Protist Diversity

Lecture 1
The 3 Domains of
Living Organisms
 Eukaryotic microorganisms
 ‘eu-karuōtos’ (Gr.)
 literally ‘true kernel’, or ‘having nuts’
 Genome organized within the membrane-bounded compartment
(nucleus) - the major organelle
 Cells marked by complex internal organization
 Cytoskeleton
 an elaborate and highly organized internal scaffolding of proteins
 actin-based microfilaments and tubulin-based microtubules
 locomotory proteins
 Organelles
 Membrane-bound compartments
 Degrees of complexity
1. Single-membraned secretory structures
2. Double-membraned energy transducers
Protists – Reminder!!!

 The protists constitute NEITHER

a natural group nor
 a clade
 often
grouped together for
convenience
Kingdom: Protista, Protoctista, Protozoa
None of these words is correct anymore!
Protists

 A polyphyletic group
 It does not contain all of the descendants of a
common ancestor of this group (i.e. no LECA)
 some extant forms are:
 Unicellular – most of the phyla
 Multicellular – seaweeds of the brown, red & green algae

 A chimaeric genome
1. endosymbiosis
2. cell fusion
3. lateral gene transfers
Eukaryogenesis

 The evolution of the eukaryotic condition

 seen as the crucial precursory event in the
diversification of life on earth
 From the advent of the eukaryotic condition
sprung everything commonly associated with life:
1. Multicellularity
2. Sex & Gender
3. Speciation
Eukaryogenesis

1. Evolution from prokaryotes?

 Trigger for eukaryotic evolution?
 Mechanism(s) of evolution?
2. A derived state?
 Most scientific accounts credit their evolution via
endosymbiosis from the prokaryotic condition
3. An original state, rather than derived…
a. Creation or
b. Intelligent Design
 Eukaryogenesis:
Evolutionary chronometers

 The advent of more refined…

1. Molecular phylogenetics used methods that compared
organisms’ features such as sequence data of well-
conserved and universal biopolymers, in particular small
subunit rRNA (SSU-rRNA), cellular proteins etc.
in addition to,
2. Ultrastructural studies have showed that all of the
deeply branched "primitive" taxa have
 double membrane bound (mitochondrion-like) organelles
 mitochondrial genes in their nuclear genomes
 mitochondrial-derived protein import mechanisms
 Protist Diversity
 Diversity in:
1. Morphology
2. Nutritional mode
3. Metabolism – energy transfer mechanisms
4. Physiology
5. Vesicles
6. Locomotory mechanisms
7. Cell surfaces
8. Reproductive strategies
9. Symbiotic strategies
 mutualisms → modes of parasitism
Key features of the Protists

1. Cytoskeleton consisting of tubulin-based

microtubules and actin-based microfilaments
 flagella or cilia
 contain an axoneme of 9 peripheral microtubular doublets and
2 central microtubules.
 cytoplasmic streaming
2. An endomembrane system
 ER, Golgi bodies, vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and
the nuclear envelope.
 Vesicular cell transport mechanisms
Key features of the Protists
3. Primary genome of each cell consisting of multiple
linear chromosomes contained within a membrane-
bound nucleus.
 replication of the genome involves the chromosomes being
segregated by mitosis
1. Closed mitosis (amitosis – euglenoids, dinoflagellates)
2. Open mitosis (most protists)
 Cells in many species may have more than one nucleus
 e.g. the Ciliata : macro- & micro- nuclei
 Complex cell division
 Interaction of nucleus & cytoskeletal system
 Mitosis – growth & asexual reproduction
 Meiotic sex – sexual reproduction, conjugation
Key features of the Protists

4. Mitochondria and mitochondria-like organelles

 energy transducers
 iron-sulfur (Fe/S) cluster-containing proteins
 synthesis and breakdown of small molecules such as lipids
and amino acids for energy-harnessing
 bound by membranous envelope
 cf. nucleus & chloroplast
 contain a small genome
 descendents of an alpha-proteobacterial endosymbiont
 Mitochondria: aerobic respiration
 Hydrogenosomes & mitosomes: anaerobic respiration
Key features of the Protists
Respiration:
 Aerobic / mitochondriate
Obligate (1)
Facultative (3)
 Microaerophilic* (4)
 Anaerobic*
Obligate (2)
Facultative (3)
Aerotolerant (5)
 Amitochondriate*
 Hydrogenosome
 Mitosome
Key features of the Protists

5. Translation machinery in the form of 80S ribosomes

 synthesized inside the nucleolus
 sedimentation co-efficient is 80
 each consisting of four molecules of RNA complexed with many
proteins
 partitioned into
 a small 40S subunit (SSRU) that has an 18S RNA*, and
 a larger 60S subunit with a 5S RNA

