Oscillator circuit analysis and design

Oscillators
1 Introduction
An oscillator is a circuit which is used to generate a periodically time varying signals without any
input. If the output is sinusoidal then it is called an sinusoidal oscillator and if it is a square wave
then it is called a square wave generator. The oscillators are broadly classified as harmonic oscillators
and relaxation oscillators. The harmonics oscillators generate mostly low distortion or distortion
free sinusoidal signals whereas relaxation oscillators generate only non-sinusoidal signals. The
harmonic oscillators use active devices such as BJT, FET or op-amp and a feedback circuit whereas
relaxation oscillators use negative resistance devices like UJT. In harmonic oscillators, the frequency
of oscillations is determined by feedback components whereas in relaxation oscillators the frequency
is determined by time constant of the circuit.
Consider an amplifier with positive feedback as shown in Fig. 1. The output of the amplifier depends
on input as well signal fed back from feedback network. Let xs is source signal, xf is feedback, xi is
input to amplifier and xo is output signal. Let A is forward path gain and b is feedback path gain or
feedback factor of the amplifier.
Amplifier
xs + xi
A xo
+
xf

Feedback
Network
Fig. 1 Block diagram of amplifier with positive feedback
The output of the amplifier,

xo = Axi (1)
The input signal, xi = xs + xf (2)

The output signal in terms of source and feedback signals becomes,
xo = A(xs + xf) (3)
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Oscillators EDC & ANALOG ELECTRONICS [2]
The feedback signal, xf = bxo (4)
By putting above expression of feedback signal in equation (3), we have,
xo = A(xs + bxo) (5)
For sustained oscillations, xs = 0
⇒ xo = Abxo (6)
⇒ Aβ = 1 (7)
or |Aβ| = 1 (8)
and ∠Aβ = 0º (9)
Here, the product Aβ is called loop gain of the feedback amplifier. Thus for sustained oscillations, the
magnitude of loop gain is unity and phase shift provided by the loop should be 360o or 0º.
Barkhausen Criteria :
The Barkhausen criteria gives the condition of sustained sinusoidal oscillations of an oscillator
circuit. According to this criteria the loop gain of an oscillator circuit must be unity for sustained
oscillations.
Assumptions of Barkhausen criteria
i) This criteria is applicable for sinusoidal signals only.
ii) The entire circuit is assumed to be operating linearly.
iii) Both amplifier and feedback networks should be consisting of reactive elements at least one
capacitor and one inductor.
Conditions of oscillations as per Barkhausen criteria
i) For sustained oscillations
Aβ = 1 , |Aβ| = 1, ∠Aβ = 0º
In this case poles of the transfer function of the oscillator lie on jw-axis.
ii) If |Aβ| > 1 then the amplitude of oscillations increases continuously and finally driving the
transistor to saturation. This is a condition of positive feedback. This is the state of unstable
oscillations. In this case poles of the transfer function of the oscillator lie close to jw-axis but in
right half of s-plane.
iii) If |Aβ| < 1 then the amplitude of oscillations reduces continuously and ultimately oscillations die
out. This is a condition of negative feed back. In this case poles of the transfer function of the
oscillator lie close to jw-axis but in left half of s-plane.
Note : In practical oscillators loop gain is always kept slightly more than unity (i.e. positive
feedback or poles in right half of s-plane near jw-axis) in order to compensated loss of signal due to
attenuation or due to onset of non linearities.
Note : i. When |Aβ| > 1, | xf | > | xi | that means amplification is more than attenuation.
ii. When |Aβ| < 1, | xf | < | xi | that means attenuation is more than amplification.
iii. When |Aβ| = 1, | xf | = | xi | then, attenuation is equal to amplification which is conditional for
sustained oscillations.
iv. Stability of oscillator depends on how fast phase varies with frequency. If rate of change of phase
with frequency (df/dw) is large then oscillator gives more stabilized frequency of oscillations.
Classification of Oscillators
The oscillators can be classified on the basis of frequency range as well as component used for
realization of oscillator. The oscillators can be classified on the basis of operating frequency as ,
i. Audio frequency (AF) oscillators : 20H to 20 kHz
ii. Radio frequency (RF) oscillators : 20 kHz to 30 MHz
iii. Very Low Frequency (VLF) oscillators : 15 Hz to 100 kHz
iv. Low frequency oscillators : 100 to 500 kHz
v. Broadcast oscillators : 500 kHz to 1500 kHz
vi. Video frequency oscillators : 0 to 5 MHz
vii. High frequency oscillators : 1.5 MHz to 30 MHz
viii. Very high frequency oscillators : 30 MHz to 300 MHz
ix. Ultra high frequency oscillators : 300 MHz to 3000 MHz
x. Microwave frequency oscillators : 3GHz or More
The harmonic oscillator circuits can be realized by using an amplifier and a combination of circuit
elements like R,L or/and C connected in feedback path. Depending on type of elements used, the
oscillators can be classified as under,
i) Phase shift Oscillators (1Hz to 1 MHz)
ii) Wein bridge oscillator (1 Hz to 1 MHz)
iii) LC Oscillators: (a) Hartley (10kHz to 100 MHz) (b) Colpitt (10kHz to 100 MHz) (c) Clapp
(d) Tuned
iv) Crystal oscillator ( Fixed frequency in MHz)
v) Relaxation oscillator
vi) Negative resistance oscillator ( Used at > 100 MHz)
vii) Blocking oscillator
Example 1
The circuit in figure employs positive feedback and is intended to generate sinusoidal oscillation. If
Vf ( f ) 1 o
at a frequency f0, B ( f )= = ∠0 , then to sustain oscillation at this frequency
V0 ( f ) 6
R2
R1
–
+ +
Vo(f)
Network
+ B(f)
V_f(f) _
(a) R2 = 5R1 (b) R2 = 6R1

R R1
(c)
R2 = 1 (d) R 2 =
6 5
GATE(EC/2002/2M)
Solution : Ans.(a)
R2
R1
–
a
+ +
Vo(f)
Network
+ B(f)
V_f(f) _
Feedback voltage of network,

Vf(f)` = B(f) Vo(f)
1 o
Given, B(f) = ∠0
6
Gain of given amplifier, A = 1 + Rf/R1

