Me201 PDF

ME201 Basic Engineering Thermodynamics
Dr. P. Parthasarathy
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NITK – National Institute of Technology Karnataka

India www.nitk.ac.in
Thermodynamics (TD):
 Perhaps the most basic science and one basic knowledge that all engineers should be
aware of.
 Thermodynamics is one of the most abstract subject and a student can often find it very
confusing if not ‘motivated’ strongly enough.
 Thermodynamics can be considered as a ‘system level’ science- i.e., it deals with
descriptions of the whole system and not with interactions (say) at individual particles
level.
 i.e., it deals with quantities (like T,P) averaged over a large collection of entities (like
molecules, atoms)*.
 This implies that questions like: “What is the temperature or entropy of an atom?”;
do not make sense in the context of thermodynamics (at lease in the usual way!).
 TD puts before us some fundamental laws which are universal** in nature (and hence
applicable to fields across disciplines).
* Thermodynamics deals with spatio-temporally averaged quantities.
** they apply to the universe a whole as well!
2 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering
Basic Engineering Thermodynamics National Institute of Technology Karnataka
The language of TD
 To understand the laws of thermodynamics and how they work, first we need to get the
terminology right. Some of the terms may look familiar (as they are used in everyday
language as well)- but their meanings are more ‘technical’ and ‘precise’, when used in TD
and hence we should not use them ‘casually’.
 System is region where we focus our attention (blue liquid in figure).
 Surrounding is the rest of the universe (the water bath at constant ‘temperature’).
 Universe = System + Surrounding. Boundary is an imaginary line between the system
and the surrounding.
 More practically, we can consider the ‘Surrounding’ as the immediate neighborhood of
the system (the part of the universe at large, with which the system ‘effectively’
interacts).In this scheme of things we can visualize: a system, the surrounding and the
universe at large.

The language of TD
 To a thermodynamic system two ‘things’ may be added/removed:
 energy (heat, work) matter
 An open system is one to which you can add/remove matter (e.g. a open beaker to which
we can add water). When you add matter you also end up adding energy (which is
contained in that matter).
 A system to which you cannot add matter is called closed. Though you cannot
add/remove matter to a closed system, you can still add/remove energy (you can cool a
closed water bottle in fridge).
 A system to which neither matter nor heat can be added/removed is called isolated. A
closed vacuum ‘thermos’ flask can be considered as isolated.

The language of TD
 Matter is easy to understand and includes atoms, ions, electrons, etc.
 Energy may be transferred (‘added’) to the system as heat, electromagnetic
radiation etc.
 In TD the two modes of transfer of energy to the system considered are Heat
and Work.
 Heat and work are modes of transfer of energy and not ‘energy’ itself.
 Once inside the system, the part which came via work and the part which
came via heat, cannot be distinguished.
 Matter when added to a system brings along with it some energy. The ‘energy
density’ (energy per unit mass or energy per unit volume) in the incoming
matter may be higher or lower than the matter already present in the system.

Processes in TD
 Brief listing of a few kinds of processes, which we will encounter in TD:
 Isothermal process → the process takes place at constant temperature(e.g. freezing
of water to ice at –10°C)
 Isobaric → constant pressure (e.g. heating of water in open air→ under atmospheric
pressure)
 Isochoric → constant volume(e.g. heating of gas in a sealed metal container)
 Reversible process → the system is close to equilibrium at all times (and
infinitesimal alteration of the conditions can restore the universe (system +
surrounding) to the original state.
 Cyclic process → the final and initial state are the same. However, q and w need not
be zero.
 Adiabatic process → dq is zero during the process (no heat is added/removed
to/from the system)
 A combination of the above are also possible: e.g. ‘reversible adiabatic process’.
Temperature
 Though we all have a feel for temperature (‘like when we are feeling hot’); in the context of TD
temperature is technical term with ‘deep meaning’.
 As we know (from a commons sense perspective) that temperature is a measure of the
‘intensity of heat’. ‘Heat flows’ (energy is transferred as heat) from a body at higher
temperature to one at lower temperature. (Like pressure is a measure of the intensity of ‘force
applied by matter’→ matter (for now a fluid) flows from region of higher pressure to lower
pressure).
 That implies (to reiterate the obvious!) if I connect two bodies(A)-one weighing 100kg at
10°C and the other (B) weighing 1 kg at 500°C, then the ‘heat will flow’ from the hotter body to
the colder body (i.e. the weight or volume of the body does not matter).
 But, temperature comes in two important ‘technical’ contexts in TD:
 it is a measure of the average kinetic energy (or velocity) of the constituent entities (say
molecules)
 it is the parameter which determines the distribution of species (say molecules) across
various energy states available.

