Nuclear Waste

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Clean Energy Review

Our Association is pleased to submit this technical and scientific

discussion to the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency's (CEAA)
Panel reviewing the concept for deep geologic disposal of nuclear fuel
wastes proposed by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL). We are
grateful for the participant funding provided by CEAA towards the review of
the proposal as well as analysis of the broad range of nuclear fuel waste
management issues.

We believe that our review is constructive and that it includes significant

new expertise in frontier science and technology concerning nuclear fuel
waste management. We also believe that our submission's thesis, if
accepted and further investigated, will result in lower risk, in massive
savings and will introduce a new area of exportable technological
advantage and expertise for Canada. It will also provide an infrastructure
for an effective and efficient management procedure of nuclear waste in
general.

The review is the result of collaborative networking of scientists worldwide

and we take pride in being able to organize this clean alternative initiative.
Acknowledgements

This submission has been prepared with the interventions of:

Lt. Col. (retired) Tom E. Bearden

Prof. Emeritus Dr. John O'M Bockris
Prof. Yull Brown
Prof. Pelayo Calante
Prof. Dr. Olivier Costa de Beauregard
Dr. Hal Fox
Lan Jin, M. Eng
Dr. Andrew Michrowski
Prof. Elizabeth A. Rauscher
Dr. Glen Rein
Lioudmila Ter, M. Eng
Prof. Emeritus William A. Tiller
Prof. Tom Valone, P.E.
William Van Bise, P.E
Prof. Meludin Veledar

We are also grateful for useful contributions of:

Prof. Phillip Crabbé

Kristopher Weiss

General Considerations

We find that The Environmental Impact Statement on the Concept for

Disposal of Canada's Nuclear Fuel Waste (AECL-10711, COG-93-1 and its
companion Summary, AECL-10721, COG-93-1) have been prepared with
care and diligence. Clearly, years of serious research and effort are behind
this Statement -- as well as expenditures of many millions of dollars.

Alternatives for the disposal of nuclear fuel waste have been assessed by
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL). For Canada, disposal in space
and the conventional "transmutation" methods are "expensive". The
geological disposal concept has three variants: a) ice sheet disposal; b)
seabed disposal; and, c) land-based geological disposal. The ice sheet
disposal is not available in Canada while the sea-bed disposal system
presents considerable risks.

In the view of AECL, the land-based geological disposal is a reliable option

for Canada. This is because the Canadian Shield has many characteristics
favourable for disposal, namely stability which enhances the protective
function of the geosphere, assuring long-term predictability of the nuclear
fuel waste disposal conditions in subterranean vaults.
AECL also considers it favourable for a disposal medium for Canada to be
widely distributed geographically, allowing flexibility in siting, and to be
widely distributed in regions of low topographic relief, where the driving
force of groundwater movement in the rock is likely to be low.

Plutonic rock of the Canadian Shield has all of these favourable

characteristics: The Canadian Shield is one of the most stable geological
regions in the world.
The disposal vault, the vault seals and the disposal containers appear to be
well designed.

Two alternatives for emplacement of buffer have been investigated: a)

compacting the materials in place. b) using precompacted block. We
suggest that the first one is better because the hydraulic conductivity of
bentonite (main component of the buffer can be decreased by increasing
its density through compacting). (See Appendix II)

We are afraid that between precompacted block the hydraulic conductivity

would be high and for this reason, the buffer and backfill barrier would
weaken and several radionuclides might reach the low permeability rock.
(see Figure. 7.10 on page 306.)

Cost Recovery ?

While the engineering studies demonstrate care in their development, the

examination of cost recovery for the concept selected by Atomic Energy of
Canada Limited is ambiguous.

Only pages 77, 231 and 265 contain some paragraphs concerning this
important subject. And then, only in one of them, page 265, is it mentioned
that the utilities with nuclear generating will have enough to compensate
for the economic cost of the nuclear fuel disposal -- from $ 20 to 40 billion
1991 dollars. It is stated:

... the utilities with nuclear generating stations are including the cost of
managing used fuel in the rates currently being charged to electricity
consumers.

One is led to belive that the cost of disposal is included in the rates being
charged by Ontario Hydro, Hydro-Quebec and New Brunswick Power for
electricity. The amount charged is estimated to be sufficient to fund
implementation of the proposed disposal concept, with operation of a
disposal facility beginning in 2025. (See details in Appendix I) Yet a recent,
pre-election examination by the Government of Ontario revealed a
negligible portion of such reserve as being designated for this purpose.

In the Environmental Impact Statement, no consideration has been given

to:

1) the actual de-commissioning of nuclear power plants;

2) what to do with radioactive concrete and metals from de-commissioned
nuclear power plants; and,
3) the other different types of radioactive waste.

