Power Amplifiers

1 Introduction
The power amplifiers are normally used at output stages of amplifiers to deliver power to the loads such
as speakers at audio frequencies and to the signal transmitters at radio frequency in communication
transmitters. These amplifiers are essentially large signal amplifiers which are used to enhance the
power level of the signals in output stages. The small signal model cannot be used for analysis
of these amplifiers due non-linearities in characteristics of BJT which results in distortions in the
output signals. Therefore, harmonic distortion is important quality parameter of power amplifiers.
The power conversion efficiency is another important parameter of the power amplifiers for prolong
battery life, high temperature stability and low cost power supply.

2 Classification of Power Amplifiers

The power amplifier can be classified into different categories depending upon the conduction cycle
of the BJT and location of Q-point on output characteristics of BJT. The different types of power
amplifiers are discussed as follows,

Class A Power Amplifiers

When operating point is located at middle of load line and the BJT remains ON for full cycle of input
signal and collector current flows continuously for full cycle of input signal, such an amplifier is
called class ‘A’ amplifier. A class ‘A’ amplifier essentially operates in linear region of characteristics
of BJT. The amplification occurs for complete cycle of sinusoidal input in class A amplifier. Thus
class A amplifier is a linear amplifier which introduces the minimum distortion in the output signal.
Fig. 1 shows the waveforms of input and output signals of a Class A power amplifier.
ic

ICQ

    t
Fig. 1 Collector current of BJT in class A amplifier
www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [2]
The power dissipation is maximum in class A amplifier when the device is in off state. The distortion
in class A amplifier is minimum among all power amplifiers and the efficiency is also minimum. The
maximum efficiency of class A amplifier is 25% in direct coupled load and 50% with transformer
coupled load. A class A amplifier is mostly used as Audio amplifier.

Class B Amplifiers
In class B operation, the Q-point is located at the extreme of the load line near the cutoff region. The
Q-point is generally selected at collector cutoff voltage. The BJT remains ON only for half cycle
in class B operation. Thus, the output signal is amplified version of the input only for half of the
cycle of input signal in class B amplifier. Fig. 2 shows the waveforms of output signals of a Class B
power amplifier. The efficiency of class B operation is more than class A operation. The maximum
efficiency of class B operation is 78.5% . The distortion in class B operation is also more than class
A operation.

ic

   t

Fig. 2 Collector current of BJT in class B amplifier

Class AB Amplifiers
In class AB operation, the amplifier operates between two extremes defined by class A and class
B operations. The BJT in class AB operation remains ON for more than half cycle of the input
signal. Fig. 3 shows the collector current or output signal of BJT in a class AB operation. Therefore,
distortion in class AB operation is less than class B operation but more than class A operation. The
efficiency of class AB operation is more than class A operation and less than class B operation.

ic

ICQ

    t
Fig. 3 Collector current of BJT in class AB amplifier

Class C Amplifiers
The BJT in class C amplifier remains ON only for a period less than half cycle of input signal. Thus,

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [3]
the collector of BJT remains zero for more than half cycle. A class C amplifier requires an LC tank
circuit, tuned at same frequency as input signal, for maintaining output signal for complete cycle of
input signal. This amplifier has highest frequency and maximum distortion among Class A, B and
AB operations. A class C amplifier is, therefore, essentially a tuned amplifier. A class C amplifier is
mostly used in communication systems.

ic

    t
Fig. 4 Collector current of BJT in class AB amplifier

Class D Amplifiers
Class D amplifiers are designed to operate with pulse and digital type of signals. The BJT or MOSFET
is used as switch and not a linear amplifier in class D operation. Using the digital techniques, it is
possible to have a signal that varies over the entire cycle to create output from many samples of input
signal. The main advantage of class D amplifier is that the device is ON only for short intervals.
This amplifier has highest efficiency of order of 90% among all power amplifiers. The audio output
from a class D amplifier fed to loudspeaker through a simple low-pass filter which blocks the high-
frequency pulses.
Note : i. Comparison of Efficiency ‘η’
ηD > ηC > ηB > ηAB > ηA
ii. Comparison of Distortion
Class C > Class B > Class AB > Class A
iii. Class C amplifiers are mostly used in communication systems.
iv. If w is time period or width of pulse for which collector current is non-zero and T is total time
period input signal then the duty cycle of amplifier ratio of width of pulse with total time period
and it is given by,
w
Duty Cycle = × 100
T

3. Distortion in amplifiers
When a sinusoidal input signal is applied to a class ‘A’ amplifier the output signals is also sinusoidal
signal. However, the output signal may not be exact replica of input signal due to various types of
distortions introduced either by non-linearity of characteristics of BJT or by influence of external
circuit. The type of distortions introduced during amplification amplifier are as under,
(i) Non-Linear Distortion
When output characteristics of BJT are non-linear, these is unequal variation in output for equal
variations in input signal. Under such situations the output signal has additional harmonics introduced

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [4]
due to non-linearity in characteristics. Such distortion is called non-linear distortion. The non-linear
distortion is also known as “Amplitude distortion”.
(ii) Frequency Distortion
Frequency distortion occurs when gain or transfer function of amplifier is function of frequency
under such condition different frequency components of input signal are amplified with different
amplification factor. Frequency distortion puts limit on range of frequencies of input signal to be
amplified. Frequency distortion occurs in amplifier due to capacitive components such as coupling
and bypass capacitors of external circuit and parasitic capacitances such as junction capacitances or
dielectric capacitances of BJT or FET.
(iii) Phase-Shit Distortion
Phase distortion occurs when phase of transfer function or gain of amplifier is function of frequency.
When phase of transfer function or gain of amplifier is function of frequency, different frequency
components of input signal have different phase shift resulting in phase shift distortion.