Gas thermometer – absolute zero measurement

Pressure
 Pressure* is force per unit area (usually exerted by a fluid on a wall**).
 It is the momentum transferred (say on a flat wall by molecules of a gas) per unit area, per unit time.
(In the case of gas molecules it is the average momentum transferred per unit area per unit time on to
the flat wall).
 P = momentum transferred/area/time.
 Pressure is related to momentum, while temperature is related to kinetic energy.
* ‘Normal’ pressure is also referred to as hydrostatic pressure.

** Other agents causing pressure could be radiation, macroscopic objects impinging on a wall, etc.
Pressure (cont. )
 Actual pressure at a given position - Absolute pressure
 Most device consider atm. Pressure to be zero.
 Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure – atm. pressure
 Vacuum pressure = atm. Pressure – absolute pressure

Heat and Work
 Work (W) in mechanics is displacement (d) against a resisting force (F). W = F *d
 Work has units of energy (Joule, J).
 Work can be expansion work (P∆V), electrical work, magnetic work etc. (many sets of stimuli and
their responses).
 Heat as used in TD is a tricky term (yes, it is a very technical term as used in TD).
 “In TD heat is NOT an entity or even a form of energy; heat is a mode of transfer of energy” [1].
 “Heat is the transfer of energy by virtue of a temperature difference” [1].
 “Heat is the name of a process, not the name of an entity” [1].
 “Bodies contain internal energy (U) and not heat” [2].
 The ‘flow’ of energy down a temperature gradient can be treated mathematically by considering heat
as a mass-less fluid [1] → this does not make heat a fluid!
[1] Four Laws that Drive the Universe, Peter Atkins, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007. [2] Physical Chemistry, Ira N
Levine, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New York (2002).

Heat and Work
 Work is coordinated flow of matter.
 Lowering of a weight can do work
 Motion of piston can do work
 Flow of electrons in conductor can do work.
 Heat involves random motion of matter (or the constituent entities of matter).
 Like gas molecules in a gas cylinder
 Water molecules in a cup of water
 Atoms vibrating in a block of Cu.
 Energy may enter the system as heat or work.
 Once inside the system:
 it does not matter how the energy entered the system (i.e. work and heat are terms associated
with the surrounding and once inside the system there is no ‘memory’ of how the input was
received .
 the energy is stored as potential energy (PE) and kinetic energy (KE).
 This energy can be withdrawn as work or heat from the system.

State and Equilibrium
 For a system without any change
 All properties can be measured or calculated for the entire system
 These properties define the condition of the system or the STATE
 At a given state all properties have a fixed value.
 Equilibrium
 TD deals with equilibrium states (equilibrium – state is at balance)
 No unbalanced potentials within the system.
 Thermal equilibrium
 Mechanical equilibrium
 Phase equilibrium
 Chemical equilibrium.

Process
 If the state of a system changes, then it is undergoing a process.
 The succession of states through which the system passes defines the
path of the process.
 if, at the end of the process, the properties have returned to their
original values, the system has undergone a cyclic process or a cycle.
 Note that even if a system has returned to its original state and
completed a cycle, the state of the surroundings may have changed.

Quasi-Equilibrium Processes
 We are often interested in charting thermodynamic processes between
states on thermodynamic coordinates.
 however, that properties define a state only when a system is in
equilibrium.
 We idealize that only ``infinitesimal'' unbalanced forces exist.
 For this to be true the process must be slow in relation to the time
needed for the system to come to equilibrium internally.

The state postulate
 State of the system is described by its properties
 Not all properties are needed to fix a state.
 With sufficient number of properties, the other properties can be
identified.
 The min. number of independent properties required to fix a state is
given by State postulate.
 For a simple compressible system the min. number of properties
required is 2.
 Example of independent properties, T and sp. Volume. T & P for single
phase system. For multi phase system T & P are not independent
properties.
Energy analysis of closed system
 Moving boundary (MB) work
 mechanical work frequently encountered
 Piston-cylinder
 For real engines and compressors MB cannot be determined exactly
from a thermodynamic analysis alone.
 Quasiequilibrium process or Quasistatic process
 Max work.
 Closely approximate slow moving engines

Moving boundary work
 P is absolute pressure, always positive

 Total work

 Functional relationship between p and V should be known.
 Area under the curve is the work!
 Work is a path function, and what if its not a path function!!

