Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

GENERAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Study of Matter
A. Classification of Matter
1. Pure Substance
form of matter that has distinct composition and properties
a. Elements
Substance composed of one kind of atom and cannot be decomposed into
simpler substances
There are 118 known elements of which 91 elements exist in the Earth in
macroscopic or trace quantities, 3 elements (Tc, Pm and Np) exist as a
result of rare decay of heavy elements and 24 elements (Am to Uuo) are
synthetically prepared
b. Compounds
Substance formed when elements interact with other elements
A pure compound is made up made up of the elements in the same
proportion by mass – Law of Definite Proportions by Joseph Louis Proust
(1754-1826)
Abundance of the elements in (a) earth’s crust and (b) human body
H , 10.0% Other, 7.0%
Ca , 3.4% Others, 9.2%
Fe , 4.7% O , 49.5%

Al, 7.5%

Si , 25.7% C , 18.0% O , 65.0%

(a) (b)
2. Mixture
form of matter that consists of different substances and whose composition
varies
a. Heterogeneous mixture – mixture that does not have uniform composition,
properties and appearance
b. Homogeneous mixture – mixture that is uniform throughout
B. Properties of Matter
1. Physical properties – observed without changing the identity and composition of
the substance
2. Chemical properties – observed when a substance react to form other substances
3. Intensive properties – properties independent of the amount of substance present
such as melting point, density, temperature, etc.
4. Extensive properties – properties dependent of the amount of substance present
such as mass and volume
C. Changes in Matter
1. Physical change – changes that does not result to formation of new substances
2. Chemical change – changes that result to formation of new substances

Atomic Theory
A. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Proposed by John Dalton (1766-1844)
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of

different elements are chemically different however atoms of a given element
are of the same size, shape, mass and chemical properties
If two elements combine to form more than one compound, the ratio of the mass
of an element to a fixed mass of the other element is a whole number or a
simple fraction - Law of Multiple Proportions
A chemical reaction only involves separation, combination or rearrangement of
atoms - Law of Conservation of Mass
B. Electron
1. Property
Sir William Crookes (1832-1919) and Heinrich Geissler (1814-1879) invented a
low pressure gas-discharge tube made of glass known as the cathode ray tube
The glass tube with two metal plates was connected to a high-voltage source,
which emitted a ray drawn from the negative plate towards the positive plate
The ray emitted has the same nature regardless of the material of construction of
the glass tube, electrode and the gas used
2. Discovery
Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) used magnetic and electric fields to
determine the ratio of electric charge to the mass of the cathode ray particle
He found that the cathode ray particle weighs 1000 times lighter than hydrogen
The mass to charge ratio was –1.76 108 coul/g
3. Charge
Robert Andrews Millikan (1868-1953) was known for his oil drop experiment
He determined the charge of an electron to be –1.60 10–19 coul
C. Radioactivity
Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen (1845-1923) discovered the X-rays, which penetrated
matter, darkened unexposed photographic plates and caused metals to emit
unusual rays
Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) discovered radioactivity in uranium.
Marya Skolodowska Curie (1867-1934) discovered radium and polonium.
D. Proton and Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) performed the gold foil experiment, wherein a thin
foil of gold was bombarded with alpha particles and made the following conclusions:
Most of the atom is an empty space
The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
The positively charged particle in the nucleus is the proton and carries the same
quantity of charges as an electron
It has a mass of 1.6752 x 10–24 gram – about 1837 times the mass of an electron.
E. Neutron
James Chadwick (1891-1974) discovered neutron by bombarding a beryllium atom
with alpha particles producing an electrically neutral particle having a mass slightly
greater than that of a proton
9 4 12 1
4 Be 2 6C 0n
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

F. Electronic Structure of the Atom

1. Basic concepts
Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. An atom is
electrically neutral where the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons
Mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom
Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number
Atomic weight is the weight of an atom relative to the C-12 atom and expressed
in terms of the atomic mass unit (amu) with an absolute value of 1.66054 10–
24
gram
Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number
Average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic
masses of the isotopes based on their percentage abundance.
2. Electromagnetic theory
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) discovered that the plane of polarization of a
linearly polarized light is rotated when it travels along the magnetic field
direction in the presence of an optically transparent dielectric material
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) proposed that visible light consists of
electromagnetic waves that comprises both electric field and magnetic field
components; these components have the same wavelength, frequency, speed
and travels in mutually perpendicular planes
Electromagnetic radiation is the emission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves
3. Quantum theory
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858-1947) proposed that atoms and molecules
could emit or absorb energy in discrete amount and gave the name quantum
which denotes the smallest amount of energy that can be emitted or absorbed
in the form of electromagnetic radiation
The energy of a single quantum of energy (E) emitted is proportional to the
frequency (v) of the radiation
E hv
where h = Planck’s constant
4. Atomic spectra
Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen (1811-1899) and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
(1824-1887) invented the spectroscope where white light is separated using a
prism into its component colors and passed to sample
Each element was found to have a characteristic spectrum whether light was
passed to the gaseous state of the sample (absorption) or sample was
stimulated energetically producing light (emission)
Johann Jakob Balmer (1825-1898) showed that the positions of the lines of light
in the visible portion of the hydrogen spectrum could be predicted by the
expression:
1 Bm2 Bm2
λ
v n2 m2 4 m2
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