Harmonic distortion in amplifiers

Consider the output characteristics of a BJT as shown in Fig.5. The collector current does not vary
equally with equal variations in input base current due to non-linearity in the characteristics of BJT.
Therefore, the collector current can be represented as non-linear function of base current as under,
2 3
ic = b1 ib + b2 ib + b3 ib + ..... (1)

where b1 , b2 , b3 , ..........bn are...............

ic
ib5

ib4

ib3
ib2
ib1
vce

Fig. 5 Non-linearity in output characteristics of BJT

Taking only up to second order term, we have,

2
ic = b1ib + b2ib (2)

Let input base current, ib = Im sin ωt (3)

Then, ic = b1 Im sin ωt + b2 (Im sin ωt)2 (4)

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [5]
 2 1 - cos 2ωt  
ic = b1 I m sin ωt + b2 I m   
  2

b2 I 2m b2 I m2
ic = - cos 2ωt + b1 I m sin ωt (5)
2 2

ic = I0 + I1 sin ωt + I 2 cos 2ωt (6)

b2 I 2m
where, I0 = = D.C. component of ic = D.C. level of ic (7)
2

I1 =b1 Im = Amplitude of fundamental component of ic (8)

b2 I 2m
I2 = = Amplitude of 2nd harmonics of ic (9)
2

It is observed from equations (3) and (6) that input base current has only fundamental frequency w
where as the output collector current has DC, fundamental as well as second harmonic components.
Thus, non-linearity in characteristics introduces additional harmonics in output resulting in harmonic
distortion of the output signal.

Distortion factor
The distortion factor due to an harmonic is defined as ratio of amplitude of that harmonic with
fundamental component. Mathematically it can be given by,
I2
For second harmonic, D2 = (10)
I1

I3
For third harmonic, D3 = (11)
I1

In
For nth harmonic Dn = (12)
I1

Total harmonic distortion (THD) :

Total harmonic distortion is defined as ratio of amplitude of total harmonics and fundamental
component of the current. Mathematically,
Total harmonic current
THD = (13)
Fundamental current

The amplitude of total harmonic component in collector current can be given by,

Ih = I 2 2 + I32 + I 4 2 + ...... + I n 2 (14)

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [6]

I 2 2 + I32 + I 4 2 + ...... + I n 2
⇒ THD = (15)
I1

I 2 2 I3 2 I 4 2 In 2
⇒ THD = + + + .... + (16)
I12 I12 I12 I12

⇒ THD = D 22 + D32 + D 24 + ..... + D 2n (17)

Total A.C. power of output signal (excluding DC) can be given by,
P = I1, rms2RL + I2, rms2RL + I2, rms2RL +................+ In, rms2RL (18)
2 2 2 2
 I   I   I   I 
⇒ P =  1  R L +  2  R L +  3  R L + ..... +  n  R L (19)
 2  2  2  2

2
 I 2,rms 2 I3,rms 2 I 4,rms 2 I n,rms 2 
⇒ P = I1,rms R L 1 + 2
+ + + .... +  (20)
 I1,rms I1,rms 2 I1,rms 2 I1,rms 2 

2 2 2 2
⇒ P = P1[1 + D 2 + D3 + D 4 + .... + D n ] (21)

⇒ P = P1 [1 + D2] (22)
I12
where, P1 = . R L = Power of fundamental harmonic (23)
2

and D = D 22 + D32 + ........ + D 2n = THD (24)

Note : Negative feedback is often used in power amplifiers to reduce non-linear distortion.

Example 1
A sinusoidal signal of 100 Hz is applied to an amplifier. The output current is
io = 20 sin (628t) + 2 sin (1256t) + 1 sin (2512 t)
What is the approximate percentage increase in power due to distortion ?
(a) 1.15 (b) 1.25
(c) 1.30 (d) 1.50
IES(EE,08)
Solution : Ans.(b)
Given output current of amplifier,
io = 20 sin 628 t + 2 sin 1256 t + 1 sin 2512 t
Amplitude of 100 Hz component of output current,

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [7]
IP1 = 20 A
Power of 100 Hz component,
I P12
Po1 = R L =200 RL
2

(20) 2 (2) 2 (1) 2

Total output power, Po = RL + RL + RL
2 2 2
Po = (200 + 2 + 0.5) RL
Po = 202.5 RL
Po - Po1 202.5 - 200
% increase in power = × 100 = × 100 = 1.25 %
Po1 200

