Module 1: Cells as the Basis of Life - Syllabus notes

Outcomes
A student:
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
BIO11/12-3
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media BIO11/12-4
› describes single cells as the basis for all life by analysing and explaining cells’ ultrastructure and
biochemical processes BIO11-8

Content Focus
Cells are the basis of life. They coordinate activities to form colonial and multicellular organisms.
Students examine the structure and function of organisms at both the cellular and tissue levels in order to
describe how they facilitate the efficient provision and removal of materials to and from all cells in
organisms. They are introduced to and investigate biochemical processes through the application of the
Working Scientifically skills processes.
Students are introduced to the study of microbiology and the tools that scientists use in this field.
These tools will be used throughout the course to assist in making predictions and solving problems of a
multidisciplinary nature.

Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on conducting investigations to collect, process and analyse data and
identify trends, patterns and relationships related to cell structure and function. Students should be
provided with opportunities to engage with all Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.

Key:
Syllabus Dot Points
Information that I tend to forget
Extra Information
Important Key Information

Content
Cell Structure
A cell refers to the smallest structural and functional unit of a living organism

Cell theory states:

● All organisms are composed of one or more cells
● Cells are the fundamental unit of life
● All cells arise from pre-existing cells
Fundamental Vocab:
Autotrophs - an organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other
chemicals. Because autotrophs produce their own food, they are sometimes called producers; algae,
seaweed and grass

Heterotrophs - an organism that cannot manufacture its own food by carbon fixation and therefore
derives its intake of nutrition from other sources of organic carbon, mainly plant or animal matter. In the
food chain, heterotrophs are secondary and tertiary consumers.

Philic - loving

Phobic - fear

Inquiry question: What distinguishes one cell from another?

Students:
● investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:
– examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (ACSBL032, ACSBL048)
– describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and function

Organelles: Structure and Function

Organelles which make & process cell substances
Organelles involved in energy transformation
Organelles involved in cell structure and storage
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic cells: NO membrane-bound organelles
● Eubacteria (true bacteria) and archaea
● Always unicellular, although some live together as a colony
● In prokaryotes, the genetic material is concentrated in a region called a nucleoid and is NOT
contained within a nucleus. Note: some DNA is stored in a circular plasmid.
● Prokaryotes do NOT contain membrane-bound organelles. However they do possess a cell
membrane, and inside the membrane is the cytoplasm (the contents of the cell within the
membrane) which contains the cytosol (the intracellular fluid), ribosomes (location of protein
synthesis), and the DNA
● Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane, and often a cell wall
● The bacterial chromosome is a double-stranded circle of DNA located in the nucleoid.
Prokaryotic cells may also contain a plasmid, a smaller circle of DNA.
● Usually haploid, reproduce via simple division
● On the surface, prokaryotic cells may also bear pili, hair-like structures that aid in attaching the
organism to other surfaces, and a flagellum, which assists in movement. They may also be
surrounded by a gelatinous capsule.
● Bacteria:
○ Bacteria are extremely numerous on Earth today, carrying out a variety of different roles
in their ecosystems.
■ From decomposing decaying matter to forming symbioses to fixing nitrogen and
carbon so that other organisms can access it
■ This group contains most of the common (or ‘true’) bacteria that affect humans
directly through industry, agriculture and medicine.; however, bacteria can also
cause disease in humans.
■ Bacteria live in a wide range of different habitats where temperatures are
moderate, water is freely available and low in salt or other solutes, and sunlight
or organic compounds are plentiful.
■ Oxygen is not a necessary requirement as many bacteria can undergo
fermentation processes or oxidation (loss of electrons) processes to make
energy and food.
○ Cyanobacteria are a group of bacteria that resemble algae and plants as they contain
‘chlorophyll a’ and produce oxygen through photosynthesis
■ It’s found in almost every imaginable habitat from rice paddies to oceans, to
freshwater, bare rock and soil.
Gram staining of bacteria
○ Gram staining is a method of differential bacterial species into two large groups based
on chemical and physical properties of their cell walls:
● Gram-positive (thick)
● Gram-negative (thin)
● Bacteria stained with crystal violet will stain either purple/pink
 ● Purple bacteria are called ‘gram positive’ and have a thick layer of peptidoglycan
in their cell wall
● Pink bacteria are called ‘gram positive’ and only have a thin layer of
peptidoglycan in their cell walls
The differentiation of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria is a first step to determine the
identity of a particular bacterial sample.

