AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY

UNIT – 1
Introduction:
The microbial world encompasses a vast and diverse array of microscopic
organisms that play crucial roles in various ecosystems, shaping the dynamics
of life on Earth. These microorganisms can be broadly classified into two main
categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes. Understanding the
distinctions between these groups is essential for comprehending the
complexity and significance of the microbial world.

Prokaryotic Microbes:
Prokaryotic microbes encompass a diverse group of microscopic organisms
lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Despite their relatively
simple cellular organization, prokaryotic microbes exhibit remarkable
adaptability and are found in a wide range of environments. The two primary
categories within prokaryotic microbes are Bacteria and Archaea.

Bacteria:
- Diversity of Shapes: Bacteria exhibit a diverse range of shapes, including
spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), vibrio (comma) and spirals. This diversity
contributes to their adaptability and ability to thrive in various
environments.
- Ecological Roles: Bacteria play pivotal roles in ecological processes such
as nutrient cycling, decomposition, and symbiotic relationships with
plants and animals. Some bacteria are essential for the health of
ecosystems, while others can be pathogenic and cause diseases in
humans, animals, and plants.
- Widespread Distribution: Bacteria are ubiquitous and are found in
nearly every imaginable habitat on Earth, from extreme environments
like deep-sea hydrothermal vents to the human gut.
Archaea:
- Extreme Environments: Archaea are often found in extreme
environments such as hot springs, acidic lakes, and deep-sea vents,
where conditions are inhospitable to many other life forms. Their ability
to thrive in such extreme conditions showcases their hardiness and
adaptability.
- Genetic and Biochemical Distinctions: While sharing some
characteristics with bacteria, archaea are genetically and biochemically
distinct, forming a separate domain of life. This distinctiveness highlights
the diversity of life at the microscopic level.
- Contribution to Global Nutrient Cycling: Archaea contribute significantly
to global nutrient cycling and are integral to the functioning of
ecosystems, particularly in extreme habitats where other organisms may
struggle to survive.

Eukaryotic Microbes:
Eukaryotic microbes, on the other hand, possess a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. This group includes various single-celled
organisms and certain multicellular organisms that are microscopic in size.
1. Protists:
- Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotes that do not fit into the
categories of plants, animals, or fungi.
- They can be photosynthetic or heterotrophic and are found in diverse
environments, from oceans and freshwater to soil and the digestive
tracts of organisms.
- Some protists, like phytoplankton, are crucial for global carbon cycling
and serve as the base of many aquatic food chains.
2. Fungi:
- Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms that include yeasts, moulds, and
mushrooms.
 - They play essential roles in nutrient recycling and decomposition,
breaking down organic matter and returning nutrients to the ecosystem.
- Some fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants, contributing to
enhanced nutrient uptake and overall plant health.
3. Microscopic Animals:
- Various microscopic animals, such as nematodes and rotifers, fall
within the realm of eukaryotic microbes.
- Despite their small size, these organisms contribute significantly to
soil health, nutrient cycling, and microbial interactions in various
ecosystems.

UNIT – 2: Bacteria

Cell Structure:
Cell Wall:
1. Cell walls of bacteria are made up of glycoprotein murein.
2. The main function of the cell wall is it helps in providing support,
mechanical strength and rigidity to the cell.
3. It protects cells from bursting in a hypotonic medium.
Plasma Membrane:
1. It is also known as a cytoplasmic membrane (or) cell membrane.
2. It is composed of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, forming
a fluid mosaic.
3. It helps in the transportation of substances including the removal of
wastes from the body.
4. It helps in providing a mechanical barrier to the cell.
5. Plasma membrane acts as a semi-permeable membrane, allowing only
selected material to move inside and outside the cell.
Cytoplasm:
1. Helps in cellular growth, metabolism, and replication.
2. Cytoplasm is the storehouse of all the chemicals and components
used to sustain a bacterium's life.
Ribosome:
1. A tiny granule made up of RNA and proteins.
2. They are the site of protein synthesis.
3. They are free-floating structures that help in transferring the
genetic code.
Plasmid:
1. Plasmids are a small circle of DNA.
2. Bacterial cells have many plasmids.
3. Plasmids are used to exchange DNA between bacterial cells.
Flagella:
1. This is a rigid rotating tail.
2. It helps the cell move clockwise and anticlockwise forward and
also helps the cell spin.
3. The rotation is powered by an H+ gradient across the cell membrane.
Pili:
1. Short protein appendages.
2. Smaller than flagella.
3. Fixes bacteria to surfaces.
4. It also helps in reproduction during conjugation.
Capsule:
1. Capsule is a kind of slime layer, which covers the outside of the cell
wall.
2. They are composed of a thick polysaccharide.
3. It is used to stick cells together and works as a food reserve.
4. It protects the cell from dryness and from chemicals.