Example 2
An output signal of a power amplifier has amplitudes of 2.5 V fundamental, 0.25 V second harmonic
and 0.1 V third harmonic. The total percentage harmonic distortion of the signal is
(a) 12.8% (b) 10.8%
(c) 6.4% (d) 1.4%
IES(E&T,12)
Solution : Ans.(b)
0.25
Second harmonic distortion, D2 = ×100 = ×100 = 10%
V 2.5

V3 0.1
Third harmonic distortion, D3 = ×100 = ×100 = 4%
V1 2.5

Total harmonic distortion, D = D 2 2 + D32= (10) 2 + (4) 2= 10.8%

4 Class A amplifier
The BJT in class A amplifier is biased at mid of load line. The BJT conducts for 360o of cycle of input
signal. The class A amplifier can be connected in three different configurations called direct coupled,
transformer coupled and push-pull mode. All the configurations are discussed in the following
sections.
4.1 Class A amplifier with Direct coupled load
Fig. 6 illustrates the circuit of a direct coupled class A power amplifier and its output characteristics.
The load is connected in collector circuit directly in direct coupled amplifier. The the DC bias current
passes through the load resistance resulting in DC power losses.

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [8]
ic
Vcc
Load line
R
IC,maxc Ib4

+Vcc Im Ib3
ICQ Q-point
IbQ
Ib1
RC = R L IC,min Ib0
Rb
vo VCEQ VCE,maxVCC vce
+ VCE,min
VCE Vm
vi –

(a) Class-A Amplifier (b) Output characteristics & signals of class A amplifier
Fig. 6 Direct coupled class A amplifier and its output characteristics & signals

The output power of any amplifier comes from DC biasing source as well as AC input signal. The

power supplied by biasing source can be given by,

Pi,dc = VCCIC (25)
The DC power dissipated in collector resistance can be given by,
P′dc = IC2 R C (26)
The D.C. power input at collector of the BJT can be given by,
2
P′ = Pdc - P′dc = VCCIC - IC R C =VCE IC (27)

2
At Q-point, Pi,dc = VCEQ ICQ = VCC ICQ - ICQ R L (28)

The output signal power of direct coupled class A amplifier is delivered by the transistor can be given
by,
Vm Im Vm I m V 2
Po,ac = Vrms Irms = × = = m (29)
2 2 2 2R C

The amplitude of output voltage (Vm) and output current (Im) can be determined in terms of collector
current and collector to emitter voltage from output characteristics shown in Fig. 6b as under,
VCE,max - VCE,min
Vm = (30)
2

Ic max - Ic min
Im = (31)
2

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [9]
Putting above expressions of Vm and Im in equation (29), we have,
(VCE max - VCE min ) (IC max - IC min )
Po,ac = . (32)
2 2 2 2

(VC E max - VC E min ) (IC max - IC min )

⇒ Po,ac = (33)
8

Conversion or Collector Efficiency :

The collector efficiency is defined as ratio of AC output power delivered to the load to the DC input
power from biasing supply. The collector efficiency is also known as conversion efficiency of the
power amplifier. Mathematically,
Po,ac
Collector Efficiency, η = × 100 (34)
Pi,dc

Putting the expressions of Pac from equation (33) and Pdc from equation (27), we have,
(VC E max - VC E min ) (IC max - IC min )
η = × 100 (35)
8 VC C ICQ

VCC
For ideal conditions, IC min= 0, ICmax = = 2 ICQ and VCE max =VCC
RC

1 (VC E max - VC E min )

⇒ η = × 100 (36)

4 VC E max

For maximum η, VCE min = 0

1
∴ ηmax = × 100 =25% (37)
4

It is observed from above equation that the maximum possible collector efficiency of class A direct
coupled amplifier is 25%. The efficiency of a class A amplifier can be improved by using transformer
coupled load instead of direct coupled load.

Example 3
A 50 W power amplifier has a rated output of 30 Vr.m.s and a voltage gain of 40 dB. It is connected
to a 40 W loudspeaker having an internal resistance of 10Ω. Determine the maximum input voltage
that can be given to the power amplifier so that neither the power amplifier nor the loudspeaker is
overloaded
(a) 40 V (b) 20 V
(c) 0.4 V (d) 0.2 V
GATE(IN/2003/2M)
Solution : Ans.(d)

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [10]
50 W
30 Vrms
40dB
Vo Vspk
10 
Speaker
40 W

Given, Pspk = 40 W
Rspk = 10 Ω
Rated rms power of speaker, 2
V spk
Pspk =
R spk

⇒ Vspk = Pspk R=
spk 40 × 10
= 20 V
Voltage gain of amplifier,
AVdB = 40 dB= 20 log10 Av
V
⇒ AV = 100 = o
Vin

Vo
⇒ Vin =
AV

Output voltage of amplifier should not exceed rated input voltage of speaker
⇒ Vo = Vspk = 20 V
Vo Vspk 20
⇒ Vin = = = = 0.2 V
A V A V 100

Example 4
In a class A amplifier , VCE(max) =15 V and VCE(min) = 1 V. The conversion efficiency for a series fed
load equal to
(a) 25 % (b) 23.33%
(c) 12.5 % (d) 11.67%
IES (E&T,08)
Solution : Ans.(b)
Conversion efficiency of class-A power amplifier is given by,
1 (Vmax - Vmin )
η = × 100%
4 Vmax
Given, Vmax = VCE (max) = 15 V and Vmin = VCE (min) = 1 V
1  15 - 1 
⇒ η =   × 100 = 23.33 %
4  15 