where = wavelength of light [cm], v = wavenumber [cm–1], n = 2, m = any

integer greater than n and B = Balmer constant
Johannes Robert Rydberg (1854-1919) generalized the Balmer equation for all
transitions of hydrogen and proposed a generalized equation to describe the
wavelengths of spectral lines of many elements:
4 4 1 1 1 1
v v0 1 2 2
RH 2
m B 4 m n m2
where RH = Rydberg constant
Hydrogen spectral series involves emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen with
wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula and is due to the electrons moving
between energy levels in the atom

Spectral series n
Lyman Series Theodore Lyman (1874-1954) 1
Balmer Series Johann Balmer (1825-1898) 2
Paschen Series Friedrich Paschen (1865-1947) 3
Brackett Series Frederick Brackett (1896-1988) 4
Pfund Series August Pfund (1879–1949) 5
Humphreys Series Curtis Humphreys (1898 - 1986) 6
5. Photoelectric effect
Phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of metals upon
illumination beyond the threshold frequency
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) made the following conclusions about the
photoelectric effect:
Light is absorbed by the electrons in the metal which increases the energy
of the electron
When light is absorbed by the electron, the binding energy or the work
function ( ) must be overcome before the electron can be ejected from the
metal
An excess energy after overcoming the work function will be converted to
kinetic energy
hc 1
E hv BE KE mv2
λ 2
6. Emission spectra
Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962) proposed that not only the energy is
quantized and made the following assumptions:
In the hydrogen atom, the electron moves in a circular orbit about the
nucleus where the centripetal force that keeps the electron in such path is
provided by the coulombic force of attraction between the electron and the
proton in the nucleus
me v2 e2
Fcent Fcoul and
4π 0 r 2
r
where me = mass of electron [kg], v = velocity of electron [m-s–1], r =
radius of circular orbit [m], e = charge of the electron [C], 0 =
permittivity of free space [C2-(J-m)–1]
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

The energy of the electron remains constant as it remains in its orbit about
the nucleus
Total energy of the system ET KE PE
1 e2
ET me v2
2 4π 0 r
1 e2
From Fcent Fcoul expression ET
2 4π 0 r
Only certain orbits with a quantized value of angular momentum are
allowed
Definition of momentum, P P me vr
nh
Proposed quantization of momentum P m e vr
2π
nh
In terms of the velocity v
2πme r
n 2 h 2ε 0
Using Fcent Fcoul expression r 2
a 0n 2
πm e e
where a0 = Bohr radius and n = positive integer which is referred to as
quantum number
Allowable orbital transitions occurs when an electron absorbs or emits a
photon whose energy is exactly equal to the difference between the energy
of the orbits
mee4 1 1
E hv Ef Ei 2 2
8 0h n i2 n f2
mee4 1 1 1 1
v 2 3
RH
8 0h c n i2 n f2 n i2 n f2
Bohr radius, a0 is aapproximately equal to the most probable distance between
hydrogen’s electron and proton in its ground state
h 2ε 0 h
a0 2
πm e e mec
where h =reduced/rationalized Planck’s constant [J-s] and = fine-structure
constant []
Fine-structure constant, is a coupling constant characterizing
electromagnetic interaction strength introduced by Arnold Johannes Wilhelm
Sommerfeld (1868- 1951)
7. Dual properties of matter
Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond de Broglie (1892-1987) proposed that all
moving particles have wave properties according to the following relation:
h h
P mv
Visible massive particles have very short wavelengths while electrons
possess wave properties due to their small mass
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Clint J. Davisson (1881-1958), Lester H. Germer (1896-1972) and George P.