Chemoautotrophs:
Chemoautotrophs are microorganisms that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
compounds. Unlike organisms that rely on sunlight for energy,
chemoautotrophs derive their energy from chemical reactions. They are often
found in extreme environments such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, hot
springs, or acidic soils. These bacteria use specific enzymes to catalyse the
oxidation of inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, or ferrous
iron, releasing energy that is harnessed to synthesize organic compounds.
Chemoautotrophs play a crucial role in nutrient cycling in environments where
sunlight is limited.
Photoautotrophs:
Photoautotrophs, on the other hand, are organisms that use sunlight as a
source of energy for the process of photosynthesis. This group includes plants,
algae, and certain bacteria like cyanobacteria. Photoautotrophs contain
pigments, such as chlorophyll, which capture light energy during
photosynthesis. This energy is then used to convert carbon dioxide into organic
compounds, contributing to the growth and development of the organism.
Photoautotrophs play a fundamental role in ecosystems by producing organic
compounds that serve as a source of energy for other organisms and
contribute to global carbon cycling.

Growth Curve of Bacteria:

Lag Phase:
- Bacteria initially adjust to their environment, preparing for reproduction.
- Cell numbers remain relatively constant as cells acclimate to the
available resources.
Logarithmic or Exponential Phase:
- This phase is characterized by rapid cell division, with bacteria
reproducing at their maximum rate.
- The population increases exponentially, showcasing the efficient use of
resources.
Stationary Phase:
- As resources become limited and waste products accumulate, the
growth rate slows.
- The number of new cells produced equals the number of cells dying,
resulting in a plateau in population growth.
Death or Decline Phase:
- Resources become increasingly scarce, and the accumulation of waste
products becomes detrimental.
- The bacterial population declines as cells begin to die, leading to a
decrease in overall numbers.

UNIT – 4 (Bacterial genetics)

Genetic Recombination:
Genetic recombination in bacteria is a fundamental process that contributes to
their genetic diversity. It involves the exchange of genetic material between
different DNA molecules, leading to the creation of new combinations of genes.
This process can occur in several ways:

Transformation:
Transformation is a process where bacteria take up foreign DNA from their
surroundings. Here are the steps involved:
DNA Uptake: A bacterium encounters a piece of free-floating DNA in its
environment.
 Competence: The bacterium must be in a state of competence, which
allows its cell membrane to take up DNA.
Binding: The DNA binds to the cell surface at specific receptor sites.
Transport: The DNA is then transported across the cell membrane.
Integration: Once inside, the DNA can recombine with the bacterium’s
chromosome, integrating into it123.

Conjugation:
Conjugation involves the direct transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another
through a pilus. The steps include:
Pilus Formation: A donor cell (F+) extends a pilus to make contact with a
recipient cell (F-).
Plasmid Transfer: The F plasmid in the donor cell replicates.
DNA Transfer: One strand of the F plasmid is transferred to the recipient
cell through the pilus.
Synthesis: The recipient cell synthesizes a complementary DNA strand,
forming a complete plasmid456.

Transduction:
Transduction is the process of transferring DNA from one bacterium to another
via a bacteriophage. The steps are:
Phage Infection: A bacteriophage infects a donor bacterium and
integrates its DNA into the bacterial chromosome.
DNA Packaging: When the phage replicates, it mistakenly packages
bacterial DNA into some of its phage particles.
Phage Release: These phages then infect other bacteria.
DNA Injection: The phage injects the bacterial DNA into the recipient
bacterium.
Recombination: The injected DNA can recombine with the recipient’s
chromosome.
Plasmid: Plasmids are tiny, circular DNA strands found in bacteria that can
copy themselves independently of the main bacterial DNA. They often carry
special genes that can help bacteria survive, like those that make them
resistant to antibiotics.

Transposons: Transposons, often called “jumping genes,” are DNA sequences

that can move to different positions within the genome of a single cell. This
ability to move can cause mutations and change the amount of DNA in the
genome.