No consideration appears to have been given to the cost of de-

commissioning the nuclear power plants which are aging and fast
approaching their 30-year life expectancy because of metal fatigue and
crystallization by neutron bombardment. All metals in the first loop in the
power plants -- reactor, steam generator, piping, water pumps, valves,
filters are all radioactive and contaminated. The materials in the second --
hermetic -- loop: metal cladding and concrete are also radioactive. No
concept has been tendered for their safe disposal by AECL.
We are still faced with considerable other radioactive waste problems in
Canada. Nuclear power plants contribute about 80% of low-level waste.
Industry contributes about 13%, Academic institutions another 5.5%.
Medical institutions about 1.5 %. [These figures are from the State of Ohio
as part of the Midwest Compact and should compare with Ontario-Quebec
conditions. Then there are situations like the Albright and Watson [formerly
ERCO] Varenne's 900,000 tonnes of radioactive wastes. Federal nuclear
waste management officials refuse to manage this Quebec problem
because these wastes are not directly associated with the development,
application or use of nuclear energy. A part of the waste was being buried
under highways.] Though these other wastes are not within the direct
purview of AECL's Environmental Impact Statement, the public's realization
of the enormity of the costs involved of the global radioactive waste price
tag is at best unpredictable and could border on outrage once consumers
would start paying for these.

The cost of the project will be approximately $75.00 to $ 150.00 per family
per year in extra electrical cost, considering the population of all Canada
and assuming that ultimately all Canadians would pitch in.

But for Ontario, New Brunswick and Quebec alone, (the provinces with
nuclear power plants) without federal assistance, new charges of
approximately $ 200.00 to $ 400.00/ year per family, or between $50.00 and $
100.00 per invoice would have to be levied. To add the costs of other
nuclear wastes would indeed tip the heavy burden to intolerable levels.

We believe, that cost recovery is not in fact being realistically assimilated

in current rates applied to electricity consumers.

We also believe that the true cost of the proposed disposal facility is too
elevated for the Canadian consumer to accept, and too high for the federal
and provincial budgets to absorb.

It is imperative to examine alternatives radically less onerous in capital

expenditures, presenting less risk in handling and decontamination,
allowing greater flexibility in implementation both in terms of siting and in
scheduling.
We are proposing such an alternative herewith: advanced transmutation.

The nature of the conventional transmutation "alternative"

-- actinide partitioning and transmutation --
reviewed by AECL in its Environmental Impact Statement

Conventional transmutation is a nuclear process and transforms one

nuclide into another. It is possible to transform some radionuclides with
long half-lives into either stable nuclides or nuclides with shorter half-
lives.

An example is transmutation of Uranium 238 into Plutonium 239. [A nuclide

is a species of atom characterized by the composition of its nucleus. A
nuclide is typically identified by a chemical symbol (which indicates the
number of protons in the nucleus) and the total number of nucleons
(protons and neutrons) in the nucleus.

The conventional transmutation process is achieved by bombarding

radionuclides with subatomic particles in either nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators designed for this purpose.
Disposal of nuclear fuel waste by transmutation would first require
reprocessing the used fuel and separating the resulting species according
to the different nuclear methods required to transmute the different
species.

Conventional transmutation is known in the nuclear scientific community

as "actinide partitioning and transmutation". It is also known as "nuclear
incineration" -- not to be confused with chemical incineration of nuclear
wastes. The application of greatest potential at present is the
transmutation of waste actinides in fission reactors. This has obvious
attraction since otherwise the long-lived actinides would remain a potential
hazards for very long periods of time. The actinide elements are considered
to be in two groups: 1) the fuel actinides: Th, U and Pu that are used
directly as nuclear fuel by neutron capture; 2) Pu, Np, Am, Cm and higher
products that find their way mainly into waste streams from high level
waste in reprocessing plants and it with these that the partitioning and
transmutation process is principally concerned with.

To recycle the actinides for transmutation, these have to be first separated

("partitioned") from the wastes and converted into a form suitable for
insertion into a reactor. The actinides have to be recycled many times to
"burn" them up sufficiently. The fission products (FPs) remain with the
wastes, with one or two possible exceptions; they cannot be recycled
usefully like the actinides. A high degree of overall recovery is required --
about 99%, but the waste material need not necessarily be rigorously
purified.

It must be emphasized that Canada does not have such a reprocessing or

"partitioning" facility.

The second phase involves "fuel fabrication", in which the waste actinides
are incorporated in reactor fuel elements. This could be done either
homogeneously, with the waste actinides uniformly dispersed throughout
the normal fuel, or heterogeneously with the waste actinides concentrated
in special fuel elements, sometimes referred to as "target" fuel elements;
there also exist intermediate versions.

The third step is "reactor irradiation", in which the waste actinides are
partially burnt up -- or transmuted. The scale of operation required is such
that the power reactor would have to be used to provide sufficient capacity.
These would be of any of the familiar types, especially LWRs (Light Water
Reactors) or FBRs (Fast Breeder Reactor)

The HWR (Heavy Water Reactor) CANDU is not included in this category.
The reprocessing of the fuel to recover U and Pu (and the Th fuel cycle) is
required. Recycling of the waste actinides may take many cycles since it is
not feasible to obtain adequate destruction during a single phase.

Again, It must be emphasized that Canada does not have such a

reprocessing facility.