Peptidoglycan/murein: a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like
peptidoglycan layer outside the plasma membrane of most bacteria, forming the cell wall.
Archaea: as different from bacteria as humans are!
● Difference are biochemical in nature - archaea do not have murein/peptidoglycan in their
membranes
● Some archaea can produce methane, but bacteria cannot (bacteria cannot produce gas)
● Archaea are often extremophiles which are able to tolerate extreme conditions that other
organisms cannot; found in:
● Highly acidic environments (known as acidophiles) such as volcanic springs (75-80C and pH 2-3)
● Highly alkaline environments (known as alkaliphiles) such as Lake Natron (a soda lake in the
Great Rift Valley, Tanzania). This lake has a pH of 9 and is the most caustic body of water in the
world
● Low temperature environments (known as psychrophiles) such as Antarctic seas
 ● High temperature environments (known as thermophiles) such as geysers, hot springs, mud
pools and fumaroles of Yellow National Park
● Oxygen limited environments (known as methanogens). Once special group of archaea, called
the methanogens, can synthesise methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (meaning that
they can inhabit anaerobic environments on earth (space/sea))
● Highly saline environments (known as halophiles) such as very salty environments like the Dead
Sea and the Great Salt Lake, Utah.

Eukaryotic cells: Membrane-bound organelles

● Plantae, animalia, fungi and protista

● ONLY PLANTS HAVE A CELL WALL
● Unicellular or multicellular
● Eukaryotes store their genetic material with a nucleus (DNA) and they possess
membrane-bound organelles.
● Much larger than prokaryotic cells, hence the cell is compartmentalised- cell functions are
carried out in specialised, membrane-bound organelles.
● Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. The cells of plants, fungi, and some protists also
possess a cell wall
● The DNA is organised into chromosomes that are located in the nucleus, another
membrane-bound organelle.
 ● Usual diploid or polyploid, cells are copied via mitosis (form of asexual reproduction) in somatic
cells and meiosis in gametes
○ Asexual: the production of new cells by simple division of the parent cell into two
daughter cells (called binary fission) and since there is no fusion of two different cells,
the daughter cells produced by asexual reproduction are genetically identical to the
parent cell.
○ Mitosis: a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that occurs when a parent cell
divides to produce two identical daughter cells
○ Somatic: any biological cell forming the body of a multicellular organism
○ Meiosis: type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell
by half and produces four gamete cells.
○ Gametes: an organism's reproductive cells. They are also referred to as sex cells. Female
gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm. Gametes are
haploid cells, and each cell carries only one copy of each chromosome.
○ Haploid: Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells. They are also referred to as sex
cells. Female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm.
Gametes are haploid cells, and each cell carries only one copy of each chromosome.

All cells have the following in common:

1. All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane
2. All cells contain cytoplasm
3. All cells have a control centre (excepting some mature cells in multicellular organisms)
4. DNA as their genetic material, which controls the behaviour of the cell

Cells contain smaller components called organelles, which carry out specific functions to ensure cell
survival. In eukaryotic cells, most of these organelles are membrane-bound. This serves two purpose:
To control transport of substances in and out of the organelle, just like the cell membrane does for the
cell as a whole.
To enhance systems efficiency, by confining cellular processes to small volumes with large surface areas

Cytoplasm
Organelles are located in the cytoplasm (the fluid between the cell membrane and the nuclear
membrane, and all the substances found within it = organelles + fluid). The term cytosol is used to refer
to the fluid component of the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm are a range of protein filaments
(web-like) that assist the cell with structure and transport, which are collectively called the
cytoskeleton. The protoplasm is all of the content of the cell, surrounded by the cell membrane - the
cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Nucleus: organelle that controls all cell activities
The nucleus is the control centre of the cell and the location of most of a cell’s genetic
material, DNA which is required for gene expression and hence protein production in the cell.
When the cell is not dividing, the DNA is in the form of a threadlike material called chromatin.
When the cell is actively dividing, the chromatin condenses to form chromosomes (condensed
version).
A. Nuclear membrane
B. Chromatin / Chromosome
C. Nucleolus
D. Nuclear pores
E. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
F. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
G. Ribosomes

