effectiveness of leadership; however, the
role of trust and emotions in leading and following is still underresearched. Therefore,
questions concerning whether and how authentic leaders may influence followers’
emotions, how they can build trust in the leader, or whether trust plays any role in the
relationship between leaders’ behavior and followers’ emotions remain unanswered.
Regarding the role of human resource managers (HRMs) in organizational changes,
this has also been examined from different perspectives giving rise to multiple propos-
als (e.g., Alfes, Truss, & Gill, 2010; Caldwell, 2001; Ulrich, 1997). But there is still a
lack of research into the role of HRMs’ emotions in change processes. Moreover, there
are no studies that focus on an analysis of the influence of the leadership style (in par-
ticular, AL) on HRMs’ emotions.
Agote et al. 37
The present study addresses the aforementioned gaps in literature on leadership and
emotions (i.e., lack of studies about the antecedents of emotions during organizational
change, and about whether and how authentic leaders may influence followers’ emo-
tions, how they can build trust in the leader, or whether trust plays any role in the
relationship between leaders’ behavior and followers’ emotions), by examining why
AL behavior matters, and how it may influence followers’ level of trust in the leader
and emotions during organizational change processes. In concrete terms, this empiri-
cal study will be centered on HRMs and the AL behavior of their direct leaders. Direct
leaders’ leadership attributes will be considered that trigger events of HRMs’ emo-
tional reactions, based mainly on an appraisal theories of emotions. In particular, their
perceptions of their direct leaders’ AL behavior and level of trust in their leaders will
be analyzed as antecedents of HRMs’ positive and negative emotions during organiza-
tional change processes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to
explore the relation between followers’ AL perception, trust, and emotions in organi-
zational change contexts.
Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Emotions During Organizational Change
No definitive definition of emotion has yet been achieved, although emotions are intu-
itively well understood (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Emotions are usually classified
as positive or negative according to their valence. Positive emotions are the result of a
favorable appraisal of an event related to the achievement of one’s own goals (e.g.,
happiness, pride, relief, hope). Conversely, negative emotions result from the negative
appraisal of an event related to the realization of goals (e.g., anger, disappointment,
frustration, rage; Bisquerra, 2009).
Emotions are expected to surface more frequently and more intensely during
change processes than in nonchange situations (Kiefer, 2002). Organizational
changes, defined for the purpose of this investigation as the process by which orga-
nizations move from their present state to some desired future state in order to
foster the achievement of one or more organizational objectives, are laden with
emotions because of the increased likelihood of experiencing challenging and
potentially threatening issues (Kiefer, 2005) due to the uncertainty inherent in
change contexts. Organizational changes are a context of uncertainty for all
involved, especially in the beginning, mainly because of the lack of reliable infor-
mation about the situation, and the difficulty in predicting every outcome of each
change-related decision. This often makes employees feel vulnerable and insecure.
Hence, organizational change seems to be an appropriate context for understanding
emotions at work.
The number of articles that study emotions in organizational change contexts
has increased in the past few years. Using different goals, methodologies, and
theories, these articles aim to contribute to a better understanding of the field.
Some authors narrow their research down to negative emotions (e.g., Fugate,
Kinicki, & Scheck, 2002; Giæver & Hellesø, 2010; Kiefer, 2005), while others
prefer to take a positive perspective (e.g., Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008).
Qualitative techniques, mostly case studies, have been popular (e.g., Balogun,
Bartunek, & Do, 2010; Bartunek et al., 2011; Bartunek, Rousseau, Rudolph, &
Depalma, 2006; Giæver, 2009a; Giæver & Hellesø, 2010; Huy, 2002,2005; Kiefer,
2002; Smollan & Sayers, 2009; Smollan, Sayers, & Matheny, 2010; Stam &
Stanton, 2010; Turnbull, 2002; Vince, 2006). However, quantitative studies are
also present in literature (e.g., Avey et al., 2008; Lines et al., 2010; Lines, Sáenz,
Aramburu, & Rivera, 2009; Seo, Taylor, & Hill, 2007). Some articles are mainly
interested in managers’ emotions (e.g., Balogun et al., 2010; Huy, 2002; Kiefer,
2002; Mossholder, Settoon, Armenakis, & Harris, 2000; Vince, 2006) and others
in the relation between emotion and time (e.g., Fugate et al., 2002; Giæver, 2009a;
Smollan et al., 2010). Finally, some authors aim to build new theories by integrat-
ing different perspectives, such as psychodynamics (e.g., Carr, 2001) or psycho-
analytics (e.g., Antonacopoulou & Gabriel, 2001), offering new approaches (e.g.,
Balogun et al., 2010; Kiefer, 2002; Liu & Perrewé, 2005), creating new concepts
such as emotional balancing (Huy, 2002), or new theories such as the multilevel
theory of emotion and change (Huy, 1999).
What many of these investigations have in common is that they are grounded on
appraisal theories of emotions (e.g., Fugate, Kinicki, & Prussia, 2008; Giæver, 2009a;
Giæver & Hellesø, 2010; Huy, 2005; Kiefer, 2005; Liu & Perrewé, 2005), especially
those that analyze the antecedents and consequences of emotions (e.g., Avey et al.,
2008; Bartunek et al., 2006; Fugate et al., 2008; Huy, 2005; Kiefer, 2005; Lines et al.,
2009; Lines et al., 2010; Seo et al., 2007; Smollan, 2006; Stam & Stanton, 2010;
Szabla, 2007). Affective events theory has emerged as the main theoretical focus for
these studies (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).
Affective events have been described in the work context as incidents, the conse-
quences of the interaction between employees and their working environment that
stimulates the individual assessment processes, triggering an emotional experience
(Basch & Fisher, 2000; Bisquerra, 2009). For example, when a person is excited about
a recent promotion, the promotion would be the work event that triggers the emotion
of excitement.
Research into work events as elicitors of emotions during change is not very com-
mon in the literature. Three categories of events can trigger negative emotions during
change: issues relating to working conditions, issues relating to personal status, and
organizational issues (e.g., acts of management and the values and fairness of the orga-
nization; Kiefer, 2005). The present research would fall into Kiefer’s “organizational
issues” category, as HRMs report their leaders’ behavior during a change process. In
the same category, change agents’ actions and managers’ transformational leadership
behavior have been demonstrated to be antecedents of emotions during change in
Huy’s (2005) and Seo et al.’s (2007) research, respectively.
We decided to focus on the direct leader because, as the closest manager this is the
one with whom workers spend more time; hence, this is the manager who most fre-
quently and most intensely influences them.
Agote et al. 39
The Influence of Authentic Leadership Perception on Emotions

