Biological Science

Biology is the study of living organisms, their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin and distribution.
The cellular theory of life states that all living organisms are made of cells. All cells arise from preexisting cells.
A group of similar cells having similar functions form tissues.
A group of tissue forms an organ.
Several organs working together form a system
Cells are divided into two varieties: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes have no nucleus or other internal membranes. Bacteria are prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes have a nucleus and are more complex cells. They make up every other form of life such as human cells.
General functions of cells include (a) the manufacture of proteins and other materials that build the cell; (b) the
manufacture of food for energy and (c) reproduction

Parts of a cell
Nucleus – found in the center of the cell;
contains chromosomes, which carry
genetic materials; controls and regulates
the
functions of the organelles
Ribosomes – the site of protein synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough E.R. – the site of protein
synthesis resulting from the
attached ribosomes
Smooth E.R. – assists in the
synthesis of steroid hormones
and
other lipids and carries out
various detoxification processes
Golgi apparatus – they “package”
substances produced in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and secrete then
to
other parts or to the cell surface for
export
Lysosomes – the principal site of
intracellular digestion.
Mitochondria – site of cellular respiration
Vacuoles – single, membrane bound structures for storage
Plastids – found only in plants and algae. They are small organelles that contain pigment or food. They are three types
Chloroplasts – the site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll, a green pigment present in all green plant and
cyanobacteria that is responsible for the absorption of light to provide energy for photosynthesis
Leucoplasts – store starch and are found in roots or in tubers
Chromoplasts – store carotenoid pigments and are responsible for the red-orange-yellow color of carrots and tomatoes.
Cell wall – present only in plant cells; a rigid layer of polysaccharide that lies outside of the plasma membrane.
Cell membrane – a selectively permeable membrane that regulates the steady traffic that enters and leaves the cell.

Cell division functions in growth, repair and reproduction. The two types of cell division are
Mitosis – cell division that occurs in somatic cells; a parent cell that produces two new cells whose chromosomes are
the same in number as the parent cell; daughter cells are diploid
Meiosis – occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in cells with half the chromosome number of the parent
cell; daughter cell is haploid
Most cells have a predetermined life span. They normally divide for a set number of cell divisions and then die. When
cells grow and divide until they become too crowded, they stop diving. This normal reaction to overcrowding is called
contact inhibition. If cells lose their contact inhibition and begin to divide uncontrollably, they are said to be cancerous.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule of heredity. Mutations are changes in the genetic material. Mutations can
be caused by mutagenic agents including toxic chemicals and radiation
A virus is a parasite that can live only inside another cell. It is neither classified as a living or a non-living thing. Each
type of virus can infect only one specific cell type because it gains entrance into a cell by binding to specific receptors on
the cell surface. A sudden emergence of new strains of virus that affects animals may result from a mutation in the virus
that expands it host range. Some common viral disease are

 Colds - virus infects only the membranes of the respiratory system

AIDS - The virus infects only one type of white blood.
Hepatitis - virus infects the liver
Dengue – viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes causing sudden fever, rashes, severe headache, pain behind the
eyes and muscles and joints. Dengue mosquitoes bite during the day. There is nospecific treatment for dengue but the
usual treatment is to the replacement of lost fluids in the patient.
Foot and Mouth disease (FMD)–a highly contagious viral disease of cattle, sheep, swine, goats, deer and other cloven
hoofed animals that causes blisters on mouth, teats and soft tissues of the feet. FMD is not a significant health risk to
people.
Bacteria are unicellular organisms that have cell walls but lack organelles and organized nucleus. Bacteria are widely
distributed in water, soil, air and on or in the in the tissues of plants and animals. Bacteria can be both harmful and
beneficial.
Bacteria play a role in chemical changes such as organic decay, nitrogen fixation and fermentation.
Bacteria can cause diseases. Some of these are
Tuberculosis

Prions are infectious proteins that cause several brain damage such as mad cow disease in cattle. Prions are not
cells and are not viruses however because they are seriously infectious entities they are included with viruses.

Plants are multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic (can manufacture their own food)
Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and
sunlight. The product of photosynthesis is glucose and oxygen
During the night, where sunlight is absent, plants will not be able to manufacture food through photosynthesis. At night,
plants respire, taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide into the air.

Classification of plants
Bryophytes or non vascular – plants that has no transport vessels
Tracheophytes or vascular – plants with transport vessel like xylem and phloem
Seedless plants
Seed plants
Gymnosperms – cone bearing
Angiosperms – flowering plants
o Monocot
o Dicot
Some important parts of plants
Roots – absorb water and nutrients from the soil
Stems – transport the nutrients to the leaves through cells that are specialized for transport
Leaves – food manufacturing site; stomata in the leaves open to exchange photosynthetic gases and close to minimize
excessive water loss
Plant reproduction
Plants can clone themselves or reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation. A piece of the vegetative part like the
roots, the stem or the leaf can produce an entirely new plant genetically identical to the parent plant. Examples of
vegetative propagation are grafting, cuttings, bulbs and runners.
Sexual reproduction happens in flowering plants. The flower is the sexual organ of a plant. Fertilization in a flower
begins with pollination. After fertilization, the ovule becomes the seed and the ripened ovary becomes the fruit.
Animals are multicellular with well-developed tissues and are heterotrophic by ingestion. Animals cannot manufacture
their own food.
Two main division of animals
Vertebrates – animals with backbone
Invertebrates – animals without backbone
Systems of the body
Digestive system – breaks down food into simpler forms so that food substances are small enough to be carried by the
blood and able to pass on to cells
Respiratory system – helps the body take in oxygen from the air.
Excretory system – filters out wastes and purify the blood; its main organ is the kidney
Circulatory system – pumps blood to the different parts of the body
Muscular system – muscles have the ability to contract producing movements in or maintaining the position of parts of
the body.
Skeletal system – system that gives support and shape to the body
Nervous system – master controller of the body; monitors conditions within and outside the body
Reproductive system – the system that allows the continuation of the human species.
Integumentary system – commonly called the skin; offers protection from the sun’s rays and serves in body
temperature regulation.
Immune – body’s main defense against all foreign substances

Ecosystem is the formed by the interaction of a community or organisms with their physical environment. Activities in
the ecosystem includes nutrient cycling and energy transfer
Biotic (living) factors in an ecosystem

 Autotrophs or producers
Heterotophs or consumers – includes decomposers, scavengers, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores
Abiotic (non living) factors include the biosphere and physical and chemical factors.
Symbiotic relationships
Mutualism – relationship that is beneficial to both organisms involved
Commensalism – an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor
harm
Parasitism – association of a parasite and a host; the parasite lives in or in the host and benefits by deriving nutrients at
the host’s expense
Predation – association of a predator and a prey; the prey is hunted and killed by the predator for food
Food chain is the hierarchical series of organisms wherein each is dependent on the next as a source of food. A
system of interlocking and interdependent food chains gives rise to food webs.