Thomson (1892-1975) demonstrated that electrons possess wave-like
properties
8. Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Limitations of Bohr’s theory include its inability to account the emission
spectra of atoms containing more than one electron and the presence of
additional lines in hydrogen emission spectrum in the presence of a magnetic
field
The wave-like property of an electron does not account for the exact position
of the electron
Werner Karl Heisenberg (1901-1976) proposed that it is impossible to
determine simultaneously both the momentum (P) and position (x) of a
particle with certainty
h
ΔPΔx
4π
9. Quantum or wave mechanics
Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961) formulated an equation that encompasses
both particle and wave-like behavior which can specify possible energy states
an electron can occupy in a hydrogen atom and corresponding wave functions
Solution to Schrodinger equation can describe subatomic, atomic, molecular
and even macroscopic systems
2
h
V̂ x E
2m x 2
where = wave function, E = sum of kinetic and potential energy and V̂ =
potential energy
10. Summary of constants
Constants Symbol Value Dimension
Speed of light c 2.99792458 108 m–s–1
Permittivity of free space 0 8.854187817 10–12 F–m–1
Electron charge e 1.602176487 10–19 C
Atomic mass unit u 1.660538782 10–27 kg
Planck’s constant h 6.62606896 10–34 J–s
Reduced Planck’s constant ћ 1.05457163 10–34 J–s
9.10938215 10–31 kg
Electron rest mass me 10–4 u
5.48579911
1.672621637 10–27 kg
Proton rest mass mp
1.007276467 100 u
1.674927211 10–27 kg
Neutron rest mass mn
1.008664916 100 u
Rydberg constant RH 1.097373157 105 cm–1
Balmer constant B 3.645068202 10–7 m
Fine-structure constant 7.297352538 10–3 []

11. Quantum numbers

a. Principal Quantum Number (n) pertains to the average distance of the electron
from the nucleus in a particular orbital with has integral values 1, 2, etc.
b. Azimuthal/Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) tells the shape of the
orbital and it has values from 0 to n–1
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

c. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) describes the orientation of orbitals in space.

Its allowable values are –l to 0 to +l
d. Spin Quantum Number (ms) shows the spin of electrons. Its values are
+½ (clockwise) and –½ (counter clockwise)
Relationship between quantum numbers and atomic orbitals
No. of orbitals
(electrons) in
n l ml subenergy level
Orbital name Shape
2l+1 (4l+2)
0 0 1 (2) 4s
1 –1, 0, +1 3 (6) 4px , 4py , 4pz dumbbell
–2, –1, 0, 4d xy , 4d xz , 4d yz , 4d z 2 , 4d x 2
2 5 (10) y2 rosette
4 +1, +2
–3, –2, –1, 4f z 3 , 4f xz2 , 4f yz2 4f xyz ,
can not be
3 0, +1, +2, 7 (14)
4f x x 2 -3y2 , 4f y 3x2 - y 2 , 4f z x 2 - y 2 , defined
+3

12. Electronic configurations

a. Rules and Principles in Writing Electronic Configuration
Aufbau principle l=0 l=1 l=2 l=3
From German word, aufbau meaning
building up Q (n=7) 7s 7p
The orbitals of an atom must be filled with P (n=6) 6s 6p 6d
a maximum of two electrons in the order
O (n=5) 5s 5p 5d 5f
of increasing orbital energy
Works well for the atoms in their ground N (n=4) 4s 4p 4d 4f
states M (n=3) 3s 3p 3d
Madelung-Klechkovsky rule
Proposed by Erwin Madelung (1881-1972) L (n=2) 2s 2p
and Vsevolod Klechkovsky (1900-1972) K (n=1) 1s
Orbitals are filled in the order of
increasing (n + l) and if two orbitals have the same value of (n + l), they
are filled in order of increasing n
Pauli’s exclusion principle
Proposed by Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (1900-1958)
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers
and an atomic orbital must contain a maximum of two electrons with
opposite spins
Hund’s rule of multiplicity
Proposed by Friedrich Hermann Hund (1896-1997)
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with
more parallel spins
b. Methods of Writing Electronic Configuration
Orbital method
26
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Rectangular-arrow Method
26
Fe #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ # # # #
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Shell Method
26
Fe 2e 8e 14e 2e

K L M N

Core method
26
Fe [Ar] 4s2 3d6
Periodic Table of Elements
A. Development of the Periodic Table of Elements
In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780-1849) arranged the elements in
triads like Li–Na–K, Ca–Sr–Ba, and Cl–Br–I
In 1864, John AR Newlands (1837-1898) arranged the elements in atomic mass
and found out that every eight element has similar properties
In 1869, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907) and Julius Lothar Meyer
(1830-1895) arranged the elements in the periodic table according to their
recurring periodic properties
In 1913, Henry Gwyn–Jeffreys Moseley (1887-1915) discovered the relationship
between the elements’ atomic number and the frequency of X–rays generated by
bombarding the element with high-energy electrons.
B. Periodic Properties of the Elements: Modern Periodic Law
Modern periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of the
elements are functions of their atomic numbers
1. Atomic Size or Radius
Three different types of radii:
single-bond covalent radius, rcov – typical contribution of an element to
the length of the covalent bond (i.e. rcov of F is half the internuclear
distance in the molecule F2)
van der Waals radii, rvdw – obtained from the non-bonded distance of
closest approach between non-bonded atoms in contact
ionic radii, rion – radii assigned to ion of elements in ionic compounds
Average distance between the nucleus and the valence electron
Generally increases in a group from top to bottom, in spite of the increase Zeff,
due to the increase in the principal quantum number, n where the outer
electrons have a greater probability of getting farther from the nucleus
Generally decreases from left to right due to increase in the Zeff in which
electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus causing the atom to shrink
2. Ionic Size or Radius
Cations are smaller than their parent atoms since the removal of an electron
from its neutral parent atom causes reduction in the electron-electron
repulsion and the remaining electrons are drawn towards the nucleus
Anions are bigger than their parent atoms since the addition of an electron to
the parent atom results to increase the electron-electron repulsions causing the
electrons to spread out more in space and therefore enlarges the domain of the
electron cloud
Same trend as atomic size
Isoelectronic series are group of ions with the same number of electrons (e.g.
S–2, Cl–1, K+, Ca+2)
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