 Generalize the boundary work relation
Exercise
A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa
and 80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the
temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Determine the work
done during this process.

Polytropic Process
 Actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure and
volume are often related by
or
For ideal gas,

Polytropic Process
 For the special case of n = 1
Exercise
A piston–cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas initially at 200 kPa. At this state, a
linear spring that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the piston but exerting no
force on it. Now heat is transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to compress the
spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles. If the cross-sectional area of the piston is
0.25 m2, determine (a) the final pressure inside the cylinder, (b) the total work done by the
gas, and (c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to compress it.

Properties of pure substance
 Fixed chemical composition throughout.
 Air, Nitrogen, water, CO2 , etc.
 Can be mixture of different chemical components
 Air – Nitrogen, oxygen, CO2 , etc.
 Homogeneous
 Water + Oil!
 Can be of different phases (water + water vapor)
 But liquid Air + Gaseous Air!

Phases of pure substance
 Principle phases
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Within principle phases there can be different phases
 Ice at high pressure has there different molecular phase (structure) within
solid phase
 Carbon (solid) – Diamond and graphite
 Helium (liquid) – two different phase

First law of thermodynamics
 Conservation of energy
 In all cases in which work is produced by the agency of heat, a quantity
of heat is consumed which is proportional to the work done; and
conversely, by the expenditure of an equal quantity of work an equal
quantity of heat is produced.
-Rudolf Clausius, 1850
 Change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount
of heat supplied to the system, plus the amount of work done on the
system.
dU= dQ + dW

Enthalpy
 Change in internal energy is not equal to the heat transfer when the
fluid is allowed to expand (or change its volume).
 Some of the energy is given back to the surrounding as expansion

work.
 dQ = dU (fixed volume), but in case of expansion dQ > dU!
 H = U + pV

Zeroth law of thermodynamics
 If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Energy analysis of closed system
 Moving boundary (MB) work
 mechanical work frequently encountered
 Piston-cylinder
 For real engines and compressors MB cannot be determined exactly
from a thermodynamic analysis alone.
 Quasiequilibrium process or Quasistatic process
 Max work.
 Closely approximate slow moving engines

 P is absolute pressure, always positive

 Total work

 Functional relationship between p and V should be known.
 Area under the curve is the work!
 Work is a path function, and what if its not a path function!!

 Generalize the boundary work relation
Exercise
A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 m3 of air at 100 kPa
and 80°C. The air is now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way that the
temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Determine the work
done during this process.

Polytropic Process
 Actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure and
volume are often related by
or
For ideal gas,

Polytropic Process
 For the special case of n = 1
Exercise
A piston–cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas initially at 200 kPa. At this state, a
linear spring that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the piston but exerting no
force on it. Now heat is transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to compress the
spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles. If the cross-sectional area of the piston is
0.25 m2, determine (a) the final pressure inside the cylinder, (b) the total work done by the
gas, and (c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to compress it.

Energy balance for a closed system

 For closed system undergoing cycle
The net work output during a cycle is equal to net heat input

 The energy balance relation in that case for a closed system
Where,

Specific heats
 The energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree
 specific heat at constant volume (cv)
 specific heat at constant pressure (cp)
 specific heat at constant volume
 specific heat at constant pressure

Internal energy, sp. heats and enthalpy for ideal gases
 Joule’s experiment
 Enthalpy of ideal gas

Internal energy, sp. heats and enthalpy for ideal gases
 Sp. heat for ideal gas

Sp. heats for ideal gases
 At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal-gas behavior, and
therefore their specific heats depend on temperature only.
 The specific heats of real gases at low pressures are called ideal-gas
specific heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and are often denoted
cp0and cv0.
 To avoid these laborious calculations, u and h data for a number of
gases have been tabulated over small temperature intervals.
 By using average specific heats.

Sp. heats for ideal gases, solids and liquids
 Specific heat ratio
 For Solids and liquids

Mass and Energy analysis of control volumes
 Conservation of mass
 For closed systems, the conservation of mass principle is implicitly used
by requiring that the mass of the system remain constant during a process.
 For control volumes, however, mass can cross the boundaries, and so we
must keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control
volume.