As per Barkhausen Criteria of sustained oscillations,
AB(f) = 1
 R2  1
⇒ 1 +  × = 1
 R1  6
⇒ R2 = 5R1
Example 2
A
Three identical amplifiers, each having a gain of o ∠ 60° are connected in cascade. The positive
2
feedback loop has a gain of 0.008 The value of Ao that will render the cascaded system oscillatory is
(a) 10 (b) –10
(c) 250/3 (d) 250
IES(EE, 12)
Solution : Ans.(c)
Barkhausen criteria for sustained oscillation is given by,
|Aβ| = 1
Where, A = Open loop gain
β = Feedback factor
Ao
Overall gain of three amplifiers connected in cascade is given by, A = 3× ∠ 60°
2
Given, positive feedback loop has a gain, β = 0.008
Ao
|Aβ| = 3× × 0.008
2
Ao
For sustained oscillations, 3× × 0.008 = 1
2
⇒ Ao = 250/3
2 Wein Bridge Oscillator

The Wein bridge oscillator is most popular at audio and sub-audio frequencies in the range 20 Hz
to 20 kHz. The maximum frequency obtainable with a Wein bridge oscillator is 1 MHz. The Wein
bridge oscillator circuits can be realized by using an op-amp and Wein bridge. In the Wien bridge
oscillator, the 0° phase-shift is met by using lead-lag RC network and by using a feedback op-amp.
The RC lead-lag network is connected in the positive feedback path of the op-amp and has zero phase
shift in just one frequency. This oscillator has positive as well negative feedback as shown in Fig. 2.
R4 R3
–
vo
+
C2
C1
R2 R1
Fig. 2 Wein bridge oscillator
The circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3 below,

R3
R4
–
Vo
+
R1
Z1
+ C1
Vf
R2 C2 Z2
–
Fig. 3 Wein bridge oscillator with positive and negative feedbacks
Gain of amplifier without positive feedback can be given by,
R3
A = 1 + (10)
R4
Feedback factor due to positive feedback,

R 2 × 1 / j wC 2
Z2 R 2 + 1 / j wC 2
β = = (11)
Z1 + Z2 R + 1 + R 2 + 1 / jwC2
1
jwC1 R 2 + 1 / jwC2
jw CR 2
⇒ β =
jw C1 R 2 + (1 + jw C2 R 2 )(1 + jw C1 R1 )
jw C1 R 2
⇒ β = (12)
jw C1 R 2 + jw (C1R1 + C2 R 2 ) − w2 C2 R 2 C1R 1
As per Barkhausen criteria, the condition of as collations is given by

Aβ = 1 (13)
It is observed from above equation that the product Aβ should be real. The gain ‘A’ given by equation
(10) is real so the feedback factor β given by equation (12) must be real. The feedback factor β
becomes real if
1 – ω2 C1 R1 C2 R2 = 0
1
⇒ ω = (14)
C1 R1 C2 R 2
1
⇒ f = (15)
2π C1 C2 R1 R 2
Here frequency f is frequency of oscillations of the circuit. The real value of β becomes,
C1 R 2
β = (16)
C1 R 2 + C2 R 2 + C1 R1
Patting expression of A from equation (10), and β from equation (11) in equation (13), we have,
 R3  C1 R 2
1 +
× =1
 R 4  ( C1 R 2 + C2 R 2 + C1 R1 )
R3 C R
⇒ 1+ = 1 + 2 + 1
R4 C1 R 2
R 3 C2 R1
⇒ = + (17)
R 4 C1 R 2
Special Case :
If C1 = C2 = C and R1 = R2 = R then,
R3 = 2R4 (18)
1
and f = (19)
2π RC
CR 1
Feedback factor, b = =
3C R 3
For sustained oscillation, Aβ ≥ 1

1
⇒ A × ≥ 1
3
⇒ A ≥ 3 (20)
The minimum gain for sustained oscillations at the output of the oscillator,
Amin = 3 (21)
Amplitude stabilization in Weins bridge oscillator
Amplitude stabilization in Weins bridge oscillator helps in stabilizing the variation in gain of amplifier
due to temperature environmental changes or due to aging effect.
Amplitude stabilization can be achieved by following two techniques,
i) By replacing resistance R2 (resistance of shunt branch) with a resistance, which has positive
temperature coefficient.
ii) By replacing resistance R1(resistance of series branch) with a thermistor, which has negative
temperature coefficient.
Note : i. If C1 = C2 = C and R1 = R2 = R then for sustained oscillation, the resistance adjoining to series
RC branch is twice the resistance adjoining to parallel RC branch and gain of amplifier is 3.
ii. Wein bridge oscillator has both types of feedback i.e. positive as well negative feedback.
iii. The frequency of Wein bridge can be varied by varying resistance R or capacitance C.
Example 3
Value of R in the oscillator circuit shown in figure is so chosen that is just oscillates at an angular
frequency of ω.The value of ω and the required value of R will respectively be
100 K
5K
–
Vo
+
R
0.01 F 10 mH 1K
(a) 105 rad/sec. 2 × 104 Ω (b) 2 × 104 rad/sec. 2 × 104 Ω

(c) 2×104 rad/sec. 2×105 Ω (d) 105 rad/sec. 2 × 105 Ω
GATE(EC/1996/2M)
Solution : Ans.(a)
100k
5k
–
b
+ d Vo
a
0.01µF
c
R
10 mH
1k
Above circuit is an oscillator only when bridge ‘abcd’ is balanced. The bridge will be balanced only if
branch ac is purely resistive which is possible only when branch ac is under resonance. The resonant
frequency of branch ‘ac’ shall be frequency of oscillation of circuit. So, frequency of ocillation of
circuit,
1 1
ωo =
=
LC 10 × 10 × 0.01 × 10−6
−3
⇒ ωo = 105 rad/sec
Resistance of branch ac at resonace is 1kΩ.
So, at balance,
R×5 = 100×1
R 20kΩ
⇒ =
3 Phase Shift Oscillators