3. Ionization Energy (IE)

The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
state
The lower the IE, the easier it is to remove an electron
Generally decreases in a group from top to bottom due to the increase in the
principal quantum number that overcomes the increase in the effective nuclear
charge
Generally increases from left to right due to increase in the effective nuclear
charge
For group 3A elements which contains the first electron in the np sublevel,
IE decreases since removal of this electron results to a stable and filled ns
sublevel
For group 6A elements which contains the first electron to pair with
another np electron, IE decreases since removal of this electron results to a
stable half-filled np sublevel
4. Electron Affinity
The energy change when an electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion
In most cases, energy is released when the first electron is added and the
greater the attraction between the atom and the added electron, the more
negative the electron affinity is
Groups 6A and 7A have highly negative electron affinities, Groups 1A and
2A have slightly negative electron affinities and Group 8A have slightly
positive electron affinities
Generally, electron affinity increases from left to right but decreases with
many exceptions from top to bottom
5. Electronegativity
First proposed by Linus Carl Pauling (1901-1994)
The measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract towards itself a
bonding electron
Generally, electronegativity decreases from top to bottom and increases from
left to right
As a rough estimate, the nature of bond can be determined based on the
difference in the electronegativity as follows:
Purely covalent bond EN < 0.40
Polar covalent 0.40 < EN < 1.70
Ionic bond EN < 1.70
Electronegativities of Common Elements
[

H
2.300
[ [ [ [ [ [ [

Li Be B C N O F
0.912 1.576 2.051 2.544 3.066 3.610 4.193
[ [ [ [ [ [ [

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.869 1.293 1.613 1.916 2.253 2.589 2.869
[ [ [

K Ca Br
0.734 1.034 2.685
[

I
2.359
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

6. Variation of Physical Properties in the Periodic Table

Across a period…
[ [ [ [ [

B C N O F

PROPERTY INCREASING DECREASING

Li
[
Atomic Size
Na
Metallic Property
Down a [

group… K Reactivity
[

Rb Ionization Energy
[

Cs Electron Affinity
[

Fr Electronegativity

Chemical Bonding
A. Types of Chemical Bonds
1. Covalent bond – results from the attraction of the nucleus and the electron of two
or more atoms and usually involves two non-metals
2. Ionic bond – results from the attraction of two opposite charged particles and
usually involves a metal and a non-metal
3. Metallic bond – electrostatic attractive forces between delocalized electrons and
the positively charged metal ions
B. Properties of a Chemical Bond
1. Bond energy is the amount of energy involved in the formation and breaking of a
bond
2. Bond length is the distance between the nuclei of the atoms forming the bond
3. Bond order pertains to single bond, double bond, triple bond and those
intermediate between single and double bonds, etc.

C. Theories of Bonding
1. Valence bond theory
The formation of a bond is due to the overlap of two half-filled atomic orbitals
containing unpaired
Two types of overlapping orbitals: sigma ( ) and pi ( )
Sigma bonds are formed when the orbitals of the two shared electrons overlap
head-on
Pi bonds are formed when the orbitals of the two shared electrons overlap
laterally
Hybridization involves mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals
2. Molecular orbital theory
A bond is formed when electrons in the bonding molecular orbital is greater
than the electrons in the non-bonding molecular orbital
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