Luthans and Avolio (2003) introduced the idea of AL development to offer a more
positive way of conceptualizing leadership development (Avolio, Walumbwa, &
Weber, 2009). Later, Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, and May (2004) provided
some of the initial foundations for a broader theoretical framework of how authentic
leaders influence follower’s attitudes, behavior, and performance. This article, together
with a special issue of the Leadership Quarterly, published in June 2005, and the book
Authentic Leadership Theory and Practice: Origins, Effects and Development
(Gardner, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2005), became the foundation for exploring AL and
related concepts (Avolio, 2010).
Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) defined AL as
follows:
A pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological
capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized
moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the
part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development. (p. 94)
This definition reflects the four underlying dimensions of the construct of AL (i.e.,
balanced processing, internalized moral perspective, relational transparency, and self-
awareness) that have been generally accepted following its empirical validation
(Walumbwa et al., 2008).
According to Gooty, Connelly, Griffith, and Gupta’s (2010) literature review on
leadership, affects and emotions are deeply intertwined with the process of leading,
leader´s outcomes, and follower´s outcomes. In fact, Avolio et al. (2004) presented a
framework in which they suggested that emotions could be a key variable in explain-
ing the process by which authentic leaders influence followers’ outcomes.
When trying to understand how and why emotions arise, most researchers base
their proposals on Lazarus’s (1991) appraisal theory of emotions, as did Weiss and
Cropanzano (1996) in developing affective events theory, a theory of emotions at
work. The appraisal theory of emotions considers these to be specific reactions to
events, indicating the importance of the episode to the individual. However, the stimu-
lus that activates the appraisal process does not need literally to be an event; it can also
be a stable feature that is salient (Elfenbein, 2007). As previously mentioned, events
related to interactions with coworkers, customers, and supervisors are among those
that have the greatest emotional impact on workers, with leaders’ behavior looming
particularly large (Elfenbein, 2007). Therefore, leaders’ behavior can be the event that
activates the appraisal process, giving rise to emotional experiences.
AL is a complex leadership style that involves the enactment of several distinct types
of behavior that together constitute an internally consistent gestalt. At the basic level,
however, it can be contrasted with an autocratic, command-and-control style by which
leaders solicit little input from their followers and show little concern for followers’
well-being, focusing exclusively on organizational-level objectives without regard for
how decisions affect those working in the organization. Autocratic leadership based on
control-and-command has been related to negative feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, vul-

nerability, and general discomfort, because followers, when faced with such leadership
behaviors, perceive such high levels of risk that the leader can exploit the power depen-
dence asymmetry in ways that are harmful to followers (Konovsky, 2000; Lind, Kulik,
Ambrose, & De Vera Park, 1993). The behavior of authentic leaders, in contrast, may
eliminate some of the processes underlying these negative emotions. By soliciting
information from a wide variety of sources, prior to making a decision, followers might
perceive that their interests are being considered more fully and are being partly used as
criteria for making change-relevant decisions regarding the content of change, as well
as the timing and attributes of the change process itself. This should elicit perceptions
of decision control (Thibaut & Walker, 1975), which in turn would be less colored by
negative emotions than processes where followers experience little or no control over
the decision process. Research on procedural fairness suggests that this effect might be
present even in situations where followers’ interests do not have an impact on final
decisions (Konovsky, 2000). The mere experience that one’s views and interests are
being considered might elicit positive emotions and lower the likelihood of negative
emotions being experienced. The authentic leaders’ internalized moral perspective,
when observed by followers, might also affect emotions felt during the change process.
Research into behavioral integrity shows that followers routinely observe and assess
the consistency of leaders’ behavior over time, and the correspondence between what
leaders say and what they do. Leaders with an internal moral perspective are more
likely to be perceived as honest and trustworthy because, regardless of external pres-
sures, they will attempt to behave in accordance with their internal moral principles and
values. In cases where external pressures are too strong, they might exhibit relational
transparency and justify their decisions openly to followers by explaining why they
have to behave in a seemingly inconsistent way due to these pressures. The provision
of well-grounded and convincing justification for behavior has previously been shown
to alleviate negative reactions, even when the consequences of decisions are harmful to
the recipients (Brockner et al., 1994). By extension, we expect leaders who exhibit an
internalized moral perspective underlying their behavior to elicit more positive and less
negative emotions in their followers.
Considering the aforementioned, we propose the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1a: The perception of AL behavior is positively related to the experi-

ence of positive emotions during organizational change.
Hypothesis 1b: The perception of AL behavior is negatively related to the experi-
ence of negative emotions during organizational change.
The Influence of Trust on Emotions

Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, and Camerer (1998) defined trust broadly as “a psychological
state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations
of the intentions or behavior of another” (p. 395). This definition has been adopted by
many authors, such as Dirks and Ferrin (2001, 2002), Gillespie (2003), Lines, Selart,
Agote et al. 41
Espedal, and Johansen (2005), Søresen and Hasle (2009), Kelloway, Turner, Barling,
and Loughlin (2013), and Zhu, Newman, Miao, and Hooke (2013). It will be used in
this study.
Trust in the leader is considered a relevant factor for the successful implementation
of organizational changes (Oreg, 2006; Søresen & Hasle, 2009; Zhu, May, & Avolio,
2004) because it is considered crucial for getting individuals to work toward a com-
mon goal (Dirks, 2000), especially under high levels of perceived uncertainty.
Moreover, trust in the leader is also considered a fundamental element in the effective-
ness of leadership (Bass, 1990). This idea is supported by Dirks and Ferrin’s (2001,
2002) meta-analysis, in which they found that leadership style can increase trust in the
leader, which is in turn associated with attitudes, perceptions, and important organiza-
tional outcomes such as organizational citizenship behavior, job performance, job sat-
isfaction, organizational commitment, or intention to quit. Based also on past research
into trust, Schoorman, Mayer, and Davis (2007) considered the study of the relation-
ship between trust and emotions, a very interesting area of research. In response to this
call, Ballinger, Schoorman, and Lehman (2009) demonstrated that work group mem-
bers’ affective reactions to the departure of a leader were partly based on the quality of
the relationship they had with the leader. These affective reactions influenced group
members’ trust judgments of the new leader, unless they had access to previously
formed judgments about the leader’s ability. Yet the role of trust and emotions in lead-
ing and following is underresearched (Gooty et al., 2010).
A leader’s trustworthiness is based on followers’ expectations about the leader’s
future behavior, more specifically that the leader will not behave in ways that threaten
followers’ interests (Rousseau et al., 1998). These expectations, in turn, are based on
information from past experiences regarding the leader’s fundamental attributes of
ability, integrity, and benevolence. The trust construct, however, is also forward look-
ing in the sense that highly trusted leaders are expected to behave competently, with
integrity, and in ways that do not harm followers’ interests in future situations. In a
change context that is characterized by high levels of outcome uncertainty and ambi-
guity, trust is likely to be at the forefront of followers’ concerns, and may act as a core
determinant of how change recipients react emotionally. Because highly trusted lead-
ers are considered to be follower oriented and expected to take into account how fol-
lowers are affected by change(s), they are unlikely to make decisions that threaten
important values held by followers. As value relevance is a core determinant of the
appraisal process underlying emotional reactions (Lazarus, 1991), we expect that this
perceived benevolence of trusted leaders makes them better able to avoid producing
negative emotions and to foster the experience of positive emotions during change.
The expectation of leader integrity inherent in trust will further reduce the likelihood
of experiencing negative emotions and foster the experience of positive emotions.
Moreover, mere interaction with a trusted leader can engender positive emotions
unmediated by cognitive considerations like those outlined above. In the presence of
trusted individuals, people tend to experience feelings of interpersonal warmth, calm,
and hope (Jones & George, 1998). Most likely, these emotional reactions are mediated
by the low levels of threat experienced when a person is in contact with highly trusted
individuals. The experience of threat and the absence of threat are fundamental for our
understanding of emotional processes and the ecological function of human emotions
(Lazarus, 1991). In contrast, in the presence of distrusted persons, feelings of anxiety
are likely to emerge, especially when individuals are highly dependent on the person
being distrusted, as is often the case in leader–follower relationships. Hence, we
propose:
Hypothesis 2a: Trust in the leader is positively related to the experience of positive
emotions during organizational change.
Hypothesis 2b: Trust in the leader is negatively related to the experience of nega-
tive emotions during organizational change.
The Mediating Role of Trust

