Professional Documents
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AVS Exp
AVS Exp
EXPERIMENT-1
Aim: To study Monochrome transmitter and receiver
Transmitter circuit:
Scanning and Synchronizing: It scans the pixels in the frame of a given picture that
has been divided into.
FM Modulating Amplifier: It modulates the Frequency of sound modulating signal.
FM Sound Transmitter: It transmits the FM sound signal to the combining
network.
Combining network: It combines the AM picture signal and the FM sound signal.
Antenna: It transmits the modulated signal to receiver over a large distance.
FM Modulating Amplifier: It modulates the Frequency of sound modulating signal.
FM Sound Transmitter: It transmits the FM sound signal to the combining
network.
Receiver circuit :
EXPERIMENT-2
Aim: To study the Directional response of micro phone.
Theory: Microphones are designed to have a specific directional response pattern, described
by a so-called „polar diagram‟. The polar diagram is a form of two-dimensional
contour map, showing the magnitude of the microphone‟s output at different angles
of incidence of a sound wave. The distance of the polar plot from the centre of the
graph (considered as the position of the microphone diaphragm) is usually calibrated
in decibels, with a nominal 0 dB being marked for the response at zero degrees at 1
kHz. The further the plot is from the centre, the greater the output of the microphone
at that angle.
There are four typical patterns commonly found in microphone design.
1. Omni directional Pattern
2. Bidirectional Pattern
3. Cardioids Pattern
4. Hypercardioid Pattern
Omni microphones are usually the most immune to handling and wind noise of all
the polar patterns, since they are only sensitive to absolute sound pressure. Patterns
such as figure-eight (especially ribbons) and cardioid , described below, are much
more susceptible to handling and wind noise than omnis because they are sensitive
to the large pressure difference created across the capsule by low-frequency
movements such as those caused by wind or unwanted diaphragm motion. A
pressure-gradient microphone‟s mechanical impedance (the Diaphragm’s resistance
to motion) is always lower at LF than that of a pressure (Omni) microphone, and
thus it is more susceptible to unwanted LF disturbances.
2. Bidirectional Pattern:
The figure-eight or bidirectional polar response is shown in Figure 3. Such a
microphone has an output proportional to the mathematical cosine of the angle of
incidence. One can quickly draw a figure-eight plot on a piece of graph paper, using a
protractor and a set of cosine tables or pocket calculator. Cos 0° = 1, showing a
maximum response on the forward axis (this will be termed the 0 dB reference
point). Cos 90°= 0, so at 90° off axis no sound is picked up. Cos 180° is −1, so the
output produced by a sound which is picked up by the rear lobe of the microphone
will be 180° out of phase compared with an identical sound picked up by the front
lobe. The phase is indicated by the + and – signs on the polar diagram. At 45° off axis,
the output of the microphone is 3 dB down (cos 45° represents 0.707 or 1/√2 times
the maximum output) compared with the on axis output.
Like the Omni, the figure-eight can give very clear uncoloured reproduction. The
polar response tends to be very uniform at all frequencies, except for a slight
narrowing above 10 kHz or so, but it is worth noting that a ribbon mic has a rather
better polar response athigh frequencies in the horizontal plane than in the vertical
plane, due to the fact that the ribbon is long and thin. A high-frequency sound
coming from a direction somewhat above the plane of the microphone will suffer
partial cancelation, since at frequencies where the wavelength begins to be
comparable with the length of the ribbon the wave arrives partially out of phase at
the lower portion compared with the upper portion, therefore reducing the effective
acoustical drive of the ribbon compared with mid frequencies. Ribbon figure-eight
microphones should therefore be orientated either upright or upside-down with
their stems vertical so as to obtain the best polar response in the horizontal plane,
vertical polar response usually being less important.Although the figure-eight picks
up sound equally to the front and to the rear, it must be remembered that the rear
pickup is out of phase with the front, and so correct orientation of the mic is
required.
3. Cardioids Pattern:
The cardioid pattern is described mathematically as 1 + cos θ, where θ is the angle of
incidence of the sound. Since the omni has a response of 1 (equal all round) and the
figure-eight has a response represented by cos θ, the cardioid may be considered
theoretically as a product of these two responses. Figure 4a illustrates its shape.
Figure 4b shows an omni and a figure-eight superimposed, and one can see that
adding the two produces the cardioid shape: at 0°, both polar responses are of equal
amplitude and phase, and so they reinforce each other, giving a total output which is
actually twice that of either separately. At 180°, however, the two are of equal
amplitude but opposite phase, and so complete cancelation occurs and there is no
output. At 90° there is no output from the figure-eight, but just the contribution from
the omni, so the cardioid response is 6 dB down at 90°. It is 3 dB down at 65° off axis.
One or two early microphone designs actually housed a figure-eight and an omni
together in the same casing, electrically combining their outputs to give a resulting
cardioid response. This gave a rather bulky mic, and also the two diaphragms could
not be placed close enough together to produce a good cardioid response at higher
frequencies due to the fact that at these frequencies the wavelength of sound became
comparable with the distance between the diaphragms. The designs did, however,
obtain a cardioid from first principles. The BBC type 4033 was one such example.
