Molecular Biology:

Carbohydrates and Lipids

ESSENTIAL IDEA:
Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are used to supply and store energy.
Content modified from: http://www.biologyforlife.com/32-carbohydrates-lipids-and-proteins.html
Objectives
To understand that:

-monosaccharide monomers are linked together by

condensation reactions to form disaccharides and
polysaccharides
-fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated
-unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.
-triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids
and one glycerol
Objectives
To apply understandings to the following:

-structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and

glycogen in humans
-scientific evidence for health risks of trans fats and saturated
fatty acids
-lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans
than carbohydrates
-evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtain the
evidence for health claims made about lipids
Objectives
To be able to:

-use molecular visualization software to compare cellulose,

starch and glycogen.
-determine body mass index by calculation or use of a
nomogram.
 Carbon Makes Organic Molecules
Why Carbon?
๏ Carbon is the second most
abundant element in living
organisms.
๏ Carbon can share 4 electrons
= can bond to 4 atoms.
๏ Carbon can form stable, high-
energy covalent bonds.
๏ Carbon molecules have
strength, flexibility and great
http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/images/causes/CarbonAtom.jpg
versatility.
 Macromolecules
๏ They are composed of hydrocarbon backbones which
provide structural stability and one or more functional groups.

๏ Functional groups

• involved in chemical reactions

• give organic molecules distinctive properties
• affect reactivity
• increase solubility of compounds in water
 Functional Groups
FUNCTIONAL NAME OF
FORMULA EXAMPLE
GROUP COMPOUNDS

Hydroxyl −OH Alcohols Ethanol

Carboxylic
Carboxyl −COOH Acetic Acid
Acids

Glycine
Amino −NH2 Amines
(Amino Acid)

Organic Adenosine
Phosphate −PO4
Phosphates Triphosphate
 Viva la difference!
Functional Groups
• Basic structure Make
of male All The
& female Difference
hormones is
identical
๏ The basic structure of male and female hormones is identical.
– identical carbon skeleton
• identical carbon skeleton
– attachment of different functional groups
• – attachment
interact withofdifferent
differenttargets
functional groups
in the body
• interact with different targets in the body
Structure of Important Macromolecules
 Carbohydrates

https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/natural-science/life-science/ap13104/biomolecules-the-carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates
๏ made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
๏ “carbo” = contains carbon
๏ “hydrate” = H and O are present in the same
proportions as water (2 H : 1 O)
๏ approximate formula: (CH2O)n or Cx(H2O)y
๏ name often ends in -ose
 Carbohydrates
about 17 kJ of
๏ Functions energy per dry
gram -- same
• immediate source of energy for cells
as proteins; 1/2
• energy storage for later use that of lipids

• raw material for building other molecules

• important role in cell membrane recognition

๏ Basic Types
• Monosaccharides: simple sugar (mono = 1 unit)

• Disaccharides: two monosaccharides

• Polysaccharides: many monosaccharides

 Monosaccharides
๏ one sugar unit; simplest carbohydrates
๏ characterized by sweet taste
๏ several polar -OH groups = soluble in water
Examples:

✓ GLUCOSE ✓ RIBOSE FRUCTOSE GALACTOSE

• main energy source • component of • very sweet sugar • found in milk
for most living cells RNA • found in flower • combines with
• produced in nectar and fruits glucose to form
photosynthesis lactose

C6H12O6 C5H10O5 C6H12O6 C6H12O6

 PRACTICE

๏ Draw the structure of glucose without

looking at your notes.

๏ Draw the structure of ribose without

looking at your notes.
 Disaccharides
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are are formed
formed in in
๏ two sugar units bonded together
condensation
condensation reactions
reactions
๏ formed through condensation reactions (dehydration synthesis)

Dehydration Synthesis of Maltose

Dehydration Synthesis of Sucrose

 Disaccharides
EXAMPLES
MALTOSE SUCROSE LACTOSE
C12H22O11 C12H22O11 C12H22O11
• glucose + glucose • glucose + fructose • glucose + galactose
• provides energy for • transport form of • present in milk; provide
germinating seeds sugar used by plants energy for young
 Polysaccharides
๏ complex carbohydrates
๏ polymers of hundreds or thousands of sugar monomers
• costs little energy to build
• easily reversible = release energy when digested

STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES

STARCH • polymer of glucose

• found in plants
• roots, seeds -- glucose storage

GLYCOGEN • found in animals

• liver -- glucose storage
 Polysaccharides

Two forms of starch:

AMYLOSE
• unbranched polymer of glucose
• molecules coil into a helical structure
• forms a colloidal suspension in hot water Section of amylose molecule

AMYLOPECTIN
• branched polymer of glucose
• completely insoluble in water

Section of amylopectin molecule

 Polysaccharides
STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES

• polymer of glucose
• most abundant organic compound
CELLULOSE on earth
• found in cell walls of plants
• indigestible for most animals

• polymer of modified glucose units

CHITIN • found in exoskeleton of insects,
crustaceans, spiders
• found in cell walls of many fungi
 Polysaccharides

STARCH CELLULOSE
easy to digest hard to digest
CHECK UP QUIZ
 CHECK UP QUIZ

1. Which of the following is a simple sugar or

monosaccharide?

A. sucrose
B. galactose
C. maltose
D. lactose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

2. What is the molecular formula for

glucose?