A phase shift oscillator consists of an amplifier in forward path and RC network in feedback path.
Fig. 4 shows the block diagram of a generalized RC phase shift oscillator. The amplifier in forward
path of RC phase shift oscillator can be based on either of active devices like BJT, MOSFET or an
operational amplifier. The BJT amplifier is used in common emitter (CE) configuration , MOSFET
based amplifier is used in common source (CS) configuration and op-amp based amplifier is used in
inversion mode so the total phase shift provided by the amplifier in forward path is 180o.
Amplifier
vo
A
c C b C a C
+ +
vf R R R vo
_ _
Feedback Network
Fig. 4 General block diagram of a phase shift oscillator
The feedback network consists of three RC stages with each stage providing phase shift of 60o. Thus
total phase shift provided by the RC feedback network is 180o so that total phase shift provided by
loop including amplifier is 360o or 0o. The phase shift oscillators are used at audio frequency in range
from 20 Hz to 1 MHz. The frequency band of phase shift oscillators is slightly more than that of a
Wein bridge oscillator.
The feedback factor of feedback network can be obtained by considering the feedback network
separately as shown in Fig. 5.
c C b C a C
vf vo
R R R

Fig. 5 Feedback network of phase shift oscillator
Applying KCL at node a we have,

v − vo va va − vb
a + + = 0
1 / j wC R 1 / jwC
 1
⇒  j2wC +  v a − jwCv 0 − jwC v b =0 (22)
 R 
Applying KCL at node ‘b’, we have,

vb − va vb vb
+ + = 0
1 / jwC R R + 1 / jw C
 
 1 1 
⇒ jωC va =  jwC + +  vb
 R R+ 1 
 jwC 

 1 1 
⇒ va = 1 + +  vb
 jwCR 1 + jwCR 
(1 + jwCR )
2
+ jwCR
⇒ va = v b (23)
jwRC(1 + jwCR)
Putting above expression of va in equation (22), we have,
 j2w CR + 1 (1 + jw CR )2 + jw CR 
 × − jwC  v b = jw C v o (24)
 R j wCR (1 + jw CR ) 
Feedback voltage at output of the feedback network can be given in terms of voltage vb as under
R jw C R

vf = × vb =
R + 1 / jw C 1 + jw CR
1 + jwCR
⇒ vb = vf
jwCR
Putting above expression of vb in equation (24), we have,

 (1 + j2w CR ) (1 − w2 C2 R 2 + j3wCR ) + w2 C2 R 2 (1 + jwCR ) 
⇒   v f = jw C v 0
 w2 C2 R 3 
vf j w3 C3 R 3
Feedback factor, b= =−
v0 (1 + j2wCR ) (1 − w2 C2 R 2 + j3wCR ) + w2 C2 R 2 (1 + jwCR )
vf j w3 C3 R 3
⇒ b = =− (25)
v0 1 − 6w2 C2 R 2 + j ( w3C3 R 3 + 5wCR )
According to Barkhausen criteria of oscillations,

Aβ = 1 (26)
It is assumed that the amplifier gain A without feedback is a real number. So, ‘β’ should also be real
for satisfying the Barkhausen criteria.
The value of β becomes real if,
1 – 6 ω2 C2 R2 = 0 (27)
1
⇒ w = (28)
6CR
1
⇒ f= (29)
2π 6CR
Here f is frequency of oscillations in Hz and w if frequency of oscillations in rad/sec.

1
If X C = is capacitive reactance then equation (27) can also be written as,
wC
6R 2

1− = 0
Xc2
⇒ Xc = 6 R (30)
This equation given another condition of oscillations in terms of reactance and resistances of feedback
network.
Under such conditions the real value of β becomes
w3 C3 R 3 w2 C2 R 2
β = = (31)
−w3 C3 R 3 + 5w C R 5 − w2 C2 R 2
Putting expression of ω from equation (28) in above equation, we have,
1
× C2 R 2
6C2 R 2
β =
1
5− 2 2
× C2 R 2
6C R
1
⇒ β = (32)
29
For sustained oscillation, Aβ ≥ 1
1
⇒ A× ≥ 1
29
⇒ A ≥ 3 (33)
The minimum gain for sustained oscillations at the output of the oscillator,
Amin = 29 (34)
3.1 Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp

The amplifier in an op-amp based phase shift oscillator is inverting mode amplifier as shown in
Fig. 5. The feedback voltage at the output of feedback network is fed at input terminal of inverting
configuration. The inverting configuration shifts the phase of input signal by 180o so the feedback
network is designed to provide a phase shift of 180o so that net phase shift in loop is 360o or 0o.
Amplifier
R1 RF
vo

C C C
R R R
Feedback Network
Fig. 6 Opamp based phase shift oscillator
The gain of inverting configuration is given by,

RF
A = − (35)
R1
It is observed from eqaution (30) that the feedback network provides a phase shift of 180o when,
Xc = 6 R (36)
where Xc = 1/wC = reactance of capacitor
1
⇒ = 6 R (37)
wC
1
⇒ f = (38)
2π RC 6
The feedback factor of RC phase shift network under this conditional is given by,
1
b = (39)
29
For sustained oscillations, Ab ≥ 1
⇒ A ≥ 29 (40)
Thus, minimum gain of op-amp based amplifier for sustained oscillations should be,
Amin = 29 (41)
3.2 Phase Shift Oscillator using MOSFET

The amplifier in an MOSFET based oscillator is used in common source (CS) configuration as shown
in Fig. 7. The feedback voltage at the output of feedback network is fed at input gate terminal of the
MOSFET. The common source configuration shifts the phase of input signal by 180o so the feedback
+VD
RD
D
G
S
RS CS
C C C
+
vf R R R
–
Feedback Network
Fig. 7 MOSFET based phase shift oscillator
Replacing the MOSFET by its small signal equipment, the oscillator circuit becomes as shown in
Fig. 8.
D
G
+ +
vf gm vf RD v0
_
S –
C C C
+ +
vf R R R
v0
– –
Feedback Network
Fig. 8 Small signal equivalent of MOSFET based phase shift oscillator
Output voltage of MOSFET, vo = – gm RD vf