Leaders can gain or lose followers’ trust depending on their behavior during change.
Leaders who do not show consistency between words and actions, or who frequently
lie, will hardly be trusted by their employees. On the contrary, authentic leaders are
expected to build trust in their followers via their supporting behavior. Transparency is
a main characteristic of authentic leaders and it is also considered central for building
trust. That is why it is proposed that AL relational transparency can build followers’
trust in the leader (Avolio & Wernsing, 2008; Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey,
2009; Norman, Avolio, & Luthans, 2010; Walumbwa et al., 2008; Wong & Cummings,
2009; Wong, Laschinger, & Cummings, 2010). Leaders who are self-aware, whose
values are based on high moral principles, and who act on their values, have less rea-
son for not openly sharing information and expressing their true thoughts and feelings
to followers (Avolio & Wernsing, 2008). Authentic leaders are transparent and congru-
ent in their beliefs, words, and actions; they are honest and show concern for employ-
ees; they have high ethical standards, integrity, and credibility; and are willing to give
and receive feedback. All these characteristics are proposed to help authentic leaders
build followers’ trust in them. In fact, it has previously been empirically found that AL
influences trust directly at the individual level (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011; Wong &
Cummings, 2009; Wong et al., 2010; Zamahani, Ghorbani, & Rezaei, 2011) as well as
at the group level (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009), and indirectly at the individual level
through personal identification (Wong et al., 2010). Hence, it is proposed:
Hypothesis 3: The perception of AL behavior is positively related to the level of

trust in the leader during organizational change.
In their proposed framework, Avolio et al. (2004) posited that identification, trust,
and emotions could be the processes by which authentic leaders exert their influence
on followers’ attitudes and behavior. Since then, the relationship between AL, trust in
the leader, and various followers’ attitudes and behavior has been successfully
researched (Peus, Wesche, Streicher, Braun, & Frey, 2012). It has been empirically
confirmed, for example, that trust mediates the relationship between AL and
Agote et al. 43
Relational transparency
Positive
emotions
Internalized moral perspective Authentic
leadership Trust
Balanced processing perception
Negative
Self awareness emotions
Figure 1. Representation of the conceptual model.
performance (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009), voice behavior (Wong & Cummings, 2009),
and work engagement (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011; Wong et al., 2010). These results
imply that trust might also mediate the relation between AL and followers’ emotions.
In fact, Avolio et al. (2004) suggested there could also be a relation between AL, trust,
and positive emotions, although they did not present an explicit hypothesis. According
to Clapp-Smith et al. (2009) “followers may be more willing to place trust in the
leader’s future actions because they can use past experiences to predict future
responses” (p. 232). In other words, authentic leaders make employees feel more com-
fortable and secure about the leader’s future behavior. Positive past behavior provides
behavior predictability, which “seems to be a particularly relevant facet of trust in the
examination of its relation with authentic leadership” (Peus et al., 2012, p. 335).
Moreover, trust enables followers to perceive the leader’s actions as genuine (Zhu
et al., 2013). In this way, trust helps followers judge the leader in a favorable light,
favoring in turn the experience of more positive emotions and less negative emotions.
As authentic leaders are expected to behave in a manner perceived as trustworthy, fol-
lowers are expected to demonstrate more positive emotions and less negative emo-
tions. Therefore, we propose:
Hypothesis 4a: The relationship between the perception of AL behavior and the
experience of positive emotions is mediated by the level of trust in the leader.
Hypothesis 4b: The relationship between the perception of AL behavior and the
experience of negative emotions is mediated by the level of trust in the leader.
Figure 1 represents the conceptual model being tested.
Research Method
Sample Framing and Data Collection
A multiorganizational approach for data gathering was chosen because we decided to
focus our attention on various HRMs’ experience during organizational changes. The
research focused on Spanish companies with more than 50 employees, and to identify
these companies, the database SABI was used.1
The information-gathering process went on from February to December 2012.

HRMs were first contacted by telephone, and afterward further information and access
to the questionnaire was sent by e-mail. In this call, the purpose of the research was
explained, participation in the study solicited and a report with the results offered as a
compensation for their effort. Afterward, further information about the research and
access to the questionnaire was sent by e-mail. This process resulted in 146 answers
(which means a response rate of 4.3%) but only 102 (70%) of these were usable. The
reason for most of the rejections was that the change implementation process was not
finished at the time the questionnaire was filled in, although it was emphasized several
times that it was essential to respond concerning a recent but already finished organi-
zational change.
Regarding the response rate, this is quite low. The main reason for this is that many
companies were reluctant to participate in the survey due to the difficult times they
were experiencing. The survey was done in the middle of the “storm” for many Spanish
firms due to the dramatic impact of the economic crisis in Spain. As a consequence of
the major survival challenges many companies had to envisage at that moment, they
adopted a very conservative position and did not want to participate in any type of
survey. The research was done in a very difficult context. Nevertheless, and in spite of
the difficulties, it was ultimately possible to obtain a sufficient sample of firms.
According to the nature of the change in which the answers were based, 38.2% of
the respondents referred to departmental reorganizations, 24.5% to a change in the
strategic orientation of the organization, 12.8% to company mergers, 9.8% to impor-
tant modifications of processes, 4.9% to the introduction in new markets, 3.9% to the
introduction of a new business line, 1% to technological changes, and 4.9% to other
kinds of changes such as the management team.
Constructs and Measures