When two orbitals overlap, two molecules orbitals form – one of the
molecular orbitals lies lower in energy (molecular bonding orbital) from the
atomic orbitals from which it was made and the other higher in energy
(antibonding molecular orbital) than the atomic orbitals from which it was
formed
Bonding order = ½ (no. of bonding electrons – no. of antibonding electrons)
D. Molecular Geometry – Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
BOND
TYPE GEOMETRY HYBRIDIZATION EXAMPLE
ANGLE(S)
AB2 linear 180 sp CO2
AB3 trigonal planar 120 sp2 BF3
AB2E bent less than 120 sp2 SO2
AB4 tetrahedral 109.5 sp3 CH4
AB3E trigonal pyramid 107 sp3 NH3
AB2E2 bent 104.5 sp3 H2O
ABE3 linear 180º sp3 CH3O–
AB5 trigonal bipyramid 90 , 120 ,180 dsp3 PCl5
AB4E see-saw 90 , 120 ,180 dsp3 SF4
AB3E2 T-shaped 90 ,180 dsp3 ClF3
AB3E3 linear 180 dsp3 XeF2
AB6 octahedral 90 ,180º d2sp3 SF6
AB5E square pyramid <90 , 180º d2sp3 BrF5
AB4E2 square planar 90 ,180º d2sp3 XeF4
AB7 pentagonal bipyramid 72 ,90 d3sp3 IF7
AB6E pentagonal pyramid 72 ,90 d3sp3 TeCl6–2
E. Intramolecular Forces of Attraction
Forces of attraction that exist between bonds within a molecule
Intramolecular Energy
Basis of Attraction Example
force (kJ-mol–1)
Ionic opposite charges 400-4000 KCl
Covalent nucleus-shared e– 150-1100 O–O
metal cations and
Metallic 75-1000 Cu
delocalized electrons

F. Intermolecular forces of attraction

Forces attraction that exist between molecules
Energy
Intramolecular force Basis of Attraction Example
(kJ-mol–1)
Ion-dipole ion-polar molecule 40-600 K+ - H 2 O
Hydrogen bond H bonded to N, O or F 5-25 HBr - HBr
Partial charges of polar
Dipole-dipole 10-40 H2O and HF
molecules
Induced dipole of
London dispersion 0.05-40 Ne - Ne
polarizable molecule
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Stoichiometry
Quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction
A. Types of Chemical Reactions
1. Combination (synthesis) reaction: A + B AB
a. metal + oxygen gas acidic oxide or acidic anhydride
2Mg + O2 2MgO
2Na + ½O2 Na2O
b. non-metal + oxygen gas basic oxide or basic anhydride
S + O2 SO2
C + O2 CO2
c. non-metal oxide + water acid
SO2 + H2O H2SO3(aq)
CO2 + H2O H2CO3(aq)
d. metal oxide + water alkali/base
MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2
2. Decomposition reaction: AB A + B
a. metal oxide metal + oxygen gas
HgO Hg + ½O2 (Joseph Priestley, 1774)
b. metal carbonates metal oxide + CO2
Na2CO3 Na2O + CO2
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
c. metal nitrates metal nitrites + O2
NaNO3 NaNO2 + ½O2
d. metal bicarbonates metal carbonate + H2O + CO2
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
e. metal oxyhalides metal halide + O2
2KBrO3 2KBr + 3O2
/ MnO2 / Fe 2O3

3. Single Replacement: AB + C CB + A
a. Hydrogen Displacement Reactions
Na + H2O(l) NaOH + ½H2(g)
2Fe + 3H2O(v) Fe2O3 + 3H2(g)
Zn + HCl(aq) ZnCl2 + H2(g)
b. Halogen Displacement (Activity Series : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2)
2KI + Cl2 2KCl + I2
4. Double decomposition (metathesis) reaction: AB + CD CB + AD
a. Neutralization Reaction – reaction of an acid and a base forming salt and
water
HCl + KOH KCl + H2O
b. Precipitation Reaction – reaction which results in the formation of an
insoluble product
Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

B. Activity Series of Metals (arranged in decreasing activity)

Li K Na Ca Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Ni Sn Pb

DISPLACE HYDROGEN FROM ACIDS

DISPLACE HYDROGEN FROM STEAM

DISPLACE HYDROGEN
FROM COLD WATER

H Cu Bi Sb Hg Ag Pt Au

C. Basic Concepts
1. Law of conservation of matter
The total mass of all substances present after a chemical reaction is the same as
the total mass before the reaction. (Antoine Lavoisier, 1789)
2. Law of definite composition
Different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements
in the same proportion by mass. (Joseph Louis Proust, 1799)
3. Law of multiple proportions
If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small
whole numbers. (John Dalton, 1808)
4. Mole
The amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms,
molecules or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-
12 isotope.
5. Avogadro’s number
The number of atoms in 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope. Its currently accepted
value is 6.022045 1023 particles.