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [11]
4.2 Class A amplifier with Transformer coupled load
In direct coupled amplifier the DC bias quiescent collector current passes through load resistance
resulting in large power loss. This DC power in load does not contribute to AC output power in
load. It is also not advisable to pass DC power through a load such as voice coil of loud speaker.
This problem can be overcome by using a transformer coupled load. Fig. 7 shows a class A amplifier
with a transformer coupled load and its characteristics and signals. The primary of transformer is
connected between DC supply and collector terminal of BJT and load is connected on secondary
side. The DC voltage drop across primary winding of transformer is almost zero so the biasing
voltage appears directly at collector of BJT giving VCE = VCC. So, the DC load line is a vertical
line as shown in Fig. 7b. The operating or Q-point is intersection of intersection of DC bias base
current with DC load line. Therefore, at Q -point, VCEQ = VCC. The AC signals the load impedance
connected on secondary of transformer appears on primary side as transformed impedance resulting
in AC voltage drop across the primary . The load line on output characteristics has a negative slope
as shown in Fig. 7b. Therefore, the AC load line and DC load lines are different for a transformer
coupled class A power amplifier.

AC Load
ic line
DC Load
line

IC,max IB4

+Vcc Im Ib3
1:n ICQ Q-point
IbQ
Rb Ib1
RL
IC,min Ib0
VCE,min VCEQ = VCC VCE,max vce
vs
Vm

RE CE
(a)
Transformer coupled Class-A Amplifier (b) Output characteristics & Signals
Fig. 7 Transformer coupled class A amplifier and its output characteristics & signals

Transformation of load impedance :
Voltage transformation ratio of transformer,
V1 N
= 1 (38)
V2 N2

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [12]
Current transformation of transformer,
I1 N
= 2 (39)
I2 N1

From above two equations, we have,

V1 / V2 N2
= 1 2 (40)
I1 / I 2 N2

V1 N2 V
⇒ = 1 2 × 2 (41)
I1 N2 I2

RL
⇒ RL ′ = (42)
n2

Where n = N2 / N1 = Turns ratio of transformer, (43)

RL ′ = V1/I1=Load impedance referred to primary side of transformer
RL = V2/I2= Load impedance connected on secondary side of transformer.
Here N1 represents turns on primary side and N2 represents turns on secondary side of transformer.
The resistance RL ′ is the load impedance seen by AC signals from primary side of the transformer at
collector of BJT.

Collector Efficiency :
Peak value of AC output current on primary side of transformer,
Vm
Im = (44)
R L′

Vm I m V 2 (VC E max - VC E min ) (IC max - IC min )

Output AC power, Po,ac = = m = (45)
2 2R L′ 8

Input power, Pi,dc = VCC ICQ (46)

Let, IC min = 0 then, ICQ ≈ Im (47)

⇒ Pi,dc = VCC Im (48)

Vm I m Vm I m
Po,a c
Collector Efficiency, η = × 100 = 2 × 100
= 2 × 100 (49)
Pi,dc VCC ICQ VCC . I m

1 Vm (VCE max - VCE min ) / 2

⇒ =
η = 2 V × 100 = VCE,max - VCE,min × 100 (50)
CC 2VCC 4VCC
www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [13]
Since, collector of transistor is connected to VCC directly through the transformer primary winding,
therefore, the instantaneous voltage at collector must be sinusoidal signal shifted by VCC. The voltage
VCEQ at Q-point is same as DC supply voltage. Mathematically, VCEQ is average value of instantaneous
value of voltage at collector terminal which can be given by,
VCE max + VCE min
VCEQ = = VCC (51)
2

Replacing VCC by above relation in equation (50), we have, ∴

1 V -V 1V -V
η = V
CE max
V
CE min
× 100 = CE max CE min
× 100 (52)
4 CE max + CE min 2 VCE max + VCE min
2

For maximum collector efficiency, VCEmin= 0

1
⇒ ηmax = × 100 =50% (53)
2

Advantages of Transformer Coupled Power Amplifier:

1. Efficiency of amplifier gets doubled because the DC power dissipated in load resistance becomes
zero.
2. It provides the isolation of load from DC biasing circuit. The DC biasing current is undesirable
in some type of loads, such as loudspeaker. Therefore, transformer coupling becomes essential
for such type of loads.
3. It provides impedance matching between the load and active device and high gain.

Problem of Core Saturation in Single Ended Transformer Coupled Amplifier:

When a transformer is connected at the collector of BJT for coupling of the load. The DC biasing
current flows in the primary of the transformer. This current results into saturation of the core of
transformer. Due to saturation, the output voltage of transformer becomes non sinusoidal even if the
primary voltage is sinusoidal. Thus core saturation results in introduction of harmonic distortion in
the output voltage of the transformer. The harmonic distortion in output is high at audio frequencies
due to saturation of transformer core. These harmonics can be eliminated by using the push-pull
arrangement.