AL perception is the exogenous construct of the model. It is a second-order construct
as it comprises four first-order constructs (i.e., balanced processing, internalized moral
perspective, relational transparency, and self-awareness). The specific measures used
have been obtained from the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire developed by Avolio,
Gardner, & Walumbwa (2007). This questionnaire captures a person’s degree of AL
behavior, which in our case is the HRMs’ perception of their direct leader’s AL behav-
ior. HRMs were asked how frequently each of the statements provided fitted their
direct leaders’ leadership style during the change process.
Trust in the leader is the first endogenous construct of the model. It refers to the
extent to which the HRM is willing to be vulnerable (i.e., voluntarily take risk) at the
hands of his or her direct leader. Trust was measured by six items based on Schoorman
and Ballinger’s (2006) proposal, which was possibly the most promising measure of
trust to date, according to Schoorman et al. (2007).
Finally, positive and negative emotions are the second group of endogenous con-
structs in this research. Fiebig and Kramer’s (1998) research presented a list of posi-
tive and negative emotions that respondents reported feeling as a reaction to
Agote et al. 45
organizational incidents. Based primarily on this research, the positive emotions

construct was measured by 7 items, whereas negative emotions were measured by
10 items.
The concrete constructs, codes, and measures used in this research can be found in
Appendix A. All the indicators were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale and
the nature of all the constructs in the model is reflective. In a construct with reflective
indicators, these reflect the construct, which is the origin or cause of the indicators. In
other words, the construct precedes the indicators in a causal sense. Reflective indica-
tors are determined by the construct; therefore, if the level of the construct changes,
the indicators covary at the same level and in the same direction (Chin, 1998; Chin &
Gopal, 1995).
Multivariate Analysis
Structural equation modeling (SEM) based on partial least squares (PLS) is used to
test the hypotheses of the research due to the characteristics of the model and sample.
In comparison with the covariance-based approach (an alternative SEM approach),
PLS avoids two important problems: those related to nonunique or otherwise improper
solutions (Fornell & Bookstein, 1982) and those related to the use of small data sam-
ples (Fornell, 1982). Thus, PLS can be a powerful analysis method due to its minimum
requirements in terms of variable measurement scales, sample size, and residual distri-
bution (Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003).
The sample size obtained is large enough to perform a statistical study based on a
PLS approach to SEM by means of PLS-Graph software (Chin et al., 2003; Chin &
Frye, 2003). Since all the constructs of the model are reflective in nature, the largest
number of antecedent constructs leading to an endogenous construct in the structural
model will determine the minimum sample size required—in our case, 50 responses
for the first-order model and 20 for the second-order model.
PLS analysis consists of two consecutive stages, although measurement and struc-
tural parameters are concomitantly estimated (Barclay, Higgins, & Thompson, 1995).
First, the measurement model must be evaluated to assess its validity (i.e., that it really
measures what we want to measure) and reliability (i.e., that it does so in a stable,
consistent way). This will guarantee that the theoretical concepts are properly mea-
sured by the variables observed. Afterward, structural model evaluation can take place
in order to analyze the weight and extent of relations between constructs and to test the
research hypotheses.
Results
Measurement Model Evaluation
Since AL perception is a second-order construct, it is necessary to create a first-order
model and make all the basic checks (in the case of reflective constructs, individual
item reliability, construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity
have to be tested). In all cases, the results of the first-order model are satisfactory
(results of the first-order measurement model evaluation in Appendix B).
As far as individual item reliability is concerned, a rule of thumb is to accept items
with loadings of 0.707 or more, which implies more shared variance between the con-
struct and its measures than error variance (Barclay et al., 1995; Carmines & Zeller,
1979). As can be seen in Appendix B, Part I, indicator loadings are greater than 0.707,
with three exceptions: TRUST6 (loading: 0.6815), POSEMO1 (positive emotions;
loading: 0.6690), and NEGEMO3 (negative emotions; loading: 0.6256). According to
Barclay et al. (1995), loadings above 0.5 and 0.6 are also acceptable in early stages of
scale development as is the case for this construct. Thus, all the indicators proposed
have been retained in the research.
Construct reliability or internal consistency refers to the extent to which all the
indicators of a specific construct measure the same latent variable. If this were to be
true, all the indicators making up the construct should be highly correlated. For this to
be tested, composite reliability (ρc) has been calculated. According to Nunnally
(1978), a value of 0.70 constitutes a benchmark for modest reliability in early stages
of research, whereas later on, values higher than 0.80 would be preferable. As can be
observed in Appendix B, Part I, all constructs of the research have a composite reli-
ability over 0.8. Hence, internal consistency is adequate.
Convergent validity is assessed by means of the so-called average variance extracted
(AVE). This measure was created by Fornell and Larcker in 1981, and it provides the
amount of variance that a latent variable captures from its indicators, relative to the
amount due to measurement error. It is recommended that AVE should be greater than
0.50, this meaning that 50% or more of the variance of the construct is due to its own
indicators. As can be seen in Appendix B, Part I, this is the case in all constructs of the
research.
Finally, discriminant validity indicates the extent to which a given construct is dif-
ferent from other constructs (i.e., the extent to which the constructs making up the
research model really measure different things). For this to be true, a construct should
share more variance with its measures than it shares with other constructs of the model
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In other words, AVE should be greater than the variance
shared between the construct and other constructs (i.e., the squared correlation between
two constructs). Once the correlation matrix is obtained, it is easier to calculate the
root value of AVE for each construct (this would be the diagonal of the correlation
matrix) and to compare it with the correlations obtained. For adequate discriminant
validity, the diagonal elements (i.e., the root values of AVE) should be greater than the
off-diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns. This is exactly the case
in our research (see Appendix B, Part II).
Once the first-order measurement model has been checked, the same has to be done
for the second-order model. Therefore, the second-order model was created and the
measurement model evaluated. Following the same criteria as before, we satisfactorily
checked individual item reliability, construct reliability, convergent validity, and dis-
criminant validity (results of the second-order measurement model evaluation in
Appendix C).
Agote et al. 47
In particular, and as far as item reliability is concerned, loadings are higher than
0.707 in all cases, with the exception of three indicators: TRUST6 (loading: 0.6803),
POSEMO1 (loading: 0.6548), and NEGEMO3 (loading: 0.6189; see Appendix C, Part
I). As stated earlier, and according to Barclay et al. (1995), loadings above 0.5 and 0.6
are also acceptable in early stages of scale development as is the case for this con-
struct. Thus, all the indicators proposed have been retained.
With regard to construct reliability, composite reliability (ρc) is above 0.8 in all cases.
And for convergent validity, AVE is higher than 0.5 in all cases. Therefore, both tests are
satisfactory (see Appendix C, Part I). Finally, and regarding discriminant validity, this test
is also acceptable (i.e., diagonal elements in the correlation matrix are larger than off-
diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns; see Appendix C, Part II).
Structural Model Evaluation