The actinide partitioning and transmutation just outlined is shown as a

block flow sheet.
IAEA flow sheet description of the main features of the normal and the
partitioning-transmutation cycles. The partitioning-transmutation cycle
requires additional steps In total actinide recycling fuel and waste actinides
must be recovered from these and re-introduced at appropriate points in
the cycle

It differs from that of the normal fuel cycle in the inclusion of the
partitioning step and the
recycling of the waste actinides, which are shown dashed; in the normal
cycle the fission products (FPs) plus waste actinides go directly to
conditioning interim storage, and disposal.

It might appear from the above Figure that actinide partitioning and
transmutation would have only a small impact on the fuel cycle; but this is
not so: Recycling of the waste actinides affects all parts of the cycle.

In the heterogeneous recycling case there will generally be additional

special plant, not shown, for the handling the waste actinides, in parallel
with the main line. There will almost certainly be a special fabrication plant,
for the target fuel, and there may also be a special reprocessing plant for
the spent target fuel, or at least the head-end part of such a plant.

The properties of some of the waste actinide nuclides make them difficult
to handle.
Several kilowatts of head may have to be dissipated and substantial
neutron shielding will be required necessitating remote operation. The
problems are less in homogeneous that in heterogeneous recycling, but
the decay heat is still significant in the former case, and neutron shielding
is still needed. the neutron shielding will, incidentally, also serve as
gamma-ray shielding, while remote operation serves to control alpha
hazards.
Particularly severe problem areas in the handling of the waste actinides
can be identified to be:

1) Final stages of partitioning;

2) Assembly of target fuel element in heterogeneous recycling;
3) Break down of spent fuel for reprocessing;
4) Conversion of trivalent actinides to oxide;
5) Fuel fabrication; and,
6) Transport of fresh and spent fuel

It is necessary to estimate the incremental cost of "actinide partitioning

and transmutation" fuel cycles compared with normal fuel cycles. Many
major cost items are common to both cycles and do not contribute to the
increments. However, increased costs exist for:

1) The HLW (high level waste) partitioning plant, which does not exist in the
normal cycle.

2) The fuel fabrication plant, which requires more remote operation and
maintenance, compared with remote operation and "hands-on"
maintenance in the normal cycle.

3) Fuel transport, since (a) neutron shielding and heat dissipation in the
"actinide partitioning and transmutation" case will reduce the capacity of
the transport flasks, and (b) fresh fuel must be transported in the same
flasks as spent fuel.

There seems to be fairly general agreement that "actinide partitioning and

transmutation" would double the total reprocessing cost, i.e. that
partitioning cost would be comparable with normal reprocessing costs.
This is essentially because the plants concerned are judged to be of similar
complexity.

Estimates have been documented from two sources. The Ispra Laboratory
values for the "actinide partitioning and transmutation" cycle are $ 360/kg
HM (heavy metal) higher than those for the normal cycle, this being the
estimated cost of the partitioning step itself. The difference in the ORNL
(Oak Ridge National Laboratory) case is made up of $ 195/kg HM for
reprocessing waste treatment plus $240/kg HM for fuel fabrication waste
treatment. Agreement between the Ispra and ORNL figure is reasonable,
but it should be noted that different ground rules have been applied.

Estimates of fuel fabrication costs tend to indicate that the introduction of

"actinide partitioning and transmutation" would result in at least 50%
increase over the normal fuel cycle cost.

Overall, the introduction of "actinide partitioning and transmutation" is

estimated to add about 5% to the total fuel cycle costs, which can be
regarded as tolerable. There may, however, be additional costs which are
difficult to quantify and may be large.

There are increases in short-term radiological risks, affecting mainly those

engaged in the nuclear industry rather than the general public.

The reduction in the potential long-term hazard of the HLW and other
wastes is, of course, the incentive for actinide partitioning and
transmutation. The reduction is, however, less than might have been hoped
because the overall decontamination factors obtainable under realistic
conditions be only in the range 50-100, while the hazard reductions are
smaller again.

Since the long-term hazards are already considered to be low, there is little
incentive to reduce them further by actinide partitioning and transmutation.
Indeed, the incremental cost of introducing actinide partitioning and
transmutation appears to be unduly high in relation to the prospective
benefits.
We note again that Canada dose not have a reprocessing facility required
for actinide partitioning and transmutation. We also note that the waste
actinides from partitioning and the fuel actinides go to fuel fabrication, and
after that would be used mainly in fast reactors, which Canada does not,
nor intends to have. Effectively, this conventional transmutation procedure
would force Canada to export nuclear materials.

Because of the present low prices for uranium -- this is one of the reasons
why Canada is not interested in using recycling nuclear fuel from actinide
partitioning and transmutation process -- there are no incentives to recycle
plutonium in LWRs (light water reactor).

Therefore several states (USA, Spain, Sweden, and others) have opted for
direct disposal of the spent fuel, whereas some states still hang on with the
reprocessing of spent fuels in order to recover plutonium (France, U.K.,
Commonwealth of Independent States and Japan). Other states consider
both options e.g. Federal Republic of Germany. Initially, the recovered
plutonium was foreseen to fuel fast reactors, but because of the same
reason (low uranium price the deployment of this reactor type will be
delayed for at least another 20 to 40 years.