Gain of amplifier without feedback,
v0
A = = −g m R D
vf
It is observed from equation (30) that the feedback network provides a phase shift of 180o when,
Xc = 6 R (42)
where Xc = 1/wC = reactance of capacitor
1
⇒ = 6 R (43)
wC
1
⇒ f = (44)
2π RC 6
The feedback factor of RC phase shift network under this conditional is given by,
1
b = (45)
29
For sustained oscillations, Ab ≥ 1
⇒ A ≥ 29 (46)
Thus, minimum gain of MOFET based amplifier for sustained oscillations should be,
Amin = 29 (47)
Note : Wein bridge oscillator is used at audio frequency range from 20 Hz to 100 kHz where as Phase shift
oscillators are used at audio frequency range and low radio frequency range from 20Hz to 1 MHz.
3.3 Phase Shift Oscillator using BJT
The amplifier in a BJT based oscillator is used in common emitter (CE) configuration as shown in
Fig. 9. The feedback voltage at the output of feedback network is fed at input base terminal of the
BJT. The common emitter configuration shifts the phase of input signal by 180o so the feedback
+Vcc
R1 RC
vo
C
B
E
R2 CE
RE
Zi
C C C
+ +
R R R
vf vo
_ _
Feedback Network
Fig. 9 BJT based phase shift oscillator
The resistance R′ of the feedback network in BJT based phase shift oscillator is selected such that,
R′ = R – Zi (48)
R th hie
where Zi = Rth || hie = and Rth = R1||R2
R th + hie
For a CE configuration R1 and R2 are also selected such that, Rth >> hie
∴ Zi ≈ hie (49)
Putting above expression of Zi in equation (48), we have,
R′ ≈ R – hie (50)
Frequency of oscillations:
Frequency of oscillations for RC phase shift oscillator using BJT is given by,
1
f =
(51)
2π RC 6 + 4K
RC
where, K = (52)
R
Condition for current gain of BJT :
The gain of BJT in phase shift oscillator is given by,

29
hfe ≥ 4 K + 23 + (53)
K
δ h fe
For minimum value of hfe , = 0
δK
Differentiating equation (53), w.r.t. K, we have,
29
⇒ 4− = 0
K2
29
⇒ K = = 2.6 (54)
2
Putting above value of K in equation (52), we have,
29
∴ hfe min = 4 × 2.6 + 23 +
2.6
⇒ h fe min = 44.5
(55)
Note : i. Minimum value of gain hfe of BJT in phase shift oscillator for sustained oscillations is 44.5.
ii. RC phase shift oscillator has positive feedback for sustained oscillations.
iii. Each stage (RC network) of feedback network in RC phase shift oscillator provides a phase shift
of 60º. Therefore, three RC stages are required to get the total phase shift of 180°.
Example 4
1 C
+ R +
Vi C R Vo
– –
An FET oscillator uses the given phase shift network as shown above. The minimum gain required
for oscillation is
(a) −29 (b) 1
(c) 3 (d) 29
IES(EE,03)
Solution : Ans.(c)
A vo
vf = –vi
Feedback network of oscillator is as shown below,

1 C
+ R +
Vi C R Vo
– –
1
Let XC =
sCR
Apply KCL at node (i),

v1 − v o v1 − v f v
⇒ + + 1 =0
R XC XC
1 2  vo vf
⇒  +  v1 − − =0
 R XC  R XC
XC  X 
⇒ vf = v o −  2 + C  v1 .....(i)
R  R 
1
Let α =
wCR
XC 1 j
⇒ = = − = –jα
R jwCR wCR
XC
Putting = – jα in equation (i), we have
R
⇒ vf = –jαvo – [2 – jα] v1 ......(ii)

R
Also, vf = · v1
R + XC
 X 
⇒ v1 = 1 + C  v f
 R 
⇒ v1 = [1 – jα] vf ......(iii)
From (ii) & (iii), we have,
vf = –jαvo – (2 – jα) (1 – jα) vf
vf – jα
⇒ =
vo 1 + (2 − jα) (1 − jα)
vf − jα − jα
Feedback factor, β = = =
vo 1 + (2 − jα) (1 − jα) (3 − α 2 ) − 3jα
For sustained oscillations Aβ = –1, Since gain of an amplifier is real number, So, β should also be a
real number. For β to be real,
3 – α2 = 0
2
 1 
  = 3
 wRC 
1
ω =
3 RC
1 1
f= And b =
2π 3 RC 3
For sustained oscillations, | Aβ| = 1

1
⇒ A × = 1
3
⇒ A=3
4 LC Oscillators
An LC oscillator consists of an amplifier in forward path and LC tank circuit in feedback path. Fig.
10 shows the block diagram of a generalized LC oscillator.
Amplifier
+ Ro vo
vi = vf
– ~ AoVi
+ Z3 +
Z1 Z2
vf vo
– –
Feedback Network
Fig. 10 General block diagram of LC oscillator
The amplifier in forward path of LC oscillator can be based on either of active devices like
BJT, MOSFET or an operational amplifier. The BJT amplifier is used in common emitter (CE)
configuration, MOSFET based amplifier is used in common source (CS) configuration and op-amp
based amplifier is used in inversion mode so the total phase shift provided by the amplifier in forward
path is 180o. The feedback network consists of LC network providing phase shift of 180o so that
total phase shift provided by loop including amplifier is 360o or 0o. The phase shift oscillators are
used at radio frequency in range from 10 kHz to 100 MHz. These oscillators are also known as RF
oscillators.
The output voltage of above circuit can be given by
A o Vi . ZL
vo = (56)
ZL + R o
Where Ao is open loop gain of the amplifier without load.

The feedback circuit results in loading of the amplifier and works like a load. The loading impedance
of feedback network seen from output terminal of the opamp can be given by,
Z2 (Z1 + Z3 )
ZL = Z2 || (Z1 + Z3) = (57)
Z1 + Z2 + Z3
Gain of the amplifier with loading effect,

vo Z A
A = = L o (58)
vi R o + ZL
Z1
From feedback voltage, vf = . v o (59)
Z1 + Z3
vf Z1
Feedback factor, β = = (60)
v o Z1 + Z3
As per Barkhausen criteria for sustained oscillations,

Aβ = 1 (61)
Putting expression of A from equation (55) and β from equation (60), we have,
ZL A o Z1

× = 1 (62)
R o + ZL Z1 + Z3
Z2 (Z1 + Z3 )
× Ao
Z1 + Z2 + Z3 Z1
⇒ . = 1 (63)
Z2 (Z1 + Z3 ) Z1 + Z3
Ro +
Z1 + Z2 + Z3
Z2 (Z1 + Z3 ) A o Z1
⇒ . = 1 (64)
R o (Z1 + Z2 + Z3 ) + Z2 (Z1 + Z3 ) Z1 + Z3
In an LC oscillators feed back elements are essential reactive elements as it consist of both inductance
and capacitance. For sustained oscillations the product Aβ should be unity which is a real number.
The product Aβ which is left hand side of equation (64) will be a real if
Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = 0 (65)
4.1 Hartley Oscillator