Table 1 shows the results obtained of the evaluation of the structural model, analyzing
the strength of the research hypotheses and the predictive capacity of the model.
As predicted, the positive relationship suggested between AL and trust is statisti-
cally significant and so, therefore, Hypothesis 3 is accepted. As can be seen, the path
coefficient between AL and trust is 0.725 at a confidence level of 99.9% and it explains
52.6% of the variance in trust.
AL is also positively related to positive emotions but not to negative emotions.
Therefore, Hypothesis 1a is accepted, while Hypothesis 1b is not. The contribution of
AL to the amount of variance in positive emotions explained is slightly above 30% and
the path coefficient is 0.499 at a confidence level of 99.9%.
Finally, trust is negatively related to negative emotions, but it does not have any
significant impact on positive emotions. Thus, Hypothesis 2b is accepted, while
Hypothesis 2a is not. The path coefficient between trust and negative emotions is
−0.428 at a confidence level of 99.9% and it explains 23% of the amount of variance
in negative emotions.
As can be seen, the predictive capacity of the model is doubly checked. On the one
hand, the total amount of variance explained of all three endogenous constructs is
above the 10% quality threshold advocated by Falk and Miller (1992) and, on the other
hand, cross-validated redundancy measures (calculated by means of a blindfolding
process with an omission distance of 7) are above zero, as suggested by the Stone–
Geisser test (Geisser, 1975; Stone, 1974).
Summarizing this section, Figure 2 visually represents the results obtained.
Mediation Test
Two different approaches can be used for mediation testing: the traditional approach
and the Sobel test. Following the traditional approach, two models have to be run for
mediation to be tested. In the first model, the mediator variable should be excluded
(trust) and the independent (AL) and dependent (positive and negative emotions) vari-
ables should be linked to check that the relations between the exogenous variable and
the endogenous variables are significant.
Table 1. Influence of Trust on Positive and Negative Emotions, and of Authentic Leadership
on Trust, Positive, and Negative Emotions.
Endogenous Authentic Total amount of variance Cross-validated
construct Parameter Trust leadership explained (R2) redundancy (Q2)
Trust Path NA 0.725***

Correlation NA 0.725
Contribution to R2 NA 52.56% 52.56% 0.2419
Positive Path 0.144 0.499***
emotions Correlation 0.506 0.603
Contribution to R2 7.29% 30.09% 37.38% 0.1201
Negative Path −0.428*** −0.151
emotions Correlation −0.538 −0.462
Contribution to R2 23.03% 6.98% 30.00% 0.0374
Note. Goodness-of-fit (GOF) = 0.5. GOF is the square root of (mean of average variance extracted values × mean of R2
values). The value of GOF has to be between 0 and 1.
†p < .1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (based on t , one-tailed test).
499
0.499***
30.09%
0.144 Positive
7.29% emotions
0.725***
Authentic 52.56% 37.38%
leadership Trust
perception
52.56% -0.428*** Negative
Relational transparency 23.03% emotions
Internalized moral perspective
Balanced processing 30.00%
Self-awareness
-0.151
6.98%
Figure 2. Representation of the results.

Note. Path coefficients’ (β) contributions to the amount of variance explained of the endogenous
constructs (R2) are provided. Additionally, the total amount of variance explained by the model of each
endogenous construct is provided.
†p < .1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (based on t , one-tailed test).
499
As shown in Table 2, the first condition for mediation to exist is fully satisfied as
AL exerts a significant impact on emotions.
The second is a model in which all the variables are included. In fact, this is the
model analyzed in the previous section (see Table 1). This model is intended to check
that the relation between the mediator variable (trust) and the endogenous variable
(positive and negative emotions) is significant. The relationship between trust and
positive emotions is not statistically significant. Therefore, trust does not mediate the
relation between AL and positive emotions, and so Hypothesis 4a cannot be accepted.
However, the relation between trust and negative emotions is statistically significant,
satisfying the second condition established for mediation to exist.
Agote et al. 49
Table 2. Mediation Test—Influence of Authentic Leadership on Positive and Negative

Emotions.
Endogenous Authentic Total amount of

construct Parameter leadership variance explained (R2)
Positive Path 0.607***
emotions Correlation 0.607
Contribution to R2 36.84% 36.84%
Negative Path −0.464***
emotions Correlation −0.464
Contribution to R2 21.53% 21.53%
†p < .1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (based on t499, one-tailed test).
The third condition for mediation is that the path value (β) of the relation between
the exogenous variable (AL) and the endogenous variable (negative emotions) in the
complete model should be lower than that in the model without mediators (see Table 2).
The association between AL and negative emotions increases from −0.151 in the com-
plete model to −0.464 in the model without mediators. And since the relation between
these two constructs in the complete model is nonsignificant, trust fully mediates the
relation between AL and negative emotions. Therefore, Hypothesis 4b is accepted.
These mediation results have also been confirmed by means of the Sobel test. As a
result of this test, the values of the “z” parameter were compared with a standard nor-
mal distribution2 (Preacher & Hayes, 2004) to establish statistical significance.
In the case of negative emotions, the “z” value is significant. Hence, mediation
exists, but it is not significant with regard to positive emotions, and so trust does not
mediate the relation between AL perception and positive emotions (zAL-TRUST-POSEMO =
1.169; and zAL-TRUST-NEGEMO = 3.426).
For the final mediation, Table 3 shows the total effect of AL on emotions as a sum
of the direct and indirect effects. As can be seen, the effect of AL on positive and nega-
tive emotions is quite different. AL has a positive and mainly direct effect on positive
emotions, while it has a negative and mainly indirect effect on negative emotions
through trust.
Conclusions, Discussion, and Managerial Implications

This article is a first attempt to explore the relation between AL perception, trust, and
followers’ emotions during organizational change. The influence of different leader-
ship styles on trust and emotions has been studied earlier, but to the best of our knowl-
edge no studies have linked followers’ AL perception, trust, and emotions in contexts
of organizational change. We proposed, and found, that HRMs’ perception of their
direct leaders’ AL behavior is related to the level of trust in the leader and the emotions
experienced during organizational change processes.
More specifically, we found that AL perception is tightly linked to HRMs’ trust in
their leader. The results indicate that AL behavior is related to followers’ trust in their
Table 3. Total Effect of Authentic Leadership on Positive and Negative Emotions.
Endogenous construct Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect

Positive emotions 0.499 0.104 0.603
Negative emotions −0.151 −0.310 −0.461
leader, which is in line with previous results, as indicated by Gardner, Cogliser, Davis,
and Dickens (2011). These authors published a literature review on AL on December
31, 2010, in which they indicated that the three articles in the review that empirically
studied this relationship supported the positive influence of AL on trust in the leader.
Since then, more articles supporting this relation have been published (e.g., Hassan &
Ahmed, 2011; Zamahani et al., 2011). However, there is still more theoretical than
empirical support for this relation.
Followers’ trust in their organizational leaders has become an important issue
(Norman et al., 2010), and managers should be aware of the important consequences
their behavior has on employees’ level of trust. If managers lie, if they act unfairly, if
they do not keep their word, if their decisions are biased by their own interests or pres-
sures from others and employees know it, they will expect managers to act the same
way in the future. This behavior is expected to destroy trust: Employees will not be
willing to accept further vulnerability based on positive expectations of the managers’
behavior because they will have no positive expectations. Conversely, since trust is
fundamental for the effectiveness of leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1990; Dirks & Ferrin,
2001, 2002) and AL builds trust, managers should be sincere and honest, maintain
high moral values, and act objectively when making decisions if they want employees
to trust them.
Moreover, we found that AL perception was also significantly and positively related
to the experience of positive emotions. Following Lazarus’s (1991) appraisal theory of
emotions, the existence of a direct relationship between leaders’ AL behavior and posi-
tive emotions reveal the importance that AL behavior has for HRMs. However, it
seems that not all AL dimensions have the same influence on positive emotions.
Although it was not our primary intention, further analyses showed that internalized
moral perspective is the only AL dimension that is significantly related to positive
emotions. Therefore, this study reveals that direct boss’ behavior based on his or her
core values and congruency with his or her thoughts especially matters to employees,
triggering positive emotional reactions. Curiously, it was the lack of ethical conduct of
today’s leaders that called for a new, genuine, values-based leadership (Gardner et al.,
2011), giving rise to AL. Considering the results, it seems that it is precisely this moral
perspective that most influences HRMs’ positive emotions. This fact makes us think
that AL could be more tightly linked to followers’ positive emotions than other leader-
ship styles such as charismatic, transformational, or transactional types. Independent
research has found positive results relating transactional, transformational, and charis-
matic leadership to followers’ emotions, especially to positive emotions. However, it
would be interesting to compare these relations in a single research to determine if
Agote et al. 51
there is any leadership style that can better explain followers’ positive and/or negative
emotions.
Additionally, it was found that trust mediates the relation between AL perception
and negative emotions. AL behavior seems to be positively related to trust in the
leader, which in turn is negatively related to the experience of negative emotions.
Conversely, and contrary to predictions, trust does not seem to contribute to an expla-
nation of positive emotions, nor does it mediate the relation between AL and positive
emotions. These results point out that the relation between AL, trust, positive emo-
tions, and negative emotions is quite complex and needs further research. An explana-
tion for the results obtained might lie in the consideration of trust as dynamic (Rousseau
et al., 1998), which is developed over time, mainly as a response to leaders’ behavior.
In addition, as suggested by Gooty et al. (2010), besides cognitive influences, emo-
tions could also influence the level of trust. As the affect-as-information theory
(Forgas, 1995, 2002) proposes, positive emotions might be used as information, and
therefore help build trust, while negative emotions might destroy it. However, given a
concrete time and specific situation (as in the case of the present study), the level of
trust that a follower has in the leader might act as a filter to interpret the leader’s
behavior, affecting in turn the follower’s emotions. Trust in the leader might help inter-
pret the leader’s behavior in a positive way, even giving the leader the benefit of the
doubt when negative behavior (such as injustice or unfairness) are perceived. On the
other hand, lack of trust might have negative consequences through a negative inter-
pretation of the leader’s behavior due to suspicion and skepticism. In order to confirm
this proposal, new longitudinal research is needed that makes it possible to capture the
evolution of trust and the experience of positive and negative emotions as responses to
leadership behavior.
The results obtained in this article contribute to theory in different ways. For
instance, it helps explain why emotions occur during organizational change processes
by reinforcing the affective events theory and enriching the literature on emotions.
Moreover, the article shows that leaders’ behavior is a relevant variable to understand
employees’ emotions at work and trust building, contributing to the literature on lead-
ership, emotions, and trust. And it also contributes to the literature on trust by demon-
strating that trust can be a relevant mediating variable.
Additionally, in light of the results obtained and the discussion presented above, we
would like to offer some managerial advice.
First, we consider that, given the benefits of AL, it would be advisable to develop
some specific actions promoted by management and addressed to HRMs with the
purpose of explaining them the foundations of this leadership style, its importance and
benefits, and to help them engage in AL behavior. Among these actions, training pro-
grams could be delivered. For instance, a workshop on AL could be organized with the
participation of HRMs belonging to different companies.
A very important issue to be taken into account is that internalized moral perspec-
tive is the only AL dimension that is significantly related to positive emotions. It
means that, in the case of HRMs, their behavior has to be congruent with their own
core values and thoughts. Therefore, it would be interesting to focus the training
workshop on the exchange of personal experiences of HRMs about different situations

where they have acted according to their own values looking for consistency (e.g., a
change situation where the HRM said prior to change that he or she would not fire
anyone and he or she did not indeed; or a situation where he or she said he or she
would listen to people and he or she spoke with everyone). The beneficial outcome of
this exchange of consistent behavior evidences the fact that HRMs could understand
better what AL means in practice, and also what the implications of looking for con-
sistency for followers are (e.g., increasing their sense of security and confidence that
is very positive for the company and the change process).
Furthermore, another practical implication for managers could be related to the
construction of trust in the companies they run. As has been demonstrated in this
research, trust mediates the relation between AL perception and negative emotions.
Therefore, the construction of a culture of trust in the firm arises as a relevant issue. A
culture based on trust could help mitigate the emergence of negative emotions, and in
this sense, managers should work on trust building. In particular, HRMs could play an
important role in this trust construction process, since they occupy a middle position
in the hierarchy, acting as “bridges” between top management and the organization’s
bottom line, helping to transmit the main corporate values to bottom-line workers.
Therefore, HRMs could become the main trust construction agents in the company.
The key question that arises is how to build trust. In this sense, HRMs could under-
take different actions: They could provide people in the company with a better under-
standing of top management thoughts about the change. To do so, they could meet
personally with people in order to explain the goals of the change, the reasons for
change, and the specific consequences of the change for the person, in particular, the
implications of the change for his or her job (e.g., new task requirements, new skills to
be acquired for the development of the new tasks, etc.). This conversation would help
reduce the fear of change, increasing the sense of confidence of employees and, there-
fore, contributing to building trust.
Another action that could be carried out by HRMs would be to recognize publicly
their own mistakes and take measures addressed to solve the consequences of such
errors. This gesture of humility could help increase the sense of confidence of follow-
ers who would feel that things could get better, thanks to their bosses. Hence, they
could trust them.
Limitations and Future Research Directions