The cardioid response is now obtained by leaving the diaphragm open at the front,
but introducing various acoustic labyrinths at the rear which cause sound to reach
the back of the diaphragm in various combinations of phase and amplitude to
produce a resultant cardioid response. This is difficult to achieve at all frequencies
simultaneously, and Figure 5 illustrates the polar pattern of a typical cardioid mic
with a three-quarter-inch diaphragm. As can be seen, at mid frequencies the polar
response is very good. At low frequencies it tends to degenerate towards omni, and
at very high frequencies it becomes rather more directional than is desirable. Sound
arriving from, say, 45° off axis will be reproduced with treble loss, and sounds
arriving from the rear will not be completely attenuated, the low frequencies being
picked up quite uniformly.
Figure 5 : Typical polar diagram of a cardioid microphone at low, middle and high
frequencies.
The above example is very typical of moving-coil cardioids, and they are in fact very
useful for vocalists due to the narrow pickup at high frequencies helping to exclude
off-axis sounds, and also the relative lack of pressure- gradient component at the bass
end helping to combat bass tip-up. High-quality capacitor cardioids with half-inch
diaphragms achieve a rather more ideal cardioid response. Owing to the presence of
acoustic labyrinths, coloration of the sound is rather more likely, and it is not unusual
to find that a relatively cheap electrets omni will sound better than a fairly expensive
cardioid.
4. Hypercardioid Pattern
The hypercardioid, sometimes called „cottage loaf‟ because of its shape, is shown in
Figure 6. It is described mathematically by the formula 0.5 + cos θ, i.e. it is a
combination of an omni attenuated by 6 dB, and a figure-eight. Its response is in
between the cardioid and figure-eight patterns, having a relatively small rear lobe
which is out of phase with the front lobe. Its sensitivity is 3 dB down at 55° off axis.
Like the cardioid, the polar response is obtained by introducing acoustic labyrinths to
the rear of the diaphragm. Because of the large pressure gradient component it too is
fairly susceptible to bass tip-up. Practical examples of hypercardioid microphones
tend to have polar responses which are tolerably close to the ideal. The hypercardioid
has the highest direct-to-reverberant ratio of the patterns described, which means
that the ratio between the level of on-axis sound and the level of reflected sounds
picked up from other angles is very high, and so it is good for excluding unwanted
sounds such as excessive room ambience or unwanted noise.
EXPERIMENT-3
Aim: To study the frequency response of Microphone.
A microphone's frequency response pattern is shown using a chart like the one below
and referred to as a frequency response curve. The x axis shows frequency in Hertz,
the y axis shows response in decibels. A higher value means that frequency will be
exaggerated, a lower value means the frequency is attenuated. In this example,
frequencies around 5 - kHz are boosted while frequencies above 10kHz and below
100Hz are attenuated. This is a typical response curve for a vocal microphone.
In the real world a perfectly flat response is not possible and even the best "flat
response" microphones have some deviation.
More importantly, it should be noted that a flat frequency response is not always the
most desirable option. In many cases a tailored frequency response is more useful.
For example, a response pattern designed to emphasise the frequencies in a human
voice would be well suited to picking up speech in an environment with lots of low-
frequency background noise. The main thing is to avoid response patterns which
emphasise the wrong frequencies. For example, a vocal mic is a poor choice for
picking up the low frequencies of a bass drum.
Frequency Response Ranges:
You will often see frequency response quoted as a range between two figures. This is a
simple (or perhaps "simplistic") way to see which frequencies a microphone is
capable of capturing effectively. For example, a microphone which is said to have a
frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz can reproduce all frequencies within this
range. Frequencies outside this range will be reproduced to a much lesser extent or
not at all.
This specification makes no mention of the response curve, or how successfully the
various frequencies will be reproduced. Like many specifications, it should be taken
as a guide only.
Condenser vs Dynamic:
Condenser microphones generally have flatter frequency responses than dynamic. All
other things being equal, this would usually mean that a condenser is more desirable
if accurate sound is a prime consideration.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-4
Aim: To study the Directional Response of Loudspeaker.
Theory: The simplest possible radiating source is a point source, sometimes called a simple
source. An ideal point source is an infinitesimally small point radiating sound. It may
be easier to imagine a tiny pulsating sphere, uniformly increasing and decreasing in
diameter, sending out sound waves in all directions equally, and independent of
frequency.
Any object radiating sound, including a loudspeaker system, can be thought of as
being composed of combinations of such simple point sources.
The radiation pattern of a combination of point sources is not the same as for a single
source, but depends on the distance and orientation between the sources, the
position relative to them from which the listener hears the combination, and the
frequency of the sound involved. Using geometry and calculus, some simple
combinations of sources are easily solved; others are not.
One simple combination is two simple sources separated by a distance and vibrating
out of phase, one miniature sphere expanding while the other is contracting. The pair
is known as a double, or dipole, and the radiation of this combination is similar to
that of a very small dynamic loudspeaker operating without a baffle.