Hence, as an alternative, the recycling of Pu in LWR is considered, where

the reprocessing technology is established instead of its use in fast
reactor. This, however, will further increase the formation of minor
actinides.

Different versions of conventional transmutation are known and discussed

in the literature:

a) by photons

b) by neutrons

c) by charged particles

If nuclear energy generation is to be used by future generations, then the

limited supply of 235U could renew interest in the fast breeder concept.
Regardless of what future fast reactor will be look like, they will have the
inherent potential to "burn" most radioactive waste. Therefore the
development of the minor-actinide-containing fuel cycle for fast reactors is
an essential task in keeping the nuclear energy option open. Scientists are
thinking so far in the future because in fact the use of actinide partitioning
and transmutation fuel is expensive.

It may be appropriate to note that the current U.S. National Energy Strategy
includes four key goals for nuclear policy: a) maintain safety and design
standards; b) reduce economic risk;
c) reduce regulatory risk; and, d) establish an effective high-level nuclear
waste program.

A potentially effective means of reducing the long-term radiological toxicity

of high-level wastes destined for geologic disposal (primarily spent LWR
fuel) is to extract the transuranic irradiation products and to destroy them
by transmutation reactor or accelerator concepts. Actinide recycle was
considered previously in the United States and rejected because of
proliferation concerns and little perceived benefit to the viability of light
water reactor (LWR) deployment or to disposal. The current US program,
using new fuel processing and waste management technologies and a
modular, passively safe advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR) concept,
offers the prospect of overcoming these concerns.

We concur that AECL is right in refusing this method of actinide

partitioning and transmutation, not only because it is "expensive" but
against Canadian policy and against national interests.

The case for Advanced Transmutation processes

Advanced Transmutation processes can handle nuclear waste on site

without disturbing or affecting the ambient conditions, and can be
managed, if so required, by robotics. They are inherently tunable to treat
specific radioactive isotopes, as required, or mixtures thereof. The
estimated capital costs are extremely low -- probably less than 1% of the
AECL concept and the engineering research and development to achieve
"manufacturer prototype" stages should last less than one year, based on
the currently acquired experience. The duration of the process is extremely
brief -- ranging from minutes to a day -- decreasing forever both present
risks and hazards as well as those for future generations well into the
millions of years.

Should Canada decide to embark on the Advanced Transmutation modes, it

would have acquired an edge on a very exportable clean technology.

deviations of decay rates

Since the discovery of natural radioactivity, it was generally believed that

these processes obeyed orderly, simple decay rate formulae and that
nuclear processes operated completely independent of extra nuclear
phenomena such as the chemical sate of the system or physical
parameters such as pressure or temperature. A solid body of scientific
literature describes a small percentage variation of the order of 0.1 to 5% in
the decay constant under a variety of chemical and physical conditions.

The standard definition of half-life or half-decay time is the time taken by a

given amount of a particular radioactive substance to undergo
disintegration or decay of half of its atoms. Measured half-lives vary from
less than a millionth of a second to billions of years in the case of Uranium.
There are four modes of decay, three are named after the first three letters
of the Greek alphabet, i.e., alpha, beta and gamma and the fourth is the
recently discovered proton decay.

By way of review, for the Bohr-Rutherford model of the atom, the nucleus is
composed of the heavy particles or hadron or the proton and the neutron
and surrounded by a cloud of electrons (or light particles or leptons) the
number of which depends on the atomic number (for neutral atoms) and
also the valence state (for ionized atoms). Alpha particles are Helium
nuclei, 4He.2 consisting of two protons and 2 neutrons and beta particles
are electrons (negative charge) and positrons (positive charge) and gamma
rays, the short wave length of the electromagnetic radiation band and the
proton is a hadron. Alpha particles and protons are strongly interacting
particles as are all hadrons.

The current model of beta decay is that an inter nucleon neutron

spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron (or beta particle and
an anti-electron neutrino, no ® p. + e. + nc. A neutrino is a zero rest mass
spin 1/2 particle which conserves momentum in the decay process. There
are many pure beta emitters throughout the periodic table, Carbon 14C and
deuterium are two examples. Beta particles penetrate substance less
deeply than gamma radiation but are hundreds of times more penetrating
than alpha particles. Beta particles can be stopped by an inch of wood or
by a thin sheet of aluminum foil, for example. The energy of most emitted
alpha particles are stopped by a piece of paper and the most energetic
gamma rays require a thick piece of lead or concrete.

Electromagnetic radiation emission from atomic processes can be in the x-

ray energy range and nuclear in the x-ray and gamma ray energy range.

It is believed that all radioactive atomic nuclei decay spontaneously

without prior cause at a specific and steady decay rate which differs for
each radioactive isotope. Some precise measurements of half lives have
been made which show deviations of the standard type decay curves which
appear to depend of extra nuclear variable conditions -- non nuclear in
origin and structure.