This research makes an interesting contribution, but it is not without important limita-
tions that should be kept in mind when interpreting the results and conclusions. First
of all, while the variables used in this study are logically and theoretically ordered with
respect to time, it remains a cross-sectional study. This raises important concerns
regarding the direction of causality (Lazarus, 2003). Memory bias may inflate the
results and the reported relationships may be contaminated by reverse causality, since
the answers are a recollection of past events, thoughts, and feelings. Longitudinal
research could help address this limitation. Second, the list of positive and negative
emotions included in the research is not exhaustive, as other emotions could be
Agote et al. 53
experienced during change processes. Therefore, new discrete emotions could be

included in future research and the effects of each analyzed. Furthermore, the general-
izability of the results is limited due to the characteristics of the sample. This study
gathered together the experience of Spanish HRMs during organizational changes, and
so therefore, differences in culture, context or organizational position may result in
different conclusions. Future research might focus on different targets, cultures, and
organizational contexts in order to determine if the results are similar to those obtained
here.
Regarding culture and considering that organizations are embedded in societies, the
surrounding societal or national culture is an important external influence on organi-
zational culture (Dickson, Aditya, & Chokar, 2000; Hofstede & Peterson, 2000; Sagiv
& Schwartz, 2000, 2007; Trice & Beyer, 1993). As a result, organizational cultures
tend to develop and evolve in ways that are compatible with the societal culture in
which they are embedded (Sagiv & Schwartz, 2007).
According to data gathered by Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov (2010), Spain shows
important cultural differences regarding other countries. For instance, the differences are
noteworthy in some particular cultural features like power distance (i.e., the extent to
which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions within a country
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally), individualism (i.e., the preference
for a loosely knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only
themselves and their immediate families), and masculinity (i.e., the preference in society
for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success).
All of these national cultural features could influence the organizational cultures of
companies and also people’s emotions. Therefore, it could be interesting to consider
culture (national and organizational) as a contextual factor that could moderate the
relation between AL, trust, and emotions. Along these lines, comparative studies
between companies from different countries could also be carried out in the future,
with the aim of discovering whether there are significant differences in the aforemen-
tioned relation due to the influence of national cultural features.
A final limitation of this research has to do with the low response rate of the study
(4.3%), which could lead to a response bias. On the one hand, perhaps the results could
change if more HRMs had participated in the survey, considering their personal traits (i.e.,
age, gender, years of experience in their job, level of education). As we only have infor-
mation about the traits of the HRMs who answered the questionnaire, it is not possible to
check if they are different with respect to nonrespondents’ traits and if the potential differ-
ences affect the results. On the other hand, maybe the results could change due to differ-
ences in characteristics of the firms (e.g., size). In particular, size could affect to the
relationship between HRMs and their direct boss in the sense that physical and emotional
distance could differ depending of the company’s size (i.e., the distance would be shorter
in a small company than in a big one). In the case of this research, as stated before, all
companies have more than 50 employees. The distribution of medium-sized (50 to 150
employees) versus big companies (more than 150 employees) is different in the whole
population (55% medium-sized firms; 45% big companies) with respect to the sample
considered (35.3% medium-sized firms—36 out of 102; 64.7% big companies—66 out of
102). The response rate is higher among big firms than among medium-sized ones.
Moreover, it would be interesting to test if there are significant differences in results

between medium-sized and big firms in the sample. For this, a multigroup analysis should
be carried in PLS comparing both groups of companies. The important limitation for
doing it is the sample size. As stated in the “Research Method” section, the minimum
sample size required for the first-order model is 50 responses and 20 for the second-order
model. According to this, each group of firms should accomplish this minimum and this
is not the case with regard to medium-sized companies. Therefore, we cannot conclude if
size is a determinant variable regarding the results of this study and if it could explain a
possible response bias.
Appendix A
Constructs, Codes, and Measures
Constructs Codes Measures
Authentic leadershipa AL How frequently each of the following statement
(AL; second order) fits your direct boss’(s) leadership style
during the change process? (1 = not at all, 5 =
frequently, if not always) My direct boss . . .
AL relational transparency ALTRANS
AL internalized moral ALMORAL1 Demonstrated beliefs that were consistent
perspective with actions
AL balanced processing ALBALAN3 Listened carefully to different points of view
before coming to conclusions
AL self-awareness ALAWARE1 Sought feedback to improve interactions with
others
Trust TRUST To what extent do you agree with each of the
following statements referred to your trust in
your direct boss during the change process?
(1 = I totally disagree, 5 = I totally agree)
TRUST1 My direct boss kept my interests in mind
when making decisions.
TRUST2 I would have been willing to let my direct
boss have complete control over my future
in this company.
TRUST3 If my direct boss would have asked why a
problem occurred, I would have spoken
freely even if I was partly to blame.
TRUST4 I felt comfortable being creative because
my direct boss accepted that sometimes
creative solutions do not work.
TRUST5 Increasing my vulnerability to criticism by my
direct boss would have been a mistake.
TRUST6 Although I would have had my way, I would
not have prevented my supervisor from
having any influence over decisions that
were important to me.
(continued)
Agote et al. 55
Appendix A (continued)
Constructs Codes Measures

Positive emotions POSEMO How frequently each of the following
(POSEMO) statements fits with what you felt during
the change process? (1 = not at all, 5 =
frequently, if not always)
POSEMO1 Relief
POSEMO2 Gratitude
POSEMO3 Hope
POSEMO4 Happiness
POSEMO5 Energized
POSEMO6 Confirmed
POSEMO7 Pride
Negative emotions NEGEMO How frequently each of the following
(NEGMO) statements fits with what you felt during
the change process? (1 = not at all, 5 =
frequently, if not always)
NEGEMO1 Rage
NEGEMO2 Frustration
NEGEMO3 Anger
NEGEMO4 Hopelessness
NEGEMO5 Shame
NEGEMO6 Disappointment
NEGEMO7 Disgust
NEGEMO8 Contempt
NEGEMO9 Anxiety
NEGEMO10 Surprised
aOnly the publication of three sample items to measure AL behavior was allowed by the authors.
Appendix B
First-Order Measurement Model Evaluation
Part I
Item Reliability, Construct Reliability, and Convergent Validity.
Constructs and Composite

measures Loading reliability AVE
ALTRANS 0.890 0.670
ALTRANS1 0.8178
ALTRANS2 0.8542
ALTRANS3 0.8597
ALTRANS4 0.7375
(continued)
Appendix B (continued)
Constructs and Composite