The nucleus is surrounded by a double layer nuclear membrane which is studded with pores
that allow the movement of substances between the nucleus and the rest of the cell. For
instance, DNA is transcribed into RNA in the
nucleus, but protein synthesis occurs in the
cytoplasm. Nuclear pores allow RNA to travel
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and pass
on the instructions to the ribosomes.

The nucleus is filled with nucleoplasm.

Nucleoplasm is a jellylike liquid similar to
the cell’s cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm holds
the contents of the nucleus. A darker region
called the nucleolus is the site of ribosome
synthesis, and the two subunits of the
ribosomes then pass through the nuclear
pores to the cytoplasm where they combine.

The nucleolus is a sub-structure located within the nucleus. It is NOT membrane-bound and its
function is to produce subunits that make up the ribosomes (which can then be used for
protein synthesis).

Outside the nucleus, the nuclear membrane is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the internal membrane system of a cell. The ER is
membrane-bound, and the large amount of membranous sacs and channels (cisternae) give it a
large surface. It provides a path along which molecules move from one part of the cell to
another, transporting nutrients and waste to and from different parts of the cell, as well as
being the location of much of the cell’s chemical activity. Some parts of the ER are extensions of
the cell membrane.

Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, and helps ensure that proteins are folded correctly.
Newly made proteins leave the ribosome and are inserted into spaces of the endoplasmic
reticulum where they are modified and shaped into functioning proteins.

Smooth ER has no ribosomes. Instead, it synthesises lipids that will be used in membranes.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are not membrane bound and are the protein manufacturing units of the cell, made up of
60% RNA and 40% protein (2 subunits that only come together during photosynthesis). They are found
on rough ER, as well as free in the cytoplasm. The purpose of the ribosomes is protein synthesis
(process of creating protein molecules): all cellular protein is made by ribosomes. Ribosomes are made
of two subunits, which, when joined together in the cytoplasm, creates the functional ribosome.
Mitochondria: powerhouse (provides energy to the cell)
The mitochondria is the location of cellular respiration whereby chemical energy (glucose) is
converted into a usable form (ATP). Depending on the energy needs of the cell, the number of
mitochondria will vary. The mitochondria have both an outer membrane and an inner
membrane, which is folded into cristae, which increases surface area available for respiration.
Inside the cristae is the matrix, the location of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). mtDNA is different
from nuclear DNA- it’s much smaller, circular and damage to it can cause disease.
● How might its structure enable function?
The double membrane and inner folds called cristae of a mitochondria increase the
surface area of the organelle. This increases surface area, allowing it to carry out more
cellular respiration without taking up too much space.
The Golgi apparatus (aka Golgi body) and vesicles
Proteins that are produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the Golgi apparatus to
be modified, sorted and packaged. The Golgi is membrane-bound, and consists of layers of flat
membranes (cisternae).
The Golgi apparatus chemically modifies, stores and distributes proteins made by endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes. These proteins are modified in an orderly fashion inside the Golgi apparatus
and prepared for secretion into or out of the cell.
Vesicles are classified according to their function:
Transport vesicles transport materials around the cell and out of it; for instance, transferring proteins
from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus, then from the Golgi to outside the cell, or elsewhere within
the cell.

Lysosomes: ANIMAL CELLS ONLY

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes called lysozymes that
attack and destroy any foreign particles (they also digest food particles and worn-out organelles). They
bud from the Golgi apparatus in animal cells (they are not present in plant cells). They are filled with
very strong enzymes that allow them to break down large molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids into smaller molecules, returning them to the cytoplasm to be used again. The thick membrane
prevents the contents from escaping into the cell and killing it; however, sometimes the cell directs the
lysosome to release its contents and kill the cell. This is called apoptosis or programmed cell death. This
plays an important role in development and in destroying damaged cells.

