control system

A control system is a set of mechanical or electronic devices that regulates other devices or systems by
way of control loops . Typically, control systems are computerized.
Control systems are a central part of industry and of automation. The types of control loops that regulate
these processes include industrial control systems (ICS ) such as supervisory control and data
acquisition ( SCADA) and distributed control systems (DCS ).
Control systems are used to enhance production, efficiency and safety in many areas, including:
Agriculture
Chemical plants
Pulp and paper mills
Quality control
Boiler controls and power plant
Nuclear power plants
Environmental control
Water treatment plants
Sewage treatment plants
Food and food processing
Metal and mines
Pharmaceutical manufacturing
Sugar refining plants
There are two main types of control loops: Open loops, which operate with human input, and closed
loops, which are fully autonomous. Some loops can be switched between closed and open modes. When
open, a switchable loop is manually controlled and when closed it is fully automated.
Programmable logic controllers ( PLCs), programmable automation controllers (PACs), remote
terminal units (RTUs), control servers, intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) and sensors are some of the
elements of control loops that are in turn a part of control systems. The control loops that make up
control systems are generally made themselves of a sensor , a controller and a final control element.
The sensor reads the process variable or a related measurement. The controller receives the signal from
the sensor and then forwards it to instrumentation, to remote terminal units and to final control elements
where the process variable is adjusted, to be kept constant at what is known as a set point

lements
If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of the
system input, then it is known as feedback . Feedback plays an important role in order to improve the
performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the types of feedback & effects of
feedback.
Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback −
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, and feedback output. The following figure shows the
block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being, consider the
transfer function of positive feedback control system is,
(Equation 1)
Where,
T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input,
and system output. The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control
system.
Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,
(Equation 2)
Where,
T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
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A system is called time invariant if its output , input characteristics does not change with time.
e.g.y(n)=x(n)+x(n-1)
A system is called time variant if its input, output characteristics changes with time.
e.g.y(n)=x(-n).

Gggggggggggggggggg
A deterministic system is a system in which no randomness is involved in the development of future states
of the system. A stochastic system has a random probability distribution or pattern that may be analysed
statistically but may not be predicted precisely.

. Level Detection by Using Conductivity Probes

Level Detection by Using Conductivity Probes

Principle of operation: The principle used in this system states that “the presence of a product
will make a change in the resistance between the two conductors.”

Construction and Working

This system is applicable for level measurement in conductive liquids. The conductivity of the
insulated material can be varied if the probe is covered or not covered within the conductive
product. There are two electrodes: one is used as a metal wall of the tank, and the other
electrode is inserted into the tank. This principle can be explained with a practical application.

A Conductive probe is used as a liquid level indicator for measuring the level of electrically
conductive products in a metal water tank, or other container, which can be obtained by means
of a probe isolated from the container and a conductivity amplifier. When the product is not in
connection with the probe, the electrical resistance is relatively high or infinite between the
probe and the metal tank wall. If the level of the liquid rises completely between the probe and
the tank wall, then the resistance gradually decreases.

This method is Advantageous as it is very simple, low cost and well suited for dual or multiple
point control.

The method is disadvantageous as the probe must not get contaminated with grease or any other
deposits and has limited suitability for products of varying conductivity.

As a practical example of this detection here we have shown figure of intelligent overhead tank
water level indicator with block diagram which uses conducting probes for detecting the water
in tank. This system is built by using priority encoder, BCD-seven segment decoder, seven
segment display and other miscellaneous components.

Intelligent Overhead Tank Water Level Indicator

The probes are connected to +5V and the return or ground terminal is kept at the bottom of the
tank. Nine active-low inputs of priority encoder are converted to active- low BCD output by
internal circuitry and then the water level is indicated in seven segment display interms of
percentage of water. As the water level is increases probes get shorted and correspondingly
priority encoder gives BCD values and later the information is displayed on seven segment
display through BCD to seven segment decoder IC.

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Note:the term "air conditioning" refers to any form of "Heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning". This article deals specifically with units used as part of a cooling
system.

An air conditioner is a system or a machine that treats air in a defined, usually enclosed area
via a refrigeration cycle in which warm air is removed and replaced with cooler air.

What is Air Conditioning?

By: rsbombard
If we are to define air conditioning we will have to say that it is the mechanical way of
regulating the temperature, humidity, cleanliness and air flow inside a room or a building.
The job of an air conditioner would be to control the temperature-humidity ratio at such a
level that that it is both comfortable for us and is also healthful. As most air conditioners
come with a filter it also clean the circulating air of the various contaminants like dust, soot,
pollen, etc. Although not to the levels of an air purifier, air conditioners do in fact clean air
considerably.

What an air conditioner unit actually does is it draws in air from a room or a building and
passes it across that side of the refrigeration apparatus which is much colder and absorbs the
heat in the air. How cool the refrigeration apparatus is, is determined by how a thermostat is
regulated. For water-cooling air-conditioning units, the heat is drawn away by the water
flow. So fundamentally the principle is simple.

However, there are a number of things that are associated with a modern air conditioner,
which makes it more than just a cooling device. In fact if it remains just a cooling device, it
would be actually wrong to call it an air conditioning unit. Ideally it should provide a
comfortable temperature inside the room, no matter how hot or how cold is it outside. So
many air conditioners come with a heat pump whose function is to just reverse the
refrigeration cycle. So when it is chilling cold outside, you can still be warm and cozy
inside.

Although the rudimentary ideas of the concept of air conditioning can be traced back to the
early decades of the nineteenth century it was only in the first half of the previous century
that air conditioner as we see it was introduced. Since then air conditioner had little stopping
and it has become an integral part of our life.

Although we generally tend to associate air conditioning with the comforts of life, it is also
crucial to carry out several processes. For example certain operations like an open heart
surgery can be conducted only under a controlled environment, and without air conditioner
that would not be possible. Many industries, including the chemical and pharmaceutical
industries cannot do without air conditioning. In fact it is hard to conceptualize today's world
without air conditioning.