Mass and Volume Flow Rates
 Mass flow rate (ṁ)
𝛿𝛿 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
Usually density remain uniform but not the

velocity
1
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑽𝑽 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

Mass and Volume Flow Rates
 Volume flow rate (𝑉𝑉)̇
𝑉𝑉̇ = � 𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉̇
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉̇ =
𝜗𝜗

Principle of conservation of mass
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑
= � 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑
� 𝜌𝜌 𝑽𝑽 � 𝑛𝑛� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 0 → � 𝑚𝑚̇ − � 𝑚𝑚̇ = = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Energy conservation
 Energy of a simple compressible system
ke + pe + u
 Total energy of a flowing fluid
fe + ke + pe + u
 Energy transported by mass
ṁ (fe + ke + pe + u)
 Energy conservation of a system
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑽𝑽2 𝑽𝑽2
= � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
2 2

Energy conservation for a steady flow system
𝑽𝑽2 𝑽𝑽2
� 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
2 2
𝑽𝑽2 𝑽𝑽2
𝑄𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑊̇ = � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2 2
𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛

Exercise
 Water is being heated in a closed pan on top of a range while being stirred by a
paddle wheel. During the process, 30 kJ of heat is transferred to the water, and
5 kJ of heat is lost to the surrounding air. The paddle-wheel work amounts to
500 N · m. Determine the final energy of the system if its initial energy is 10 kJ.
(35.5 kJ)
 A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to be air-conditioned with
window air-conditioning units of 5-kW cooling capacity. A person at rest may
be assumed to dissipate heat at a rate of about 360 kJ/h. There are 10 lightbulbs
in the room, each with a rating of 100 W. The rate of heat transfer to the
classroom through the walls and the windows is estimated to be 15,000 kJ/h. If
the room air is to be maintained at a constant temperature of 21°C, determine
the number of window air-conditioning units required. (2 units)

 Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir by a pump that
provides 20 kW of shaft power. The free surface of the upper reservoir is 45 m
higher than that of the lower reservoir. If the flow rate of water is measured to
be 0.03 m3/s, determine mechanical power that is converted to thermal energy
during this process due to frictional effects. (6.8 kW)
 Consider a room that is initially at the outdoor temperature of 20°C. The room
contains a 100-W lightbulb, a 110-W TV set, a 200-W refrigerator, and a 1000-W
iron. Assuming no heat transfer through the walls, determine the rate of
increase of the energy content of the room when all of these electric devices are
on.
 A 50-kg iron block at 80°C is dropped into an insulated tank that contains 0.5
m3 of liquid water at 25°C. Determine the temperature when thermal
equilibrium is reached.
 A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial
state of 0.3 m3 and 0.105 MPa to a final state of 0.15 m3 and 0.105 MPa,
the pressure remaining constant during the process. There is a transfer
of 37.6 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How much does the
internal energy of the gas change?
 When a system is taken from state a to state b, along path acb, 84 kJ of
beat flow into the system, and the system does 32 kJ of work. (a) How
much will the heat that flows into the system along path adb, if the
work done is 10.5 kJ? (b) When the system is returned from b to a along
the curved path, the work done on the system is 21 kJ. Does the system
absorb or liberate heat, and how much of the heat is absorbed or
liberated? (c) If Ua= 0 and Ud = 42 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the
50
processes ad and db.
Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering
 A 1-m3 tank containing air at 25°C and 500 kPa is connected through a
valve to another tank containing 5 kg of air at 35°C and 200 kPa. Now
the valve is opened, and the entire system is allowed to reach thermal
equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 20°C. Determine the
volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium pressure of air.
2.21 m3, 284.1 kPa
 Determine the specific volume of refrigerant-134a vapor at 0.9 MPa and
70°C based on (a) the ideal-gas equation, (b) the generalized
compressibility chart, and (c) data from tables. Also, determine the
error involved in the first two cases. 0.03105 m3/kg 0.02776 m3 /kg
0.027413 m3/kg

 The combustion in a gasoline engine may be approximated by a
constant volume heat addition process. There exists the air–fuel
mixture in the cylinder before the combustion and the combustion
gases after it, and both may be approximated as air, an ideal gas. In a
gasoline engine, the cylinder conditions are 1.8 MPa and 450°C before
the combustion and 1300°C after it. Determine the pressure at the end
of the combustion process. 3916 kPa.
 A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.5 m3 of nitrogen gas at 400
kPa and 27°C. An electric heater within the device is turned on and is
allowed to pass a current of 2 A for 5 min from a 120-V source.
Nitrogen expands at constant pressure, and a heat loss of 2800 J occurs
during the process. Determine the final temperature of nitrogen. 56.7°C
 A 50-kg iron block at 80°C is dropped into an insulated tank that
contains 0.5 m3 of liquid water at 25°C. Determine the temperature
when thermal equilibrium is reached. 25.6°C.
 A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-liter bucket.