A Hartley oscillator consists of two inductors and one capacitor. The block diagram with feedback
circuit of Hartley oscillator is shown in Fig. 11.
Amplifier
vo
A
C
+ +
vf L1 L2 vo
– –
Feedback Network
Fig. 11 Hartley Oscillator
The circuit diagram of Hartely filter based on BJT, MOSFET and Op-amp are shown in Fig. 12. It is
observed here that only amplifier is replaced by BJT or MOSFET or Op-amp based amplifiers and
the feedback network remains same in all the circuits.
+VCC +VDD
RF
RC RD
R1 Cco vo R1 Cco vo R1
Cci – vo
Cci
+
R2 R2 RS CS
RE CE
+ C
+
vf L1 L2 vo
+ + + C
+ – –
C
L1 L2 vf L1 L2 vo
vf vo – –
– –
Feedback Network
Feedback Network Feedback Network
(a) BJT based (b) MOSFET based (c)Op-amp based

Fig. 12 Circuit diagrams of Hartley Oscillator based on BJT, MOSFET and Op-amp
1
For Hartley oscillator, Z1 = jX1 = jωL1 , Z2 = jX2 = jωL2 and Z3= − j X 3 =
−j
wC
For sustained oscillations,
Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = 0 (66)
1
jw L1 + jw L 2 − j = 0
wC
1
⇒ ωL1 + ωL2 =
wC
1
⇒ ω = (67)
(L1 + L 2 ) C
1
⇒ f = (68)
2π Leq C
where, Leq = L1 + L2 (69)

Here f represents the frequency of oscillations of the circuit.
Z1
Feedback factor, β = (70)
Z1 + Z3
From equation (66), we have,

Z1 + Z3 = – Z2 (71)
Putting above relation in equation (70), we have,
Z1 jwL1
β = = (72)
− Z 2 − j wL 2
⇒ | β | = (73)
For sustained oscillations, |Aβ| ≥ 1 (74)

For real values of A and b , we have,
⇒ |A| ≥ 1/|β| (75)

L
⇒ |A| ≥ 2 (76)
L1
Thus, minimum gain of the amplifier for sustained oscillations,

L2
|A|min = (77)
L1
Special Cases :
If coils are mutually coupled the inductances L1 and L2 are replaced by their equivalent inductances
in above expressions of f, b and A as follows,
A. For additively coupled coils:
L1eq = L1 + M (78)
L2eq = L2 + M (79)
∴ Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M (80)
1
Frequency of oscillations, f = (81)
2π Leq C
L1 + M
Feedback factor, |β| = (82)
L2 + M
L2 + M
Minimum gain, |A|min = (83)
L1 + M
B. For differentially coupled coils:

L1eq = L1 – M (84)
L2eq = L2 – M (85)
∴ Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M (86)
1
Frequency of oscillations, f = (87)
2π Leq C
− ( L1 − M )
Feedback factor, |β| = (88)
L2 − M
−(L − M)
Minimum gain, |A|min = (89)
L M
4.2 Colpitt Oscillator

A Colpitt oscillator consists of two capacitors and one inductor. The block diagram with feedback
circuit of Colpitt oscillator is shown in Fig. 13.
Amplifier
vo
A
L
+ +
vf C1 C2 vo
– –
Feedback Network
Fig. 13 Colpitt Oscillator
The circuit diagram of Colpitt oscillator based on BJT, MOSFET and Op-amp are shown in Fig. 14.
It is observed here that only amplifier is replaced by BJT or MOSFET or Op-amp based amplifiers
and the feedback network remains same in all the circuits.
+VCC +VDD
RF
RC RD
R1 Cco vo R1 Cco vo
R1
Cci Cci – vo
+
R2 R2 RS CS
RE CE
+ L
+
vf C1 C2 vo
+ + + L
+ – –
L
C1 C2 vf C1 C2 vo
vf vo – –
– –
Feedback Network
Feedback Network Feedback Network
(a) BJT based (b) MOSFET based (c)Op-amp based

Fig. 14 Circuit diagrams of Colpitt Oscillator based on BJT, MOSFET and Op-amp
1 1
For Colpitt oscillator, Z1 = –jX1 = − j , Z2 = – jX2 = − j and Z = jX3 = jωL
w C1 w C2
Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = 0 (90)
1 1
⇒ + = ωL (91)
w C1 w C2
11 1 
⇒ ω = + (92)
L  C1 C2 

1
f =
⇒ (93)
2π L Ceq
CC
Ceq = 1 2
where, (94)
C1 + C2
Here f represents the frequency of oscillations of the circuit.

Z1 Z 1 / jwC1
Feedback factor, β = = 1 = (95)
Z1 + Z3 − Z2 −1 / jwC2
C2
⇒ | β | = (96)
C1
|Aβ| ≥ 1 (97)
For real values of A and b , we have,
⇒ |A| ≥ 1/|β| (98)

C
⇒ |A| ≥ 1 (99)
C2
Thus, minimum gain of the amplifier for sustained oscillations,

C1
|A|min = (100)
C2
4.3 Clapp Oscillator
The Clapp oscillator is improvement over Colpitt oscillator. The single inductor of Colpitt oscillator
is replaced with series LC branch in this oscillator. The addition of capacitance in series with
inductance improves the frequency stability and eliminate the effect of parameter variations of BJT
on operation of circuit. The circuit diagram of Clapp oscillator based on BJT as shown in Fig. 15.
+VCC
R1 RC
Cco vo
Cci
R2
RE CE
L C3
C1 C2
Feedback Network
Fig. 15 Clapp Oscillator
1 1 1
For Clapp, Z1 = − j , Z2 = − j and Z 3 = jωL − j
w C1 w C2 w C3