6. Mass-mole relationship

MOLAR AVOGADRO’S
MASS NUMBER

NUMBER OF
MASS MOLE PARTICLES

7. Empirical formula
The simplest formula of a compound and contains the simplest ratio of atoms in
the compound.
8. Molecular Formula
The true formula of a compound and a whole-number multiple of the empirical
formula
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Chemical Equilibrium
A. Equilibrium Constant Expressions
Consider the hypothetical reaction: aA(g) + bB(g) cC(g) + dD(g)
For gases and aqueous solutions in a chemical reaction, equilibrium constants are
expressed in terms of molarity (KC) and partial pressure (KP) as follows:
[C]c [D] d [PC ]c [PD ]d
KC and K P
[A] a [B]b [PA ]a [PB ]b
These cases apply for ideal solutions and ideal gases where the activities are taken as
unity

Relationship between KC and KP

KP K C RT Δngases
where Δn gases Σngas,product Σngas,reactant c d a b

B. Le Chatelier’s Principle
A system in equilibrium when subjected to a stress will act in such a way to relieve
the stress.
Consider the equilibrium reaction: N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g) H = – 45 kJ/mol
1. Effects of changing the concentration
Increasing (decreasing) the concentration of the reactants shifts the reaction
forward (backward). Increasing (decreasing) the concentration of the products
shifts the reaction backward (forward). In the given reaction, removing NH 3 in the
reaction vessel, shift the reaction forward while adding some NH3 shifts the
reaction backward.
2. Effects of Changing the Pressure/Volume
Increasing the pressure (or similarly decreasing the volume) of a system in
equilibrium shifts the reaction towards the formation of less number of gaseous
molecules. On the other hand, decreasing the pressure (or similarly increasing the
volume) of a system in equilibrium shifts the reaction towards the formation of
greater number of gaseous molecules. In the reaction given above, increasing the
pressure of the system will result in the formation of more ammonia.
3. Effects of Changing the Temperature
Increasing the temperature favors an endothermic reaction while decreasing the
temperature favors an exothermic reaction. For the reaction above, increasing the
temperature will favor the backward reaction being exothermic.
4. Effects of Adding the Catalyst
Adding a catalyst does not affect the equilibrium
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Nuclear Chemistry
Types of Emitted Particle/Radiation
PARTICLE CHARGE SYMBOL
0 0
beta particle or electron -1 1 or 1e
0 0
positron +1 1 or 1e
proton or a hydrogen 1 1
+1 1 p or 1H
nucleus
1
neutron 0 0n
0
gamma ray 0 0
alpha particle or helium 4 4
+2 2 or 2 He
nucleus

Ways of Expressing Quantity of Radiation

1. Activity – number of nuclear disintegrations per second
a. SI Unit : Bq
b. 3.7 x 1010 Bq (becquerel) = 1 Ci (curie)
c. Curie is the rate of disintegration of 1 gram of Ra
2. Radiation absorbed dose (rd)
a. SI Unit : Gy (gray)
b. 1 Gy = 1 J/kg absorbing material
c. 1 rd = 10–5 J/gram of tissue
Types of Radioactive Decay
212 208 4
1. Alpha Particle Decay : 84 Po 82 Pb + 2
137 137 0
2. Beta Particle Decay : 55Cs 56 Ba + 1
211 207 4 0
3. Gamma Ray Emission: 83 Bi 81Tl + 2 + 0
54 0
4. Positron Emission : 27 Co
54
26 Fe + 1
5. Neutron Emission : 87
36 Kr
86
36 Kr
+ 01n
50 0 50
6. Electron Capture : 23V + 1e 22Ti + x ray
 DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
Gokongwei College of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

Integration Course in Chemical Engineering(INTECHE) Inorganic Chemistry

AY 2014-2015 T3 2015-02-23
Name ____________________________ Seat No. _______ ID No. _______________ Score _____

PART 1.Matching Type. Match column A with column B

1. Cathode ray tube a. Wilhelm Rontgen
2. Process of production of soda ash b. Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach
3. Uncertainty Principle c. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
4. Rule for filling up degenerate orbitals d. Joseph John Thomson
5. Spectrum of hydrogen e. Ernest Solvay
6. Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation f. Werner Heisenberg
7. Neutron g. Dmitri Mendeleev
8. Dual nature of matter and radiation h. Niels Bohr
9. Arrange elements in triads i.. Joseph Priestley
10. Laws of Octaves j. Ernest Rutherford
11. Oil Drop Experiment k. Frederick Hund
12. Wave functions l. Louis de Broglie
13. Mass spectrometer m. Albert Einstein
14. Equilibrium constant expression n. Erwin Schrodinger
15. Electron charge to mass ratio o. Johann Dobereiner
16. Father of Modern Chemistry p. William Crookes
17. Spin of electrons q. John Newlands
18. Extraction of aluminum from corundum r. Henri Antoine Becquerel
19. Radioactivity in pitchblende s. Francis William Aston
20. Discovered hydrogen t. Cato Guldberg and Peter Waage
21. Modern Periodic Table u. Robert Andrews Millikan
22. Discovered X-ray v. Charles Martin Hall
23. Gold Foil Experiment w. Henry Cavendish
24. Discovered oxygen x. James Chadwick
25. Photoelectric Effect y. Svante Arrhenius

PART 2. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter corresponding to your answer.