Example 5
A class - A transformer coupled, transistor power amplifier is required to deliver a power output of
10 watts. The maximum power rating of the transistor should not be less than
(a) 5 W (b) 10 W
(c) 20 W (d) 40 W
GATE(EC/1994/1M)
Solution : Ans.(c)
Transformer coupled amplifier has maximum efficiency of 50%

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [14]
Pout
∴ ≤ 50% = 0.5
Pin
Pout
⇒ Pin ≥
0.5
10
⇒ Pin ≥
0.5
⇒ Pin ≥ 20 W
So, maximum power rating of the transistor should not be less than 20 W.

Example 6
For a transformer, the load connected to the secondary has an impedance of 8Ω. Its reflected
impedance on primary is observed to be 648Ω. The turns ratio of this transformer is
(a) 6 :1 (b) 10 : 1
(c) 9 : 1 (d) 8 : 1
IES(E&T,14)
Solution : Ans.(c)
When a resistance RL is connected on secondary side of a transformer the resistance seen from
primary side is given by,
R
RL′ = 2L
n

where n = N2/N1 = Turns ration of transformer.

Given, RL = 8, RL′ = 648Ω
8
⇒ 648 =
n2
⇒ n = 1/9 = N2/N1

⇒ N1/N2 = 9/1

4.3 Push-pull class A amplifier

The problem of core saturation of transformer in single ended transformer coupled class A power
amplifier can be overcome by using a push-pull arrangement as shown in Fig. 8. A push-pull
arrangement consists of two transformer at input as well as output of the amplifier and two BJTs. The
primary of transformer on output side is subjected to DC components of collector in such a manner
that flux due to both components is in opposite direction. The push pull arrangement eliminates all
the even harmonics from output if both transistors are matched. The resistance R1 and R2 are used for
biasing of transistors Q1 and Q2.

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [15]

ic1
Rs Q1 n1: n2 iL
R2
+ n1/2
Vs ~ n2 RL
– R1 Vcc n1/2

Q2

ic2

The load current push-pull amplifier can be given by,

iL = K(iC1 - iC2 ) (54)

n1
where, K = (55)
n1

Advantages of Push Pull Arrangement:

(a) The DC components of collector current generate flux in opposite direction in the transformer
core, therefore, there is no problem of core saturation. So, the harmonics introduced by the core
saturation are eliminated.
(b) It eliminates all the even harmonics from the load current.
(c) The power output per device is more.
(d) The effect of ripple voltage of the power supply due to inadequate filtering are balanced out
because of flow of ripple current in opposite direction in the primary of the output transformer.
Disadvantages of Push Pull Arrangement :
(a). Humming noise is generated from core of transformers and humming noice is not eliminated.
(b) Two transistors have to be used.
(c) It requires two equal and opposite voltages at the input. Therefore push pull circuit requires the
use of driver stage to furnish these signals.
(d) If the parameter of the two transistors are not the same, there will be unequal amplification of two
halves of the signal.
(e) The circuit gives more distortion.
(f) Transformer used are bulky and expensive.
Note : A push pull amplifier also reduces the ripples in the output signal, but it does not eliminate humming
noise coming from the power supply.

5 Class B amplifier
The BJT in class B amplifier is biased at at extreme of load line near cutoff region. The BJT conducts
for 180o of cycle of input signal. The class B amplifier can be connected in two different configurations
called transformer push-pull mode and complimentary mode.
5.1 Transformer Coupled Class-B Push-Pull Amplifier
In class B amplifier, the operating point is selected such that the output current is amplified version

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [16]
of input current only for half cycle. The circuit of class B operation can be implemented by using
the push pull arrangement as shown in the Fig. 9. The emitter terminals of both transistors appear
shorted with base terminals for DC bias signals. The BJTs of the circuit has essentially are biased
conditions such that each transistor conducts only for half cycle of input voltage. The Q1 conducts for
positive half cycle and Q2 conducts for negative half cycle of input supply voltage. The output from
the amplifier is available for full cycle due to push-pull arrangement. The efficiency of push-pull
class B amplifier is more than that of a class A amplifier.
ic
ic1 Ib4
ic Load line
Ib3
Rs Q1 n1: n2 iL
+ Im Ib2
+ vin Idc n1/2
vs ~ – RL Ib1
+ Q
– VCC n1/2
vin VCC vce
VCEmin
– vce
Q2 Vm
ic2

(a) Class B push-pull Amplifier (b) Output characteristics & signals of BJTs
Fig. 9 Class B push-amplifier and its output characteristics & signals of each BJT
Collector Efficiency :

Output AC power of the amplifier can be given by,

Vm I m V 2
Po,ac = = m (56)
2 2R L′

Where, Im is peak value of current on primary side of output transformer and Vm is peak value of AC
output voltage on primary side of output transformer.
The DC input power of amplifier from DC supply,
Pi,dc = VCC Idc (57)
The DC current is drawn from DC power supply for complete cycle of input signal. During positive
half cycle, the current flows from DC supply (VCC ) to collector of transistor Q1 and during negative
half cycle the current flows from DC supply (VCC ) to collector of transistor Q2. Thus, the current
from DC supply is a fully rectified wave. The DC value of current from DC power supply is the
average value of fully rectified wave which can be given by,
2 Im
Idc = (58)
π