The directivity of a dipole is a figure 8 shape with maximum output along a vector
that connects the two sources and minimums to the sides when the observing point is
equidistant from the two sources, where the sums of the positive and negative waves
cancel each other. While most drivers are dipoles, depending on the enclosure to
which they are attached, they may radiate as monopoles, dipoles (or bipoles).
If mounted on a finite baffle, and these out of phase waves are allowed to interact,
dipole peaks and nulls in the frequency response result. When the rear radiation is
absorbed or trapped in a box, the diaphragm becomes a monopole radiator. Bipolar
speakers, made by mounting in-phase monopoles (both moving out of or into the box
in unison) on opposite sides of a box, are a method of approaching omnidirectional
radiation patterns.
In real life, individual drivers are complex 3D shapes such as cones and domes, and
they are placed on a baffle for various reasons. A mathematical expression for the
directivity of a complex shape, based on modelling combinations of point sources, is
usually not possible, but in the far field, the directivity of a loudspeaker with a
circular diaphragm is close to that of a flat circular piston, so it can be used as an
illustrative simplification for discussion.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-5
Aim: To study the frequency response of loudspeaker.
Of all the loudspeaker specifications, the frequency response is the easiest one to
take out of context. The frequency response is used to describe the audible
frequency range that a loudspeaker can reproduce. Audio frequencies are measured
in Hertz (Hz) and the theoretical range of human hearing is generally regarded as
being from about 20 Hz (the very lowest bass tones) through 20 kHz (the very
highest treble notes). It may seem logical to presume that a loudspeaker capable of
reproducing all or more than the audible frequency range would be best.
Ideally a perfect frequency response plot would look like a flat line across the entire
frequency range. A frequency response plot that is predominately flat will generally
reproduce all of the musical tones at the same level. A flat response plot is generally
good, indicating that the loudspeaker reproduces sound accurately. But since
inevitably the response will not be flat for any speaker, another positive
characteristic to look for is a smooth response curve between the amplitude
variations. A smooth response curve will literally sound more smooth and natural.
You will want to avoid plots that show rapid swings in amplitude across a short span
of frequency.
The frequency response plot however does not show the critical third dimension:
time. Examining plots that consider time will give us a visual indication of how a
loudspeaker responds to a dynamic impulse. For example, consider a loud thump
from a kick drum. When attempting to reproduce this thump the loudspeaker should
start instantly and stop the very instant the kick drum stops making sound.
If the bass speaker continues to resonate and make sound after the thump has
stopped, the loudspeaker is not accurately reproducing the thump by colouring the
original sound. The lower portion of figure 2 shows a typical measured impulse
response. The plot shows that some sound persists after the impulse input has
stopped (i.e. the speakers resonate and “ring” after the impulse).
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-6
Aim: To Study Composite Video Signal.
A horizontal synchronizing (sync) pulse is needed at the end of each active line
period whereas a vertical sync pulse is required after each field is scanned. The
amplitude of both horizontal and vertical sync pulses is kept the same to obtain
higher efficiency of picture signal transmission but their duration (width) is chosen
to be different for separating them at the receiver. Since sync pulses are needed
consecutively and not simultaneously with the picture signal, these are sent on a
time division basis and thus form a part of the composite video signal.
Composite Signal Construction:
The composite video signal is constructed with 3 basic elements:
- Luminance Information from DC to 5.5MHz (B&W Detail)
- Chrominance Information modulated onto a carrier (at 3.58MHz or
4.43MHz)
- Synchronization Information (Horizontal and Vertical Sync)
The three analog elements of a composite video signal carry all the information
necessary to display a two dimensional picture on a cathode ray tube (CRT)
television.
The luminance signal carries the black and white parts of the picture. This
component of the composite video signal requires the most bandwidth (typically to
5MHz), and signal integrity, to convey sharp and clear images. Edge information,
brightness, and contrast of the image are entirely contained in the luminance
portion of the signal.
Until 1947 the broadcast video signal was only black and white. To maintain
compatibility with the installed equipment of the time, color or chrominance
information was added to the luminance signal to create the color composite signal
as we know it today.
The chrominance information is quadrature modulated onto the luminance
information. The chrominance is interleaved into the video signal bandwidth
between luminance spectra. The chrominance modulation scheme utilizes an I, Q (U,
V for PAL) coordinate system where hue and saturation is in vector format.
A camera sensor captures light in Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) format. The RGB signal
is converted into Y (luminance signal) and I, Q (Color Difference signal) format along
with the synchronization information. The I, Q (commonly referred to as C) color
information occupies a smaller bandwidth than the Y signal. C bandwidths typically
range from 0.6MHz to 1.3MHz. The chrominance signal is modulated onto a carrier.
The carrier resides at 3.58MHz for NTSC signals and 4.43MHz for PAL signals.
The chroma information must be separated out of the video signal to demodulate it
to baseband. This is difficult because luminance information that resides from 2MHz
to 5MHz cannot be differentiated from chroma information. Several techniques have
been tried over the years to improve separating Y and C, each increasing in
complexity and performance.
The synchronization information is also imbedded in the composite video signal and
occupies precious amplitude range of the video signal. Horizontal Sync, Vertical Sync
also know as Vertical retrace) and the Color Reference Bursts are embedded in the
composite waveform.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-7
Aim: To study public address system and its components.