Variations in the decay constant N = Noe-lp with T1/2 = 0.693/l is based on

crude instruments from some 70 years ago. Later, with more sophisticated
electronics, the value of l of the decay of Beryllium was, 7Be was first
shown in 1949 to deviate by 0.1% between atomic BE and molecular BeO.
In 1965, the l of Niobium, 90Nb is altered by 4% between the metal and the
fluoride form, as discussed by G. Emery. H. C. Dudley reported on studies
that have varied decay characteristics of twelve other radionuclides with
changes in the energy states of the orbital electrons, by pressure,
temperature, electric and magnetic fields, stress in monomolecular layers
and other physical atomic conditions.

The alteration of decay rates by extra nuclear processes may not be truly
random and requires a new theoretical model. As these effects occur, the
term nuclear may need to be expanded to reactions and processes
involving the entire atom and even multi-atom crystal matrix forms rather
than just mass-energy changes in only the nucleus.

Not too well known is a quite prodigious body of work on the persistent
effects of chemical states and physical environment on the deviation in the
lifetimes of nuclear decay rates from the accepted decay law. Theoretical
as well as experimental research has been conducted. In 1947, R. Daudel
and E. Segré predicted that under certain conditions a dependence of the
decay constant on the chemical and physical environment of the nucleus
should be observable and subsequent to these predictions such a
dependence was experimentally observed (with R. F. Leinzinger and C.
Wiegand) in the K capture decay of 7Be and the internal conversion decay
of the 99m isomeric state of Technetium.

During the decay process, the chemical environment of the nucleus is

changed, thus altering the decay constant. R. Daudel pointed out that the
isomeric decay constant of the 2-keV isomeric state transition in the
Technetium isotope 99mTc arose from a change in the electron density
near the nucleus. J. C. Slater suggested that the faster decay rate observed
for the RTcO4 compound form is due to a greater squeezing of the Tc
atoms with the metal Tc-Tc bond distance of 2.7 Ã…. Note that the symbol
Ã… refers to the distance measure of one Angstrom which equals 10-8 cm.

A good example of the effect of a chemical change in the nuclear

environment during radioactive decay is for the intensity change of the
122-keV E2 gamma ray observed for the 90mNb isomeric state of Niobium.
This effect on the decay rate for the 21 second transition was an order of
magnitude greater and in the opposite direction than observed in 99mTc
and was achieved at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory by J. O. Rasmussen
and his colleagues, J. A. Cooper and J M. Hollander in 1965.

In 1975, Elizabeth A. Rauscher lengthened beta emissions for 20Si simply

by surrounding it with specifically designed matrix material, thereby
lengthening the decay rate by about 6% with only 15 minute exposure,
demonstrating the impact of environmental conditions on radionuclides.

Natural, low-energy transmutation phenomena have been observed for

centuries. In 1799, the French chemist, Nicolas Louis Vauquelin noted that
hens could excrete 500% more lime that they take in as food, suggesting a
creation -- transmutation of Calcium Carbonate. Many similar phenomena
are noted in the scientific literature to occur in vegetation processes of
plants as well, whereby new elements and minerals would inexplicably
emerge. Nobel Nominee Prof. Louis Kervran replicated these numerous
reports and advanced very far the understanding of natural, non-
radioactive transmutations, acquiring in this pursuit a term for such
transmutations, Kervran reaction, while engendering solid physics support
from the Institut de Physique Théorique Henri Poincaré physicist,
Olivier Costa de Beauregard who has stated since 1974 that the theory of
weak neutral currents accounts for the transmutations observed, with all
due respect for the physical laws of Conservation. The theory of neutral
currents gave its authors, Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven
Weinberg the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979.
de Beauregard proposed the following equations for biological
transmutation:

n ® p + e- + n (1)

p + n « p + n' (2)

p « p' + n + n' (3)

The Olivier Costa de Beauregard equations for biochemical
transmutation

These equations imply the conversion of a neutron (n) to a proton (p) by

virtual exchange processes -- the neutral currents of Weinberg. These
processes produce protons ( p and p') of different energy levels; and two
neutrinos ( n and n') of different energy levels. n represents the
anitneutrino and e- the electron. In one state the proton will be bound to an
atomic nucleus, and in the other state, it will be relatively free in a chemical
binding.

Physicist Dr. Andrija Puharich managed to observe and photograph

Kervran reactions in vitro, using a high-power dark-field microscope
developed by the Canadian scientist, Gaston Naessens. Kervran reactions
were documented by him to include the oxygen atom entering into a virtual
nuclear reaction with p or n to yield 14N or 19F, using an electrolytic
process similar to that of Prof. Yull Brown (discussed below), and
disclosed by him as his U.S. Patent 4,394,230, Method and apparatus for
splitting water molecules.

There exists as well the phenomenon of transmutative "digestion". L.