Putting above expression of Idc in equation (57), we have,

2 Im 2Vm
Pi,dc = VCC . = VCC . (59)
π πR L′

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [17]
Po ,ac
Collector efficiency, η = × 100 (60)
Pi ,dc

(Vm I m )
⇒ η = 2 × 100 (61)
2I
VCC . m
π

π V
⇒ η = . m × 100 (62)
4 VCC

Peak of AC output voltage at collector can be obtained from output characteristics of the amplifier as
under,
Vm = VCC – VCEmin (63)
π VCC - VCE min
⇒ η = . × 100 (64)
4 VCC

π  VCE min 
⇒ =η . 1- × 100 (65)
4  VCC 

For maximum efficiency , VCEmiin = 0

π VCC
⇒ = η . × 100 78.5
= (66)
4 VCC

Collector Power Dissipation

The total power dissipated at the collector of both transistors is difference of DC input power and AC
output power,
2I 2VCC 2
∴ PC = Pidc - Podc = VCC . m - 2 (67)
π π R L′
The maximum power dissipation at collector is given by,
2VCC 2
PC,max = (68)
π2 R L′
The maximum possible AC output power is obtained when Vm = VCC, the equation (56), becomes,
VCC 2
Po,ac,max = (69)
2R L′

From above two equations, we have,

4
Po,ac,max = × PC,max = 0.4 PC,max (70)
π2

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [18]
Crossover Distortion
The input characteristics of BJT are non-linear due to which the base currents starts flowing only
when base-emitter or input voltage becomes more than some minimum voltage called cut in voltage.

vbeor vin

Q1 Q1
V

V t
Q2 Q2

iL
Q1 Q1

Q2 t
Q2
Crossover
distortion

Fig. 10 Waveforms of Class B push-amplifier exhibiting crossover distortion

The output current of the amplifier remains zero till input voltage of BJTs remain less than the cut
in voltage. As both BJTs of push pull class B amplifier conduct alternatively therefore, there is a
period of zero output current in each half cycle of input voltage. Fig. 10 gives the waveforms of input
voltage and output current of the class B push pull amplifier depicting the cross over distortion.
Remedy for Crossover Distortion :
i. Cross over distortion can be overcome by using class AB operation.
ii. Cross over distortion can also be overcome by replacing the voltage source by current source.

Advantages of Class B Push Pull Amplifier

(i) Since, class B operation is a push-pull operation, therefore, all even harmonics are absent.
(ii) Efficiency is higher than class A amplifier.
(iii) Class-B operation has no power loss when no signal is applied where as class-A operation has
maximum power loss when no signal is applied.

Disadvantages of Class B Push Pull Amplifier

(i) Harmonic distortion is more.
(ii) Self biasing arrangement with single BJT cannot be used.
(iii) Supply voltage should have good regulation.
(iv) It is difficult to get matching characteristic of transistors for push-pull amplifier.
(v) Class B operation suffers from crossover distortion.

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [19]
Note : i The heat dissipation in class B operation is maximum when the device is ON and it it increases
with increase in excitation of the amplifier.
ii. The heat dissipation in class A amplifier is maximum when the device is OFF and it decreases as
the excitation increases.
iii. The voltage maximum collector to emitter voltage of BJT in class B amplifier is equal to VCC so
the breakdown voltage of BJT in class B amplifier should be more than VCC.
iv. The efficiency of class B push-pull amplifier is much higher than that of class A amplifier
primarily because there is no current in class B operation if there is no excitation where as there
is a drain current from supply in class A operation even at zero signal.
v. Class B push pull is most preferred high power output stage for Hi-Fi audio frequency.

Example 7
A class-B push-pull power amplifier uses two transistors each having a power dissipation capacity
of 2 watts. The maximum power that the circuit can deliver to the load without extending the power
dissipation capacity of the transistors is
(a) 1 watt (b) 2 watts
(c) 5 watts (d) 10 watts
IES(E&T,95)
Solution : Ans.(d)
Maximum power dissipation in class B push pull amplifier is given by,
4
PC, max = Pmax
π2
= 0.4 Pmax
Where, PC, max = PC1 max + PC2 max

= Sum of maximum power dissipation of each transistor

Pmax = Maximum power delivered by amplifier
Given, PC1 max = PC2 max = 2 W

PC, max
⇒ Pmax = = 2.5 (2 + 2) = 10 W
0.4

Example 8
A class-B push-pull type amplifier with transformer coupled load uses two transistors rated 10 W
each. What is the maximum power output one can obtain at the load from this circuit?
(a) 40 W (b) 50 W
(c) 60 W (d) 70 W
IES(E&T,02)
Solution: Ans.(b)
Maximum power dissipation of each transistor,

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [20]
Po, max = 10 W
Total power dissipation,
Po, max = PC1 max + PC2 max = 20 W