Z1 + Z2 + Z3 = 0 (101)
1 1 1
⇒ − j −j + jw L − j =0 (102)
w C1 w C2 w C3
1 1 1
⇒ + − wL + =0 (103)
w C1 w C2 w C3
1 1 1 1 
⇒ w =  + +  (104)
L  C1 C2 C3 
1
⇒ f = (105)
2π L Ceq
1 1 1 1
where, = + + (106)
Ceq C1 C2 C3
The capacitance C3 is selected such that is very small as compared to C1 and C2 , then,
1 1
≈ (107)
Ceq C3
1
⇒ f ≈ (108)
2π LC3
It is observed from above equation that frequency of Clapp oscillator depends parameters of series
resonant branch comprising of L and C3. The frequency of oscillations can be varied by varying
single capacitor C3.
Note : (i) LC oscillators are used at radio frequency ranging from 10 kHz to 100 MHz.
(ii) Hartley, Clapp and Colpitt oscillators are use in communication receivers.
5 Crystal Oscillator
A crystal oscillator consists of a piezo-electric crystal which works on the principle of
piezo-electric effect. According to piezo-electric effect, a voltage is induced across the faces of a
piezo-electric crystal when it is subjected to a dynamic mechanical stress. When the stress applied
is oscillating, the voltage induced in the crystal is also oscillating and electromechanical oscillations
are produced in the crystal. Examples of piezo-electric material are Quartz, Rochelle salt, BaTiO3. (i.e.
Barrium Titanate). Fig. 16 shows the circuit diagram of BJT and MOSFET based crystal oscillators.
+VCC
+VDD
RFC
R1 XTAL CC RFC
Cco
vo XTAL CC
vo
R2 RG
RE CE
(a) BJT based (b) MOSFET based

Fig. 16 BJT and MOSFET based crystal oscillators.
The Quartz is an elastic material which exhibits the mechanical oscillations when it is subjected
to dynamic mechanical stress. The mass of the crystal and elasticity represent the energy storage
elements. The molecular friction is energy dissipating element which is responsible for damping
of oscillations. According to the analogy between mass-damper systems and electrical systems, the
mechanical and electrical systems are analogous to each other. Therefore, the quartz crystal can be
replaced by an electrical equivalent circuit which comprises of a capacitor connected across a series
resonant RLC circuit as shown in Fig. 17. In series RLC branch of equivalent circuit of crystal, the
inductance, Ls , represents the mass of the crystal, resistance,
Rs , represents the molecular friction and capacitance, Cs, represents the elasticity of the crystal. The
capacitance of parallel branch of equivalent circuit represents the metallic mountings of the crystal.
A Rs
Quartz CM
crystal Metallic Ls
mountings
Cs
B
B
(a) Quartz crystal (b) Equivalent circuit

Fig. 17 Quartz crystal and its equivalent circuit
The equivalent circuit will be in resonance when imaginary part of impedance or admittance is zero.
Admittance of circuit seen across the terminals of the crystal,
1
YAB = jw CM + (109)
1
R s + jw L s − j
w Cs
1
w Ls −
Rs w Cs
YAB = jw CM + 2
− j 2 (110)
2  1  
2 1 
R +  w Ls − R +  w Ls −
C s  C s 
s s
 w  w
 1 
 w Ls − 
w Cs
At resonance, Img{YAB} = j w CM − 2
=0 (111)
 2  1  
 R s +  w Ls −
  w C s  
 2  1   
2
1 
⇒ w CM  R s +  w L s −  −  w Ls − = 0 (112)
 

w C s    w C s 
For sustain oscillations, molecular friction should be negligible.

∴ Rs ≈ 0
  1     1 
⇒ w CM  w L s −   − 1 w L s − w C  = 0 (113)
  w Cs     s 
Let the series RLC branch is in resonance at ω = ωs. The series RLC branch of the circuit is resonance
when,
1
ws L s − = 0 (114)
ws C s
1
⇒ ws = (115)
Ls Cs
Let whole circuit is in resonance at ω = ωp. The circuit is in parallel resonance when,
 1 
wP CM wP L s − − 1 = 0 (116)
 wP C s 
1 1 1 
ωP 2 = + (117)
Ls  Cs CM 

1
⇒ wP = (118)
L s Ceq
Cs CM
where, Ceq = (119)
C s + CM
Relationship between ws and wP:

The parallel resonant frequency of the circuit,
1  1 1 
ωP =  +  (120)
L s  Cs CM 
1  Cs 
⇒ ωP =
Ls Cs 1 + C  (121)
 M 
From equation (115) and (121), we have,

1
 C 2
⇒ wP =ws 1 + s  (122)
 CM 
Here, ωP > ωs, but both are close to each other, so crystal can be tuned at any frequency.
Variation of Impedance of Crystal as a Function of Frequency:

The impedance of series resonant circuit is minimum at series resonant frequency and it is maximum
at parallel resonant frequency. Thus impedance of a crystal oscillator is minimum at ωs and maximum
at ωP. The curve demonstrating the variation in impedance of crystal oscillator as a function of
frequency is shown in Fig. 18
|ZAB| or 1
|YAB|
s p
Fig. 18 Variation in impedance of crystal oscillator as function of frequency
Variation of Reactance as a Function of Frequency:

Fig. 19 illustrates the variation in reactance of crystal oscillator as a function of frequency. The
circuit behaves like a capacitive or inductive network depending up frequency range. For frequency
range from 0 to ωs, it behaves like a capacitive network, from ωs to ωp, it behaves like an inductive
network and beyond ωp, it behaves like a capacitive network. It is resistive in nature at series and
parallel resonant frequencies, so the reactance is zero at series and parallel resonant frequencies.
X
Inductive
(Img {Z})
Capacitive Capacitive
s P
Note : Below ws and above wP crystal is capacitive and between ws and wP it is inductive in nature.
Advantages of Crystal Oscillator

i) Crystal oscillator gives highly stable oscillations, therefore, it is preferred for generation of fixed
frequency signals in MHz range.
ii) The Q-factor of crystal oscillator is high.
Disadvantage of Crystal Oscillator

It has very narrow range of tunning.
6 Other Types of Oscillators
Negative Resistance Oscillators
Negative resistance devices such as tunnel diode and UJT are used for generation of oscillations. The
UJT oscillator is used as relaxation oscillator for generation of spikes, which can be used for firing
of SCR. So the output of relaxation oscillator is not sinusoidal. The tunnel diode oscillator is use for
generation of microwave frequency oscillations.
Blocking Oscillator
Blocking oscillator is used for generation of current pulses of short duration at microwave frequency
oscillation.