Magos and T. W. Clarkson of the British Research Council Carshalton
Laboratories noted disintegration of the radioactive isotope 203Hg
ingested by rats, a volatilization that they ultimately attributed to such
bacteria as Klebsiella aerogenes.
On June 19, 1995, Texas A&M University hosted a low-energy
transmutation conference, sponsored by the "father of electrochemistry",
Professor Emeritus, Dr. John O'M Bockris. Some of the papers noted
anomalies in the formation of new elements in cathodes -- and definitely
not sourced from contamination -- involved in cold-fusion experiments.
For example: Drs. T. Ohmori and Reiko Notoya, both of Hokkaido University
reported Iron formation in Gold and Palladium cathodes, Potassium
changing into Calcium, Cs133 producing an element of mass 134, Na23
becoming Na24; Dr. John Dash of Portland State University reported spots
of silver, cadmium and gold protruding in palladium electrodes in both light
and heavy water cells; Dr. Robert Bush of California Polytechnic, Pomona,
reported strontium on the surface of nickel cathodes. Very pertinent is the
long-term research by Dr. Georgiy S. Rabzi of the Ukrainian International
Academy of Original Ideas who reviewed his analysis of the mechanism of
low-temperature transmutation, conducted since 1954. He passed out to
attendees samples: a steel nut which acquired the color of copper and was
reduced in size; magnetic stainless steel turned non-magnetic, asbestos
which became like ceramic. No radioactivity had been observed in any of
his experiments and he is convinced that radioactive wastes can be
stabilized.

These observations, originating from various domains of scientific

research lay a solid case of low level -- with minuscule power and signal
strength and sometimes even in the natural state -- advanced
transmutation. This transmutation involves a process that is very different
in character from that considered by AECL in their Environmental Impact
Statement.

We now proceed to the experimental results obtained by advanced

transmutation which have direct bearing on the problem of disposal of
nuclear waste fuel.

Interaction with ionic hydrogen and ionic oxygen

Brown's Gas has been developed by a Bulgarian-born Australian national,

Prof. Yull Brown. In his process, water is separated into its two
constituents, hydrogen and oxygen in a way that allows them to be mixed
under pressure and burn simultaneously and safely in a 2:1 proportion.
The proprietary process results in a gas containing ionic hydrogen and
oxygen in proper mixes which is generated economically and safely and
which may be compressed up to 100 psi.

Brown's Gas is a "cornerstone of a technological edifice" with many

commercial and industrial applications.

At this time, Brown's Gas generators are mass produced in the Bautou, a
major research city in the People's Republic of China by the huge
NORINCO factory which also manufacturers locomotives and ordnances --
and services the nation's nuclear industry complex. Most of these
generators (producing up to 4,000 litres/hour/2.4 water at 0.45 MPa with
power requirements ranging from 0.66 kW up to 13.2 kW) are marketed for
their superior welding and brazing qualities, costing between $ 2,000 and $
17,000. Some units have been used for the decontamination of radioactive
materials since 1991. In general, Brown's Gas generators produce between
300 and 340 litres of Brown's Gas per 1 kW energy DC current
approximately and one litre of water produces 1.866.6 approximately litres
of gas. A generator which produces 10,000 litres per hour has been built
specifically for the reduction of nuclear waste.

On August 24, 1991, Baotou's Nuclear Institute # 202 released a report, The
results of experiments to dispose of radiation materials by Brown's Gas
which establishes that experimentation on Cobalt 60 radiation source
decreased radiation by about 50% or half-life of radiation -- but sometimes
more radiation is decreased which needs investigation of possibilities for
decreasing more of the radiation in single treatments of exposure to
Brown's Gas flame, lasting only a few minutes, in the samples as described
in the table below.

First Experiment Second

Experiment

Source Intensity 580 millirads/hour 115 - 120

millirads/hour
 After Treatment 220 - 240 millirads/hour 42
millirads/hour

De-radioactivation of Cobalt 60 by exposure to Brown's Gas flame

for less than 10 minutes. 1991 experiments conducted by Baotou
Nuclear Institute # 220, People's Republic of China.

In another test conducted by Yull Brown before a public audience including

U.S. Congressman Hon. Berkeley Bedell with committee responsibilities in
this area of concern, the experiment ran as follows as reported by the
press:

Using a slice of radioactive Americium ... Brown melted it together on a

brick with small chunks of steel and Aluminum ... After a couple of minutes
under the flame, the molten metals sent up an instant flash in what Brown
says is the reaction that destroys the radioactivity. Before the heating and
mixing with the other metals, the Americium, made by the decay of an
isotope of Plutonium, registered 16,000 curies per minute of radiation.
Measured afterward by the [Geiger Counter], the mass of metals read less
than 100 curies per minute, about the same as the background radiation in
the laboratory where Brown was working.

This experiment indicated a reduction of radiation in the order of over 99%

(to about 0.00625 of original level) -- in less than 5 minutes, with minimal
handling. The improvement in the de-radioactivation process from about
50% to nearly 100% has come only with persistent research over the
decades by Brown and his colleagues.

The Brown's Gas generating units that produced such effects are not
expensive -- a far cry from the multi-million processes tabled by AECL.
They are powered by low energy requirements and require only small
volumes of water, at most a few liters per hour as fuel. Furthermore, the
training required for operation is minimal.

The Hon. Bedell has reported, "it has been my good pleasure to witness
experiments done by Prof. Yull Brown in which it appeared to me that he
significantly reduced the radioactivity in several nuclear materials. Under
the circumstances, I believe it is very important for our federal government
to completely investigate Dr. Yull Brown's accomplishments in this area."