A. CO2
B. CH3OH
C. C12H22O11
D. C6H12O6
 CHECK UP QUIZ

3. Maltose is composed of which two simple

sugars?

A. glucose + galactose
B. glucose + fructose
C. glucose + glucose
D. fructose + fructose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

4. What is the disaccharide milk sugar

called?

A. galactose
B. dextrose
C. glucose
D. lactose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

5. What kind of sugars are found in the

disaccharide sucrose?

A. glucose + fructose
B. fructose + fructose
C. glucose + glucose
D. fructose + galactose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

6. What is the principal carbohydrate

storage product in plants?

A. cellulose
B. starch
C. glycogen
D. glucose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

7. The supporting material in cell walls,

wood, and dietary fiber are examples of
what carbohydrate?

A. glycogen
B. cellulose
C. starch
D. glucose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

8. How is glucose stored in animals?

A. as dextrose in pancreas
B. as glycogen in liver and muscles
C. as cellulose in thighs and abdominal
cavity
D. as protein and cellulite in adipose tissue
 CHECK UP QUIZ

9. Which of the ff. is NOT a carbohydrate?

A. deoxyribose
B. galactose
C. glycine
D. hexose
 CHECK UP QUIZ

10. When digesting a complex carbohydrate,

water is added and simple sugars are
obtained through which process?

A. condensation
B. hydrolysis
C. dehydration
D. photosynthesis
 Lipids
๏ All lipids contain large chains of nonpolar hydrocarbons.
๏ Most lipids are therefore hydrophobic and water
insoluble.

BASIC TYPES
• Waxes
• Sterols

• Triglycerides

• Phospholipids
 Nutrition

Water
Honeycomb
Repellent

Cell
Storage
Membrane

FUNCTIONS
OF
Electrical
LIPIDS Water
insulation Proofing

Hormones Attraction

Physical Thermal
Protection Insulation
 Lipids

https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/natural-science/life-science/ap13204/biomolecules--the-lipids
Why are lipids more suitable
for long-term energy
storage compared to
carbohydrates?
 Triglycerides
๏ fats and oils used for long-term energy storage
๏ contain 38 kJ of energy per gram (2x that of carbs)
๏ slower to build up and break down than carbs
๏ formed by condensation reactions
glycerol + 3 fatty acids → triglyceride
 Fatty Acid
๏ A fatty acid is a long chain of mostly carbon and
hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl (−COOH) group on
one end
 Saturated vs. Unsaturated

SATURATED FATTY ACID UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

๏have mostly single C-C bonds
in the fatty acid chain
๏typically solid at room temp.
๏often from animal sources
๏have one or more C=C double
bond in the fatty acid chain
๏typically liquid at room temp. --
kinks prevent tight packing
๏often from plant sources
Saturated vs. Unsaturated
 Cis- and Trans- Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Cis- Unsaturated F.A. Trans- Unsaturated F.A.
๏naturally occurring ๏not found in nature
๏cis is Latin meaning “on the ๏trans is Latin meaning
same side” “on the opposite side”
๏causes a kink in the fatty ๏causes a “straighter”
acid chain fatty acid chain
 HOMEWORK
SEARCH for an article from a printed or online
magazine/journal/site about the health risks
associated with trans-unsaturated fats.

PRINT the article on 1 whole sheet of bond paper

and WRITE/TYPE your comments and insights
about the validity of the article’s claims (1
paragraph).
 Waxes
๏ composed of long hydrocarbon chains and are strongly
hydrophobic
๏ highly saturated
๏ solid at room temperature
๏ form waterproof coatings
 Sterols
๏ have backbone of four carbon rings
๏ different steroids created by attaching different functional
groups to rings
๏ different structures = different functions
 Sterols
CHOLESTEROL
๏ helps keep (animal) cell membranes flexible
๏ precursor of all other steroids (including vertebrate sex
hormones)
๏ high levels in blood may contribute to cardiovascular
disease
 Good vs. Bad Cholesterol

http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/Cholesterol/ http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/
AboutCholesterol/What-Your-Cholesterol-Levels- Cholesterol/AboutCholesterol/What-Your-Cholesterol-
Mean_UCM_305562_Article.jsp Levels-Mean_UCM_305562_Article.jsp
Steroid Hormones
 Steroid Hormones
ANABOLIC STEROIDS
๏ a type of performance-enhancing drug taken to increase
muscle mass and strength
๏ main anabolic steroid produced by the body: testosterone
๏ two main effects:
- anabolic
- androgenic
๏ may help speed up recovery
after intense workout by
reducing muscle damage
http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/performance-enhancing-drugs/art-20046134
 Steroid Hormones
ANABOLIC STEROIDS
๏ Possible side effects in men:
- liver abnormalities
- increased level of bad cholesterol
- decreased level of good cholesterol
- hypertension
- aggressive behaviors/rage
- psychiatric disorders
- prominent breasts
- baldness
- shrunken testicles
- infertility
- impotence
 Phospholipids
๏ formed by attachment of two fatty acids plus a phosphate
group to a glycerol
๏ main structural components of membranes
๏ hydrophilic (head) AND hydrophobic (tails)
 Phospholipids in water
๏ can self-assemble into:
• bubbles = “micelle”

• can form a bilayer

 Phospholipids in water
WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?
๏ Phospholipids can create a barrier in water
• define outside vs. inside

• make cell membranes

 Calculating BMI

http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html?s_cid=tw_ob064
 Calculating BMI

http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html?s_cid=tw_ob064
 Sources
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