The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the
nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine (a)
the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and (b) the
average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

Nozzle and diffuser
 Nozzle
 To increase velocity at the expense of fluid pressure
 Diffuser
 To increase pressure at the expense of fluid velocity
 No work done, No heat transfer and usually no change in p.e.
 Change in k.e. is there.

Nozzle and diffuser
 Air at 10°C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a
velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air
leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared with the
inlet velocity. Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the air and (b) the
temperature of the air leaving the diffuser. 78.8 kg/s, 303 K.
 Air at 600 kPa and 500 K enters an adiabatic nozzle that has an inlet-to-
exit area ratio of 2:1 with a velocity of 120 m/s and leaves with a
velocity of 380 m/s. Determine (a) the exit temperature and (b) the exit
pressure of the air. 436.5 K, 330.8 kPa

Turbines and Compressors
 Turbine
 Converts the energy of the fluid into work
 Fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the blades
 Compressor & pump
 Work is given to the system to increase the fluid pressure
 Fan
 Slight change in pressure but the objective is to increase flow
 In all the cases, the heat transfer is very less and the change in p.e
 Except turbines and fans the change in k.e. is also negligible.

Turbines and Compressors
 Air at 100 kPa and 280 K is compressed steadily to 600 kPa and 400 K.
The mass flow rate of the air is 0.02 kg/s, and a heat loss of 16 kJ/kg
occurs during the process. Assuming the changes in kinetic and
potential energies are negligible, determine the necessary power input
to the compressor. 2.74 kW

Heat Exchangers
 Transfer energy from one fluid to another.
 Happens without mixing
 No work, no change in p.e. and k.e.
 Refrigerant-134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The

refrigerant enters the condenser with a mass flow rate of 6 kg/min at 1
MPa and 70°C and leaves at 35°C. The cooling water enters at 300 kPa
and 15°C and leaves at 25°C. Neglecting any pressure drops, determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the cooling water required and (b) the heat
transfer rate from the refrigerant to water.
Mixing Chambers
 mixing two streams of fluids
 No heat or work transfer
 No change in k.e. and p.e.

Energy analysis of unsteady-flow processes
 Keep track of energy & mass in the c.v.
 Start and end over some finite time period
 Uniform-flow process
𝑽𝑽2 𝑽𝑽2
𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + � 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + � 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑒𝑒2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑒𝑒1
2 2
𝑽𝑽2
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
2
𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + � 𝑚𝑚 ℎ − 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + � 𝑚𝑚 ℎ = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑢𝑢1

𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = ∑𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚 ℎ − ∑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚 ℎ + (𝑚𝑚2 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑢𝑢1 )

 A rigid, insulated tank that is initially evacuated is connected through a valve
to a supply line that carries air at 1 MPa and 300°C. Now the valve is opened,
and air is allowed to flow slowly into the tank until the pressure reaches 1
MPa, at which point the valve is closed. Determine the final temperature of the
steam in the tank.
 A balloon initially contains 65 m3 of helium gas at atmospheric conditions of
100 kPa and 22°C. The balloon is connected by a valve to a large reservoir that
supplies helium gas at 150 kPa and 25°C. Now the valve is opened, and helium
is allowed to enter the balloon until pressure equilibrium with the helium at
the supply line is reached. The material of the balloon is such that its volume
increases linearly with pressure. If no heat transfer takes place during this
process, determine the final temperature in the balloon. 333.6 K

 A 2-m3 rigid tank initially contains air at 100 kPa and 22°C. The tank is
connected to a supply line through a valve. Air is flowing in the supply
line at 600 kPa and 22°C. The valve is opened, and air is allowed to
enter the tank until the pressure in the tank reaches the line pressure, at
which point the valve is closed. A thermometer placed in the tank
indicates that the air temperature at the final state is 77°C. Determine
(a) the mass of air that has entered the tank and (b) the amount of heat
transfer. 9.584 kg, 339 kJ.

Properties of pure substance
 Fixed chemical composition throughout.
 Air, Nitrogen, water, CO2 , etc.
 Can be mixture of different chemical components
 Air – Nitrogen, oxygen, CO2 , etc.
 Homogeneous
 Water + Oil!
 Can be of different phases (water + water vapor)
 But liquid Air + Gaseous Air!