_____ 1. The number of elements in each of the long periods in the Periodic Table is
a. 2 b. 8 c. 18 d. 36
_____ 2. The most probable valence of an element with an electronic distribution of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 is
a. +1 b. +2 c. +3 d. –1
_____ 3. The smallest ionic radius among the following is
a. K+ b. Ca++ c. Sc+3 d. Ti+4
_____ 4. The quantum number that tells the shape of orbitals
a. Principal Quantum Number c. Angular Momentum Quantum Number
b. Magnetic Quantum Number d. Spin Quantum Number
_____ 5. The heaviest of the following particles is
a. S–4 b. S–2 c. S0 d. S+4

Last updated:6/5/2016 8:03:42 PMPage 1of4

VERGEL C. BUNGAY
Chemical Engineering Department
De La Salle University
 DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
Gokongwei College of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

Integration Course in Chemical Engineering(INTECHE) Inorganic Chemistry

AY 2014-2015 T3 2015-02-23

_____ 6. The rule which states that “The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with
more parallel spins.”
a. Aufbau Principle c. Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity
b. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle d. Electronic Configuration
_____ 7. The elements having an electron configuration of ns2 np4 are called __________.
a. lanthanide b. alkali metals c. halogens d. chalcogens
_____ 8. Which of the following is NOT a valid combination of n, l and ml respectively?
a. 2, 0, 0 b. 2, 1, -1 c. 3, 1, -1 d. 1, 1, 1
_____ 9. Why do alkali metals tend to be more reactive than alkaline earth metals?
a. Alkali metals have lower densities
b. Alkali metals have greater electron affinities
c. Alkali metals have lower lionization energies
d. Alkali metals are not more reactive than alkaline earth metals
_____ 10. What color of visible light has the longest wavelength?
a. Violet b. Blue c. Red d. Green
_____ 11. Which of the following sets of electronic configuration is PERMISSIBLE?
a. 1s2 2s1 2p3 b. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s3 c. 1s1 2s1 2p6 d. none of these
_____ 12. Madelung constant is often used in dealing with
a. covalent molecules in liquid state c. ionic crystals
b. X-ray diffraction studies d. covalent molecules in gaseous state
_____ 13. Of the following, the metal that does not give a red flame test is
a. lithium b. barium c. strontium d. calcium
_____ 14. Type of covalent bond where one atom furnishes both electrons in a bond.
a. ionic bond b. metallic bond c. simple covalent d. coordinate covalent
_____ 15. Of the following, the compound that obeys the octet rule is
a. CO2 b. BCl3 c. PCl5 d. SiF6
_____ 16. What is the basis of the VSEPR model of molecular bonding?
a. Regions of electron density on an atom will organize themselves so as to maximize s-character
b. Regions of electron density in the valence shell of an atom will arrange themselves as to
maximize overlap.
c. Electron domains in the valence shell of an atom will arrange themselves so as to minimize
repulsions
d. Hybrid orbitals will form as necessary to , as closely as possible, achieve spherical symmetry.
_____ 17. A compound whose molecules are not associated by hydrogen bonding is
a. CH3CH2OH b. (CH3)2NH c. HCOOH d. (CH3)3COCH3
_____ 18. Among the following Lewis structure of thiocyanate ion, which of the following is much preferred?
[ N – C S ] –1 [ N = C = S ] –1 [ N C – S ] –1
I II III
a. I b. II c. III d. IV

Last updated:6/5/2016 8:03:42 PMPage 2of4

VERGEL C. BUNGAY
Chemical Engineering Department
De La Salle University
 DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
Gokongwei College of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