The maximum output power of class B amplifier can be given by,

4
PC, max = Pmax
π2
PC, max = 0.4 Pmax
1
⇒ Pmax = PC max
0.4
20
⇒ Pmax
= = 50 W
0.4

Example 9
In a class-B push-pull operation, the d.c. power drawn is 28 W. What is the power delivered by the
amplifier at the ideal maximum efficiency of power conversion?
(a) 28 W (b) 14 W
(c) 22 W (d) 7 W
IES(E&T,07)
Solution : Ans.(c)
Efficiency of power amplifier is given by
Output a.c.signal power
η = × 100
Input d.c.power

Pac(out )
η = × 100
Pdc(in )

Maximum efficiency of class-B push-pull amplifier is 78.5%

Given, Pdc(in) = 28 W
78.5 × 28
⇒ Pac (out) = = 22 W
100

Example 10
The efficiency of a class B amplifier is 72% when the supply voltage is 24 V. The peak to peak output
voltage is
(a) 20 V (b) 22 V
(c) 25 V (d) 16 V
IES(EE,10)
Solution : Ans.(b)
The efficiency of class B power amplifier is given by,

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [21]
π Vm
η = . × 100
4 Vcc

π Vm
⇒ 72 = . × 100
4 24

⇒ Vm = 22 V

5.2 Class-B amplifier With Complimentary Push-Pull Arrangement

The complementary operation of class B amplifier eliminates the use of transformer from input and
output side of push-pull arrangement. This arrangement makes use of two transistors having similar
characteristics exactly matching with each other. But one transistor is p-n-p and another transistor is
n-p-n as shown in Fig. 11. Both transistors in the complementary operation are connected in emitter
follower configurations so the voltage gain of complementary operation is unity. In complementary
operation npn transistor is ON during positive half cycle and pnp transistor is during negative half
cycle on input signal. So, complementary operation is also a push-pull operation. The DC power is
drawn from +VCC during positive half cycle and from -VCC during negative half cycle. The output
across load is available for full cycle of input signal.
+VCC

npn
Vo

+
Vin ~ RL
pnp
–

VCC
Fig. 11 Class B complimentary push - pull amplifier

Collector Efficiency :
The AC output power of the amplifier,
Vm 2 Vrms 2 V I
Po,ac = = = m m (71)
2R L RL 2

Where Vm is amplitude and Vrms is output voltage across load resistance RL.
The DC current is drawn from DC power supply for complete cycle of input signal. During positive

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [22]
half cycle, the current flows from positive DC supply (+VCC ) to collector of npn transistor and during
negative half cycle the current flows to negative DC supply (-VCC ) from collector of pnp transistor.
The DC value of current from positive power supply is the average value of positive half rectified
wave which can be given by,
Im
Idc(+) = (72)
π

The DC input power drawn from positive DC power supply,

Im
Pi,dc(+) = VCCIdc(+) = VCC ⋅ (73)
π

The DC value of current drawn from negative power supply is the average value of negative half
rectified wave which can be given by,
Im
Idc(-) = - (74)
π

Note : DC current during negative half cycle enters into terminal of negative power supply, therefore,
it has been taken as negative here.
The DC input power drawn from negative DC power supply,
I  I  Im
Pi,dc(-) =(-VCC) Idc(-) = VCC ⋅ m (- VCC ) ⋅  - m =
 VCC ⋅ (75)
π  π π

Total DC power drawn form positive and negative DC power supplies,

Im
Pi,dc = Pi,dc(+)+ Pi,dc(- ) = 2 VCC ⋅ (76)
π

Po ,ac
Collector efficiency, η = × 100 (77)
Pi ,dc

(Vm I m )
⇒ η = 2 × 100 (78)
2I
VCC . m
π

π V
⇒ η = . m × 100 (79)
4 VCC

Advantages of Complementary Arrangement

i) Size is small and cost is less.
ii) Humming noise is eliminated.
iii) Crossover distortion is eliminated.

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [23]
Disadvantages of Complementary Arrangement
i) It is difficult to fabricate two transistor with matching characteristics.
ii) Considerable distortion is introduce because even harmonics are not completely canceled out.
Example 11
The circuit of a class B push-pull amplifier is shown in the figure. If the peak output voltage Vo is 16
V, power drawn from the dc source would be
(+ VCC) +25V

+ +
Vin 8 V0
– –
–25V
(a) 10 W (b) 16 W
(c) 20 W (d) 32 W
IES(EE,99)
Solution : Ans.(d)
(+ VCC) +25V

+ +
Vin 8 V0
– –
–25V
Peak of output voltage, Vo = 16 V
Load resistance, RL = 8 Ω
16
Peak load current, Im = = 2 A
8
Power drawn from source in class B operation is given by,
P = Ioav Vcc
Im 2.0
P = 2 Vcc = 2 × × 25 = 32 W
π π

Example 12
The input signal Vin shown in the figure is a 1 kHz square wave voltage that alternates between +7V
and −7V with a 50% duty cycle. Both transistors have the same current gain, which is large. The
circuit delivers power to the load resistor RL .What is the efficiency of this circuit for the given input
www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [24]
? Choose the closest answer.
+10V

Q1

Vin Vout
RL=10
Q2

–10V
(a) 46% (b) 55%
(c) 63% (d) 92%
GATE(EE/2007/2 M)
Solution : Ans.(c)