Phases of pure substance
 Principle phases
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Within principle phases there can be different phases
 Ice at high pressure has there different molecular phase (structure) within
solid phase
 Carbon (solid) – Diamond and graphite
 Helium (liquid) – two different phase

Phase change process
 Subcooled liquid – compressed liquid
 Saturated liquid
 Saturated vapor
 Super heated vapor
 Saturation temperature and Saturation pressure

 100°C at 1 atm
 25°C at 0.03 atm
 250°C at 40 atm
 Latent heat
 Vaporization
 Fusion
 P & T are dependent for a phase change process
 Liquid-vapor saturation curve

Critical point
 The point at which the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor states
are identical.
 For water,
Pcr = 22.06 MPa,
Tcr = 373.95°C,
 For R134-a,
Pcr = 4.059 MPa,
Tcr = 101.06°C,

Property table

Property table

Saturated liquid and vapor states examples
 A rigid tank contains 50 kg of saturated liquid water at 90°C.
Determine the pressure in the tank and the volume of the tank.
 A piston cylinder device contains 2 liters of saturated vapor at 300 kPa.

Determine the temperature and mass of the vapor inside the cylinder.
 A mass of 200 g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporized at a

constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine (a) the volume change and (b)
the amount of energy added to the water.

Saturated liquid-vapor mixture
 Quality could be one of the two intensive properties to define the state
of the mixture.
 The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists
alone or in a mixture with saturated vapor.
 During the vaporization process, only the amount of saturated liquid
changes, not its properties
 Two sub system – Homogeneous
 Properties of the mixture are the average of the saturated liquid and
vapor mixture.

Saturated liquid-vapor mixture
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 − 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓

Saturated liquid-vapor mixture examples
 A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90°C. If 8 kg of the water is in
the liquid form and the rest is in the vapor form, determine (a) the
pressure in the tank and (b) the volume of the tank.
 An 80-L vessel contains 4 kg of refrigerant-134a at a pressure of 160
kPa. Determine (a) the temperature, (b) the quality, (c) the enthalpy of
the refrigerant, and (d) the volume occupied by the vapor phase.

Property table

Superheated vapor
 Single-phase region
 Temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties

Superheated vapor
 Determine the internal energy of water at 0.1 MPa and 800°C.
 Determine the temperature of water at a state of P = 0.5 MPa and h =

2890 kJ/kg.

Compressed Liquid or subcooled liquid
 Tables are not commonly used (mostly not available)
 The format of tables that are available are similar to the superheated tables.
 The change in properties of the fluid is highly dependent on temperature. The
dependency on pressure is very less.
 With change in pressure the properties could be approximated to the saturated liquid
data.
 Only exception is enthalpy (H = U + pV, what happens when p increases to very high
value!)
 At low and moderate pressures the h value could be approximated to the saturated
enthalpy values, but not for above moderate and high pressures.

Compressed Liquid or subcooled liquid
 Determine the internal energy of compressed liquid water at 80°C and
5 MPa, using (a) data from the compressed liquid table and (b)
saturated liquid data. What is the error involved in the second case?

An example with all phase change situations
 Determine the missing properties and the phase descriptions in the
following table for water:
T (°C) P (Kpa) u (kJ/kg) x (-)
a 200 0.6
b 125 1600
c 1000 2950
d 75 500
e 850 0

Reference State and Reference Values
 Internal energy, enthalpy, entropy cant be measured
 The values only provide the difference from another state.
 Reference state need to be fixed.
 Different tables may have different reference states.

Ideal gas equation
 Robert Boyle
p α 1/v (vacuum chamber)
 J.Charles and J. Gay-Lussac
p α T (low pressure)
R is the proportionality constant, is a property of the gas. Unit: kJ/(kg K)

 Gas obeying ideal gas equation is named ideal gas.

 R·M.wt provides a single value for all gases and the value is named as
universal gas constant Ru = 8.314 kJ/(kmol K)
For fixed mass:

Water vapor deviation from ideal gas relation

Compressibility factor
 How much a gas deviates form ideal gas relation

Principle of corresponding states
 Real gases behave differently and different pressure and temperature.
 But the all behave the same at normalized temperature and pressure
(normalization with respect to critical temperature TC and pressure pC).
 TRand pR, reduced temperature and reduced pressure.

Generalized compressibility chart

Observations
 At very low pressures (pR << 1), gases behave as an ideal gas
regardless of temperature
 At high temperatures (TR >> 2), ideal-gas behavior can be assumed

with good accuracy regardless of pressure (except when PR >> 1).
 The deviation of a gas from ideal-gas behavior is greatest in the vicinity

of the critical point.