Theory: It is and electronic system in which sound is first converted into electrical signal by a
microphone. The electrical audio signals are amplified processed and feed to
another transducer, the loudspeaker, which converts the audio signal into sound
waves. The block diagram is shown below.
Block
Diagram:
Microphone: It picks up sound waves and converts them into electric variations
called audio signals. Generally, amplifiers have provision of two or more microphone
and in addition, an auxiliary input for tape/record player.
Mixer: The output of mic is fed to mixer stage. The function of the mixer stage is
effectively isolate different channels from each other before feeding to main
amplifier. It can be either a built in unit or a separate unit.
Voltage amplifiers: It further amplifies the output of the mixer.
Ambient Noise: When ambient noise is high as in world cup or a fish market, the
PA systems should boost high frequency to restore high notes. In high frequency
part of the noise spectrum, the attenuation is high. So the amplification should be
high.
Dynamic Range Limitation: The amplifier of a good PA system is equipped with
level constant when input level exceeds certain predetermined value. This
provision takes cares of Speaker’s draw backs.
Selection of Microphones: Microphones for a PA system should be preferably be
cardioids type so that they neither pick up reflected sound nor the sound from
loudspeakers. For dramas where speaker may have to speak a distance from the
microphone sharply directive microphone for example a vertical column of
unidirectional microphones should be used to pick up more sound power.
Sense of direction and Source of Sound: Loudspeakers should be so placed that
sound appears to be coming from the direction of Source. Human ears perceive the
direction from the first sound received. Hence small speakers must be so placed as
to give the correct direction to the listeners and the volume for loudspeakers can be
used at further distances.
Phase delay: Sound from nearest loudspeaker may be heard along with sound
from loudspeaker with time difference. A delayed sounds in pairs the intelligibility
when delay is 45ms or more. This delay corresponds to about 16m. Hence
loudspeaker should not be located 16m apart. 10m separation is considered quit
good.
Matching: Matching of total number of loudspeaker impedance with output
impedance of amplifier is necessary for maximum transfer of energy from amplifier
to loudspeaker. Hence series parallel combination of loudspeaker should be such to
ensure maximum power transfer.
Grounding: Chassis and shields of equipment and coaxial cable s should be
properly earthed through water pipe.
Amplifier power: P.A. system gives amplified sound. So that it is comfortably
audible to the audience at distance. The output power of amplifier may be a few
watts for class lectures or small gathering to a few hundred watts for large public
meeting. The power of amplifier can be distributed uniformly by spacing several
loudspeakers.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-8
Aim: To study the Colour TV Transmitter and Receiver.
Theory: Transmitter:
The fundamental aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond its
natural limits, along with the sound associated with the scene being televised.
Essentially then, a TV system is an extension of the science of radio communication
with the additional complexity that besides sound the picture details are also to be
transmitted.
In most television systems, as also in the C.C.I.R. 625 line monochrome system
adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal
frequency modulated before transmission. The carrier frequencies are suitably
spaced and the modulated outputs radiated through a common antenna. Thus each
broadcasting station can have its own carrier frequency and the receiver can then be
tuned to select any desired station
Receiver:
Tuner Amplifier:
The Tuners used in colour TV are VHF/UHF type, now a days hyper band and super
band tuners are used for cable channel reception.
Varactor tuning is done by frequency synthesis technique or Phase Locked
Loop(PLL) method. Figure shows the block diagram of colour TV receiver.
RF Amplifier:
The RF requirement in colour TV is more critical than monochrome TV receiver.
Output of tuner is given to Pre IF amplifier, which amplifies IF signal.
SAW Filter:
In VIF section, SAW filter is used to get desired wave shaping and complete IF band
pass response. In design of SAW filters, two inter digital electrodes mounted on
piezo electric substrate. AFT control is design to maintain VIF 38.9 MHZ for its
correct value. The 1st and 2nd VIF stages are AGC controlled.
Sound IF Amplifier And FM Detector:
The sound IF detector is fed from output of 2nd VIF amplifier. The output of 3rd VIF
stage feeds to video detector. 33.4MHz trap circuit (by pass filter) prevents passage
of SIF & its side band to final IF amplifier. This prevents generation of strong dot
patterning rate.
In sound section, SIF diode detector is used where heterodyning process is done and
inter carrier frequency 5.5 MHz is obtained. SIF trap is used for select wanted
frequency.
SIF amplifier is used to permit passage of only the inter carrier sound signal. The
amplified SIF signal is processed through limiter cum FM detector in same way as
monochrome TV receiver.
FM detector is differential peak type or PLL type circuit. Audio power amplifier is
used for final amplification of sound. The tone controlis used there for bass and
treble. Volume control is used for set amplitude of sound.
Video Detector:
The output from power amplifier is given to loud speaker of IV receiver. From 3rd
video IF amplifier ,signal is given to video detector which employs diode as rectifier
and filter circuit which grounds unwanted high frequency components. 5.5MHz filter
is used to remove sound signal.