* evolutionary chronometer
Key features of the Protists

6. Secretion of hard cellular matrices which may be

internal or external to the cell membrane:
a. Cell walls – usually external, e.g. green, brown & red algae
b. Coccoliths
c. Scales
d. Frustules mostly internal to the cell membrane

e. Loricas
f. Tests
Key features of the Protists

7. Extrusive organelles (extrusomes) that function in

defence, prey capture or parasitic invasion
a. ejectisomes of cryptomonads*
b. trichocysts of alveolates*
c. ‘gun’ cells of oomycetes
 nematocysts of dinoflagellates*
 mucocysts of dinoflagellates, euglenoids, diatoms etc.
 haptocysts of the haptophytes

* may act as toxicysts

Key features of the Protists
8. Plastids:
 pigmented double membrane bound organelles involved in
the synthesis and storage of food
 function largely depends on the type of pigment(s) present:
 Chloroplast – chlorophylls
 Chromoplast – other pigments for
 colouration / camouflage
 derivative of photoreceptors
 leucoplast - plastid lacking pigments involved mainly in food storage,
e.g. amyloplast
 Like mitochondria, plastids have their own DNA and
ribosomes
Cellular organization in Protists

9. Some degree of multicellularity /tissue

development
a. functional specialization in colonial forms, e.g. Volvox
b. ‘slug stage’ of oomycota life cycle
c. thalli of seaweeds

10. Motility
 Flagella
 Cilia
 Metaboly
 Projectiles & recoil movements
 Cellular organization in Protists
11. Diverse nutritional mechanisms
a. Autotrophs – synthesize by reducing CO2 (i.e. carbon fixation)
i. Photoautotrophs
ii. Chemoautotrophs
b. Prototrophs – organism that is able to synthesize all its metabolites from inorganic
material, needing no organic nutrients
c. Auxotrophs - a mutant that require a growth supplement
d. Mixotrophs – ability to use >1 source of carbon
e. Heterotrophs - secondary and tertiary consumers.
i. Photoheterotrophs - use light for energy, although are unable to use carbon dioxide as their
sole carbon source
ii. Chemoheterotrophs - obtain their energy from ingesting preformed organic energy
sources
iii. Commensals
iv. Parasites
v. Necrotrophs
vi. Saprotrophs
Cellular organization in Protists

12. Mostly aquatic

a. Freshwater
i. Lentic / lacustrine
ii. Lotic / riverine / fluvial
iii. Benthic
iv. Planktonic
b. Estuarine – osmotic gradient
c. Marine
i. Benthic
ii. Planktonic
➢ Terrestrial: soil and objects in moist environments
Cellular organization in Protists

13. Reproductively diverse

 Most varied life cycles among eukaryotes
1. Asexual
 Sporulation
 Schizogony
 Fragmentation

2. Sexual
 Isogamous, Anisogamous, Oogamous
 Conjugation* (note carefully)
 Alternation of generations

3. Resting stages / cyst formation

 Asexual spores
 Zygospores
Cellular organization in Protists
 Varied cellular organization:
 Naked protoplasts
 Flexible cell membrane
 Greater cell size
 Flexible cell membrane capable of invaginations
 Increased cell size and complexity
 Variation in organelles – derived through endosymbiosis
 Chloroplast – levels of organization
 Vacuoles – storage, digestive
 Trichocysts – defense, feeding
 Mucocysts – defense, feeding
 ER – lots more in calcified forms
 Nucleus – genome, cell replication, conjugation
Protist Taxonomy

1. Traditional approach:
a. Photosynthetic pigments
b. Mechanism of locomotion
c. Cell surface features
d. Nutritional mode
 Autotrophic – “algae” (plant-like)
 Heterotrophic
 Ingesters – “protists” (animal-like)
 Absorptive – “slime molds” (fungus-like)
Protist Taxonomy

2. Phylogenetic Approach
 Based on the analysis of molecular data of study
organisms
1. Gene and genome sequences
2. SSU-rRNA
3. Energy harnessing machinery
4. Metabolic proteins
 Protein import machinery of plastids
 Developmental pathway of plastids
 1°, 2° and 3° chloroplast development
 Molecular data is also complemented by better techniques
of ultrastructural observations (microscopy)
 Protist Taxonomy - Overview

Currently, the eukaryotes are organized within four Supergroups

with their constituent kingdoms:

1. Supergroup Excavata (Basal 3. Supergroup SAR

eukaryotes?) a. Kingdom: Alveolatae
a. Kingdom: Euexcavatae b. Kingdom: Heterokontae
(aka. stramenopiles)
b. Kingdom: Discicristatae
c. Kingdom: Eukaryomonadae
d. Kingdom: Rhizariae
2. Supergroup Archaeplastida
a. Kingdom: Rhodoplantae 4. Supergroup Amoebozoa
b. Kingdom:Viridiplantae a. Kingdom Lobosea
b. Kingdom Eumycetozoa
c. Kingdom Archamoebae
 DOMAIN

SUPERGROUP

KINGDOM

PHYLUM

CLASS

ORDER

FAMILY

Genus
species
Websites / Documents

1. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/taxa.htm
2. http://www.gwu.edu/~darwin/BiSc151/Eukaryo
tes/Eukaryotes.html
3. http://www.intelligentdesign.org/whatisid.php
4. http://www.icr.org/
5. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1
1876&page=37
6. Posted OURVLE articles