Generalized compressibility chart
 What happens when we have only p and v or T and v , but not p and
T?
 pseudo-reduced specific volume: vR

 A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is maintained
at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned
on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from a 120-V source. At the same time, a
heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs. (a) Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb
and the change in internal energy U in the first-law relation can be combined into
one term, H, for a constant pressure process. (b) Determine the final temperature of
the steam. 200°C
 A rigid tank is divided into two equal parts by a partition. Initially, one side of the
tank contains 5 kg of water at 200 kPa and 25°C, and the other side is evacuated.
The partition is then removed, and the water expands into the entire tank. The
water is allowed to exchange heat with its surroundings until the temperature in the
tank returns to the initial value of 25°C. Determine (a) the volume of the tank, (b) the
final pressure, and (c) the heat transfer for this process. 0.01 m3, 3.1698 kPa, 0.25 kJ

Second law of Thermodynamics
 Is first law alone is adequate!
 The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process.
 Satisfying the first law does not ensure that the process can actually occur

Second law of Thermodynamics cont..
 Is not limited to identifying the direction of processes.
 Describes energy in terms of quality and quantity.
 Helps in determining the theoretical limits for the performance of
commonly used engineering systems

Difference between heat and work (Qualitative)
 Joule’s experiment (again this guy!!)
=
𝑊𝑊 ⇒ 𝑄𝑄
>
𝑄𝑄 ⇒ 𝑊𝑊
 Higher the temperature, higher the quality of energy.

Thermal energy reservoirs
 It can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing any
change in temperature
 Atmosphere
 Ocean
 River
 Two-phase system
 Furnace

Heat Engines
 Devices that are used in converting heat to work
are called heat engines.
 Heat engines differ considerably from one another,
but all can be characterized by the following:
a. They receive heat from a high-temperature source
(solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
b. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in
the form of a rotating shaft).
c. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
d. They operate on a cycle.

Steam engine or power plant
𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1 −

Kelvin–Planck Statement
 “It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.”
 No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with the
environment as well as the furnace.
 It is impossible to construct a device which operates on a cycle and produces
no other effect than the transfer of heat from a single body in order to produce
work.

Heat Pump and Refrigerators
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅 =
1
=
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 − 1
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 =
1
=
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
1−
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅 + 1
Clausius Statement
 “It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a
higher-temperature body.”

Clausius statement Vs Kelvin statement

Perpetual-motion Machines
 PMM1
 Violates first law of thermodynamics
 PMM2
 Violates second law of thermodynamics

Reversible and Irreversible Processes
 Reversible process brings back both system and surroundings to initial
state.
 There is no reversible process that exist (like your dream partner!!)
 In nature all are irreversible.
 They why we need them?
 can be viewed as theoretical limits
 Reversible processes leads to the definition of the second law efficiency

Irreversibilities
 Cause for irreversibilities
 Friction
 Free expansion
 heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.
 Internal, external and total reversible process.

Carnot Engine & Carnot cycle
 A hypothetical engine which employs the Carnot cycle.
 1-2: Reversible
Isothermal
Expansion
 2-3: Reversible
Adiabatic Expansion
 3-4: Reversible
Isothermal
Compression
 4-1: Reversible
Adiabatic
Compression

Carnot cycle
𝑄𝑄1−2 = 𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 (𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 )
𝑄𝑄3−4 = 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆4 )
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑄𝑄1−2 − 𝑄𝑄3−4
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑄𝑄1−2 − 𝑄𝑄3−4
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆4 ) 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝑄1−2
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = =1−
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆4 = (𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 )

Reversed Carnot cycle
 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic

Expansion
 2-3: Reversible
Isothermal Expansion
 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic
Compression
 4-1: Reversible
Isothermal Compression

Reversed Carnot cycle
𝑄𝑄3−2 = 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆2 )
𝑄𝑄4−1 = 𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 (𝑆𝑆4 − 𝑆𝑆1 )
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑄𝑄4−1 − 𝑄𝑄3−2
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄3−2
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅 = =
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆2 ) 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅 = =
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆4 − 𝑆𝑆1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆2 ) 𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻
−1 𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆2 = (𝑆𝑆4 − 𝑆𝑆1 )
𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆4 − 𝑆𝑆1 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 = =
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆4 − 𝑆𝑆1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (𝑆𝑆3 − 𝑆𝑆2 ) 𝑇𝑇
1 − 𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻
Carnot Principle
 The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the
efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
 The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.