On August 6, 1992, almost a year after the Chinese nuclear report, Prof. Yull
Brown made a special demonstration to a team of 5 San Francisco field
office observers from the United States Department of Energy, at the
request of the Hon. Berkeley Bedell. Cobalt 60 was treated and resulted in
a drop of Geiger readings from 1,000 counts to 40 -- resulting in radioactive
waste residue of about 0.04 of the original level. Apprehensive that
somehow the radioactivity might have been dispersed into the ambient
environment, the official requested the California Department of Health
Services to inspect the premises. The health services crew found no
radioactivity in the air resulting from this demonstration nor from another
repeat demonstration held for their benefit.

This sequence of experiments was monitored by the Hon. Daniel Haley, the
legislator who established the forerunner New York State Energy Research
and Development Agency.

Other demonstrations, measured with under more sophisticated protocol

and instrumentation have been made before Japanese nuclear experts,
including four scientists from Toshiba and Mitsui (Cobalt 60 of 24,000
mR/hr with one treatment to 12,000 mR/hr). The Japanese scientists were
so excited by what they saw that they immediately purchased a generator
and air shipped it to Japan. They sent Prof. Brown a confidential report of
some of their results. Subsequently, they tried to obtain addition Brown's
Gas generators directly from the People's Republic of China.

Prof. Brown first successfully de-radioactivated radionuclides of Cobalt 60

in his laboratory in Sydney, Australia with first experimental results of
about 50%. He believes the ratio should improve with further research and
development -- which understandably by the very nature of the materials,
can only be conducted under regulated conditions.
 A Brown's Gas generator manufactured in the People's Republic of
China by NORINCO

Prof. Brown, during his 27 years of studying water and its atomic structure,
experimenting with disassociation of water into its constituent parts of
hydrogen and oxygen has noted that there are many variations of the
atomic structures of the various waters dependent on the mixing of the
three hydrogen isotopes (1H - protium, 1H2 - deuterium, 1H3 - tritium)
which combine into six combinations of hydrogen and the six oxygen
isotopes (8O14, 8O15, 8O16, 8O17, 8O18, and 8O19 ) -- or practically, 36
types of water -- 18 are stable and 18 have short life.

Now, because we have all of these types of water, we could have 36 types
of Brown's Gas, and much more with special modifications of the gas; at
the moment only a few are under investigation. His studies have led to the
observation that the anomalous behaviour of water depends on the ability
of water to modify energetics and physicochemical properties of the
various permutations of the hydrogen/oxygen isotopes. As is known the
lifetime, modes of decay and thermal neutron capture cross-sections vary
significantly between these isotopes; likewise, Brown has seen the various
stages of his gas offer very different effects. He has found that he can
modulate a number of suitable mixes for his technology, thus providing an
engineering tool in decontamination of nuclear wastes.

Our Association is disposed to organize demonstrations of the effects of

Brown's Gas on nuclear materials before the panel examining AECL'S
Environmental Impact Statement.

interaction with non-Hertzian energy

In the 1960's, the Canadian engineer, Wilbert Brockhouse Smith, a major

player in advancing the technical aspects of radio and television
broadcasting in Canada began experimenting with Caduceus coils and
noted that this counterwinding set-up produced anomalous effects and
proposed that other experimenters attempt to follow this new area of
investigation. These coils became popularly known as the "Smith Coils"
and he believed that they were producing, in summation, a "scalar" field --
a non-Hertzian phenomenon. It is now known that similar non-Hertzian
phenomena may also be obtained by mobius, and bi-filar coils which
oppose their alternating currents by virtue of their unique geometry. The
resultant of all electromagnetic energy is believed to sum to zero in
accordance with Newton's third law, thereby orthorotating the zero-point-
energy into our 3-space.

A recent investigation by Dr. Glen Rein and T. A. Gagnon, assisted by Prof.

Elizabeth A. Rauscher (Nuclear Physics, University of California, Berkeley
and with Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, William Van Bise -- and with some
support by Professor Emeritus (Material Sciences) William A. Tiller of
Stanford University -- involved a modified Caduceus coil.

The 8.2 ohms coil indicated no electromagnetic fields even though

powered with only 3 mA, 5 watt amplifier/mixer. Yet, the field from this set-
up was able to decrease ambient radioactivity associated with
environmental isotopes from 0.5 mR/hour to 0.0015 mR/hr -- or by 97%.

In contrast, Cobalt 60 increased its radioactivity from 150 to 250 mR/hour,

in response to the non-Hertzian energy.

Thus the same non-Hertzian energy field produced opposite effects on

different radioactive isotopes.

This type of experiment, which may have been highly dependent on the a
mix of waveform signaling, involving superimposition of square waves
containing specific repetition rates developed by Dynamic Engineering of
Sacramento, California, indicates that research and development can
determine the fine-tuning of special non-Hertzian procedures for the
transmutation of specific isotopes.

Cost: less than $ 1,000 for a coil. Duration: about 24 hours. Result: up to 97
% reduction of radioactivity.