BITS & BYTES OF THE CHAPTER

* Oscillator circuit can be operated in class A condition for a better wave shape.
* Wein bridge provides 1 : 10 frequency coverage in a single range common.
* Wein bridge oscillator is an audio frequency (AF) oscillator.
* Phase shift oscillator requires minimum three RC sections to provide 180° phase shift.
* LC oscillators are used for generation of high frequency (HF) oscillations.
* Hartley oscillator provides 1 : 3 frequency coverage in a single range common.
* Hartley oscillator is an LC oscillator used for generation of radio frequency sinusoidal wave.
* A Hartley oscillator circuit uses a trapped inductor for inductive feedback.
* Crystal oscillator has stable amplitude and frequency of oscillation.
* Crystal oscillator is a radio frequency (RF) oscillator.
* Frequency stabilization is obtained by use of tuned circuited.
* A Tunnel diode oscillator is a negative resistance oscillator used at microwave frequency.
* Block oscillator is used for generation of high current pulses of short duration.
* UJT oscillator is a negative resistance oscillator called relaxation oscillator. It is used for
generation of sawtooth waveform.
* Relaxation oscillator is negative resistance oscillator. It is a sweep circuit oscillator make with
UJT.

GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 The value of C required for sinusoidal oscillation of frequency 1 kHz in the circuit of
1 k 2.1 k

Vout
+ C
1 k
C
1 k
1
(a) µF (b) 2π µF
2π
1
(c) µ F (d) 2π 6 µ F
2π 6
GATE(EC/2004/2M)
Q.2 The condition for oscillation in a feedback oscillator circuit is that at the frequency of oscillation,
initially the loop gain is greater than unity while the total phase shift around the loop in degree is
(a) 0 (b) 90
(c) 180 (d) 270
GATE(IN/2017/1M)
Q.3 A Wien bridge oscillator is shown in figure. Which of the following statements are true, if f is the
frequency of oscillation.
C
R1 R2
R –
+ V0
R C
1
(a) For R = 1 K, C = µ F f = 1 kHz
2π
1
(b) For R = 3 K, C = µ F , f = 3 kHz
18π
(c) The gain of the op-amp stage should be less than two for proper operation
(d) The gain of the op-amp stage should be three for proper operation
GATE(EE/1993/2 M)
Q.4 The circuit shown in the figure has an ideal opamp. The oscillation frequency and the condition to
sustain the oscillations, respectively, are
R1
R2
–
+ Vout
R C
2C
1 1
(a) and R1 = R 2 (b) and R1 = 4 R 2
CR CR
1 1
(c) and R1 = R 2 (d) and R1 = 4 R 2
2CR 2CR
GATE(EC-I/2015/2M)
Q.5 Consider the oscillator circuit shown in the figure. The function of the network (shown in dotted
lines) consisting of the 100 kΩ resistor in series with the two diodes connected back-to-back is to:
1nF 158k
1nF 158k +VCC

–
+
–VCC 22.1k
D1
100k
D2
10k
(a) introduce amplitude stabilization by preventing the op amp from saturating and thus producing
sinusoidal oscillations of fixed amplitude
(b) introduce amplitude stabilization by forcing the opamp to swing between positive and negative
saturation and thus producing square wave oscillations of fixed amplitude
(c) introduce frequency stabilization by forcing the circuit to oscillate at a single frequency
(d) enable the loop gain to take on a value that produces square wave oscillations
GATE(EC-I/2016/1M)
Q.6 The configuration of figure is a
R1 R2
–
+ V0
R
R C
(a) Precision integrator (b) Hartley oscillator

(c) Butterworth high pass filter (d) Wein-bridge oscillator
GATE(EC/2000/1M)
Q.7 The value of C required for sinusoidal oscillations of frequency 1 kHz in the circuit of figure is
1 k 2.1 k
–
Vout
+ C
1 k
1 k C
1
(a) µF (b) 2πµF
2π
1
(c) µF (d) 2π 6 µF
2π 6
GATE(EC/2004/2M)
Q.8 In the Wien Bridge oscillator circuit shown in figure, the bridge is balanced when
C1
R1
Vcc
+
–
–Vcc R3
C2 R2 R4
R 3 R1 1 R 2 C2 1
=
(a) , ω
= (b) = ,=
ω
R4 R2 R1C1R 2 C2 R1 C1 R1C1R 2 C2
R 3 R1 C2 1 R 3 R1 C2 1
(c) = + ,=
ω (d) += ,=
ω
R 4 R 2 C1 R1C1R 2 C2 R 4 R 2 C1 R1C1R 2 C2
GATE(EE-I/2014/1M)
Q.9 The oscillator circuit shown in figure has an ideal inverting amplifier. Its frequency of oscillation
(in Hz) is
C C C
R R
1 1
(a) (b)
2π 6 RC ( ( 2π RC ))
1
(c) (d)
RC (
6 ( 2π RC ))
GATE(EC/2003/2M)
Q.10 To realize a phase shift oscillator
(a) It is possible to use a voltage follower as an amplifier along with a suitable phase shift network
(b) Only common emitter or common source stages can be used
(c) Given any phase shifting network, it is always possible to find the emitter follower
(d) None of the above
GATE(IN/1992/1M)
Q.11 The oscillator circuit shown in figure is
(a) Hartley oscillator with f oscillation = 79.6 MHz

(b) Colpitts oscillator with f oscillation = 79.6 MHz
(c) Hartley oscillator with f oscillation = 159.2 MHz
(d) Colpitts oscillator with f oscillation =159.2 MHz
GATE(EC/2001/2M)
Q.12 A high-Q quartz crystal exhibits series resonance at the frequency ωs and parallel resonance at the
frequency ωp. Then
(a) ωs is very close to, but less than ωp (b) ωs << ωp
(c)
ωs is very close to, but greater than ωp (d) ωs >> ωp
GATE(EC/1998/1M)

Answers & Explanations of GATE Questions

Q.1 Ans.(a)
1 k 2.1 k

Vout
+ C
1 k
C
1 k
The circuit shown above is wein bridge oscillator. The frequency of oscillation of wein’s bridge is
given by,
1
f =
2πRC
1 1 1
⇒ C = = 3 3 =
µF
2πRf 2π × 1 × 10 × 10 2π
Q.2 Ans.(a)
The condition for oscillation in a feedback oscillator circuit is that at the frequency of oscillation,
initially the loop gain is greater than unity while the total phase shift around the loop in degree is 0o.
Q.3 Ans.(a,b,d)
C
R1 R2
R –
+ V0
R C
The frequency of Wein’s bridge oscillator is given by,