Delay Line:
The use of delay line ensures time co-incidence of chrominance signals. Comb filter
is used to select frequencies that are to be passed 'without affect of bandwidth of the
signal.
The function of the colour decoder is to recover three colour signals from composite
colour signal. The decoder is used to perform two functions, first Synchronous
detection of quadrature modulated sub carrier, second to obtain R,G,B by matrixing
the detected colour difference signals with Y signals.
The output of 2nd video amplifier fed to the three stage chroma band pass amplifier.
The first stage is tuned to accept the chrominance signal. Delayed and suitably
shaped line sync pulses are fed at the base of this amplifier transistor which is often
connected as an emitter follower.
The next stage is tuned amplifier having bandwidth of nearly 2 MHZ around 4.43
MHZ. This stage is also used as vestigial side band correction when unequal colour
channel bandwidth is present.
The gain of band pass amplifier is controlled by ACC circuit to obtain a nearly
constant output voltage. A saturation control is also used in band pass amplifier.
Chroma Decoder:
The last stage is design to feed chroma signal to the two demodulator circuit. Last
chroma band pass amplifier is also known as delay line driver because it feeds signal
to demodulators through the delay line network. The other circuit is called color
killer which in turn is controlled by a 7.8 KHZ tuned amplifier and IDENT circuits.
During reception of any colour transmission,7 .8 KHZ switching rate signal for (R
—Y) is available at the APC (Automatic Phase Control] circuit of the reference
oscillator. The 0° shift is given to (B-Y) demodulator and A 90° shift is given to (R—
Y) demodulator. Then get (G-Y) and apply R-Y, B-Y, G-Y to drive amplifiers and after
mixed with Y signal, amplified R, G, B is given to cathodes of picture tube.
Sync separator is used to separate the sync pulses from CVD (Composite Video
signal). It is used to maintain 50 HZ for vertical oscillator and l5625HZ for horizontal
oscillator for faithful reproduction of picture.SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) is
used in TV receiver for higher efficiency, operating on lower voltage, miniature in
size and constant output
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-9
Aim: To study basic principle of Picture tubes
The picture tube is a special form of cathode ray tube, the face plate of which serves
as a screen of the television receiver. The various parts of a monochrome picture
tube are shown in Fig. The cathode ray tube (CRT) is housed in a bell-shaped glass
enclosure. A filament heats a cathode that emits electrons. The negatively charged
electrons are attracted and accelerated by positive-bias voltages on the elements in
an electron gun assembly. The electron gun also focuses the electrons into narrow
beam.
A control grid that is made negative with respect to the cathode, controls the
intensity of the electron beam and brightness of the spot it makes. The beam is
accelerated towards the screen by a very high voltage applied to an internal metallic
coating called aquadag. The face or front of the picture tube is coated internally with
a phosphor,that glows and produces white light, when it is struck by the electron
beam.
Around the neck of the picture tube is a structure of magnetic coils called the
deflecting yoke. The horizontal and vertical current linear saw tooth waves
generated by the sweep and synchronising circuits are applied to the yoke coils. This
produces the magnetic field inside the tube that influences the position of the
electron beam. When the electrons flow, a magnetic field is produced around the
conductor through which the current flows. In a CRT, the electron beam is moved or
deflected by the magnetic field produced by the deflection coils in the yoke. Thus the
electron beam is swept across the face of the picture tube.
As the beam is being swept across the face of the tube to trace out the scene, the
intensity of the electron beam is varied by the luminance or Y signal. The Y signal is
applied to the cathode or in some cases to the control grid. The control grid is an
element in the electron gun that is negatively biased with respect to the cathode. By
varying the grid voltage, the beam can be made weaker or stronger, thereby varying
the intensity of the light spot produced by the beam, when it strikes the phosphor.
Any shade of grey from white to black can be reproduced.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-10
Aim: To study basic principle of and types of Camera tubes.
The TV Camera is just analogous to human eye. The basic principle of all TV cameras
is based on the fact the each picture of all TV Cameras is based on the fact the each
picture may be assumed to be composed of small elements with different light
intensity. The camera picks up each element and by transducing action convertsit
into “electrical signal” proportional to its brightness there is a photosensitive layer
called target or image plate in each camera which performs this job. At the same
time simultaneous, pick up of this information is also necessary for this purpose.
There is an electron gun (which produces an electron beam) which scans the image
plate at a fast speed. Thus opto-electric conversion as well as pick-up of the signal
takes place simultaneously and at a fast speed.
The image-orthicon, vidicon and plumbicon are some important electronic scan
camera tubes which find wide applications these days.
1. Image Orthicon:
It is a sensitive tube and is capable of handling a wide range of light values and
contrast. In a single envelope, it includes three sections:
(a)Image Section: This section includes:
1. A photo sensitive surface, called photo cathode, operated at a very large
negative potential.
2. A target plate which is a thin plate of glass of low resistivity. Thickness is less
than 0.0002 in.
3. A screen located very close to target plate and has about 500,000 openings
per square inch.
When the optical image is focused on the photo cathode, photoelectrons, in
proportion to the amount of light impinging, are emitted. Most of the photoelectrons
pass through the screen and hit the target plate.