Peroxisomes are membrane bound organelles that are involved in a number of important biochemical
processes in cells, including metabolising fatty acids so that they can be used as an energy source by
mitochondria.
Chloroplasts (only in plants): type of plastid (double-membrane bound organelles that contain
their own DNA (cpDNA) and contribute to metabolism in autotrophic cells)
Chloroplasts are the location of photosynthesis, thus are not present in all plant cells- only those that
perform photosynthesis contain chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are organelles that are green due to the
presence of a pigment called chlorophyll. A double membrane surrounds chloroplasts. This allows the
substances to pass between the cytoplasm and the chloroplast. Unlike mitochondria, the inner
membrane of the chloroplast is not folded.

Inside the chloroplast are large stacks of other membranes called thylakoids, arranged into structures
called grana. These thylakoids contain the green pigment chlorophyll which is required for
photosynthesis. The stroma is the dense solution that surrounds the thylakoids.
Leucoplast (only in plants)
Leucoplasts are important organelles for the synthesis and storage of starch, lipids and proteins.

Vacuole (only in plant cells)

They are large, membrane-bound sacs that contain fluid. They serve three functions:
1. Storage of water, dissolved salts and other substances (known as cell sap)
2. Support and structure- the full vacuole exerts turgor pressure on the cell, an outward
force that makes the cell turgid, allowing plants to support heavy structure such as
flowers
3. Involved in digestion and the release of cellular waste
Cell Membrane
The plasma membrane, or the cell membrane is a semi-permeable biological membrane that provides
protection for a cell and controls the passage of materials into and out of the cell. It also provides a
fixed environment inside the cell, which has several different functions. One is to transport nutrients into
the cell and also to transport toxic substances out of the cell.
Cell Wall (ONLY IN PLANTS)
Outside the cell membrane, plant cells are also surrounded by a cell wall. The cell wall is composed of
cellulose, a polymer of glucose. The cell wall provides the cell with protection, support and structure.
Centrioles
Centrioles are present in animal cells and the basal region of cilia and flagella in animals and
lower plants (e.g. chlamydomonas). In cilia and flagella centrioles are called 'basal bodies' but
the two can be considered inter-convertible. Centrioles are absent from the cells of higher
plants. The organelles play a role in organising microtubules that serve as the cell's skeletal
system. They help determine the locations of the nucleus and other organelles within the cell.
Animals: multicellular organisms that can usually respond rapidly to stimuli using sensory cells
and a nervous system
● Animal cells do not have a rigid cell wall - allows for a great diversity of cell types

Plants: autotrophs that produce their own food through photosynthesis

● Plant cells have certain distinguishing features, including chloroplasts, cell walls, and
intracellular vacuoles.
● Specialised plant cells have components that allow them to complete a specific purpose.
Specialised plant cells include root hair cells, palisade cells, xylem cells and phloem cells.
Protists: typically single celled or
colonial organisms that lack a cell
wall, with some capable of
photosynthesis
● Such as algae and amoebae
● Some are parasite and
cause disease, such as the
Plasmodium parasite that
causes malaria
Summary Table: Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Differences

Differences Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

Structure of their organelles MEMBRANE BOUND NON-MEMBRANE BOUND

ORGANELLES ORGANELLES

DNA configuration
Has a membrane bound nucleus
that contains DNA as linear
chromosomes
DOES NOT have a nucleus,
instead has he chromosome of a
prokaryote is found in a part of
the cytoplasm called a nucleoid
(generally has a single circular
chromosome in nucleoid)

Type Animals and Plants Bacteria and Archaea

● investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not limited to:
– drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells (ACSBL035)
– comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements
– modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane
Cell Function
Inquiry question: How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and the external
environment?
Students:
● investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but not limited to:
– conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis (ACSBL046)
– examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis (ACSBL046)
– relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface-area-to-volume ratio,
concentration gradients and characteristics of the materials being exchanged (ACSBL047)

● investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:

– suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in complex molecules
(ACSBL044)
– matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions
– removal of wastes (ACSBL044)
● investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the removal of
cellular products and wastes in eukaryotic cells (ACSBL049, ACSBL050, ACSBL052, ACSBL053)
Every living cell uses ATP to grow, repair and survive, it’s essentially the ‘currency of life’
In cellular respiration, the cell will break down glucose inorder to convert ADP back into ATP. The cell will
only breakdown lipids & proteins when there is not enough glucose. The conversion of ADP into ATP
involves phosphorylation.
This relationship is what almost all ecosystems are built upon, because it means nutrients are able to be
recycled, which means that the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen remain stable, as such life can
remain.
Practice Questions:
Explain why photosynthesis cannot occur without sunlight?
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight to make their own organic compounds, hence
it is a light dependent process and occurs in the thylakoids. Chlorophyll captures light energy from the
sun, using the light energy to break water down into oxygen and hydrogen. Hence the overall process
and rate of photosynthesis cannot occur without sunlight as it is fully dependent on it.

Explain how light intensity and carbon dioxide levels impact the rate of photosynthesis.
As you rise from low light intensity to higher light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis will increase
because there is more light available to drive the reactions of photosynthesis. However, at a very high
intensity of light, the rate of photosynthesis would reach an optimum level and drop quickly as the light
will start to damage the plant.

● conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells (ACSBL050)

Experiment Example:
● investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection of
primary or secondary data (ACSBL050, ACSBL051)
CATALYST: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but is not consumed or altered in
the process. (Every chemical reaction, including biochemical reactions, requires an input of energy to
proceed.)

Catalysts increase the rate of reaction, by lowering the activation

energy. When the catalyst is biological, we call it an enzyme.
- Catabolic reactions - a single substance is broken down into
simpler substance (decomposition, exergonic)
Enzyme: a substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms,
regulating the rate at which chemical reactions proceed without itself
being altered in the process. The biological processes that occur within all
living organisms are chemical reactions, and most are regulated by enzymes.

Enzymes are critical in biological systems:

1. many biochemical reactions would occur at so slow a rate as to be insignificant
2. enzymes allow biochemical reactions to be “switched on and off” as required.
Features of enzymes
- They are proteins (made of amino acids)
- They are specific for a particular chemical reaction, sometimes involving particular substrates:
for example, the enzyme sucrase speeds up the decomposition of sucrose into glucose and
fructose from years to seconds, but has no other purpose (it can not catalyse any other chemical
reactions). In this example, sucrose=substrate. Lipase hydrolyses lipids.
- They have an active site, which is the location of substrate binding. The active site is a pocket or
groove formed by the folding of the enzyme (remembering that they are proteins)
- The substrate/s bind to the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, and the reaction
occurs → products are released when the reaction is complete
- Buffer solution: able to resist the changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added
Lock-and-key model: model for enzyme-substrate interaction suggesting that the enzyme and the
substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. Enzymes
are highly specific. They must bind to a specific substrate before they can catalyse a chemical reaction.
Further research led scientists to amend the model to the Induced fit model: states that, rather than
the active site being a perfect fit for the substrate, the active site undergoes a conformational change
when the substrate binds. This allows the active site to fit closely around the substrate, stressing the
bonds thus increasing rate of reaction. The induced fit model also explains why some enzymes are able
to catalyse reactions with a wide range of substrates: for example lipase is only able to break down lipids,
but it can break down a wide range of lipids.
The heat destroys the special shape of the enzyme so that the substrate can’t bind to the active site and
the enzyme can’t catalyse its reaction.
Light Microscope
Electron microscope
Prac Experiment Notes
When carrying out and writing an experiment you must include:
1. Title
2. Aim
3. Hypothesis
4. Risk Assessment

Hazard Risk Control

 HCL Corrosive, can damage eyes Wearing safety goggle

5. Method
6. Diagram (refer to marking)
7. Results
8. Discussion
9. Conclusion
- State whether your hypnosis supports/ doesn't support your hypothesis