Another non-Hertzian approach to advanced transmutation has been

hypothesized by the nuclear scientist, Tom E. Bearden and involves the use
of "Whittaker scalar interferometry" directed in such a way as to directly
extract electromagnetic energy from the mass of the radioactive nuclei.

In this system, the fundamental nuclear rates would be altered by way of

"de-materializing" nuclei into constituent hidden (scalar) electromagnetic
Whittaker energy.

E. T. Whittaker was a prominent British mathematician who published two

papers of interest in this matter: 1) a general analysis of force fields into
constituent fields -- differentiated into "undulatory", wave-disturbance
propagation, longitudinal in character; and 2) an analysis of electrons as
being characterized by two scalar potential functions. His work
successfully pre-dates the experimental work of Y. Aharanov and D. Bohm
who demonstrated that in the total absence of electromagnetic force fields,
the potentials remain and can interfere at a distance to produce real effects
of charged particle systems. Force fields are actually effects generated
from potentials.
The figure below shows the conceptual use of a Whittaker Interferometer in
the endothermic (energy extraction, electrostatic cooling) mode, for use in
direct extraction of the electromagnetic energy constituting the radioactive
nucleus.

By exposing the atomic nucleus to an externally engineered Whittaker-

structured potential with a deterministic internal electromagnetic wave
pattern, the internal structure of the mass potential may be slowly altered,
changing the targeted atomic nucleus by gradually inducing a direct
alteration of its internal Whittaker electromagnetic bi-wave composition.

Whittaker interferometer in endothermic mode for energy extraction

from the mass potential of
radioactive nuclei.

A process based on this hypothesis remains proprietary, pending patent

application, but could be demonstrated at a later date.
Our Association is disposed to organize demonstrations of the effects of
scalar, non-Hertzian devices on nuclear materials before the panel
examining AECL'S Environmental Impact Statement.

APPENDIX I

Economic Considerations

The cost of disposal is to be included in the rates charged by Ontario

Hydro, Hydro Québec and the New Brunswick Power for electricity. The
amount charged is estimated to be adequate to fund the disposal's
implementation, with the operation of a disposal facility as of 2025.

It is estimated by AECL that the siting and construction of a disposal

facility would cost about
$ 4 billion (1991 dollars). The facility would take about 25 years to
complete. (page 77)

The estimated cost of siting, construction, operation, decommissioning,

and closing the pre-disposal facility are summarized in Figure 6-18 and
Table 6-5 (as described in R-Facility). Here the cost (excluding the cost of
transporting used fuel) is stated as being $ 13 to $ 18.65 billion (1991
dollars). Also excluded are financing, taxes and non-routine activities
including waste retrieval, which could easily double this portion of
estimates, depending on economic vagaries.

The estimates of the cost of transporting about 10 million bundles of used

fuel from the nuclear generating stations to the disposal facility range from
$ 440 to $ 770 million (1991 dollars) for road transportation and $ 1.41
billion to 2.14 billion (1991 dollars) for rail transportation. (page 231)

The combined declared cost for the disposal concept can range from $
18.85 to $ 19.91 billion (1991 dollars)+ financing, tax and non-routine
factors that could double the cost up to $ 40 billion.

No consideration appears to have been given to the cost of de-

commissioning the nuclear power plants which are aging and fast
approaching their 30-year life expectancy because of metal fatigue and
crystallization by neutron bombardment. All metals in the first loop in the
power plants -- reactor, steam generator, piping, water pumps, valves,
filters are all radioactive and contaminated. The materials in the second --
hermetic -- loop: metal cladding and concrete are also radioactive. No
concept has been tendered for their safe disposal by AECL.

APPENDIX II

The Buffer

The container would be separated from the rock by a dense buffer material,
such as compacted mixture of sand and bentonite. (Page 118)

Two alternatives for emplacement of buffer have been investigated: a)

compacting the materials in place or, b) using precompacted blocks.

There are advantages and disadvantages for both methods. If the buffer
were compacted in place, the sequence of emplacement activities would be
to place and compact all or most of the buffer material, drill holes in the
buffer large enough to accept the disposal containers, place the containers
in these holes, and close the holes by compacting more buffer material
above the container. The potential for worker exposure to radiation would
be lower than if the buffer were placed and compacted around a preplaced
container. Also, the potential for damaging a container during the
compaction process would be reduced. The general procedure would be
suitable for both the in-bore hole and in-room emplacement options. A
detailed procedure would include provisions for quality control.

To use precompacted blocks in the in-bore hole option, appropriately

shaped blocks would be placed in the borehole, leaving a hole for the
container. To use precompacted blocks in the in room option, the blocks
could be placed or the flour of the room and them around the container.
(Page 119, paragraph 5)

Montmorillonite, the principal clay mineral in bentonite, is the most

surface-active of all clays, i.e., it has a large surface area and strong
absorption capacity. This surface activity gives bentonite special
properties, such as a low hydraulic conductivity and an ability to absorb
water and swell. The hydraulic conductivity of bentonite can be decreased
by increasing its density through compaction. (Page 124)

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