It should be noted here that since the target portion affected by the white portion of
the image will be positively charged and hence the electron beam has to give up
large number of electrons to neutralize the positive charge at that point, i.e., the
intensity of returning electron beam is much reduced and the video signal
developed across the output resistor for this part will be small. It, therefore,
concludes that the brightest part of image are transmitted as the signals of low
amplitude which is very advantageous in avoiding the effect of strong noise at the
receiver.
(c) Electron Multiplier Section:
An electron multiplier is located within the pick-up tube for amplifying the electron
density variation in the returning beam.
Vidicon camera is a television camera which converts the light energy into electrical
energy. It functions on the principle of photo conductivity, where the resistance of
target material decreases when exposed to light.
Construction:
The Vidicon consists of a glass envelope with an optically flat face plate (Fig). A
photosensitive, target plate is available on the inner side of the face plate. The target
plate has two layers. To the front, facing the face plate, is a thin layer of tin oxide.
This is transparent to light but electrically conductive. The other side of the target
plate is coated with a semiconductor, photosensitive antimony trisulphide. The tin
oxide layer is connected to a power supply of 50V.
Grid-1 is the electron gun, consisting a cathode and a control grid. The emitted
electrons are accelerated by Grid-2. The accelerated electrons are focussed on the
photo conductive layer by Grid-3. Vertical and Horizontal deflecting coils, placed
around the tube are used to deflect the electron beam for scanning the target.
Working:
The light from a scene is focussed on the target. Light passes through the face plate
and tin oxide, incident on the photo conductive layer. Due to the variations in the
light intensity of the scene, the resistance of the photo conductive layer varies. The
emitted electrons from antimony trisulphide reach the positive tin oxide layer. So,
each point on the photo conductive layer acquires positive charge. Hence, a charge
image that corresponds to the incident optical image is produced. As the electron
beam from the gun is incident on the charge image, drop in voltage takes place. As a
result, a varying current is produced. This current produces the video-signal output
of the camera.
3. Scanning and synchronising
A still picture is fundamentally an arrangement of many dark and light areas. Each
small area of light or shade is called a picture element. All the elements contain the
visual information in the scene. If they are transmitted and reproduced in the same
degree of light or shade as original and in proper position, the picture will be
reproduced.
In order to produce video signal for all the elements in the picture, it is scanned by
the electron beam, one element at a time, in sequential order. The scanning is done
in the same way as a written page is read to cover all the words in one line and all
lines on the page. Hence, scanning is the process by which an electron beam spot is
made to move across a rectangular area, so as to cover it completely. This
rectangular area may be the target surface in a television camera or the screen of a
picture tube in a television receiver.
The scene is scanned rapidly both in the horizontal and vertical directions
simultaneously. This provides sufficient number of complete pictures or frames per
second to give the illusion of continuous motion. In most of the television systems,
the frame repetition rate (scanning frequency) is 25 per second.
For scanning the picture elements, saw tooth potentials can be used. Saw tooth
potentials are produced by using a unijunction transistor and a R-C network. Saw
tooth potentials are applied to horizontal and vertical deflector plates in a TV
camera. When the saw tooth potential is applied to the horizontal plates called line
synchronising pulse, the electron beam at A travels along a slanting line AB by the
voltage variation of OM and reaches the point B (Fig a and b). From B, the scanning
spot travels along a line BC by the voltage variation MN. In order that no picture
should be scanned during the return journey (i.e. the beam from the right horizontal
end to the beginning of the next line), a blanking pulse, which is a high negative
potential, is applied to the control grid of electron gun during the duration of the
return journey. This prevents the emission of electrons from electron gun. Then the
electron beam starts to scan the next line and the process gets repeated till the
whole picture is scanned. On reaching the right bottom corner, the scanning spot
quickly moves up to the top left corner by the application of saw tooth potential to
the vertical deflector plates, called frame synchronising pulse. Thus for scanning the
picture, the three synchronising pulses are used. These synchronising pulses along
with the output of the TV camera are modulated on an ultra high frequency carrier
and transmitted. The accompanying sound is frequency modulated and transmitted
via the same antenna.
Interlaced scanning:
In India, the frame repetition rate has been standardised at 25 frames per second. This
repetition rate is enough to cause an illusion of continuity. But, the brightness of one frame
blends (mix) smoothly into the next, through this time when the screen is blanked between
successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light, that is very annoying to the
observer, when the screen becomes alternatively bright and dark. To eliminate this flicker,
each frame is scanned twice.
In this scanning, the total number lines are divided into two groups called fields. During the
presentation of the first field, only the odd numbered lines are scanned, while during the
second field all the even numbered lines are scanned. Half way along the bottom of the first
field, the vertical retrace returns the scanning beam to the top of the image and completes
the unfinished lines. (i.e) The remaining even numbered lines are then scanned during
second field. This method of scanning is known as interlaced scanning. In the 625 line TV
system, for successful interlaced scanning, the 625 lines of each frame or picture are divided
into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is scanned alternatively to cover the entire picture area.
The principle of interlaced scanning is shown in Fig .