1
f =
2πRC
1
i. When R = 1 K, C = µF
2π
1
f= = 1 kHz
2π × 1 × 10 × (1 / 2π) × 10−6
3
1
ii. For R = 3 K, C = µF ,
18π
1
f= = 3 kHz
2π × 3 × 10 × (1 / 18π) × 10−6
3
iii. For proper operation of a Wien bridge oscillator the gain of op-amp stage should be equal to
three.
So, statements a, b and d are true.
Q.4 Ans.(d)
R1
R2
–
+ Vout
R C
2C

The given circuit is Wein’s bridge oscillator. The frequency of oscillations and condition of oscillations
is given by,
1
w = and R1 = R 2
2CR
Q.5 Ans. (a)
1nF 158k
1nF 158k +VCC

–
+
–VCC 22.1k
D1
100k
D2
10k
If closed gain of Wein’s bridge oscillator is more then desire value, the oscillations keep on growing
driving the op-amp to saturation. This problem can be eliminated by using adaptive feedback with
the help diodes D1 and D2 connected as shown in figure.
Q.6 Ans.(d)
R1 R2
–
+ V0
R
R C
The circuit shown above is a wein bridge oscillator.

Q.7 Ans.(a)
R1 R2
–
Vout
+ C
R 1 k
R 1 k C
The circuit given above is Wein’s bridge oscillator whose frequency of oscillation is given by,
1
f =
2πRC
Given, f = 1 kHz, R = 1 kΩ
1
⇒ C =
2π × 1 × 103 × 1 × 103
1
C
⇒ = µF
2π
Q.8 Ans. (c)
C1
R1
Vcc
+
–
–Vcc R3
C2 R2 R4
In the Wien Bridge oscillator circuit shown in figure, the bridge is balanced when,
R 3 R1 C2 1
= + ,=ω
R 4 R 2 C1 R1C1R 2 C2
Q.9 Ans.(a)
A
XC 2 XC 1 XC
+ C C C +
vF = vi R R R vo
– –
The given circuit is a RC phase shift oscillator whose frequency of oscillations is given by,
1
or f =
2π 6 RC
Q.10 Ans.(a)
To realize a phase shift oscillator it is possible to use a voltage follower as an amplifier along with a
suitable phase shift network.

Q.11 Ans. (*) No option is correct. Nearest option is (b).
Given circuit represents a colpitt oscillator with frequency oscillations given by,
1
f =
2π LCeq
C1 C2
Where, Ceq =
C1 + C2
2× 2
From circuit diagram, Ceq = = 1 pF
2+2
& L = 10 µH
1
⇒ f = −12
= 50.4 MHz
2π 1 × 10 × 10 × 10−6
Q.12 Ans.(a)
Equivalent circuit of crystal oscillator
Rs
CP
Ls
Cs
Series resonant frequency of oscillator is given by,

20
ωs = × V0
20 + 40
Parallel resonant frequency of oscillator is given by,

1
ωP =
Ls Ceq
Cs C p
Where, Ceq =
Cs + C p
Relation between ωs & ωp,

1 1 1
ωp = +
Ls Cs C p
1 C
= 1+ s
L s Cs Cp
Cs
⇒ ωp = ωs 1 +
Cp
From above equation it is clear ωp > ωs but ωs and ωp are very close to each other.


Oscillator circuit analysis and design

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Oscillators

The output of the amplifier,

(a) R2 = 5R1 (b) R2 = 6R1

Feedback voltage of network,

Gain of given amplifier, A = 1 + Rf/R1

2 Wein Bridge Oscillator

Fig. 2 Wein bridge oscillator

The circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3 below,

Fig. 3 Wein bridge oscillator with positive and negative feedbacks

Feedback factor due to positive feedback,

As per Barkhausen criteria, the condition of as collations is given by

For sustained oscillation, Aβ ≥ 1

(a) 105 rad/sec. 2 × 104 Ω (b) 2 × 104 rad/sec. 2 × 104 Ω

3 Phase Shift Oscillators

Applying KCL at node a we have,

Applying KCL at node ‘b’, we have,

Putting above expression of va in equation (22), we have,

Putting above expression of vb in equation (24), we have,

According to Barkhausen criteria of oscillations,

Here f is frequency of oscillations in Hz and w if frequency of oscillations in rad/sec.

3.1 Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-amp

The gain of inverting configuration is given by,

3.2 Phase Shift Oscillator using MOSFET

Output voltage of MOSFET, vo = – gm RD vf

Feedback network of oscillator is as shown below,

Apply KCL at node (i),

⇒ vf = –jαvo – [2 – jα] v1 ......(ii)

For sustained oscillations, | Aβ| = 1

Where Ao is open loop gain of the amplifier without load.

Gain of the amplifier with loading effect,

As per Barkhausen criteria for sustained oscillations,

4.1 Hartley Oscillator

Feedback Network Feedback Network

(a) BJT based (b) MOSFET based (c)Op-amp based

where, Leq = L1 + L2 (69)

From equation (66), we have,

For sustained oscillations, |Aβ| ≥ 1 (74)

⇒ |A| ≥ 1/|β| (75)

Thus, minimum gain of the amplifier for sustained oscillations,

B. For differentially coupled coils:

4.2 Colpitt Oscillator

Feedback Network Feedback Network

(a) BJT based (b) MOSFET based (c)Op-amp based

Here f represents the frequency of oscillations of the circuit.

⇒ |A| ≥ 1/|β| (98)

Thus, minimum gain of the amplifier for sustained oscillations,

4.3 Clapp Oscillator

For sustained oscillations,

(a) BJT based (b) MOSFET based

(a) Quartz crystal (b) Equivalent circuit

For sustain oscillations, molecular friction should be negligible.

Relationship between ws and wP:

From equation (115) and (121), we have,

Variation of Impedance of Crystal as a Function of Frequency:

Variation of Reactance as a Function of Frequency:

Advantages of Crystal Oscillator

Disadvantage of Crystal Oscillator

BITS & BYTES OF THE CHAPTER

1nF 158k +VCC

(a) Precision integrator (b) Hartley oscillator

(a) Hartley oscillator with f oscillation = 79.6 MHz

Answers & Explanations of GATE Questions

The frequency of Wein’s bridge oscillator is given by,

1nF 158k +VCC

1nF 158k +VCC