Carnot Principle (Refrigerator)
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
>
𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅
𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 > 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻,𝑅𝑅 = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 + 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻,𝐼𝐼 = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 + 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻,𝑅𝑅 > 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻,𝐼𝐼
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻,𝑅𝑅 − 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻,𝐼𝐼 = 𝑊𝑊𝑅𝑅 − 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼 = 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Exercise
 An automobile engine consumes fuel at a rate of 28 L/h and delivers 60
kW of power to the wheels. If the fuel has a heating value of 44,000
kJ/kg and a density of 0.8 g/cm3, determine the efficiency of this
engine. (21.9 percent)
 A household refrigerator that has a power input of 450 W and a COP of
2.5 is to cool five large watermelons, 10 kg each, to 8°C. If the
watermelons are initially at 20°C, determine how long it will take for
the refrigerator to cool them. The watermelons can be treated as water
whose specific heat is 4.2 kJ/kg · °C. Is your answer realistic or
optimistic? Explain.

Exercise
 When a man returns to his well-sealed house on a summer day, he finds that
the house is at 32°C. He turns on the air conditioner, which cools the entire
house to 20°C in 15 min. If the COP of the air-conditioning system is 2.5,
determine the power drawn by the air conditioner. Assume the entire mass
within the house is equivalent to 800 kg of air for which cv 0.72 kJ/kg · °C and
cp 1.0 kJ/kg · °C.
 A Carnot heat engine receives heat from a reservoir at 900°C at a rate of 800
kJ/min and rejects the waste heat to the ambient air at 27°C. The entire work
output of the heat engine is used to drive a refrigerator that removes heat from
the refrigerated space at 5°C and transfers it to the same ambient air at 27°C.
Determine (a) the maximum rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
and (b) the total rate of heat rejection to the ambient air.

Exercise
 It is that the refrigeration system of a supermarket be overdesigned so
that the entire air-conditioning needs of the store can be met by
refrigerated air without installing any air-conditioning system. What
do you think of this proposal?
 Consider a Carnot refrigeration cycle executed in a closed system in the
saturated liquid–vapor mixture region using 0.8 kg of refrigerant-134a
as the working fluid. The maximum and the minimum temperatures in
the cycle are 20°C and 8°C, respectively. It is known that the refrigerant
is saturated liquid at the end of the heat rejection process, and the net
work input to the cycle is 15 kJ. Determine the fraction of the mass of
the refrigerant that vaporizes during the heat addition process, and the
pressure at the end of the heat rejection process. (86.8%, 572.1 kPa)
 The drinking water needs of a production facility with 20 employees is to be met by a
bobbler type water fountain. The refrigerated water fountain is to cool water from 22 to
8°C and supply cold water at a rate of 0.4 L per hour per person. Heat is transferred to
the reservoir from the surroundings at 25°C at a rate of 45 W. If the COP of the
refrigeration system is 2.9, determine the size of the compressor, in W, that will be
suitable for the refrigeration system of this water cooler. (60.3 W)
 Heat pump with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid is used to keep a space at 25°C by
absorbing heat from geothermal water that enters the evaporator at 50°C at a rate of 0.065
kg/s and leaves at 40°C. Refrigerant enters the evaporator at 20°C with a quality of 15
percent and leaves at the same pressure as saturated vapor. If the compressor consumes
1.2 kW of power, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant, (b) the rate of heat
supply, (c) the COP, and (d) the minimum power input to the compressor for the same
rate of heat supply. (a) 0.0175 kg/s, (b) 3.92 kW, (c) 3.27, (d) 0.303 kW


Me201 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Me201 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ME201 Basic Engineering Thermodynamics

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NITK – National Institute of Technology Karnataka

3 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

4 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

5 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

7 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

8 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

* ‘Normal’ pressure is also referred to as hydrostatic pressure.

10 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

11 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

12 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

13 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

14 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

15 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

17 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 P is absolute pressure, always positive

18 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 Area under the curve is the work!

 Work is a path function, and what if its not a path function!!

19 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

20 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

For ideal gas,

21 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

22 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

23 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

24 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

25 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 Some of the energy is given back to the surrounding as expansion

 dQ = dU (fixed volume), but in case of expansion dQ > dU!

26 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

27 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

28 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 P is absolute pressure, always positive

29 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 Area under the curve is the work!

 Work is a path function, and what if its not a path function!!

30 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

31 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

For ideal gas,

32 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

33 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

34 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

35 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

36 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 specific heat at constant pressure

37 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 Enthalpy of ideal gas

38 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

39 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

40 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

 Specific heat ratio

 For Solids and liquids

41 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

42 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

𝛿𝛿 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

Usually density remain uniform but not the

𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

43 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

𝑉𝑉̇ = � 𝑽𝑽𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

44 Dr. P. Parthasarathy Departmant of Mechanical Engineering

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