+10V

Q1

Vin Vout
Vin
RL=10
Q2 +7V

T/2 T t
–7V
–10V
Given amplifier in a class B complementary power amplifier. As both transistors Q1 and Q2 are
connected in emitter follower configuration their voltage gain is almost unity.
Rms output voltage.
Vo, rms = Vin,rms
Rms value of input square voltage wave,
1/ 2
 1 T/ 2 2 
Vin,rms =  ∫ Vin dt 
T 0 

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [25]
Vin = +7V ; 0 < t ≤ T/2
1/ 2
 1 T/ 2 2 
⇒ Vin,rms =  ∫ (7) dt  = 7V
T / 2 0
∴ Vo,rms = 7V
2
Vo,rms (7) 2
Output power, Po = = = 4.9 W
RL 10
Vo,rms 7
Rms load current, IL,rms = = = 0.7A
RL 10
Current drawn from d.c. source,
Idc = IL rms = 0.7 A
DC power input, Pdc = Vdc Idc = 10 × 0.7 = 7W
P 4.9
Efficiency of amplifier, η = ac × 100 = × 100
Pdc 7

⇒ η = 70%
So, closest answer is option (a).
Shortcut :- Maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier is 78.5 %. So, closest answer is 63%.

6 Class AB Operation
Class AB operation has operating point located such that the output current is available for more than
half cycle. Therefore, the distortion in class AB operation is less than class B operation but more than
class A operation. The efficiency of class AB operation is more than class A operation but less than
class B operation. In class AB operation a small stand by current flows even if excitation is zero. This
helps in over coming of cross-over distortion which is a problem with class B operation.

7 Class C Amplifier
The operating point of BJT in class C amplifier is loacted such that the BJT conducts for less than 180o
in each cycle of input signal. This amplifier requires a tank circuit connected at output to complete
the full cycle of output signal. Fig. 12 shows the circuit diagram of a class C amplifier.
+Vcc

L C
vo
vi

Vbb
Fig. 12 Class C Amplifier

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [26]
The tank circuit must be tuned at same frequency as the input signal. Therefore, the Class C amplifier
is essentially a tuned amplifier. The bandwidth of this amplifier is very narrow in comparison to
other amplifiers. The applications of class C amplifier are primarily limited to signal frequency like
communication circuit.



www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [27]

GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 The type of power amplifier which exhibits crossover distortion in its output is
(a) Class A (b) Class B
(c) Class AB (d) Class C
GATE(EE/2000/1 M)
Q.2 Transformer and emitter follower can both be used for impedance matching at the output of an audio
amplifier. The basic relationship between the input power Pin and output power Pout in both the cases
is
(a) Pin = Pout for both transformer and emitter follower
(b) Pin > Pout for both transformer and emitter follower
(c) Pin < Pout for transformer and Pin = Pout for emitter follower
(d) Pin = Pout for transformer and Pin < Pout for emitter follower
GATE(EE/2009/2 M)
Q.3 In a transistor push-pull amplifier
(a) There is no d.c. present in the output
(b) There is no distortion in the output
(c) There are no even harmonics in the output
(d) There are no odd harmonics in the output
GATE(EC/1993/2M)
Q.4 A distorted sinusoid has the amplitudes A1, A2, A3, ...... of the fundamental, second harmonic, third
harmonic, ..... respectively. The total harmonic distortion is
A 2 + A 3 + .... A 22 + A 32 + ....
(a) (b)
A1 A1

A 22 + A 32 + ....  A 2 + A 32 + .... 
(c) (d)  2 
A12 + A 22 + A 32 + ....  A1 
GATE(EC/1998/1M)
Q.5 Crossover distortion behavior is characteristic of
(a) Class A output stage (b) Class B output stage
(c) Class AB output stage (d) Common-base output stage
GATE(EC/1999/1M)
Q.6 A class B push pull complementary symmetry amplifier uses
(a) Two n-p-n transistors
(b) One p-n-p and one n-p-n transistor
(c) One pre-amplifier of n-p-n transistor followed by amplifier of two p-n-p transistors
(d) None of these
GATE(IN/1998/2M)

www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com
Power Amplifiers EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [28]

Answers & Explanations of GATE Questions

Q.1 Ans.(b)
Class B type of amplifier exhibits crossover distortion in its output.
Q.2 Ans.(d)
A transformer simply provides the impedance matching but it does not change the power level of the
signal fed whereas an emitter follower increases the power level of the signal in addition to providing
impedance matching.
Q.3 Ans.(c)
In transistor push-pull amplifier there are no even harmonics in the output.
Q.4 Ans.(b)
Total harmonic distortion of an amplifier is given by,
2 2 2
= D 2 + D3 + .....D n
THD

A2
Where, D2 = = second harmonic distortion
A1

A3
D3 = = Third harmonic distortion
A1

An
Dn = = nth harmonic distortion
A1
A 22 + A 32 + .....A 2n
⇒ THD =
A1
Q.5 Ans.(b)
Crossover distortion behavior is characteristic of a class-B output stage.
Q.6 Ans.(b)
A class B push-pull complimentary symmetry amplifier uses one p-n-p and one n-p-n transistor.



www.digcademy.com digcademy@gmail.com