Integration Course in Chemical Engineering(INTECHE) Inorganic Chemistry

AY 2014-2015 T3 2015-02-23

_____ 19. What is the molecular geometry of chlorine trifluoride, ClF3?

a. trigonal planar b. square pyramidal c. see-saw d. T-shaped
_____ 20. When Ca(CN)2 reacts with superheated steam, the nitrogen compound formed is
a. N2O b. NO c. NO2 d. NH3
_____ 21. The number of water molecules needed to convert one molecule of P2O5 into phosphoric acid is
a. 1 b. 3 c. 5 d. 7
_____ 22. Among the following reactions, the one that is NOT more likely to happen is __________.
a. 2Fe (s) + 6HCl (aq) 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g) c. 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
b. 2Al (s) + 3H2O (l) Al2O3 (s) + 3H2 (g) d. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq)
_____ 23. Electrolysis of water is classified as __________ reaction.
a. decomposition c. double displacement
b. combination d. single replacement
_____ 24. Which on of the following is most likely to be a reversible reaction?
a. Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaI PbI2 +2NaNO3 c. 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
b. AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3 d. KNO3 + NaCl KCl + NaNO3
_____ 25. Analysis of a small amount of some apparently pure crystals recovered in the evaporation of a
sample of municipal waste water showed to have 63.97% Cd, 24.28% O and 11.75% P. Determine
the empirical formula. Cd (112.4 g/mol) P (30.97 g/mol) O (16.00 g/mol)
a. Cd2PO4 b. Cd3P2O8 c. Cd3PO4 d. CdPO4
_____ 26. A compound is found to contain 27.3 grams of carbon, 4.55 grams of hydrogen and 36.4 grams of
oxygen. The molecular weight is found to be 90.0. What is its molecular formula?
a. CH2O b. C2H4O2 c. C3H6O3 d. C4H8O4
_____ 27. An element X is found to combine with oxygen to form a compound with molecular formula, X 4O6.
If 8.40 grams of the element X combine with 6.50 grams of oxygen, the atomic weight of the
element is
a. 24 b. 31 c. 50 d. 119
_____ 28. A 50.0 gram sample of calcium carbonate is reacted with 35.0 grams of phosphoric acid. Calculate
the mass of calcium phosphate produced.
a. 51.8 grams b. 103.6 grams c. 25.9 grams d. 12.26 grams
_____ 29. Determine the mass of BaCO3 produced when excess CO2 is bubbled in a 256.25 grams solution of
Ba(OH)2? Atomic Weight of Barium = 137.33)
a. 147.57 grams b. 221.35 grams c. 295.14 grams d. 590.27 grams
_____ 30. Sodium azide, NaN3 may be produced by the reaction: 3 NaNH2 + NaNO3 NaN3 + 3 NaOH +
NH3. If 5.43 grams of NaN3 is isolated from the reaction mixture, what percentage of the theoretical
is obtained starting 15 grams of NaNH2?
a. 28.96% b. 32.58% c. 43.44% d. 65.16%
_____ 31. For the following reaction: MnCl2 + PbO2 + HNO3 HMnO4 + Cl2 + Pb(NO3)2 + H2O. What
weight of Cl2 is formed from 10.8 grams of MnCl2? Mn (54.94 g/mol) Cl (35.45 g/mol)
a. 2.45 grams b. 3.05 grams c. 6.09 grams d. 8.20 grams
Last updated:6/5/2016 8:03:42 PMPage 3of4
VERGEL C. BUNGAY
Chemical Engineering Department
De La Salle University
 DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
Gokongwei College of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

Integration Course in Chemical Engineering(INTECHE) Inorganic Chemistry

AY 2014-2015 T3 2015-02-23

_____ 32. Which is more soluble, AgBr (Ksp = 5.0 10-13) or Fe(OH)2 (Ksp = 8 10-16) or Hg2Cl2 (Ksp = 1.3 10-
18
)?
a. AgBr b. Fe(OH)2 c. HgCl2 d. can not tell
_____ 33. Magnesium mixture is added to an acidic solution of an unknown substance and thereafter forms a
white crystalline precipitate. The unknown substance most likely contained
a. Cl–1 b. SO4–2 c. PO4–3 d. NO3–1
_____ 34. Solubility of a salt in 100 grams of water at 25 C is 15 grams. A solution is prepared by mixing 20
grams of salt in 100 grams of water maintained at 25 C. If the solution is cooled to 20 C, which
statement best describes this solution?
a. More solute will dissolve if dissolution process is endothermic
b. Solution will be supersaturated since cooling will dissolve all solute greater than the solvent can
hold
c. More solute will dissolve in solution if dissolution process is exothermic
d. Solution will be unsaturated if dissolution process involves absorption of heat
_____ 35. The solubility of plumbous fluoride is 0.049 grams per 100 mL of solution at 20 C. Calculate its
KSP.
a. 3.2 10–4 b. 1.6 10–8 c. 3.2 10–8 d. 1.6 10–8
_____ 36. Which of the following particle cannot be accelerated in a particle accelerator?
a. alpha b. electron c. proton d. neutron
_____ 37. Starting with 1.000 gram of Sr-90, 0.953 gram will remain after 2 years. Calculate the initial
activity of Sr-90 in Ci? 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.70 1010 disintegration/sec
a. 70 b. 140 c. 210 d. 280
_____ 38. A C-14 assay of a human bone found by an archaeologist revealed that the C-14 activity was one-
tenth that of the C-14 activity of living matter. What is the age of the bone? Half-life is C-14 is
5730 yrs.
a. 17,000 yrs b. 18,000 yrs c. 19,000 yrs d. 20,000 yrs
_____ 39. What happens to the mass number and the atomic number of an element when it undergoes beta
decay?
a. Neither the mass number nor the atomic number change
b. The mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2
c. The mass number does not change and the atomic number increases by 1
d. The mass number does not change and the atomic number decreases by 2
_____ 40. Which of the following devices converts radioactive emissions to light for detection?
a. Geiger counter b. Photographic film c. Scintillation counter d. Radiotracer

Last updated:6/5/2016 8:03:42 PMPage 4of4

VERGEL C. BUNGAY
Chemical Engineering Department
De La Salle University