Hence, with the interlaced scanning the flicker effect is eliminated without increasing the
speed of scanning, which in turn does not need any increase in channel bandwidth.
4.Plumbicon:
The construction of a plumbicon camera tube is similar to that of a standard vidicon
except for the target material. The plumbicon has a new type of photo-conductive
target, i.e., lead oxide of the form PbO. The figure below shows the constructional
features of a plumbicon camera.
Operation:
The operation of a plumbicon camera tube can be best explained from the diagram.
Initially, when there is no light input, the PIN diode is reverse biased due to a
positive potential appearing on SnO2coating (n-type) and p-type stabilized at a
potential slightly below the cathode due to negatively charged scanning beam. This
results in a very small output current which is almost negligible. This is the greatest
advantage of a plumbicon camera tube especially when used with color systems.
The photo electronic conversion is almost similar to that of a standard vidicon
except for the method of discharging each storage element. In standard vidicon each
element acted as a leaky capacitor with leakage resistance decreasing with more
light. Here when light falls on the target, the diode becomes forward biased upon the
extent depending upon light intensity. The forward bias on each diode results from
the photo excitation of the pure PbO and doped PbO junction. Thus the target
behaves as a capacitor in series with PIN diode.
Merits and Demerits:
1. In plumbicons, the uniluminated or the dark current is negligible and also it
is temperature independent.
2. It has got high sensitivity and a high signal to noise ratio.
3. Resolution is good but not as good as that of a vidicon.
4. Operational gamma is unity.
5. It is compact and exhibits simplicity of operation.
6. It is free of spurious signals.
7. Susceptibility to damage by over loads is not as severe as it is in vidicons.
8. There are some forms of PbO which have spectral limitations.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-11
Aim: To study the pattern generator.
Theory: A pattern generator produces audio/video signals, direct and with the RF
modulation on the allocated T.V. channel frequencies for alignment testing and
securing of T.V. receivers. The output signals are designed to simple pattern.
1. Check board Pattern
2. Horizontal Bars
3. Vertical Bars
4. Check board Pattern at one corner
5. Cross hatched
6. Dot Pattern
7. Pure White Pattern
Working:
The pattern generator contains two stable chains of multi vibrators, dividers and
pulse shaping circuits one below the line frequency to produce a series of horizontal
bars and the other above 15625HZ to produce vertical bars. The signals are
modified into short duration pulses which fed to the video section of the receiver
along with the sync pulses train to produce fine lines on the screen.
Output from the multivibrator produces square wave video signals at ‘m’ times the
horizontal frequency to provide vertical black and white bars. After every ‘m’ up to
the synchronizing the bar signal on each line. We can vary the number of bar by the
front panels of pattern generator by changing its frequency.
In the same way, square wave pulses derived either from 50HZ mains or from the
master oscillator are used to trigger another set of multivibrators to generate
square wave video signal that is ‘n’ times the vertical frequency. When they are fed
to the video amplifier they produce horizontal black and white bars. The faculating
late of the multivibrator can be controlled by a potentiometer i.e. on the front panel.
It controls the no. of black and white horizontal bars. The sync and blanking pulses
are added to these signals prior to modulation.
A master oscillator is used to generate blanking and gating pulses and generation.
The composite sync signal is given to the pattern video signal and sync adder. The
output of the vertical and horizontal bar generator goes to cross hatch and check
board pattern generator. The pattern video signal is given to the adder. From this
adder the signal goes to the VHF modulator.
Amplitude modulation takes place over the carrier frequency output is available in
high or low level from the output sockets. The master oscillator, sync, generator and
blanking generator supply the blanking pulses getting pulses to the multivibrator
that generates the vertical and horizontal bar signals.
A 1 KHz audio oscillator generates a signal which is frequency modulated over a
carrier of 5.5MHz. This serves the purpose of the frequency modulated audio signal
for the testing of the audio section. Its output is available over a separate socket
marked as audio/sound signal. The combination of switches mH and nV, the
multivibrator generates different pattern.
The horizontal bar pattern is used for checking vertical linearity. The vertical bar
pattern is used for checking horizontal linearity. The cross hatch pattern is used for
both linearity picture containing and aspect ratio. The dot pattern is suitable for
checking and adjusting the static convergence of the picture in the centre of the
screen with a low ambient brightness. The white pattern, with no information is
suitable for checking uniformity of brightness over the entire screen in the absence
of hum.
Color picture patterns are suitable for checking color purity, proper color
reproduction and overall performance of the receiver. The test signals available with
pattern generator are (1) RF signals (2) IF signals (3) video signals.
CONTROL & SPECIFICATION OF PATTERN GENERATOR:
Controls: -
1. Time frequency
2. Video (amplitude) output
3. Power on/off switch
4. FM socket
5. RF socket
6. Controls to change vertical &
horizontal bars
7. Pattern selector switch
Applications:-
1. Checking time and frame time bar linearity
2. Checking picture height and width
3. Video IF checking
4. Adjustment of sound IF stage and checking
5. AGC section checking
6. Troubleshooting video amplifier and using variable video output.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-12
Aim: To study the latest features and technologies in TV.