measures Loading reliability AVE
ALMORAL 0.886 0.660
ALMORAL1 0.7992
ALMORAL2 0.8595
ALMORAL3 0.7749
ALMORAL4 0.8143
ALBALAN 0.850 0.656
ALBALAN1 0.7578
ALBALAN2 0.7644
ALBALAN3 0.8998
ALAWARE 0.904 0.701
ALAWARE1 0.8207
ALAWARE2 0.8233
ALAWARE3 0.8621
ALAWARE4 0.8434
TRUST 0.869 0.572
TRUST1 0.8082
TRUST2 0.7063
TRUST3 0.7259
TRUST4 0.8464
TRUST6 0.6815
POSEMO 0.901 0.565
POSEMO1 0.6690
POSEMO2 0.7387
POSEMO3 0.7852
POSEMO4 0.7738
POSEMO5 0.8080
POSEMO6 0.7337
POSEMO7 0.7474
NEGEMO 0.902 0.569
NEGEMO2 0.7482
NEGEMO3 0.6256
NEGEMO4 0.7654
NEGEMO5 0.8344
NEGEMO6 0.8110
NEGEMO7 0.7371
NEGEMO8 0.7423
Note. AVE = average variance extracted; ALTRANS = authentic leadership relational transparency;
ALMORAL = authentic leadership internalized moral perspective; ALBALAN = authentic leadership
balanced processing; ALAWARE = authentic leadership self-awareness; POSEMO = positive emotion;
NEGEMO = negative emotion. For item reliability, loadings should be above 0.707 or close to this limit.
Loadings above 0.6 were accepted. For construct reliability, composite reliability should be above 0.7 in
early stages of investigation. And for convergent validity, AVE ratio should be above 0.5.
Agote et al. 57
Part II
Discriminant Validity.
ALTRANS ALMORAL ALBALAN ALAWARE TRUST POSEMO NEGEMO

ALTRANS (0.818)
ALMORAL 0.772 (0.812)
ALBALAN 0.748 0.63 (0.809)
ALAWARE 0.763 0.774 0.778 (0.837)
TRUST 0.667 0.649 0.65 0.644 (0.756)
POSEMO 0.511 0.654 0.434 0.554 0.504 (0.751)
NEGEMO −0.417 −0.405 −0.388 −0.449 −0.537 −0.519 (0.754)
Note. ALTRANS = authentic leadership relational transparency; ALMORAL = authentic leadership

internalized moral perspective; ALBALAN = authentic leadership balanced processing; ALAWARE
= authentic leadership self-awareness; POSEMO = positive emotion; NEGEMO = negative emotion.
Diagonal elements (values in parentheses) are the square root of the variance shared between the
constructs and their measures, relative to the amount due to measure error (average variance
extracted). Off-diagonal elements are the correlations among constructs. For discriminant validity,
diagonal elements should be larger than off-diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns.
Appendix C
Second-Order Measurement Model Results
Part I
Item Reliability, Construct Reliability, and Convergent Validity.
Constructs Composite
and measures Loading reliability AVE
AL 0.944 0.808
ALTRANS 0.9132
ALMORAL 0.8899
ALBALAN 0.8698
ALAWARE 0.9224
TRUST 0.869 0.572
TRUST1 0.8082
TRUST2 0.7061
TRUST3 0.7269
TRUST4 0.8465
TRUST6 0.6803
POSEMO 0.901 0.566
POSEMO1 0.6548
POSEMO2 0.7304
POSEMO3 0.7833
POSEMO4 0.7746
POSEMO5 0.8137
(continued)
Appendix C (continued)
Constructs Composite
and measures Loading reliability AVE
POSEMO6 0.7511
POSEMO7 0.7493
NEGEMO 0.902 0.569
NEGEMO2 0.7380
NEGEMO3 0.6189
NEGEMO4 0.7556
NEGEMO5 0.8365
NEGEMO6 0.8060
NEGEMO7 0.7490
NEGEMO8 0.7558
Note. AVE = average variance extracted; ALTRANS = authentic leadership relational transparency;
ALMORAL = authentic leadership internalized moral perspective; ALBALAN = authentic leadership
balanced processing; ALAWARE = authentic leadership self-awareness; POSEMO = positive emotion;
NEGEMO = negative emotion. For item reliability, loadings should be above 0.707 or close to this limit.
Loadings above 0.6 were accepted. For construct reliability, composite reliability should be above 0.7
in early stages of research. And for convergent validity, AVE ratio should be above 0.5 (Source: The
author).
Part II
Discriminant Validity.
TRUST POSEMO NEGEMO AL

TRUST (0.756)
POSEMO 0.506 (0.752)
NEGEMO −0.538 −0.529 (0.754)
AL 0.725 0.603 −0.462 (0.899)
Note. AL = authentic leadership; POSEMO = positive emotion; NEGEMO = negative emotion. Diagonal
elements (values in parentheses) are the square root of the variance shared between the constructs and
their measures, relative to the amount due to measure error (average variance extracted). Off-diagonal
elements are the correlations among constructs. For discriminant validity, diagonal elements should be
larger than off-diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Agote et al. 59
Notes
1. SABI: Sistema de Análisis de Balances Ibéricos (Iberian System of Balance Sheet
Analysis). Database with general information (address, telephone, industry, number of
employees, etc.) and annual accounts of Spanish and Portuguese firms.
2. z(0.1) = 1.282; z(0.05) = 1.645; z(0.01) = 2.327; z(0.001) = 3.08.
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Laida Agote1, Nekane Aramburu2, and Rune Lines3

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

The Influence of Authentic Leadership Perception on Emotions

control-and-command has been related to negative feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, vul-

Hypothesis 1a: The perception of AL behavior is positively related to the experi-

The Influence of Trust on Emotions

The Mediating Role of Trust

Hypothesis 3: The perception of AL behavior is positively related to the level of

Figure 1. Representation of the conceptual model.

Figure 1 represents the conceptual model being tested.

The information-gathering process went on from February to December 2012.

Constructs and Measures

organizational incidents. Based primarily on this research, the positive emotions

Structural Model Evaluation

Trust Path NA 0.725***

Figure 2. Representation of the results.

Table 2. Mediation Test—Influence of Authentic Leadership on Positive and Negative

Endogenous Authentic Total amount of

Conclusions, Discussion, and Managerial Implications

Endogenous construct Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect

workshop on the exchange of personal experiences of HRMs about different situations

Limitations and Future Research Directions

experienced during change processes. Therefore, new discrete emotions could be

Moreover, it would be interesting to test if there are significant differences in results

Constructs Codes Measures

Constructs and Composite

Constructs and Composite

ALTRANS ALMORAL ALBALAN ALAWARE TRUST POSEMO NEGEMO

Note. ALTRANS = authentic leadership relational transparency; ALMORAL = authentic leadership

Item Reliability, Construct Reliability, and Convergent Validity.

TRUST POSEMO NEGEMO AL

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

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