Non-cinematic HDTV video recordings intended for broadcast are typically recorded
either in 720p or 1080i format as determined by the broadcaster. 720p is commonly
used for the internet distribution of high-definition video, because all computer
monitors operate in progressive-scan mode. 720p also imposes less strenuous
storage and decoding requirements compared to both 1080i and 1080p.
Digital compression methods such as mpeg-2 allow the bandwidth of a single analog
TV channel (60 MHz in the US) to carry upto 5 standard definition or upto 2 high-
definition digital TV channels instead. Initially mpeg-2 was most commonly used as
the compression codec for digital HDTV broadcasts. Although mpeg-2 suppose upto
4:2:2 ycbcrchroma sub sampling and 10 bit quantization, HD broadcast use 4:2:0
and 8-bit quantization to save bandwidth. The Chinese HDTV system uses an
intellectual property free mpeg-2 codec that may have some coding interoperability
issues with current DVB codes.
Advantages Of HDTV Expressed In Non-Technical Terms:
High-definition TV (HDTV) yields a better-quality image than standard television
does, because it has a greater number of lines of resolution. The visual information
is some 2-5 times sharper because the gaps between the scan lines are narrower or
invisible to the naked-eye. The larger the size of the television the HD picture is
viewed on, the greater the improvement in picture quality. On some smaller
televisions there may be no noticeable improvement in picture quality.
Disadvantages Of HDTV Expressed In Non-Technical Terms:
Limitation to picture quality:
In practice, the best possible HD quality is not usually achieved. The main problem
is that many operators do not follow HDTV specifications fully. They may use lower
bit-rates or smaller resolution to pack more channels within the limited bandwidth,
reducing video quality. The operators may use a format that is different from the
original programming introducing artifacts in the process of re-encoding. Also
image quality may be lost if TV is not properly connected to the input device or not
properly configure for the input's optimal performance, which may be difficult
because of customer confusion regarding connections.
Connector cables:
Appropriate cabling must be used. Either HDMI or component video cables must be
used to support a high-definition signals. For instance, if composite cables are used
for connections from a cable box or satellite dish than only quality picture will be
seen. HDMI cables provide the best picture and sound. Component video cables are
RCA cables that are colour-coded for proper signals. They consists of 3 video cables
(gbr), two audio cable (red and white), and they carry an analog signal. HDMI cables
carry all the video and audio in one cable using a digital signal.
Aspect ratio:
Adding a new aspect ratio makes for consumer confusion if a display is capable of
more than one ratio but must be switched to the correct one by the user. traditional
programs and feature films (mostly movies from before 1953) originally filmed in
the standard 4:3 ratio, when displayed correctly on a HDTV monitor will have empty
display areas to the left and right of the image. Many consumers aren't satisfied with
this unused display area and choose instead to distort their standard definition
shows by stretching them horizontally to fill the screen, giving everything the
appearance of being too wide or not tall enough. Alternatively, viewer may choose to
zoom the image which removes content that was on the top and bottom of the
original TV show.
Plasma Television:
Plasma television is a flat, light weight surface covered with millions tiny glass
bubbles. Each bubble contains a gas like substance, the plasma and has a phosphor
coating. Think of the bubbles as the pixels. Essentially millions of Neon signs.
Now think of each pixel-bubble as having three sub pixels-one red, one green and
one blue. When it is time to display an image signal digitally controlled electric
current flows through the flat screen, causing the plasma inside designated bubbles
to give off ultraviolet rays. This light in turn causes the phosphor coatings to glow
the appropriate color making your plasma TV provide the best video image
anywhere.
Millions of RGB bubbles glowing and dimming to make a rich, vivid image.
The plasma display is one of the most exciting consumer electronics products to
debut in the past decade. It is literally changing the shape of TV, from the familiar
CRT-type TVs that have been around for fifty years, to sleek, nearly a flat display that
can hang on a wall. This new displays deliver high definition TV and they serve both
as TVs and computer monitors. This article provides information on plasma displays
in general so when you are ready to make a purchase, you will have enough
information to make an informed decision.
Conclusion:
EXPERIMENT-13
Aim: To find crossover network frequency response.
Theory: When a multi-way loud speaker system is use to get flat frequency response for the
entire range of audio frequencies it is essential to have a crossover network to divide
the incoming signal into separate frequency ranges for each speaker. In the absence
of crossover network, the speaker will suffer overheating and the output will be
distorted when full power at frequencies outside their range is fed to them. Overall
efficiency will be much reduced in absence of crossover networks.
Crossover networks make use of the fact that the capacitive reactance decreases
with increase in frequency [XC =1/ (2*П*f*c)], and the inductive reactance increase
with increase in frequency (XL = 2*П*f*l). A basic crossover network is illustrated in
fig below. The circuit consists of low pass LC filter across the woofer and high pass
LC filter across the tweeter. The low pass filter permits only low audio
frequencies(16Hz to 1000Hz) to go to the woofer. The series reactance of L and
shunt reactance of C for high audio frequencies prevent these frequencies from
going to the woofer.
Circuit
Diagram:
Conclusion: